essay soil degradation

Accept cookies?

We use cook ies  to give you the best online experience and to show personalised content and marketing. We use them to improve our website and content as well as to tailor our digital advertising on third-party platforms. You can change your preferences at any time.  

Popular search terms:

• British wildlife
• Wildlife Photographer of the Year
• Explore the Museum
• Anthropocene

British Wildlife

Collections

Human evolution

What on Earth?

An arid environment outside Koulomboutej village, Nigeria. Poor communities will be hit the hardest by negative environmental changes like soil degradation. © Giulio Napolitano/ Shutterstock .

During Beta testing articles may only be saved for seven days.

Create a list of articles to read later. You will be able to access your list from any article in Discover.

You don't have any saved articles.

Soil degradation: the problems and how to fix them

A third of the world’s soil is moderately to highly degraded, threatening global food supplies, increasing carbon emissions and foreshadowing mass migration. A change in farming practices has never been more urgent.

Soil is a priceless, non-renewable resource that's home to thousands of animals, plants and other important organisms. It supports countless ecosystems and provides us with essential food and resources. The dirt beneath our feet often goes unnoticed but it is key to sustaining all life on Earth.

Silvia Pressel, a Museum researcher in the Algae, Fungi and Plants Division, says, 'Soil is full of millions of living organisms that interact with one another. These organisms have a major influence on soil, such as its formation, structure and productivity.'

What is soil degradation?

Soil degradation describes what happens when the quality of soil declines and diminishes its capacity to support animals and plants. Soil can lose certain physical, chemical or biological qualities that underpin the web of life within it.

Soil erosion is a part of soil degradation. It's when the topsoil and nutrients are lost either naturally, such as via wind erosion, or due to human actions, such as poor land management.

What does healthy soil look like?

There are many types of soil around the world. The UK alone has over 700 varieties, such as clay, sand, silt, loam and peat. These soils have different characteristics which can be useful for humans.

Healthy soil has a good combination of soil structure, chemistry, organic matter content, biology and water permeation for its type.

A typically healthy soil will be teeming with biodiversity and may include a variety of earthworms, 20-30 types of small arachnids, 50-100 species of insects, hundreds of different fungi and thousands of bacteria species.

'There are some things in soils which will be visible to the naked eye, like invertebrates and plant roots,' explains Silvia. 'But there are also millions of things people won't be able to see like micro-organisms and all the fascinating work they do together.'

Nowhere else in the world is nature so densely packed. A teaspoon of soil can contain more organisms than there are humans living on Earth.

A type of mycorrhizal fungi forming a symbiotic relationship with a plant root. These fungi help plants absorb hard-to-get soil nutrients, such as phosphorus in exchange for sugar. Mycorrhizal fungi are ubiquitous on land, but are being destroyed by farming practices such as tilling and use of chemicals. Research on mycorrhizal fungi is increasingly important and could be a viable solution for sustainable agriculture. Image by Ellen Larson/ wiki ( CC BY 2.5 ).

One of the most widespread soils in Britain is brown earth, which covers about 45% of land in England and Wales.

Brown earth has a deep top layer where most of the nutrients are and biological activities take place. At around 20 centimetres deep, it provides a lot of space and encouragement for roots to grow comfortably.

Brown earth also drains water at a moderate rate, which allows plants to absorb enough water without drying out or flooding.

These qualities make brown earth well-suited for agriculture, and most British farms depend on it.

The benefits of soil

The millions of organisms that live within soil interact with one another and contribute to a number of cycles that make all life on Earth possible. These include carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus cycles.

Soil plays a vital role in cleaning water. Minerals and microbes filter and buffer potential pollutants, some of which are absorbed by soil particles. This is promoted by the thousands of organisms that live in soil, including earthworms, ants and termites, which create channels and routes for water and air to flow through.

Soil also regulates the movement of water and prevents floods by controlling whether rainfall, snowfall and irrigation water will flow over land or through it.

Healthy soil contains high biodiversity, which helps fight off pests and allows fresh, nutritious plants to grow.

