essay questions on motivation theories

20 Most Popular Theories of Motivation in Psychology

The many approaches to defining what drives human behavior are best understood when considering the very purpose of creating them, be it increased performance, goal pursuit, resilience, or relapse prevention, to name a few.

There is nothing more practical than a good theory.

There is no single motivation theory that explains all aspects of human motivation, but these theoretical explanations do often serve as the basis for the development of approaches and techniques to increase motivation in distinct areas of human endeavor.

This article briefly summarizes existing theories of motivation and their potential real-world applications.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Goal Achievement Exercises for free . These detailed, science-based exercises will help you or your clients create actionable goals and master techniques to create lasting behavior change.

This Article Contains:

What is motivation psychology, theories of motivation, content theories of motivation, process theories of motivation, cognitive theories of motivation, motivational theories in business, motivational theories in sports psychology, textbooks on motivation, a take-home message.

Motivation psychologists usually attempt to show how motivation varies within a person at different times or among different people at the same time. The purpose of the psychology of motivation is to explain how and why that happens.

Broad views of how to understand motivation were created by psychologists based on various types of analyses. Cognitive analyses, behavioral anticipation, and affective devices are often used to account for motivation in terms of expecting an end-state or goal.

Motivation psychology is a study of how biological, psychological, and environmental variables contribute to motivation. That is, what do the body and brain contribute to motivation; what mental processes contribute; and finally, how material incentives, goals, and their mental representations motivate individuals.

Psychologists research motivation through the use of two different methods. Experimental research is usually conducted in a laboratory and involves manipulating a motivational variable to determine its effects on behavior.

Correlational research involves measuring an existing motivational variable to determine how the measured values are associated with behavioral indicators of motivation.

Whether you think you can, or think you can’t, you’re right.

Henry Ford, 1863–1947

To be motivated means to be moved into action. We are induced into action or thought by either the push of a motive or the pull of an incentive or goal toward some end-state. Here a motive is understood as an internal disposition that pushes an individual toward a desired end-state where the motive is satisfied, and a goal is defined as the cognitive representation of the desired outcome that an individual attempts to achieve.

While a goal guides a behavior that results in achieving it, an incentive is an anticipated feature of the environment that pulls an individual toward or away from a goal. Incentives usually enhance motivation for goal achievement. Emotions act like motives as well. They motivate an individual in a coordinated fashion along multiple channels of affect, physiology, and behavior to adapt to significant environmental changes.

See our discussion of the motivation cycle and process in the blog post entitled What is Motivation .

In short, content theories explain what motivation is, and process theories describe how motivation occurs.

There are also a large number of cognitive theories that relate to motivation and explain how our way of thinking and perceiving ourselves and the world around us can influence our motives.

From self-concept, dissonance and mindset to values, orientation and perceived control, these theories explain how our preference toward certain mental constructs can increase or impair our ability to take goal-directed action.

Theories of motivation are also grouped by the field of human endeavor they apply to. Several theories relate to motivating employees where incentives and needs take a central stage as well as theories used in sports and performance psychology where affect is considered a more prominent driver of human behavior. Some of these theories are also applied to education and learning.

Read our insightful post on motivation in education .

The self-concordance model of goal setting differentiates between four types of motivation (Sheldon & Elliot, 1999). These are:

External motivation

Goals are heavily guided by external circumstances and would not take place without some kind of reward or to prevent a negative outcome.

For example, an individual who clocks extra hours in their day job purely to receive a bigger paycheck.

Introjected motivation

Goals are characterized by self-image or ego-based motivation, reflecting the need to keep a certain self-image alive.

For example, our worker in the example above staying longer in the office so that they are perceived as a ‘hard worker’ by their manager and co-workers.

Identified motivation

The actions needed to accomplish the goal are perceived as personally important and meaningful, and personal values are the main drivers of goal pursuit.

For example, the worker putting in extra hours because their personal values align with the objective of the project they are working on.

Intrinsic motivation

When a behavior is guided by intrinsic motivation, the individual strives for this goal because of the enjoyment or stimulation that this goal provides. While there may be many good reasons for pursuing the goal, the primary reason is simply the interest in the experience of goal pursuit itself.

For example, the worker spends more time at their job because they enjoy and are energized by using their skills in creativity and problem-solving.

Goals guided by either identified or intrinsic motivation can be considered self-concordant. A self-concordant goal is personally valued, or the process towards the goal is enjoyable and aligns with interests. Self-concordant goals are associated with higher levels of wellbeing, enhanced positive mood, and higher levels of life satisfaction compared to non-self-concordant goals.

Maslow’s theory of the hierarchy of needs, Alderfer’s ERG theory, McClelland’s achievement motivation theory, and Herzberg’s two-factor theory focused on what motivates people and addressed specific factors like individual needs and goals.

Maslow’s theory of the hierarchy of needs

The most recognized content theory of motivation is that of Abraham Maslow, who explained motivation through the satisfaction of needs arranged in a hierarchical order. As satisfied needs do not motivate, it is the dissatisfaction that moves us in the direction of fulfillment.

Needs are conditions within the individual that are essential and necessary for the maintenance of life and the nurturance of growth and well-being. Hunger and thirst exemplify two biological needs that arise from the body’s requirement for food and water. These are required nutriments for the maintenance of life.

The body of man is a machine which winds its own spring.

J. O. De La Mettrie

Competence and belongingness exemplify two psychological needs that arise from the self’s requirement for environmental mastery and warm interpersonal relationships. These are required nutriments for growth and well-being.

Needs serve the organism, and they do so by:

• generating wants, desires, and strivings that motivate whatever behaviors are necessary for the maintenance of life and the promotion of growth and well-being, and
• generating a deep sense of need satisfaction from doing so.

Maslow’s legacy is the order of needs progressing in the ever-increasing complexity, starting with basic physiological and psychological needs and ending with the need for self-actualization. While basic needs are experienced as a sense of deficiency, the higher needs are experienced more in terms of the need for growth and fulfillment.

Alderfer’s ERG theory

Alderfer’s theory of motivation expands on the work of Maslow and takes the premise of need categories a bit further. He observes that when lower needs are satisfied, they occupy less of our attention, but the higher needs tend to become more important, the more we pursue them.

He also observed a phenomenon that he called the frustration-regression process where when our higher needs are thwarted, we may regress to lower needs. This is especially important when it comes to motivating employees.

When a sense of autonomy or the need for mastery is compromised, say because of the structure of the work environment, the employee may focus more on the sense of security or relatedness the job provides.

McClelland’s achievement motivation theory

McClelland took a different approach to conceptualize needs and argued that needs are developed and learned, and focused his research away from satisfaction. He was also adamant that only one dominant motive can be present in our behavior at a time. McClelland categorized the needs or motives into achievement, affiliation, and power and saw them as being influenced by either internal drivers or extrinsic factors.

Among all the prospects which man can have, the most comforting is, on the basis of his present moral condition, to look forward to something permanent and to further progress toward a still better prospect.

Immanuel Kant

The drive for achievement arises out of the psychological need for competence and is defined as a striving for excellence against a standard that can originate from three sources of competition: the task itself, the competition with the self, and the competition against others.

High need for achievement can come from one’s social environment and socialization influences, like parents who promote and value pursuit and standards of excellence, but it can also be developed throughout life as a need for personal growth towards complexity (Reeve, 2014).

Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory

Herzberg’s two-factor theory, also known as motivation-hygiene theory, was originally intended to address employee motivation and recognized two sources of job satisfaction. He argued that motivating factors influence job satisfaction because they are based on an individual’s need for personal growth: achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, and advancement.

On the other hand, hygiene factors, which represented deficiency needs, defined the job context and could make individuals unhappy with their job: company policy and administration, supervision, salary, interpersonal relationships, and working conditions.

Motivation theories explained in 10 minutes – EPM

Process theories like Skinner’s reinforcement theory, Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory, Adams’ equity theory, and Locke’s goal-setting theory set out to explain how motivation occurs and how our motives change over time.

Reinforcement theory

The most well-known process theory of motivation is the reinforcement theory, which focused on the consequences of human behavior as a motivating factor.

Based on Skinner’s operant conditioning theory , it identifies positive reinforcements as promoters that increased the possibility of the desired behavior’s repetition: praise, appreciation, a good grade, trophy, money, promotion, or any other reward (Gordon, 1987).

It distinguished positive reinforcements from negative reinforcement and punishment, where the former gives a person only what they need in exchange for desired behavior, and the latter tries to stop the undesired behavior by inflicting unwanted consequences.

See our articles on Positive Reinforcement in the Workplace and Parenting Children with Positive Reinforcement .

Other process motivation theories combine aspects of reinforcement theory with other theories, sometimes from adjacent fields, to shine a light on what drives human behavior.

Adams’ equity theory of motivation

For example, Adams’ equity theory of motivation (1965), based on Social Exchange theory, states that we are motivated when treated equitably, and we receive what we consider fair for our efforts.

It suggests that we not only compare our contributions to the amount of rewards we receive but also compare them to what others receive for the same amount of input. Although equity is essential to motivation, it does not take into account the differences in individual needs, values, and personalities, which influence our perception of inequity.

Vroom’s expectancy theory

Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory (1964), on the other hand, integrates needs, equity, and reinforcement theories to explain how we choose from alternative forms of voluntary behavior based on the belief that decisions will have desired outcomes. Vroom suggests that we are motivated to pursue an activity by appraising three factors:

• Expectancy that assumes more effort will result in success
• Instrumentality that sees a connection between activity and goal
• Valence which represents the degree to which we value the reward or the results of success.

Locke’s goal-setting theory

Finally, Locke and Latham’s (1990) goal-setting theory, an integrative model of motivation, sees goals as key determinants of behavior. Possibly the most widely applied, the goal-setting theory stresses goal specificity, difficulty, and acceptance and provides guidelines for how to incorporate them into incentive programs and management by objectives (MBO) techniques in many areas.

Lock’s recipe for effective goal setting includes:

• Setting of challenging but attainable goals. Too easy or too difficult or unrealistic goals don’t motivate us.
• Setting goals that are specific and measurable. These can focus us toward what we want and can help us measure the progress toward the goal.
• Goal commitment should be obtained. If we don’t commit to the goals, then we will not put adequate effort toward reaching them, regardless of how specific or challenging they are.
• Strategies to achieve this could include participation in the goal-setting process, the use of extrinsic rewards (bonuses), and encouraging intrinsic motivation through providing feedback about goal attainment. It is important to mention here that pressure to achieve goals is not useful because it can result in dishonesty and superficial performance.
• Support elements should be provided. For example, encouragement, needed materials and resources, and moral support.
• Knowledge of results is essential. Goals need to be quantifiable, and there needs to be feedback.

There are several articles on effective goal setting in our blog series that cover Locke’s theory and it’s many applications.

They address specific cognitive phenomena that can influence motivation, represent a particular factor of motivation, describe a form of expression of motivation, or explain a process through which it can occur or be enhanced.