Soil also contains organisms that can kill harmful bacteria. A variety of medicines have been made from organisms that live in soil, such as penicillin - a group of antibiotics widely used to fight off bacterial infections.

Soil provides physical stability for plants by allowing the roots to anchor to something. This in turn helps create oxygen and clean water for all life on Earth. Soil also provides support for manmade structures, including treasured but fragile archaeological sites.

Finally, soil plays a very important role in mitigating climate change . It is the second-largest carbon sink after the ocean, constantly storing and releasing carbon, which regulates atmospheric CO 2 concentrations and, ultimately, the greenhouse effect. 

Peatland landscapes vary from frozen, open spaces in Scotland to swamp forests in Indonesia. Peatlands are the largest natural form of carbon storage on land and are vital for reducing global carbon emission. Due to lack of awareness, many peatlands have been overexploited and damaged by draining, burning and mining. Image by Ross/ wiki ( CC BY-SA 2.0 ).

The cause of soil degradation and how it affects us

Soil is not an inert medium but a living ecosystem that is essential to life. It takes hundreds and thousands of years to form an inch of topsoil , and many more centuries before it is fertile.

While soil degradation is a natural process, it can also be caused by human activity. In the last few decades, soil degradation has been sped up by intensive farming practices like deforestation, overgrazing, intensive cultivation, forest fires and construction work.

These actions disturb soil and leave it vulnerable to wind and water erosion, which damages the complex systems underneath.

Silvia says, 'Several practices associated with intensive agriculture, especially tilling, disrupt soil structure. They accelerate surface runoff and soil erosion, loss of organic matter and fertility and disruption in cycles of water, organic carbon and plant nutrients. These practices also have a major negative impact on soil biodiversity.

'When soil degrades, the processes that take place within it are damaged. This causes a decline in soil health, biodiversity and productivity, leading to issues at all levels of many ecosystems, and resulting in large environmental consequences such as floods and mass migration.'

When natural land such as a forest is converted into farmland, it removes important nutrients and prevents the recycling and replenishing of organic material.

It also reduces the amount of carbon the soil can store by 50-75%. With global warming being one of the biggest environmental crises of our time, this would be a giant step backwards.

Soil compaction occurs when there is a combination of wet soil and a heavy weight, for example unwieldy machinery in farming. Networks of tunnels and pores created by various organisms collapse beneath the pressure and air is squeezed out, threatening underground habitats and the availability of nutrients. Tilling soil also has similar results.

Salination - salty water - is a result of excessive irrigation or extraction of groundwater in coastal areas. This can make some bacterial species inactive and can kill many other microorganisms.

Without underground life, land would become barren. In a worst-case scenario, it can lead to desertification , where the soil is damaged beyond repair and nothing grows except a handful of plants that can handle very harsh conditions.

But it's not just agriculture that is to blame: increasing urbanisation also has a negative impact. The widespread use of tarmac and concrete prevents water from being absorbed into the ground. This results in the death of millions of microorganisms and can lead to water runoff in other areas where it may cause flooding and erosion.

Soil degradation can have disastrous effects around the world such as landslides and floods, an increase in pollution, desertification and a decline in global food production.  One of the biggest threats to our future food security is land degradation and the associated loss in soil productivity. 

Areas that are most likely to be affected are developing countries which usually provide services and materials to middle- and high-income countries. Many of the people who live in low-income countries could be forced to leave their homes in search of safety and fertile lands, resulting in the loss of cultural identity as well as possible economic and political instability in other areas.

Acknowledging soil for what it is and recognising the irreplaceable role it plays can help us change the way we care for it which is something that needs to happen now.

Agroforestry in Lushoto, Tanzania. Agroforestry is the practice of growing a variety of plants together, which allows different biological systems to support each other and flourish. Planting crops around trees is particularly useful as trees protect the soil from wind and water erosion and stabilise the crops. © CCAFS/ Flickr ( CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 ).

How can we mitigate soil degradation?

Many practices can be changed to prevent, and in some cases reverse, soil degradation.

These include simple acts such as leaving vegetation on soil to allow nutrients to return into the earth.