The list of cognitive phenomena is by no means comprehensive, but it does give us a taste of the complexity of human motivation and includes references for those who want to read further into more nuanced topics:

• Plans (Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, 1998)
• Goals (Locke & Latham, 2002)
• Implementation intentions (Gollwitzer, 1999)
• Deliberative versus implementation mindsets (Gollwitzer & Kinney, 1989)
• Promotion versus prevention orientations (Higgins, 1997)
• Growth versus fixed mindsets (Dweck, 2006)
• Dissonance (Festinger, 1957; Harmon-Jones & Mills, 1999)
• Self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986)
• Perceived control (Skinner, 1996)
• Reactance theory (Brehm, 1966)
• Learned helplessness theory (Miller & Seligman, 1975)
• Mastery beliefs (Diener & Dweck, 1978)
• Attributions (Wiener, 1986)
• Values (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002)
• Self-concept (Markus, 1977)
• Possible selves (Oyserman, Bybee, & Terry, 2006)
• Identity (Eccles, 2009)
• Self-regulation (Zimmerman, 2000)
• Self-control (Baumeister & Tierney, 2011)

There are also several different approaches to understanding human motivation which we have discussed in greater detail in our article on Benefits and Importance of Motivation which amass a large body of motivational studies and are currently attracting a lot of attention in contemporary research in motivational science, namely intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000) and the flow theory (Csíkszentmihályi, 1975).

In addition to the Two Factor theory and equity theory, some theories focus on autonomy, wellbeing, and feedback as core motivational aspects of employees’ performance; theories X, Y and Z, and the Hawthorne effect, respectively.

Theory X and Theory Y

Douglas McGregor proposed two theories, Theory X and Theory Y, to explain employee motivation and its implications for management. He divided employees into Theory X employees who avoid work and dislike responsibility and Theory Y employees who enjoy work and exert effort when they have control in the workplace.

He postulated that to motivate Theory X employees, the company needs to enforce rules and implement punishments. For Theory Y employees, management must develop opportunities for employees to take on responsibility and show creativity as a way of motivating. Theory X is heavily informed by what we know about intrinsic motivation, and the role satisfaction of basic psychological needs plays in effective employee motivation.

In response to this theory, a third theory, Theory Z, was developed by Dr. William Ouchi. Ouchi’s theory focuses on increasing employee loyalty to the company by providing a job for life and focusing on the employee’s well-being. It encourages group work and social interaction to motivate employees in the workplace.

The Hawthorne Effect

Elton Mayo developed an explanation known as the Hawthorne Effect that suggested that employees are more productive when they know their work is being measured and studied.

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There are also several theories on motivation that are used in sports and performance psychology. The core concept in understanding motivation from the performance perspective is how physiological and psychological arousal accompanies behavior.

Arousal is basically a form of mobilization of energy and activation either before or while engaged in the behavior. Arousal occurs in different modes. Physiological arousal refers to the excitement of the body, while psychological arousal is about how subjectively aroused an individual feels.

When we say that our palms are sweaty or our heart is pounding, it implies physiological arousal. When we feel tense and anxious, it signifies psychological arousal.

Robert Thayer (1989) evolved the theory of psychological arousal into two dimensions: energetic arousal and tense arousal, composed of energetic and tense dimensions. Energetic arousal is associated with positive affect, while tense arousal is associated with anxiety and fearfulness.

Tense arousal can be divided further into two types of anxiety: trait anxiety and state anxiety. One refers to the degree we respond to the environment in general negatively and with worry, while state anxiety refers to feelings of apprehension that occur in response to a particular situation.

Arousal originates from several sources. It can be generated by a stimulus that has an arousing function and a cue function. But background stimuli that do not capture our attention also increase arousal.

Thayer found that arousal varies with time of day, for many of us being highest around noon and lower in the morning and evening. Coffee, for example, can boost arousal, as can an instance of being evaluated during exams, music performance, or sports competitions.

Arousal also depends on more complex variables like novelty, complexity, and incongruity. The interaction of various stimuli explains why sometimes arousal increases behavioral efficiency and in other instances, decreases it.

Optimal functioning hypothesis

The zone of optimal functioning hypothesis in sports psychology identifies a zone of optimal arousal where an athlete performs best (Hanin, 1989). As arousal increases, performance on a task increases and then decreases, as can be seen on the inverted-U arousal–performance relationship diagram below.

According to the zone of optimal functioning hypothesis, each individual has her preferred area of arousal based on cognitive or somatic anxiety. The Yerkes–Dodson law explains further that the high point of the inverted-U or arousal–performance relationship depends on the complexity of the task being performed.

Several theories have been proposed to explain the relationship between the inverted-U nature of the arousal–performance relationship.

Hull–Spence drive theory

The classic Hull–Spence drive theory emphasizes how arousal affects performance with little regard for any cognitive awareness by the individual. Also known as drive reduction theory, it postulates that human behavior could be explained by conditioning and reinforcement.

This oversimplification is part of the reason why more nuanced and complex cognitive theories have largely replaced the theory. The cusp catastrophe model in sports psychology, arousal-biased competition theory, processing efficiency theory, and attentional control theory are more concerned with the cognitive aspects of arousal and how this affects behavioral efficiency.

Arousal-biased competition theory

Mather and Sutherland (2011) developed an arousal-biased competition theory to explain the inverted-U arousal–performance relationship. It suggests that arousal exhibits biases toward information that is the focus of our attention.

Arousal effects and therefore increases the priority of processing important information and decrease the priority of processing less critical information. The presence of arousal improves the efficiency of behavior that concerns a crucial stimulus, but it is done at the expense of the background stimuli.

Two memory systems theory

Metcalfe and Jacobs (1998) postulated the existence of two memory systems that influence the level of arousal we experience: a cool memory system and a hot memory system, each in a different area of the brain. The cool system, located in the hippocampus, serves the memory of events occurring in space and time and would allow us to remember where we parked our car this morning.

The hot system in the amygdala serves as the memory of events that occur under high arousal. Metcalfe and Jacobs theorized that the hot system remembers the details of stimuli that predict the onset of highly stressful or arousing events, such as events that predict danger and is responsible for the intrusive memories of individuals who have experienced extremely traumatic events.

Processing efficiency theory

The processing efficiency theory of Eysenck and Calvo theorized on how anxiety, expressed as worry, can influence performance. Preoccupation with being evaluated and being concerned about one’s performance turns to worry, which takes up working memory capacity and causes performance on cognitive tasks to decline (Eysenck & Calvo, 1992).

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Here are a suggested book references for tertiary-level study of motivation for those who want to dive deeper into some of these topics:

1. Understanding Motivation and Emotion – Johnmarshall Reeve

IT provides a toolbox of practical interventions and approaches for use in a wide variety of settings.

Available on Amazon .

2. Motivation: Theories and Principles – Robert C. Beck

It covers a broad range of motivational concepts from both human and animal theory and research, with an emphasis on the biological bases of motivation.

3. Motivation – Lambert Deckers

How motivation is the inducement of behavior, feelings, and cognition.

4. Motivation and Emotion Evolutionary Physiological, Developmental, and Social Perspectives – Denys A. deCatanzaro

5. Motivation: A Biosocial and Cognitive Integration of Motivation and Emotion – Eva Dreikurs Ferguson

These include hunger and thirst, circadian and other biological rhythms, fear and anxiety, anger and aggression, achievement, attachment, and love.

6. Human Motivation – Robert E. Franken

7. The Psychology of Action: Linking Cognition and Motivation to Behavior – Peter M. Gollwitzer and John Bargh

These programs are effectively mapping the territory, providing new findings, and suggesting innovative strategies for future research.

8. Motivation and Self-Regulation Across the Life Span – Jutta Heckhausen and Carol S. Dweck

9. Reclaiming Cognition: The Primacy of Action, Intention, and Emotion (Journal of Consciousness Studies) – Rafael Nunez and Walter J. Freeman

This leads to the claim that cognition is representational and best explained using models derived from AI and computational theory. The authors depart radically from this model.

10. Motivation: Theory, Research, and Applications – Herbert L. Petri and John M. Govern

The book clearly presents the advantages and drawbacks to each of these explanations, allowing readers to draw their own conclusions.

11. Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivation: The Search for Optimal Motivation and Performance – Carol Sansone and Judith M. Harackiewicz

12. The Psychobiology of Human Motivation (Psychology Focus) – Hugh Wagner

It starts from basic physiological needs like hunger and thirst, to more complex aspects of social behavior like altruism.

There is no shortage of explanations for what constitutes human motivation, and the research on the topic is as vast and dense as the field of psychology itself. Perhaps the best course of action is to identify the motivational dilemma we’re trying to solve and then select one approach to motivation if only to try it out.

By annihilating desires you annihilate the mind. Every man without passions has within him no principle of action, nor motive to act.

Claude Adrien Helvetius, 1715–1771

As Dan Kahneman argues, teaching psychology is mostly a waste of time unless we as students can experience what we are trying to learn or teach about human nature and can deduce if it is right for us.

Then and only then, can we choose to act on it, move in the direction of change, or make a choice to remain the same. It’s all about experiential learning and connecting the knowledge we acquire to our own experience.

What motivational theory do you find most useful?

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Goal Achievement Exercises for free .

• Image 1 : Maslow pyramid adapted from “Renovating the Pyramid of Needs: Contemporary Extensions Built upon Ancient Foundations” by D. T. Kenrick et al., 2010, Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 292–314 (see p. 293), and from “A Theory of Human Needs Should Be Human-Centered, Not Animal-Centered: Commentary on Kenrick et al. (2010)” by S. Kesebir et al., 2010, Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 315–319 (see p. 316), and from “Human Motives, Happiness, and the Puzzle of Parenthood: Commentary on Kenrick et al. (2010)” by S. Lyubormirsky & J. K. Boehm, 2010, Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 327–334.
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What our readers think.

Hi Nicole, I love this site! I am a PhD student but in international development, not psychology and my methodology is multi-disciplinary, but that is quite difficult I am finding now I am looking at psychology! I have been sent down a path by an Australian academic about the role of action to motivation to action – do you have any good references to recommend on this? Thx, Sue Cant, Charles Darwin University

It sounds like you’re delving into an exciting interdisciplinary study! The role of action and motivation is indeed a key topic in psychology and relevant to international development too.

First, you might find “ Self-Determination Theory ” by Richard M. Ryan and Edward L. Deci interesting. It delves into the relationship between motivation, action, and human behavior, exploring how our needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness influence our motivation and actions.

Another reference to consider is “ Mindset: The New Psychology of Success ” by Carol S. Dweck. It explores the concept of “growth mindset” and how our beliefs about our abilities can impact our motivation to act and overcome challenges.

These references should provide a good starting point for understanding the psychological aspects of action and motivation. I hope they prove useful for your research!

Best of luck with your PhD journey!

Kind regards, Julia | Community Manager

I enjoyed the fact that there is plenty information, if I were to write an essay on Motivation.

It’s so informative and inclusive! I just wonder if there are relevant theories on how to motivate communities (e.g. residents, companies, experts) to participate in decision-making (e.g. protection of cultural heritage)? Thank you!