Communities, farmers and corporations can be educated about sustainable practices to promote respect and responsibility for nature and reduce their carbon footprint.

Education can also encourage individuals to grow their own produce, which can foster a curiosity and appreciation for nature, as well as motivate to protect the planet. It also alleviates some of the pressure experienced by farms to support an ever-growing population.

Other changes may be harder to establish, such as avoiding monocultures (growing one single crop in a large area), because that would require lots of farmers to overhaul the way they work.

However, monocultures can be extremely damaging to the soil - growing the one type of plant in one area of soil means the same nutrients are continuously being absorbed, which eventually leads to depletion.

Monoculture also makes soil susceptible to pests, pathogens and diseases which adapt to the unchanging environment and cause devastating destruction of crops.

Farmers often end up using chemical products to fight pests and diseases, and fertilisers to try and encourage crops to continue growing.

While this may work in the short term, it has bigger and wider consequences in the long run. Soil and food are contaminated with unnatural substances and the surrounding environment. This damages nature further and can cause sickness in both humans and animals.

Here are some solutions:

• Practicing crop rotation allows different plants to grow in an area of soil every year. This allows the soil to replenish itself of nutrients that are lacking after the growth of one type of plant.
• Agroforestry involves growing crops around trees and other plants such as hedges. Trees create their own microclimate, which is favourable for crops. They also act as a form of protection against wind and water damage and encourage biodiversity, which keeps ecosystems strong and healthy.
• Permaculture is a form of sustainable farming that respects nature and its design. It incorporates practices such as creating an integrative space where beneficial relationships between different organisms can flourish, and avoiding unnatural substances and waste.

Hydroponics is good for growing some vegetable like onions, carrots, coriander and mint. Here, Rinesh Sharma plants tomatoes with his enthusiastic grandmother. © Smart Farms Fiji/ Facebook .

Case study: hydroponics and aquaponics

Rinesh Sharma is a Commonwealth Youth Awards finalist based in Fiji. The young entrepreneur founded Smart Farms Fiji , an initiative that aims to provide sustainable food using hydroponics.

Hydroponics is a form of soil-less farming where seeds are grown in nutrient-rich water instead.

Rinesh says, 'Fiji has a lot of problems which make it hard to grow crops, such as salt in the soil, heavy rain and cyclones at certain times of the year, and a lack of land and space.

'With hydroponics, we grow the plants indoors and control every aspect of its environment, including sunlight, temperature, moisture and the amount of nutrients we put in.

'With soil farming, you're not always sure what the soil contains, and you have to wait to see the outcome.

'Hydroponics is a lot more certain and adjustments can be made in seconds. This results in a high yield over a shorter period with minimum waste.'

However, hydroponics is a difficult procedure as the conditions require a delicate balance between the elements and needs to be monitored closely.

Rinesh says, 'Hydroponics is feasible in Fiji because the knowledge and material are available here. It's useful for growing really good veggies like carrots, coriander and mint. But the future of farming is aquaponics.'

Aquaculture is booming in Bangladesh, contributing to the country's overall economic growth. Fish production has more than doubled in less than a decade. If this continues, it could push Bangladesh from being a low-income country to lower-middle-income in the near future. Worldfish/ Flickr ( CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 )

Aquaponics is a man-made system of fish and plants. The fish eat and excrete ammonia which is converted into nutrients by bacteria, and the plants absorb the nutrients, which cleans the water. This is a natural cycle that happens all over the world.

Rinesh says, 'Hydroponics uses a lot of water, but aquaponics recycles existing water. It also produces healthier fish and proteins and doesn't have any negative impacts.'

The organic process uses a fraction of water compared to soil-based farming. It can also be created almost anywhere from a small back garden to a large, industrial farm. What's more, both fish and plants can be eaten.

Soil and science

Scientists like Silvia are trying to find new, natural ways of managing soil to improve its function.