Glad you liked the article! I’m not sure if there are theories that specifically cover this (they may be more in sociology and a bit beyond my expertise). But I’d recommend having a read of my article on positive communities. If you follow some of the references throughout, I suspect you’ll find some great resources and advice, particularly on participative decision-making: https://positivepsychology.com/10-traits-positive-community/

Hope this helps a little!

– Nicole | Community Manager

Deci and Ryans Self Determination Theory needs to be discussed… NOT just given an afterthought. Their argument that human behaviour is driven by the 3 fundamental needs of 1) Affiliation 2) Competence and 3) Self Determination is supported by developmental science (attachment theory, Tomosello’s cross species work, developmental work on competence and learning, and finally the huge body of work on intrinsic motivation and self-regulation.

This overview is well written but appears to have a big hole in it.

Hi Dr. Martin,

Thanks for your comment. We agree SDT is a powerful theory, and it has many different applications. We’ve addressed these in depth in some of our other articles on the topic:

Self-Determination Theory of Motivation: Why Intrinsic Motivation Matters – https://positivepsychology.com/self-determination-theory/ 21 Self-Determination Skills and Activities to Utilize Today: https://positivepsychology.com/self-determination-skills-activities/ Intrinsic Motivation Explained: 10 Factors & Real-Life Examples: https://positivepsychology.com/intrinsic-motivation-examples/

Hey Nicole. This summary is amazing and pin points what I’m looking for. In the case where I have to evaluate this theory for example Maslow’s hierarchy theory in relation to an organization’s needs. How do I go about that or what’s the best way to do so?

Hi Deborah,

So glad you enjoyed the article. Could you please give a little more information about what you’re looking to do? For instance, are you looking for a theory you can apply to assess individual employees’ motivation at work? Note that not all of the theories discussed here are really applicable to an organizational context (e.g., I would personally avoid Maslow’s hierarchy for this), so it would be helpful to have a little more information.

Yes. Precisely that. I am looking for theories that I am adapt to do an intervention , implementation and evaluation of employee motivation in an organization. And how exactly these theories are implemented.

Thank you Nicole. Excellent summary of available theories. Could you tell me please which may be the best theory to explain involvement in extremism and radicalization?

Glad you liked the article. Research on motivations underlying extremism and radicalization tend to point to our beliefs having a central role. This paper by Trip et al. (2019) provides an excellent summary of the thinking in this space. It looks at the factors from an REBT perspective. It addresses a whole range of motivational perspectives including uncertainty-identity theory and integrated threat theory.

I hope this article is helpful for you.

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Multiple Choice Questions

1 .  Need for ________ refers to maintaining positive relationships with others.

• achievement
• affiliation

2 .  ________ proposed the hierarchy of needs.

• William James
• David McClelland
• Abraham Maslow
• Albert Bandura

3 .  ________ is an individual’s belief in their capability to complete some task.

• physiological needs
• self-esteem
• self-actualization
• self-efficacy

4 .  Riley mows the yard of their elderly neighbor each week for $20. What type of motivation is this?

5 .  ________ is a chemical messenger secreted by fat cells that acts as an appetite suppressant.

• angiotensin

6 .  ________ is characterized by episodes of binge eating followed by attempts to compensate for the excessive amount of food that was consumed.

• Prader-Willi syndrome
• morbid obesity
• anorexia nervosa
• bulimia nervosa
• nucleus accumbens
• medial preoptic area of the hypothalamus
• hippocampus

8 .  During the ________ phase of the sexual response cycle, individuals experience rhythmic contractions of the pelvis that are accompanied by uterine contractions in those with vaginas and ejaculation in those with penises.

9 .  Which of the following findings was not a result of the Kinsey study?

• Sexual desire and sexual ability can be separate functions.
• Females enjoy sex as much as males.
• Homosexual behaviour is fairly common.
• Masturbation has no adverse consequences.

10 .  If someone is uncomfortable identifying with the gender normally associated with their biological sex, then they could be classified as experiencing ________.

• homosexuality
• bisexuality
• gender dysphoria

11 .  Individuals suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder have been shown to have reduced volumes of the ________.

• hypothalamus

12 .  According to the ________ theory of emotion, emotional experiences arise from physiological arousal.

• James-Lange
• Cannon-Bard
• Schachter-Singer two-factor

13 .  Which of the following is not one of the seven universal emotions described in this chapter?

14 .  Which of the following theories of emotion would suggest that polygraphs should be quite accurate at differentiating one emotion from another?

• Cannon-Bard theory
• James-Lange theory
• Schachter-Singer two-factor theory
• Darwinian theory

Critical Thinking Questions

15 .  How might someone espousing an arousal theory of motivation explain visiting an amusement park?

16 .  Schools often use concrete rewards to increase adaptive behaviours. How might this be a disadvantage for students intrinsically motivated to learn? What are educational implications of the potential for concrete rewards to diminish intrinsic motivation for a given task?

17 .  As indicated in this section, Caucasian women from industrialized, Western cultures tend to be at the highest risk for eating disorders like anorexia and bulimia nervosa. Why might this be?

18 .  While much research has been conducted on how an individual develops a given sexual orientation, many people question the validity of this research citing that the participants used may not be representative. Why do you think this might be a legitimate concern?

19 .  There is no reliable scientific evidence that gay conversion therapy actually works. What kinds of evidence would you need to see in order to be convinced by someone arguing that she had successfully converted her sexual orientation?

20 .  Imagine you find a venomous snake crawling up your leg just after taking a drug that prevented sympathetic nervous system activation. What would the James-Lange theory predict about your experience?

21 .  Why can we not make causal claims regarding the relationship between the volume of the hippocampus and PTSD?

Personal Application Questions

22 .  Can you think of recent examples of how Maslow’s hierarchy of needs might have affected your behaviour in some way?

23 .  Think about popular television programs on the air right now. What do the people in these programs look like?  What kinds of messages do you think the media is sending about the people in our society?

24 .  Think about times in your life when you have been absolutely elated (e.g., perhaps your school’s basketball team just won a closely contested ballgame for the national championship) and very fearful (e.g., you are about to give a speech in your public speaking class to a roomful of 100 strangers). How would you describe how your arousal manifested itself physically? Were there marked differences in physiological arousal associated with each emotional state?

Introduction to Psychology & Neuroscience Copyright © 2020 by Edited by Leanne Stevens is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Essay 1.1 What Is Motivation, Where Does It Come from, and How Does It Work?

• Published: January 2023
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Motivation is the process that drives, selects, and directs goals and behaviors. Motivation typically arises out of the person’s needs, and it then comes to life through the person’s specific goals. In this essay, the authors examine the concept of “needs” as the crucible from which motivated behavior arises because all individuals are born with needs that jump-start the goal-oriented, motivated behaviors that are critical to survival and thriving. These are both physical needs (such as hunger and thirst) and psychological needs (such as the need for social relationships, optimal predictability, and competence). The aim of motivation is therefore to bring about a desired (need, goal) state. Motivation underlies and organizes all aspects of a person’s psychology. As it does so, motivation “glues” a person together as a functioning individual in their culture and context.

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Theories of Motivation

Motivation  describes the wants or needs that direct behavior toward a goal, but, why do we do the things we do? What motivations underlie our behaviors? Is motivation an inherited trait or is motivation influenced by reinforcement and consequences that strengthen some behaviors and weaken others? Is the key to motivating learners a lesson plan that captures their interest and attention? In other words, is motivation something innate that we are born with that can be strengthened by reinforcers external to the learning task, or is it something interwoven with the learning process itself?

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Some motives are biological, like our need for food or water. However, the motives that we will be more interested in are more psychological. In general, we discuss motivation as being  intrinsic  (arising from internal factors) or  extrinsic  (arising from external factors). Intrinsically motivated behaviors are performed because of the sense of personal satisfaction that they bring, while extrinsically motivated behaviors are performed in order to receive something from others.

Video 6.1.1.  Extrinsic vs Intrinsic Motivation  explains the difference and provides examples of these types of motivation.

Think about why you are currently in college. Are you here because you enjoy learning and want to pursue an education to make yourself a more well-rounded individual? If so, then you are intrinsically motivated. However, if you are here because you want to get a college degree to make yourself more marketable for a high-paying career or to satisfy the demands of your parents, then your motivation is more extrinsic in nature.

In reality, our motivations are often a mix of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, but the nature of the mix of these factors might change over time (often in ways that seem counter-intuitive). There is an old adage: “Choose a job that you love, and you will never have to work a day in your life,” meaning that if you enjoy your occupation, work doesn’t seem like . . . well, work. Some research suggests that this isn’t necessarily the case (Daniel & Esser, 1980; Deci, 1972; Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999). According to this research, receiving some sort of extrinsic reinforcement (i.e., getting paid) for engaging in behaviors that we enjoy leads to those behaviors being thought of as work no longer providing that same enjoyment. As a result, we might spend less time engaging in these reclassified behaviors in the absence of any extrinsic reinforcement. For example, Odessa loves baking, so in her free time, she bakes for fun. Oftentimes, after stocking shelves at her grocery store job, she often whips up pastries in the evenings because she enjoys baking. When a coworker in the store’s bakery department leaves his job, Odessa applies for his position and gets transferred to the bakery department. Although she enjoys what she does in her new job, after a few months, she no longer has much desire to concoct tasty treats in her free time. Baking has become work in a way that changes her motivation to do it. What Odessa has experienced is called the overjustification effect—intrinsic motivation is diminished when extrinsic motivation is given. This can lead to extinguishing intrinsic motivation and creating a dependence on extrinsic rewards for continued performance (Deci et al., 1999).

Other studies suggest that intrinsic motivation may not be so vulnerable to the effects of extrinsic reinforcements, and in fact, reinforcements such as verbal praise might actually increase intrinsic motivation (Arnold, 1976; Cameron & Pierce, 1994). In that case, Odessa’s motivation to bake in her free time might remain high if, for example, customers regularly compliment her baking or cake decorating skills.

These apparent discrepancies in the researchers’ findings may be understood by considering several factors. For one, physical reinforcement (such as money) and verbal reinforcement (such as praise) may affect an individual in very different ways. In fact, tangible rewards (i.e., money) tend to have more negative effects on intrinsic motivation than do intangible rewards (i.e., praise). Furthermore, the expectation of the extrinsic motivator by an individual is crucial: If the person expects to receive an extrinsic reward, then intrinsic motivation for the task tends to be reduced. If, however, there is no such expectation, and the extrinsic motivation is presented as a surprise, then intrinsic motivation for the task tends to persist (Deci et al., 1999).

In addition, culture may influence motivation. For example, in collectivistic cultures, it is common to do things for your family members because the emphasis is on the group and what is best for the entire group, rather than what is best for any one individual (Nisbett, Peng, Choi, & Norenzayan, 2001). This focus on others provides a broader perspective that takes into account both situational and cultural influences on behavior; thus, a more nuanced explanation of the causes of others’ behavior becomes more likely. (You will learn more about collectivistic and individualistic cultures when you learn about social psychology.)