Silvia's research explores mycorrhizal associations, or the symbiotic relationship between plant roots and soil fungi. The fungi help plants extract hard-to-get soil nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen in exchange for sugar.  They can also bring additional benefits to their plant hosts and to the environment by increasing plant resistance to drought and pest attacks. They also improve soil structure as well as the plants' carbon storage and retention of nutrients.

'This process has been taking place for some 500 million years,' explains Silvia. 'We think the first plants to colonise land from freshwater formed this key association with fungi and this was a major event that helped plants become the huge success story that they are today.

'By learning more about this association between plants and fungi, a long-term goal of my research is to exploit this partnership in an agricultural setting and reduce the use of chemical fertilisers.'

The global population size is projected to increase from seven billion today to more than nine billion by 2050.

Crop production has risen dramatically over the past few decades due to intensive agricultural practices, but this has had a huge negative impact on the environment and cannot be sustained. In fact, agricultural productivity is now declining because of this, posing a major threat to global food security.

Altering our eating habits and moving towards a plant-based diet is something we can all do to help make a difference.

More policies that protect the environment against unsustainable practices are needed, and individuals can exercise their rights by applying pressure on the government to prioritise this.

Earth has gifted us with resources and it's time for us to give back by fighting to protect it.

• Our Broken Planet
• Climate change

Related posts

Nature and breast cancer: the plants that saved a botanist's life

The great diversity of life on Earth can become a literal support system.

What you can do to help the planet: an illustrated guide

Here's what you can do to help protect nature.

Nature and wellbeing: the healing power of a walk

We spoke to Raynor Winn, author of The Salt Path, who reflected on the restorative power of a walk.

City life: Why are green spaces important?

Our cities are damaging our health. Here's how plants can help us.

Don't miss a thing

Receive email updates about our news, science, exhibitions, events, products, services and fundraising activities. We may occasionally include third-party content from our corporate partners and other museums. We will not share your personal details with these third parties. You must be over the age of 13. Privacy notice .

Follow us on social media

ASHLEY-BELLE BURNS

Sailor | geographer | photographer, geog 211 final essay – soil degradation.

Soil Degradation; Overlooked, Oversimplified, and Overworked

In current discussions surrounding climate change and environmental crises, many issues are considered wicked problems . These problems are defined as wicked because there is no single, predictable solution and we must balance between the economic, environmental and social interests of multiple stakeholders (Bouma, 2013). One of the most often overlooked wicked problems of the 21 st century is soil degradation even though it is vital to so many different earth systems and ecosystem functions. Soil degradation involves both the natural and anthropogenic pressures put on soils leading to physical, chemical, biological and ecological soil degradation. Soils are considered non-renewable resources, and can take thousands of years to build back up to fertile, productive states (Osman, 2014). Soil degradation is not overlooked due to a lack of data, on the contrary “many studies convincingly document the importance of soils when dealing with the global environmental sustainability issues of today…. [however,] recent strategic environmental reports hardly mention soils” (Bouma, 130). The current state of our soils, and in turn most of our livelihoods, depends on soil degradation becoming a global issue that is should be.

The degradation of the planet’s soils is far from recent due to anthropogenic and natural pressures that have been affecting the surface of the planet since its creation. Harsh winds, flash flooding, topology, glaciation, acidification, salinization are all examples of natural soil degradation. Humans have been using the land for centuries and have degraded soils through land-use mismanagement, compacting soils, nutrient depletion, disposal of waste, chemical contamination and irrigation methods (Forge, 1998). All these factors put pressure on, and effect the fertility, productivity, health, and quality of our soils (Osman, 2014).