In educational settings, students are more likely to experience intrinsic motivation to learn when they feel a sense of belonging and respect in the classroom. This internalization can be enhanced if the evaluative aspects of the classroom are de-emphasized and if students feel that they exercise some control over the learning environment. Furthermore, providing students with activities that are challenging, yet doable, along with a rationale for engaging in various learning activities can enhance intrinsic motivation for those tasks (Niemiec & Ryan, 2009). Consider Hakim, a first-year law student with two courses this semester: Family Law and Criminal Law. The Family Law professor has a rather intimidating classroom: He likes to put students on the spot with tough questions, which often leaves students feeling belittled or embarrassed. Grades are based exclusively on quizzes and exams, and the instructor posts the results of each test on the classroom door. In contrast, the Criminal Law professor facilitates classroom discussions and respectful debates in small groups. The majority of the course grade is not exam-based but centers on a student-designed research project on a crime issue of the student’s choice. Research suggests that Hakim will be less intrinsically motivated in his Family Law course, where students are intimidated in the classroom setting, and there is an emphasis on teacher-driven evaluations. Hakim is likely to experience a higher level of intrinsic motivation in his Criminal Law course, where the class setting encourages inclusive collaboration and a respect for ideas, and where students have more influence over their learning activities.

Think About It

Schools often use concrete rewards to increase adaptive behaviors. How might this be a disadvantage for students intrinsically motivated to learn? What are the educational implications of the potential for concrete rewards to diminish intrinsic motivation for a given task?

We would expect to see a shift from learning for the sake of learning to learning to earn some reward. This would undermine the foundation upon which traditional institutions of higher education are built. For a student motivated by extrinsic rewards, dependence on those may pose issues later in life (post-school) when there are not typically extrinsic rewards for learning.

Like motivation itself, theories of it are full of diversity. For convenience in navigating through the diversity, we have organized the theories around two perspectives about motion. The first set of theories focuses on the innateness of motivation. These theories emphasize instinctual or inborn needs and drives that influence our behavior. The second set of theories proposes cognition as the source of motivation. Individual motivation is influenced by thoughts, beliefs, and values. The variation in these theories is due to disagreement about which cognitive factors are essential to motivation and how those cognitive factors might be influenced by the environment.

Innate Motivation Theories

First, we will describe some early motivational theories that focus on innate needs and drives. Not all of these theories apply to the classroom, but learning about them will show you how different theorists have approached the issue of motivation. You are sure to find some elements of your own thinking about motivation in each of them. We will examine instinct theory, drive theory, and arousal theory as early explanations of motivation. We will also discuss the behavioral perspective on motivation and the deficiency-growth perspective, as exemplified by Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

Cognitive Theories of Motivation

Cognitive theories of motivation assume that behavior is a result of cognitive processes. These theories presume that individuals are interpreting information and making decisions, not just acting on basic needs and drives. Cognitive motivation theories share strong ties with the cognitive and social learning theories that we discussed previously. We will examine several cognitive motivation theories: interest, attribution theory, expectancy-value theory, and self-efficacy theory. All emphasize that learners need to know, understand, and appreciate what they are doing in order to become motivated. Then, along with these cognitive motivation theories, we will examine a motivational perspective called self-determination theory, which attempts to reconcile cognitive theory’s emphasis on intrinsic motivation with more traditional notions of human needs and drives.

Video 6.1.2.  Instincts, Arousal, Needs, Drives  provides a brief overview of some of the major motivational theories.

Candela Citations

• Theories of Motivation . Authored by : Nicole Arduini-Van Hoose. Provided by : Hudson Valley Community College. Retrieved from : . License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
• Educational Psychology. Authored by : Kelvin Seifert and Rosemary Sutton. Provided by : The Saylor Foundation. Retrieved from : https://courses.lumenlearning.com/educationalpsychology. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Educational Psychology. Authored by : Borlin. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Psychology 2e. Authored by : Rose M. Spielman, William J. Jenkins, Marilyn D. Lovett. Provided by : Open Stax. Retrieved from : https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Extrinsic vs Intrinsic Motivation. Provided by : ASCatRIT. Retrieved from : https://youtu.be/kUNE4RtZnbk. License : All Rights Reserved

Educational Psychology Copyright © 2020 by Nicole Arduini-Van Hoose is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Motivational Theories, Essay Example

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Part of a manager’s duties in the workplace involves motivating employees. A manager who successfully motivates his or her employees will be able to reap the benefits tied to better employee performance. A manager who unsuccessfully motivates employees earns the consequences of a poorly functioning organization. Managers can apply different motivational theories to assist them in motivating staff. Three motivational theories, Expectancy Theory, Reinforcement Theory, and Adam’s Equity Theory of Motivation, are useful tools for motivating employees.

Expectancy Theory points to the relationship between motivation and outcome (“Expectency Theory” n.d.). Essentially, the theory states that people will work hard when they expect the outcome of their hard work to be positive (“Expectency Theory” n.d.). As such, expectancy theory states that motivating people should come down to three things (“Expectency Theory” n.d.). First, motivation is a factor of effort (“Expectency Theory” n.d.). In order to motivate others, employers should encourage the belief that more effort equals better performance. Second, employers should encourage the belief that better performance will lead to better rewards (“Expectency Theory” n.d.).Finally, employers should focus on the outcome by making sure that the reward is attractive to the employee (“Expectency Theory” n.d.).

Expectancy theory has both pros and cons when managers use it in the application of performance improvement. First, since expectancy theory is dependent upon individual perspective, the outcome is dependent on each employee’s individual perspective. If the manager has an understanding of the perspective, it will be successful; otherwise it will fail miserably. If managers want to see the results of expectancy theory, they can utilize several tools. First they can use a reward system that is closely tied to pay-for-performance (“Expectency Theory” n.d.). Second, they can use training to instill the belief that added effort will lead to better performance.

A second motivational theory, Reinforcement Theory, states that individuals behaviors are a function of the consequences (“Reinforcement Theory” n.d.). In other words, an individual will repeat behaviors that lead to positive consequences and fail to repeat behaviors that lead to negative consequences (“Reinforcement Theory” n.d.). Management should be sure to tie the consequence directly to the behavior in order to see the results.

While Reinforcement Theory can be helpful to managers, it has been criticized for failing to focus on the causes of individuals’ behavior. On the positive side, the theory can be a strong tool for analyzing the controlling mechanisms of human behavior (“Reinforcement Theory” n.d.). Under this theory, managers can use several tools to motivate individuals’ behavior including positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement (“Reinforcement Theory” n.d.).

The third motivational theory is Adam’s Equity Theory of Motivation. This theory states that employees will strive to achieve equity between them and their coworkers (buzz). This can be achieved when the outcome to input ratio is equal for all employees (buzz). Managers can implement this theory by tying rewards to performance and by setting goals effectively for workers (buzz).

Adam’s Equity Theory can work in situations where the work employees perform is easy to measure and compare. When employees perform similar, standardized procedures, managers can easily compare the data. However, sometimes employees perform job duties that may not tie directly to a quantifiable measure. In cases such as this, equity theory falls short.

Motivated employees will work harder. This hard work leads to a more profitable company. Motivation theories explain ways managers can ensure that their organizations are more profitable. With proper application, both employees and managers can reap the benefits.

Expectency Theory: Motivate Your Team by Linking Effort With Outcome. (n.d.) Retrieved from http://www.lacpa.org.lb/Includes/Images/Docs/TC/TC341.pdf

Reinforcement Theory of Motivation. (n.d.). Retreived from http://www.managementstudyguide.com/reinforcement-theory-motivation.htm

Equity Theory of Motivation. (n.d.) Retreived from http://www.buzzle.com/articles/equity-theory-of-motivation.html

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Home — Essay Samples — Business — Leadership and Management — Three Perspectives Of Motivation

Three Perspectives of Motivation

• Categories: Leadership and Management Organizational Behavior

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Published: Mar 13, 2024

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Table of contents

The biological perspective, the cognitive perspective, the sociocultural perspective.

• Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall, Inc.
• Berridge, K. C. (2007). The debate over dopamine's role in reward: the case for incentive salience. Psychopharmacology, 191(3), 391-431.
• Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227-268.
• Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57(9), 705-717.
• Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98(2), 224-253.
• Wise, R. A. (2004). Dopamine, learning and motivation. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5(6), 483-494.

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Motivation: The Driving Force Behind Our Actions

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk,  "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

Verywell / Emily Roberts 

• Improvement

The term motivation describes why a person does something. It is the driving force behind human actions. Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors.

For instance, motivation is what helps you lose extra weight, or pushes you to get that promotion at work. In short, motivation causes you to act in a way that gets you closer to your goals. Motivation includes the biological , emotional , social , and cognitive forces that activate human behavior.

Motivation also involves factors that direct and maintain goal-directed actions. Although, such motives are rarely directly observable. As a result, we must often infer the reasons why people do the things that they do based on observable behaviors.

Learn the types of motivation that exist and how we use them in our everyday lives. And if it feels like you've lost your motivation, do not worry. There are many ways to develop or improve your self-motivation levels.

Press Play for Advice on Motivation

Hosted by therapist Amy Morin, LCSW, this episode of The Verywell Mind Podcast shares an exercise you can use to help you perform your best. Click below to listen now.

Follow Now : Apple Podcasts / Spotify / Google Podcasts

What Are the Types of Motivation?

The two main types of motivation are frequently described as being either extrinsic or intrinsic.

• Extrinsic motivation arises from outside of the individual and often involves external rewards such as trophies, money, social recognition, or praise.
• Intrinsic motivation is internal and arises from within the individual, such as doing a complicated crossword puzzle purely for the gratification of solving a problem.

A Third Type of Motivation?

Some research suggests that there is a third type of motivation: family motivation. An example of this type is going to work when you are not motivated to do so internally (no intrinsic motivation), but because it is a means to support your family financially.

Why Motivation Is Important

Motivation serves as a guiding force for all human behavior. So, understanding how motivation works and the factors that may impact it can be important for several reasons.

Understanding motivation can:

• Increase your efficiency as you work toward your goals
• Drive you to take action
• Encourage you to engage in health-oriented behaviors
• Help you avoid unhealthy or maladaptive behaviors, such as risk-taking and addiction
• Help you feel more in control of your life
• Improve your overall well-being and happiness

Click Play to Learn More About Motivation

This video has been medically reviewed by John C. Umhau, MD, MPH, CPE .

What Are the 3 Components of Motivation?

If you've ever had a goal (like wanting to lose 20 pounds or run a marathon), you probably already know that simply having the desire to accomplish these things is not enough. You must also be able to persist through obstacles and have the endurance to keep going in spite of difficulties faced.

These different elements or components are needed to get and stay motivated. Researchers have identified three major components of motivation: activation, persistence, and intensity.