The authors of Breaking the Sod argue that there have been three major waves of erosion from anthropogenic pressures in our relatively short history on earth. The first wave of erosion came with our first civilizations and their experiments with agriculture. A modest amount of erosion from these civilizations happened as they learned how to balance irrigation, nutrient replacement, and crop rotation. Some early civilizations were not successful in finding harmony with the land, and soil degradation led to famine or, in extreme cases, the collapse of civilizations. The second wave of significant anthropogenic erosion came as humans manufactured and used stronger and sharper agricultural tools. These instruments helped them to break up the soil and leave it more vulnerable to natural processes of erosion such as wind and water runoff. Later on this led to the compaction of soils through livestock and heavy machinery. The third wave of erosion comes with the rapid population growth, modern medicine to extend our lifespans, and our migration from farms to cities in the 20 th century. Urban cities are directly responsible for “nutrients from fields [leaving] to cities” (McNeill, 1627) and disrupting the delicate balance. This results in more degradation as farmers have no choice but to use fertilizers to put nutrients back into the soils. The rate of erosion following these three waves has grown exponentially, and the “past 60 years have brought human-induced soil erosion and the destruction of soil ecosystems to unprecedented levels” (McNeill, 1628).

In the Canadian context, we are a nation that relies economically on resource exploitation, which has led to direct negative impacts on our soils. In the 1920’s Alberta alone saw 10 000 abandoned farms which was followed by prolonged drought and depression in the 30’s. This era was called the “Dust Bowl”, where our fertile soils turned to dust, which led to the Prairie Farm Rehabilitation administration. In the 1980s the prairies saw another period of drought which led to severe erosion and salinity of the landscape. In a 1983 report it was estimated that the cost to society from salinity was $257 million/year and the cost from wind and water erosion was $368 million/year. From this desperate situation a number of recommendations were made that included direct seeding, decreased tillage, planting foraging crops on marginal lands, wind breaks, grassed waterways, strip cropping and perennial barriers (Forge, 1998).

The quality of soil can be found using a variety of methods, and can differ depending on the type of soil you are trying to measure. However, the most reliable indicator is soil organic carbon. Soil organic carbon includes the living soil biota and the dead biotic material found in the soil, predominantly in the topsoil (Lal, 2015). Other methods include electrical conductivity, available soil water, micro-aggregates, and dehydrogenase activity, respectively (Rajan, 2010).

Data and the use of soil organic carbon is also an important factor in the global carbon budget, something that is largely disregarded. Lal argues that “carbon (C) dynamics and emission of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and other other greenhouse gases (GHG’s) into the atmosphere have not been given the emphasis they deserve” (Lal, 438) in climate change discussions. In addition to an already wicked problem, “emission of CO 2 and other GHGs by soil degradation is an important but neither an obvious nor an easily quantifiable source” (Lal, 340). Although it is hard to fit soil degradation into the budget, it cannot be disregarded as it currently has been. The terrestrial carbon pool, which includes the planet’s soil and vegetation, is the third largest pool in the carbon budget. Within this, the soil carbon pool, to one meter in depth, accounts for 2300 Pg alone, which is three times that of the atmospheric pool. Furthermore, is it estimated that soils release 4% of their carbon pools annually into the atmosphere, contributing to climate change, which is ten times that of fossil fuel combustion (Lal, 2002). Soil degradation needs to be included in climate discussions and projects to ensure that we are keeping track of all our carbon sources and sinks.

Although soil degradation can easily be described using the soil organic carbon, the data on soil degradation remains limited for several reasons. First, soil types differ substantially around the world, and it is hard to make meaningful comparisons. Second, natural and anthropogenic processes of erosion are not distributed equally, making it hard to compare across large areas. Third, there are many factors within the composition of soil that are either underestimated or overestimated, leading to different outcomes and predictions. This is most apparent in the estimates of historic loss in the soil organic carbon due to land use change, where “the global loss has been estimated at 40Pg, … 55pg, … 65-90Pg, … 150Pg, … 500Pg, … and 537Pg” (Lal, 440). This is a huge range within the estimates, and makes using the data very difficult. Finally, the most important factor limiting the effects of soil degradation to larger climate threads is that “exploratory simulation models… either ignore the soil or assume the presence of some “standard soils” everywhere” (Bouma, 130). The simplification of soil in computer run models is extensive and in return, often forgotten in climate discussions. This should be a large concern in the coming years to put soil into climate conversations and models.