• Activation is the decision to initiate a behavior. An example of activation would be enrolling in psychology courses in order to earn your degree.
• Persistence is the continued effort toward a goal even though obstacles may exist. An example of persistence would be showing up for your psychology class even though you are tired from staying up late the night before.
• Intensity is the concentration and vigor that goes into pursuing a goal. For example, one student might coast by without much effort (minimal intensity) while another student studies regularly, participates in classroom discussions, and takes advantage of research opportunities outside of class (greater intensity).

The degree of each of these components of motivation can impact whether you achieve your goal. Strong activation, for example, means that you are more likely to start pursuing a goal. Persistence and intensity will determine if you keep working toward that goal and how much effort you devote to reaching it.

Tips for Improving Your Motivation

All people experience fluctuations in their motivation and willpower . Sometimes you feel fired up and highly driven to reach your goals. Other times, you might feel listless or unsure of what you want or how to achieve it.

If you're feeling low on motivation, there are steps you can take to help increase your drive. Some things you can do to develop or improve your motivation include:

• Adjust your goals to focus on things that really matter to you. Focusing on things that are highly important to you will help push you through your challenges more than goals based on things that are low in importance.
• If you're tackling something that feels too big or too overwhelming, break it up into smaller, more manageable steps. Then, set your sights on achieving only the first step. Instead of trying to lose 50 pounds, for example, break this goal down into five-pound increments.
• Improve your confidence . Research suggests that there is a connection between confidence and motivation. So, gaining more confidence in yourself and your skills can impact your ability to achieve your goals.
• Remind yourself about what you've achieved in the past and where your strengths lie. This helps keep self-doubts from limiting your motivation.
• If there are things you feel insecure about, try working on making improvements in those areas so you feel more skilled and capable.

Causes of Low Motivation

There are a few things you should watch for that might hurt or inhibit your motivation levels. These include:

• All-or-nothing thinking : If you think that you must be absolutely perfect when trying to reach your goal or there is no point in trying, one small slip-up or relapse can zap your motivation to keep pushing forward.
• Believing in quick fixes : It's easy to feel unmotivated if you can't reach your goal immediately but reaching goals often takes time.
• Thinking that one size fits all : Just because an approach or method worked for someone else does not mean that it will work for you. If you don't feel motivated to pursue your goals, look for other things that will work better for you.

Motivation and Mental Health

Sometimes a persistent lack of motivation is tied to a mental health condition such as depression . Talk to your doctor if you are feeling symptoms of apathy and low mood that last longer than two weeks.

Theories of Motivation

Throughout history, psychologists have proposed different theories to explain what motivates human behavior. The following are some of the major theories of motivation.

The instinct theory of motivation suggests that behaviors are motivated by instincts, which are fixed and inborn patterns of behavior. Psychologists such as William James, Sigmund Freud , and William McDougal have proposed several basic human drives that motivate behavior. They include biological instincts that are important for an organism's survival—such as fear, cleanliness, and love.

Drives and Needs

Many behaviors such as eating, drinking, and sleeping are motivated by biology. We have a biological need for food, water, and sleep. Therefore, we are motivated to eat, drink, and sleep. The drive reduction theory of motivation suggests that people have these basic biological drives, and our behaviors are motivated by the need to fulfill these drives.

Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs is another motivation theory based on a desire to fulfill basic physiological needs. Once those needs are met, it expands to our other needs, such as those related to safety and security, social needs, self-esteem, and self-actualization.

Arousal Levels

The arousal theory of motivation suggests that people are motivated to engage in behaviors that help them maintain their optimal level of arousal. A person with low arousal needs might pursue relaxing activities such as reading a book, while those with high arousal needs might be motivated to engage in exciting, thrill-seeking behaviors such as motorcycle racing.

The Bottom Line

Psychologists have proposed many different theories of motivation . The reality is that there are numerous different forces that guide and direct our motivations.

Understanding motivation is important in many areas of life beyond psychology, from parenting to the workplace. You may want to set the best goals and establish the right reward systems to motivate others as well as to  increase your own motivation .

Knowledge of motivating factors (and how to manipulate them) is used in marketing and other aspects of industrial psychology. It's an area where there are many myths, and everyone can benefit from knowing what works with motivation and what doesn't.

Nevid JS.  Psychology: Concepts and Applications .

Tranquillo J, Stecker M.  Using intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in continuing professional education .  Surg Neurol Int.  2016;7(Suppl 7):S197-9. doi:10.4103/2152-7806.179231

Menges JI, Tussing DV, Wihler A, Grant AM. When job performance is all relative: How family motivation energizes effort and compensates for intrinsic motivation . Acad Managem J . 2016;60(2):695-719. doi:10.5465/amj.2014.0898

Hockenbury DH, Hockenbury SE. Discovering Psychology .

Zhou Y, Siu AF. Motivational intensity modulates the effects of positive emotions on set shifting after controlling physiological arousal . Scand J Psychol . 2015;56(6):613-21. doi:10.1111/sjop.12247

Mystkowska-Wiertelak A, Pawlak M. Designing a tool for measuring the interrelationships between L2 WTC, confidence, beliefs, motivation, and context . Classroom-Oriented Research . 2016. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-30373-4_2

Myers DG.  Exploring Social Psychology .

Siegling AB, Petrides KV. Drive: Theory and construct validation .  PLoS One . 2016;11(7):e0157295. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0157295

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Motivation Theories and Principles Essay

Introduction, theories of motivation, works cited.

People always engage in various activities throughout their lives. The main reason as to why human beings do various things is because they have a purpose that drives them every time. According to experts, motivation refers to a psychological feature that arouses someone to act towards a desired goal. It gives someone a reason and energy to take action. Motivation gives purpose and direction to behavior (Beck 30).

Studies have established that motivation plays a crucial role in the ability of human beings to set and achieve their goals. For example, people have the ability to determine their level of motivation by identifying various needs, understanding the requirements for meeting them, and using numerous abilities to achieve satisfaction. Basically, the concept of motivation involves the elements of needs, behavior, and satisfaction (Beck 45).

People have needs to meet and rely on their abilities to achieve satisfaction. There are two types of motivation, namely intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation refers to a reason for action derived from within an individual’s fundamental nature (Beck 52). On the other hand, extrinsic motivation refers to an incentive that gives purpose and direction to behavior influenced by external forces (Beck 52).

According to experts, there are numerous theories of motivation. The various theorists who explain this concept use certain beliefs that explain factors that influence human behavior. Some of the common hypotheses used to explain motivation include the drive or needs theory and arousal theory. According to the drive theory of motivation, human beings have needs that must be met in order to have the required level motivation (Beck 100).

There are five levels of human needs, namely psychological, safety, social, admiration, and self-actualization (Beck 100). According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, it is important to meet the lowest ranked needs in the hierarchy before those in the higher level are triggered (Beck 104). The higher someone goes in the hierarchy, the more motivation one gets. According to experts, people get the drive to push for their goals in life whenever they have enough motivation and belief to do it.

According to the arousal theory of motivation people are driven into doing certain things in life in order to maintain a state of heightened physiological activity (Beck 123). Experts argue that people often feel bored when their levels of arousal are low. In such situations, people often look out for ways of elevating their arousal levels using various stimulating activities. A good example is people who go to night clubs or engage in sporting activities because it helps to keep their arousal levels high.

However, in some instances the arousal level can be very high and unpleasant. In such cases, people often look out for more relaxed environments or activities that can help them lower the stimulation (Beck 129). A good example is sleeping, going for a walk, or watching a romantic movie. It is important to understand that optimal states of heightened physiological activity vary from one person to another, depending on one’s needs (Beck 140).

Motivation plays a crucial role in the ability of living organisms to set and achieve their goals. There are two types of motivation, namely intrinsic and extrinsic. People get the drive to push for their goals in life whenever they have enough motivation and belief to do it. However, it is important to note that people require different levels of motivation to achieve satisfaction depending on their needs.

Beck, Robert. Motivation: Theories and Principles . New York: Pearson Hall, 2004. Print.

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198 Motivation Essay Topics

🏆 best essay topics on motivation, ✍️ motivation essay topics for college, 👍 good motivation research topics & essay examples, 🌶️ hot motivation ideas to write about, 💡 simple motivation essay ideas, 🎓 most interesting motivation research titles, ❓ research questions on motivation.

• Motivation Theory by Henry Murray and Abraham Maslow.
• Motivational Theories in Nursing
• The Case of Nokia: A Lesson in Leadership and Motivation
• Motivational Theories in Healthcare
• Motivations for Criminal Behavior
• Lack of Employee Motivation at the XYZ Company
• Microsoft Company: Employee Motivation and Retention
• Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Essay: Comparing Types of Motivation Intrinsic motivation comes from within an individual while extrinsic motivation arises from without the person. They can also differ in the way they drive behavior.
• Expectancy and Reinforcement Theories of Motivation Motivation is the process by which a person’s efforts are energized, and sustained towards attaining a goal. The measure of intensity or drive constitutes the energy element.
• Hilton’s Career Development and Employee Motivation As one of the pioneers in the hospitality industry, Hilton aims to attract and retain the best employees to drive its services and customer excellence.
• Role of Motivation and Individual Behavior The paper reviews theories of motivation by Frederick Taylor, Douglas McGregor, Abraham Maslow. It also discusses individual behaviour in the organization.
• Employee Motivation and Retention in Microsoft Corporation The individual approach to personnel retention along with a fixed-term contract system could be easily integrated into the existing system.
• Google Company: Leadership and Motivation This paper uses the case of Google to explain why business and leadership models are usually supported by admirable organizational cultures.
• Southwest Airlines Co: Motivation Philosophy and Practices Company The motivation strategy used by the company can be mainly explained by positive psychology, one example of which is embedded in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
• Motivational Theories in Curriculum Development Motivational theories are very valuable in the development of a curriculum in education. Educators require a strong understanding of what motivates their students.
• International Finance. Motivation and Management The purpose of this report study is to determine the reason why the United Kingdom decided to stand apart from the unification of European currencies.
• Teacher Profession and Motivation to Choose It My decision of becoming a teacher solely comes from my family background and my own personal interests as I grew up.
• Motivation in the “Whiplash” Film by Damien Chazelle “Whiplash” by Damien Chazelle is a superb story depicting the efforts of an ambitious, 19-year-old drummer, Andrew Neyman, to become one of the greatest musicians ever.
• Organizational Behavior on Lack of Motivation The managers should identify the manifestations of lack of motivation, because this behavior threatens to reduce work productivity to improve the working environment.
• Gamification: Learning and Motivational Theories The learning theory explains the use of games in different environments, and the motivational theory explains the idea of gamification – it’s Bruner’s and Skinner’s theories.
• Avon: Quality Assurance, Motivation and Attitudes Change The example of Avon Products shows that environmental issues have, over the past few years, increasingly aroused our concern both as members of the community and as customers.
• Organizational Motivation in “Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory” In the “Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory” movie, motivation can be viewed from the perspectives of different theories of organizational behavior.
• Importance of Motivation for Employees Motivation refers to an internally generated drive to achieve a goal, as result, highly motivated employees focus their efforts on achieving specific goals.
• Unconscious vs. Conscious Motivation Motivation is not a byproduct of unconscious behavior. There is evidence pointing to the contrary – that every action is deliberate and the driving force behind each action is the combination of awareness.
• Airport Security: Motivation System Security motivation should be an integral part of an airport security system. Security management of the airports should involve promoting security motivation as a way to engender a security culture.
• Abraham Maslow Theory of Motivation & Hierarchy of Needs Maslow is still one of the most influential people in the field of psychology. He was a professor in four major institutions of higher learning in America.
• Trader Joe’s Stores’ Teamwork and Motivation Trader Joe’s has become a multi-billion dollar national chain. The employees of Trader Joe’s are very friendly. They engage the customers in friendly talk.
• Self-Determination Theory of Motivation Self-determination theory can be used to explain motivation. People are inspired to pursue psychological growth when they feel a sense of autonomy, competence, and connection.
• Motivation Theory of Henry Murray and Abraham Maslow Maslow’s theory has been criticized for being a generalist in nature to have covered all the ingrained needs of human beings.
• Classroom Activity Showcasing Application of Motivational Theory Paper illustrates a classroom activity that can be used to make grade 8 students be motivated in a business class.
• Employee Motivation: Rewards and Incentives Role Motivation refers to the psychological aspect that stimulates a being to action towards a desired goal; it is the activation of a purpose-orientated conduct.
• Young Adult Consumers’ Motivations Understanding Food and beverage outlets in most cases are frequented by young and sophisticated individuals. Understanding the expectations of the customers by the restaurant proprietors is valuable enough.
• Motivation and Performance in UAE Construction Industry One of the most important revelations in the research was that workers and managers in the UAE construction industry were not motivated.
• Selflessness and Motivation for Ethical Behavior The paper examines how selflessness can be the solution to unethical behavior. Selflessness and motivation for ethical behavior are the key themes discussed.
• Financial Rewards as a Motivation Factor This paper seeks to answer the question as to whether the one best way to increase work motivation for an organization is through financial rewards.
• Self-Motivation for Entrepreneurs: An Action Plan This paper discusses the importance of self-motivation for entrepreneurs and presents a plan of action with motivational strategies to stay focused on the venture.
• Berkshire Industries: Motivations and Options The case of “Berkshire Industries PLC” gives an examination of the situations that led to a new incentive plan capable of meeting the demands of both workers and shareholders.
• Nucor’s Performance Management and Motivation Strategy Motivation is a critical factor affecting employees’ performance. The case of Nucor Steel is an excellent example of the use of work motivation theories in performance management.
• Motivation, Job Satisfaction, Involvement, Stress Motivating personnel and the assessment of job satisfaction, including the degree of involvement and stress impact, are the essential aspects of leadership practice in the group.
• Motivations Effect on Second Language Learning The number of people learning English as a second language has been increasing, especially among people of East Asia. This paper determines the motivation effect on learning a second language.
• Employee Retention and Motivation Policies The purpose of an employee retention policy is to keep the company’s processes stable and provide better working conditions for employees.
• Motivation and Globalization in Multinational Companies Motivation in the case of globalization becomes a burning issue of multinational companies as they should establish the most appropriate way to motivate their employees.
• Motivation Theories at the Workplace Labor motivation is understood as the organization of the company’s work in a way that encourages everyone to fulfill professional duties.
• Employee Motivation and Minimum Wage This paper critically discusses theories of employee motivation and evaluates the argument for and against the national minimum wage.
• Motivational Interviewing Case Study On the use of motivational interviewing to change certain negative habits and behavioral patterns with an emphasis on the client’s intrinsic motivation.
• Motivational Theories and Factors Different individuals are motivated by various things, so there is the need to examine employees’ motivation as well as the motivational effects of stress and conflict at the workplace.
• Motivational Problems at Workplace Managers have the responsibility to make workers motivated since lack of it can be a source of many problems in the workplace.
• Motivations of Human Behavior Human behavior is a rather interesting area of study as far as human beings try to study themselves and it is always a complicated task.
• Dark Tourism and Theories of Its Motivation The current article analyzes a concept of dark tourism and its motivations on the basis of a review of the literature and an interview.
• Motivation Theories in Society Motivation is a psychological factor that drives one to take action towards specific set goal. It ensures that individuals’ behavior is oriented towards that goal.
• Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic motivation occurs when a person is driven to undertake an action or participate in a task to receive a prize or escape prosecution.
• The Motivation of Scientists Many sciences interconnect and create a more extensive system of knowledge. For example, psychology, the science about human behavior, is highly influenced by biology.
• Employee Motivation in Secondary and Tertiary Sectors This paper seeks to analyze the concept of motivation and examine how it is differently applied in secondary and tertiary sectors.
• Motivational Strategies for Nurses In case when nurses do not properly understand their performance instructions, it is unlikely that they will provide high-quality care.
• Motivational Factors on Kazakhstan’s Top Managers This paper presents analysis of effectiveness of different extrinsic and intrinsic motivators on the performance of top managers in different organizations of Kazakhstan.
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• The Prestige Company: Reward and Motivation This paper discusses the Prestige company’s reward management and evaluates the impact of economic, regulatory, psychological, and motivational factors on this practice.
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• The Expectancy Model of Motivation in Business This paper dwells on the expectancy model of motivation, which aims to explain the connection between motivation and performance.
• Organizational Behavior Motivation of Employees The issue of motivating employees is an extremely crucial undertaking of the management in an organization as it is vital towards achieving high performance.
• Education Psychology, Learning and Motivation Besides the differences that concern culture, language and social diversity, there are also such differences as concern individual student personalities.
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• Motivation in Spencer Johnson’s “Who Moved My Cheese?” The message of Spencer Johnson’s “Who Moved My Cheese?” deals with the description that in a parabolic way enumerates the scenario of change in an individual’s life.
• Organizational Performance: Motivation and Its Impacts The centrality of employee input in an organisation’s overall performance can only be ignored at the peril of an organisation’s long-term survival.
• Motivation Types and Leadership Styles in Nursing A better quality of care is possible when a nurse is internally motivated to achieve positive results and grow professionally.
• Motivation and Accomplishing Goals in Management Workers may receive assistance from managers in comprehending how they are coordinating various tasks. The most important skill is the capacity to refrain from actions.
• The Impact of Motivational Interviewing Motivational interviewing is an approach that “encourages people to say why and how they might change and pertains both to a style of relating to others”.
• Leadership and Motivation Impact on Repsol Organisational Culture The purpose of this paper is to analyse the impact of leadership and motivation on the organisational culture of Repsol.
• Exploring How Motivation Impacts Performance Communication between the CEOs of the Tailor Building Works Company is the core tool that can be used in order to boost motivation in the company.
• Motivational Pros and Cons of Teams in Organization Motivation plays an important role in teams’ effort by directing productive energy dissipated by workers toward achieving organization’s goals and objective.
• Bims Inc.: Case Study. Employee Motivation When it reaches a point of employees not giving a damn about losing there job, it is a clearly indication that an effective enhancing-motivation program is necessary.
• Police Supervisor’s Dilemma: Control and Motivation The level of control needed in a police institution is related to the capability of officers to construct an inspiring environment.
• Employee Motivation and Pay Plans Management role is characterized to address the objectives to be achieved with the involvement of employees in assessing the motivational factors impact in each situation.
• CVS Caremark Company’s Motivational Problems Motivational problems arise when the workers have lost morale and their focus on the achievement of their goals, or those of a company.
• Garment Trading Company: Motivational Climate and Its Improvement Using well-elaborated methodology and up-to-date research of employees’ motivation, the survey is designed to determine the level of employees’ motivation in this company.
• Employee Motivation: Rewards, Goals, Empowerment It is important to enhance the motivation of the employees in an organization in order to attain the objectives of the firm.
• Utah Symphony and Opera’s Merger and Motivation The number of non-salaried occasional workers that deal with the Utah Opera Organization is sufficient for employees to get worried.
• Leadership Style and Motivation in Health Care Of all the functions, leadership involves managers most directly with subordinates. Leadership in Nursing is very crucial as it ensures safety and quality health care for the public in hospitals.
• Operationalization Methods: Motivation, Mood, Anxiety, and Happiness Operationalization is used for turning abstract concepts into quantifiable values. This paper aims to analyze and assess the operationalization methods.
• The Impact of Motivation on Employees Employee empowerment and collaborative teamwork are important elements to be considered when starting a company.
• Motivation Methods to Quit Smoking According to the recommendations for treating tobacco use, the interventions for such patients should be aimed at motivating them to finally quit smoking.
• Employees’ Motivation: A Manager’s Challenge The issue of motivating employees could be regarded as a strategy that calls for planning on a long-tern basis. In addition, its impact ought to be felt by the entire work environment.
• Motivation at Norsk Petroleum Norsk Petroleum, a leading gas and petroleum company, pays a special attention to motivation and organizational culture, job satisfaction high productivity.
• Change and Restructure on Motivation the Workplace In the last for decades, businesses and organizations have been faced with the need to restructures so as to make them more competitiveness globally and better positioned.
• Existence, Relatedness and Growth Theory of Motivation Existence, Relatedness and Growth theory addresses some of the limitations of the needs theory. It says more than one need may motivate simultaneously.
• Motivation as a Means of Productivity Increase First of all, it is necessary to find out if the motivation is a really effective means of increasing the work efficiency or not.
• Thai-Lay Fashion Ltd.: Leadership and Motivation A study with regard to how motivation can be improved in the Thai Lay Fashion Company has been conducted here.
• Employee Motivation Meeting: Planning and Organizing The meeting “Motivating and Encouraging Newly-Hired Employees” will be held in a conference room. It is aimed at employee retention within the company.
• Robert Kiyosaki as a Motivational Leader This paper overviews Kiyosaki’s personality discusses his role as a motivational leader and his leadership type according to the theory.
• Motivation, Leadership, Teamwork in Operational Enhancement In this work, three articles that consider particular concepts relevant for operational enhancement are discussed. The concepts of motivation, leadership, and teamwork are used.
• Yerkes-Dodson Law: Motivation and Performance This paper examines and describes the aspects of the law specified by Yerkes and Dodson. This law covers the concept of motivation in its relation to performance.
• Cultural Diversity and Motivation Managers are required to ensure that employees are motivated and cultural diversity and personality differences of all individuals are respected.
• Self-Efficacy Motivation in Mathematics Learning The paper discusses the challenge facing mathematics teachers who have to deal with the negative attitude and low motivation of students towards their subject.
• Employee Motivational Techniques Several companies have discovered the importance of compensation and reward systems with an aim of empowering their employees.
• A Discussion on Whether Financial Rewards is the Best Way to Increase Work Motivation This paper seeks to answer the question as to whether the one best way to increase work motivation for an organization is through financial rewards.
• Learners’ Mindsets: Motivational Strategies A learner’s mindset, be it fixed or growth, is a particular matter that a plethora of factors can influence. These factors can include a variety of elements.
• Motivational Interviewing and Description Tool The use of open questioning, affirming, reflecting and summarizing (OARS) can be an efficient tool for interviewing people.
• The Poem “The Iliad” by Homer: Achilles’ Motivation in Ransoming Hector In Homer’s poem “The Iliad”, Achilles ransomed Hector’s body to return it safely to his family for proper burial to prevent further anger from the gods.
• Motivational Interviewing and Its Purpose Motivational interviewing is a method for managing people by assisting them in overcoming obstacles to adopting healthier behaviors.
• Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation in Higher Education Concerns about how to guarantee that students learn effectively in class and attain academic excellence in their academic pursuits have emerged all over the world.
• Employee Motivation and Organizational Behavior The paper discusses the influence of employee motivation and relevant appraisal techniques on organizational behavior. It implies using a qualitative design.
• Motivational Theories in the Workplace This paper discusses the importance of motivation in the workplace, the different motivation elements, and the various theories explaining motivation.
• Motivation at the Workplace: An Email Survey The email survey revealed various personality and motivation findings. In this case, different people have different motivating factors in their work environment.
• The Role of Human Resources’ Motivation Different organizations use different strategies to persuade their employees to increase their productivity and positivity towards their duties.
• Improving Physical and Moral Well-Being: The Role of Self-Motivation The conducted research is a fixation on sensations and was chosen to serve as a basis for reasoning about self-motivation in matters of improving physical and moral health.
• Needs and Motivations From Maslow’s and the Scripture’s Perspectives The paper analyzes Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs remains the most inclusive yet structured approach for studying the nature of needs.
• Ways To Cope Emotions and Stress There are several theories on how people experience emotions that have been put forward throughout the years, all attributing emotions to separate causes.
• Motivation in the Workplace: The Organizational Culture The organizational culture sought to foster an environment of pushing employees to be their best, offering support to stimulate high performance.
• Health Coaching: Transtheoretical Model and Motivational Interviewing The Transtheoretical Model in health coaching focuses on individual decision-making. Motivational interviewing is used for different health-related issues in health coaching.
• Employee Motivation and Incentives The issue of employee motivation has been under research for a sufficient period for developing a variety of topic-specific theories and frameworks.
• Healthy Eating Behavior: Psychological Factors and Motivation This paper analyzes the way goals, mindsets, and personal beliefs affect motivation to engage or disengage in healthy eating behavior.
• Motivation & Negative Contribution Margin Negative margins are usually a consequence of the inability of the firm to control costs or industry difficulties beyond the control of the company.
• Problems With Blaming Poor Workplace Performance on Low Motivation An HR manager may overlook a wide range of details that shape staff members’ motivation, causing a disruption in their performance rates.
• Performance-Driven Teams and Motivation The paper discusses performance-driven team, to which some refer as a high-performance team, which differs from a common one in its efficiency.
• Students’ Motivation in Present Grading System The problem of a drop in students’ motivation remains a concern in most schools nowadays. Educators have provided a variety of strategies for increasing students’ motivation.
• Women and Heart Disease: Knowledge, Worry, and Motivation The study revealed that few women are worried about developing heart diseases though a majority of middle aged women are motivated to modify their cardiovascular risk factor.
• Motivation and Manufacturing Jobs Factories nowadays are indeed more mechanized and automated, but it should eventually lead to market expansion, which, in turn, will produce more jobs.
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and Motivation Esteem needs in Maslow’s Hierarchy represent a desire to have a realistic and, at the same time, positive opinion about oneself.
• Motivational Interviewing as a Smoking Cessation Method Motivational Interviewing intervention is one of the primary cessation methods that is used among patients that reluctant to abstain from tobacco use.
• Employee Motivation: Monetary and Non-monetary Motivators Keeping motivation in workers is oneself is critical skill in any leader as self-motivation translates to employee motivation, and employee motivation translates to productivity.
• Motivation and Improving Employee Behavior All companies and managers face issues regarding leadership, conflict resolution, and the motivations of employees.
• Organizational Behavior and Motivation in Hurricane Response This article examines methods that could be used to manage the aftermath of the Katrina disaster by some theorists in the field of creating mechanisms to regulate human behavior.
• Motivation Strategies and Approaches at Workplace The performance of the young graduate employee should be the main factor to be monitored against the motivation strategies put in place.
• Motivation of Females to Move In Leadership Positions in the Field of Corrections Employees do not motivate females to move to leadership positions. Each and every employee strives to sustain individual performance and promotion.
• Health or Self-Indulgence? The Motivations and Characteristics of Spa-Goers This article aims to examine the factors, which motivate travelers to look for spa experiences, especially the Hong Kong spa-goers, perceptions towards the spa.
• Motivation at Workplace: Achieving Organizational Goals One of the biggest challenges faced by the leaders is getting the right people for the job. Leadership is all about perfection and any wrong decisions taken can prove very fatal.
• Organizational Behavior and Motivation Scheme of an Employee The subject of the present study is the way organizational behavior is influenced by the issue of payment and what role payment plays in the whole motivation scheme of an employee.
• Motivation & Control: The Police Supervisor’s Dilemma It is universally acknowledged that the effectiveness of the work is toughly connected with a consistent organizational structure and subordinate system.
• Brief Motivational Intervention: Mindfulness Based Therapy Substance abuse is one of the leading social problems in the United States. In particular, alcohol is one of the most abused substances in the country.
• Leadership, Motivation, Work Satisfaction and Performance Motivation, teamwork and performance are related to each other. The level of performance of a follower is mostly influenced by the amount of motivation he receives from his leader.
• Motivational Factors in the Workplace Occasionally, employers or managers are usually at crossroads not knowing whether to motivate a person or provide an enabling environment.
• Theories of Learning and Motivation Education theories and approaches employed in various domains bring up valuable nuances on links establishable student motivation and aspects like achievement and retention.
• Corkely & Finn: Employees Motivation Corkery & Finn a regional investment brokerage house has been extremely profitable but the company has decided to expand its operations and open overseas branches.
• Employee Behavior: Consequences and Motivation In the world of business, motivation is to drive the employee towards enhanced productivity by exploiting the abilities to the maximum potential, by improving the job performance.
• Employee Motivation and Reward in Entrepreneurial Firm Successfully run organizations need the contribution of their employees. For efficient employee performance, a proper system of employee motivation and rewards should be in place.
• Ashoka Incorporation: Employees Motivation In the case of Ashoka, the workers need to understand why it is important for strong masses to work for the improvement of their lives.
• Risks to Staff Motivation and Morale In every organization culture determines the ways of performance and interaction between employees, communication and climate, morale and satisfaction.
• Employee Motivation: Self-Directed Work Teams Individuals assigned to such teamwork intensively to achieve this common goal and are assumed to have the skill set required to complete their job.
• Motivation Theories Explaining Individual Behavior Understanding the factors that motivate employees to perform and deliver better results is inherent to successfully manage organizational issues and meeting the set goals.
• Motivational Interviewing in Obesity Reduction: Statistical Analysis The research determines the effect the methods like motivational interviews and specific web tools will have on people suffering from different degrees of obesity.
• Employee Motivation and Involvement Types The buy-in is considered crucial as it also encourages employees to care about the vision and mission of the company and not just the money they are getting paid.
• Social Motivation of an Artist and Business Owner This paper studies the social motivation on the example of a woman, who has created a business providing services as a graphic designer and a photographer.
• Intrinsic Motivation and Work Experiences The goal of the overall assessment is to understand the power of intrinsic motivation on human work experiences.
• Supervisor’s Motivation and Employee’s Performance Two shifts in the factory are falling behind in production. The senior manager wonders if that lack of motivation of supervisors is rubbing off on the workers.
• Terrorism Attacks, Motivations, Political Factors Many people engage in terrorism because of sociological and personal factors. For example, a person is deprived of human rights, loses home, or cannot get an appropriate education.
• Motivational Strategies for Employee Productivity Today, the environment in which public organizations exist is rather competitive, but each company is willing to achieve success.
• The “Hour of Code” Project: Motivation to Programming The paper includes an analysis of some of the videos and explores the possible outcomes of the Hour of Code approach with a focus on the topics of creativity and success.
• Employee Motivation at the Public Library The paper reports on a management consultancy of an acquisition librarian in a small public library. The key problems were low motivation and slow decision-making.
• Leadership Mentoring and Nurses’ Motivation This paper proposes the article “The Effect of Leadership Mentoring on Motivation of Nurses: A Mixed Study Approach” for the International Journal of Nursing Studies.
• Education and Motivation for At-Risk Students The paper is focused on examining the programs for at-risk students, the benefits of such programs, and the role of education in modern life.
• Terrorism Definition and Motivation This paper defines the notion of terrorism according to the UN General Assembly Resolution and outlines three reasons people make terrorist attacks on innocent members of society.
• Transformational Leadership for Nurses’ Motivation Motivation has a positive effect on patient health outcomes when nurses are willing to apply their knowledge and skills to work and achieve their full potential.
• The Use of Motivation and Inspiration in Business This paper establishes the difference between motivation and inspiration and also shows how the two concepts are applied in organizations.
• The United States Civil War: Soldiers’ Motivations This paper compares and contrasts the motivations of Union soldiers and Confederate soldiers, how were they different from each other and are there any ways they were the same.
• Public Library: Bureaucracy and Lack Motivation The paper reports an interview with an acquisition librarian discussing the functioning and organizational culture of the public library, challenges of workers and readers.
• Motivation, Emotion and Behavior Theories The link between emotion, motivation and behavior is that our emotions may motivate us in performing a given task. Since we are motivated we can pursue something very quickly.
• Work Motivation: Capitalism, Individualism, Institutionalism The reasons why people work can be found in Weber’s Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. The key constituents are calling, predestination, and asceticism.
• Using Motivation to Improve Employee Performance Motivation refers to the internal and external factors that encourage an employee to perform assigned tasks or achieve set goals and objectives.
• Maslow’s Rationale for Work Motivation – Psychology Motivation refers to various innate forces that create impetus for satisfaction and fulfilment of recurrent human needs. Such forces are vital in determining human drive and willingness.
• Work Motivation in the Theory X and Y Context McGregor’s theories of management can be used to operate modern day organizations. Theory X applied on the assumption that all employees lack motivation.
• Management and Motivation Theory: What Motivates You? The question of whether a leader’s motivational aspects have an impact on his or her leadership style and performance has been subjected to substantial empirical exploration.
• Consumer Motivation on the BevCo Example The paper considers the difficulties to gain consumer motivation and proposes changes to attitude at BevCo based on the investigations of its target consumers preferences.
• Are Matching Games Effective at Improving Learner Motivation and Engagement in Literacy Lessons?
• What Is Motivation and Why Is It Important?
• Are Competition and Extrinsic Motivation Reliable Predictors of Academic Cheating?
• What Are the Roles of Supervisors’ Prosocial Motivation and Perceived Corporate Social Responsibility?
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• Can External Interventions Crowd in Intrinsic Motivation?
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• What Determines the Motivation for Further Training?
• Does Monetary Punishment Crowd Out Pro-social Motivation?
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• Does Motivation Affect the Outcome of a Sporting Performance?
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• Does Teacher Motivation Lead to Student Motivation?
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• What Are Ten Ways to Motivate Employees?
• What Are the Attraction and Motivation Factors of Management Level of Hotel Employees in Hong Kong?
• What Is Maslow’s Theory of Motivation?
• Who Is the Founder of Motivation Theory?
• What Is the History of Motivation?
• What Are the Sources of External and Internal Motivation for People?