As previously mentioned, soil degradation is not new, nor is it uniquely anthropogenic, so why should it matter this much? The state of our soils should be as important to us as water availability, because it is vital to our survival. Soils play a direct role in our food security, water security, nutrient cycling, waste cycling and carbon cycling. Our planet seems huge, but in reality, roughly 12% of our land is well suited for the production of food and fibre, 24% is grazing land, and the remaining 31% is forest land (Osman, 2014). Furthermore, it is estimated that “2 billion ha of land that was once biologically productive has been irreversibly degraded since 100 AD” (Lal, 438). In the last 60 years there has been a decrease in ecosystem services by 60% (Lal, 2015). These disastrous affects are not subsiding and directly impact every single person on this planet. In July 2009, our population was 6.79 billion people and our arable land was 1.351 billion ha, which yields 0.20ha of cropland per capita. The threshold to sustain human populations is more than twice that, sitting at 0.5ha/capita (Osman, 2014). At the end of 2016, we now sit at 7.46 billion, which brings that ratio to 0.181ha/capita. The state of our soils need to be carefully considered as we move through conversations of sustainability.

Without a doubt, humans are the main drivers of soil degradation because it is our primary source of acquiring sustenance. Unfortunately, we represent multiple drivers resulting in the pressures felt by the soil. First is our overall population, that is continuing to grow. This not only means more mouths to feed, but there is also more pressure to accommodate all these people, which includes housing, waste management, and resources like timber, brick and infrastructure. A second major anthropogenic driver is our habits of overconsumption. Obesity is considered a global epidemic, and can be attributed to the amount of processed, sugary, salty, and animal based products that we are consuming. As developing countries gain economic wealth, they are choosing the “North American Diet” as well and obesity is spreading across the world. Not only does the average American diet include health risks and increased greenhouse gas emissions, it also affects land availability. Animal agriculture contributes to 30% of the Earth’s landmass for grazing land and land dedicated to growing animal feed. In the United States alone this number is 80% of agricultural land dedicated to animal agriculture (Facts on Animal Farming and the Environment). Overconsumption does not just include the food we consume, but also extends to material goods that are later discarded into the environments polluting our soils. The third anthropogenic driver to highlight is land management, or lack there of. It was Canada’s experience that “the health of soils will continue to deteriorate in areas where intensive agriculture is practised and on low-productivity lands where ecological agricultural methods are not being used” (Forge, 3). Canada was fortunate enough to have the economic backing to reverse the trend of soil degradation however, this is not always the case, “when people are poor, desperate and hungry, they pass on their sufferings to the land” (Lal, 5888).

In response to being overworked, the soils of the world are giving into the pressures of mismanagement and pollution in four major forms of degradation. Our soils are degrading physically from compaction, crusting, reduced infiltration and changing pore geometry. These can be attributed to heavy machinery, agricultural tools, livestock, and temperature changes associated with climate change. Chemical degradation can result in acidification, salinization, nutrient depletion, toxicity, and reduced exchanging capabilities. These types of degradation can come from natural and anthropogenic factors such as slash and burn farming, fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, and processes of leaching. Biological degradation that is affecting our soils can lead to carbon depletion, loss of biodiversity, and increased greenhouse gas emissions. This type of degradation happens predominantly from agricultural mismanagement regimes. Finally, ecological degradation pertains to the disruption of ecosystem functions or services, including reduced productivity and reduced element cycling (Lal, 2015). With our growing need for the soils to produce exponentially, we often turn to “the use of large amounts of fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation to help offset deleterious effects of erosion, but [these] have the potential to create pollution and health problems, destroy natural habitats, and contribute to high energy consumption and unsustainable agricultural systems (Pimental, 1117).

Soil degradation should be considered a wicked problem and taken more seriously because it is leading to larger issues such as deforestation, greenhouse gas emissions, nutrient depletion in our food, erosion, bioaccumulation of toxins, food security and water security. These can all be linked to soil degradation however, it will take a lot of change on the part of many corporations, industries and individuals. Our soils are being filled with chemical pesticides, fertilizers and other sprays which are bringing in millions of dollars annually. This also contributes to fossil fuel consumption. Furthermore, the majority of our crop land is being used to raise animal feed, and there are a lot of Americans who would strongly oppose cutting out large portions of their meat and dairy consumption. There is also the problem of the general public and industry dumping waste that pollutes our soils. In addition, with the majority of our society living in cities, it is hard to instil how important a harmonized relationship with the soil really is, because less and less people are exposed to it. There are so many complexities with our relationship to the soil that makes degradation truly a wicked problem, and one that needs addressing immediately.