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By knowledgehut ., 1. what is project management, 2. activity-based costing, 3. agile project management, 4. basic management skills, 5. basic quality tools, 6. benchmarking process, 7. cause and effect diagram, 8. change management process, 9. communication management, 10. communication blocker, 11. communication methods, 12. communication channels, 13. communication model, 14. conflict management, 15. critical path method (cpm), 16. critical chain method, 17. crisis management, 18. decision making process, 19. design of experiment, 20. effective communication skills, 21. effective presentation skills, 22. enterprise resource planning, 23. event chain methodology, 24. extreme project management, 25. gantt chart tool, 26. just-in-time (jit) manufacturing, 27. knowledge management, 28. leads, lags & float, 29. management best practices, 30. management styles, 31. management by objective (mbo), 32. monte carlo analysis, 33. motivation theories, 34. negotiation skills, 35. organization structures, 36. pert estimation technique, 37. prince2 project management methodology, 38. pareto chart tool, 39. powerful leadership skills, 40. process-based management, 41. procurement documents, 42. procurement management, 43. project activity diagram, 44. project charter, 45. project contract types, 46. project cost control, 47. project kick-off meeting, 48. project lessons learnt, 49. project management methodologies, 50. project management office, 51. project management processes, 52. project management tools, 53. project management triangle, 54. project manager goals, 55. project portfolio management, 56. project quality plan, 57. project records management, 58. project risk categories, 59. project risk management, 60. project scope definition, 61. project selection methods, 62. project success criteria, 63. project time management, 64. project management software, 65. project workforce management, 66. quality assurance and quality control, 67. raci chart tool, 68. rewards and recognition, 69. requirements collection, 70. resource levelling, 71. staffing management plan, 72. stakeholder management, 73. statement of work (sow), 74. stress management techniques, 75. structured brainstorming, 76. succession planning, 77. supply chain management, 78. team building program, 79. team motivation, 80. the balanced score card, 81. the halo effect, 82. the make or buy decision, 83. the rule of seven, 84. the virtual team, 85. total productive maintenance, 86. total quality management, 87. traditional project management, 88. work breakdown structure, motivation theories.

Motivation is a state of mind, filled with energy and enthusiasm, which drives a person to work in a certain way to achieve desired goals. Motivation is a force that pushes people to work with a high level of commitment and focus, even if things are going against them. Motivation translates into a certain kind of human behavior.  In short, motivation is the driving force behind human actions.

There are many different forces that guide and direct our motivations. It is important to ensure that every team member in an organization is motivated and meets the  best  project management  course  bottom line. Various psychologists have studied human behavior and have formalized their findings in the form of various motivational theories. These motivational theories provide insights into the way people behave and what motivates them.    

Motivation theory is a way of looking at the motivation of a person and how this influences their behavior, whether for personal or professional reasons. It's important to every aspect of society but is especially relevant to business and management. Motivation is the key to more profitable employees, as a motivated employee is more productive.

What are the 5 Theories of Motivation?  

Motivation is a huge field of study. Psychologists have proposed many different theories of motivation. Some of the most famous motivational theories include the following:  

1. Maslow’s Theory of Hierarchical Needs  

Abraham Maslow postulated that a person will be motivated when all his needs are fulfilled.  P eople do not work for security or money, but they work to contribute and to use their skills. He demonstrated this by creating a pyramid to show how people are motivated and mentioned that ONE CANNOT ASCEND TO THE NEXT LEVEL UNLESS LOWER-LEVEL NEEDS ARE FULFILLED. The lowest level needs in the pyramid are basic needs and unless these lower-level needs are satisfied people do not look at working toward satisfying the upper-level needs.   

Below is the hierarchy of needs:  

• Physiological needs: are basic needs for survival such as air, sleep, food, water, clothing, sex, and shelter.  
• Safety needs: Protection from threats, deprivation, and other dangers (e.g.,  health, secure employment, and property)  
• Social (belongingness and love) needs: The need for association, affiliation, friendship, and so on.  
• Self-esteem needs:  The need for respect and recognition.  
• Self-actualization needs:  The opportunity for personal development, learning, and fun/creative/challenging work.  Self-actualization is the highest-level need to which a human being can aspire.  

The leader will have to understand at what level the team members are currently, and seek out to help them to satisfy those specific needs and accordingly work to help fulfill those needs. This will help the team members perform better and move ahead with the project. A  PMP certification  will help you better understand this concept. Also, as their needs get fulfilled, the team members will start performing, till the time they start thinking of fulfilling the next upper level of need as mentioned in the pyramid.  

2. Hertzberg’s two-factor Theory  

Hertzberg classified the needs into two broad categories; namely hygiene factors and motivating factors:  

• poor hygiene factors may destroy motivation but improving them under most circumstances will not improve  team motivation  
• hygiene factors only are not sufficient to motivate people, but motivator factors are also required   

3. McClelland’s Theory of Needs  

McClelland affirms that we all have three motivating drivers, which do not depend on our gender or age. One of these drives will be dominant in our behavior. The dominant drive depends on our life experiences.   

The three motivators are:  

• Achievement :  a need to accomplish and demonstrate own competence. People with a high need for achievement prefer tasks that provide for personal responsibility and results based on their own efforts.  They also prefer quick acknowledgment of their progress.  
• Affiliation :  a need for love, belonging and social acceptance. People with a high need for affiliation are motivated by being liked and accepted by others.  They tend to participate in social gatherings and may be uncomfortable with conflict.  
• Power :   a need for controlling own work or the work of others. People with a high need for power desire situations in which they exercise power and influence over others.  They aspire for positions with status and authority and tend to be more concerned about their level of influence than about effective work performance.  

4.  Vroom’s Theory of Expectancy  

Vroom’s expectancy theory of motivation says that an individual’s motivation is affected by their expectations about the future. In his view, an individual’s motivation is affected by –  

• Having the appropriate resources available (e.g., raw materials, time)  
• Having the appropriate  management skills  to do the job  
• Having the required support to get the job done (e.g., supervisor support, or correct information on the job)  
• A clear understanding of the relationship between performance and outcomes – e.g., the rules of the reward ‘game’  
• Trust in the people who will take the decisions on who gets what outcome  
• Transparency in the process decides who gets what outcome  
• Valence:  is how much importance the individual places upon the expected outcome. For example, if someone is motivated by money, he or she might not value offers of additional time off.  

Motivation = V * I * E  

The three elements are important when choosing one element over another because they are clearly defined:  

• E>P expectancy:  our assessment of the probability that our efforts will lead to the required performance level.  
• P>O expectancy:  our assessment of the probability that our successful performance will lead to certain outcomes.  

5. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y  

Theory X and Theory Y were first explained by McGregor in his book, "The Human Side of Enterprise," and they refer to two styles of management – authoritarian (Theory X) and participative (Theory Y).  

Theory X:  Managers who accept this theory believe that  if you feel that your  team members dislike their work, have little motivation, need to be watched every minute, and are incapable of being accountable for their work, avoid responsibility and avoid work whenever possible, then you are likely to use an authoritarian style of management. According to McGregor, this approach is very "hands-on" and usually involves micromanaging people's work to ensure that it gets done properly.   

Theory Y:  Managers who accept this theory believe that if people are willing to work without supervision, take pride in their work, see it as a challenge, and want to achieve more, they can direct their own efforts, take ownership of their work and do it effectively by themselves. These managers use a decentralized, participative management style.    

6. Alderfer’s ERG Theory

C. P. Alderfer, an American psychologist, developed Maslow’s hierarchy of needs into a theory of his own.   

His theory suggests that there are three groups of core needs: existence (E), relatedness (R), and growth (G). These groups are aligned with Maslow’s levels of physiological needs, social needs, and self-actualization needs, respectively.  

Existence needs  concern our basic material requirements for living, which include what Maslow categorized as physiological needs such as air,  sleep, food, water, clothing, sex and shelter  and safety-related needs such as health, secure employment, and property.  

Relatedness needs  have to do with the importance of maintaining interpersonal relationships. These needs are based on social interactions with others and are aligned with Maslow’s levels of love/belonging-related needs such as friendship, family, and sexual intimacy and esteem-related needs such as gaining the respect of others.  

Growth needs  describe our intrinsic desire for personal development. These needs are aligned with the other part of Maslow’s esteem-related needs such as self-esteem, self-confidence, and achievement, and self-actualization needs such as morality, creativity, problem-solving, and discovery.  

Alderfer is of the opinion that when a certain category of needs is not being met, people will redouble their efforts to fulfill needs in a lower category.  

Maslow’s theory is very rigid and it assumes that the needs follow a specific and orderly hierarchy and unless a lower-level need is satisfied, an individual cannot proceed to the higher-level need i.e., an individual remains at a particular need level until that need is satisfied.  

Whereas, according to Alderfer’s theory, if a higher-level need is aggravated, an individual may revert to increasing the satisfaction of a lower-level need. This is called the frustration-regression aspect of ERG theory. ERG theory is very flexible as Alderfer perceived the needs as a range/variety instead of perceiving them as a hierarchy i.e., an individual can work on growth needs even if his existence or relatedness needs remain unsatisfied.   

For e.g., when growth needs aggravate, then an individual might be motivated to accomplish the relatedness need and if there are issues in accomplishing relatedness needs, then he might be motivated by the existence needs. Hence in this manner, frustration or aggravation can result in regression to a lower-level need.  

Another example could be, if someone’s self-esteem is suffering, he or she will invest more effort in the relatedness category of needs.  

Implications of the ERG Theory    

All managers must understand that an employee has various needs that must be satisfied at the same time. According to the ERG theory, if the manager focuses solely on one need at a time, then this will not effectively motivate the employee. The frustration-regression aspect of ERG Theory has an added effect on workplace motivation. For e.g., if an employee is not provided with growth and advancement opportunities in an organization, then he or she might revert to related needs such as socializing needs.   

To meet those socializing needs, if the environment or circumstances do not permit it, he might revert to the need for money to fulfill those socializing needs. By the time the manager realizes and discovers this, they will take more immediate steps to fulfill those needs which are frustrated until such time that the employee can again pursue growth.

You can further explore  K nowledgeHut's best project management course  wh ich goes into full detail about the same.

Motivation is the state of mind which pushes all human beings to perform to their highest potential, with good spirits and a positive attitude.  The various motivation theories outlined above help us to understand what are the factors that drive motivation. It is a leader’s job to ensure that every individual in the team and the organization is motivated, and inspired to perform better than their best. This is neither quick nor easy, but in the long-term, the gains that are derived from happy employees far outweigh the time and effort spent in motivating them!  

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