The astonishing rates of soil erosion of between 40 and 17 tons ha -1 /year -1 lead to global associated costs of $400 billion dollars a year (Pimentel, 1121). The United States has some of the lowest rates of soil erosion, at 17 tons ha -1 /year -1 , and even so has seen 30% of farmland abandoned due to erosion, salinization and waterlogging (Pimentel, 1117). Soil degradation is expensive and vital to our survival, and has the potential to lead to political and domestic conflicts. Although anthropogenic forces are largely to main drivers of these pressures, conservation and soil stewardship can have lasting impacts, as seen in Canada and elsewhere in the world. Conservation and erosion control techniques are “reliable and proven… [and] include ridge-planting, no-till cultivation, crop rotations, strip cropping, grass strips, mulches, living mulches, agroforestry, terracing, contour planting, cover crops and wind breaks” (Pimentel, 1121).  Furthermore, consumers and municipalities have the ability to help soil degradation through composting and waste management techniques, banning of chemicals used in agriculture and elsewhere, sustainable food choices, and raising awareness to important issues pertaining to sustainability. In the 21 st century, knowledge is power, and we all have the responsibility to be educated on the issues that matter for our next generation.

References:

Bouma, J., & Mcbratney, A. (2013, March 22). Framing Soils as an Actor When Dealing With Wicked Environmental Problems. Geoderma, 200-201 , 130-139.doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2013.02.011

Facts on Animal Farming and the Environment. (n.d.). Retrieved fromhttp://www.onegreenplanet.org/animalsandnature/facts-on-animal-farming-and-the-environment/

Forge, F. (1998, August 27). Agriculture Soil Conservation in Canada (MR151e). Retrieved from http://publications.gc.ca/Collection-R/LoPBdP/MR/mr151-e.htm

Lal, R. (2002, November 29). Soil Erosion and the Global Carbon Budget. Environment I nternational, 29 (437), 450th ser., 437-450. doi:10.1016/s0160-4120(02)00192-7

Lal, R. (2015, May 13). Restoring Soil Quality to Mitigate Soil Degradation. Sustainability, 7 (5), 5875-5895. doi:10.3390/su7055875

Mcneill, J. R., & Winiwarter, V. (2004, June 11). Breaking the Sod: Humankind, History, and Soil.  Science Magazine, 304 (5677), 1627-1629. doi:10.1126/science.1099893

Osman, K. T. (2014). Soil Degradation, Conservation and Remediation . Dordrecht: Springer.

Pimentel, D., Harvey, C., Resosudarmo, P., Sinclair, K., Kurz, D., Mcnair, M., . . . Blair, R. (1995, February 24). Environmental and Economic Costs of Soil Erosion and Conservation Benefits. Science, 267 (5201), 1117-1123. doi:10.1126/science.267.5201.1117

Rajan, K., Natarajan, A., Anil Kumar, K., Badrinath, M., & Gowda, R. (2010, September 25). Organic Soil Carbon – The Most Reliable Indicator for Monitoring Land Degradation by Soil Erosion. Current Science, 99 (6), 823-827. Retrieved from http://environmentportal.in/files/Soil organic carbon.pdf

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Spam prevention powered by Akismet

Soil Degradation, Resilience, Restoration and Sustainable Use

• First Online: 03 August 2021

Cite this chapter

• M. Iftikhar Hussain 5 , 6 ,
• Zainul Abideen 7 &
• Asad Sarwar Qureshi 8  

Part of the book series: Sustainable Agriculture Reviews ((SARV,volume 52))

791 Accesses

7 Citations

Nearly 2 billion hectares of degraded land is diminishing ecosystem services and affect the living of 2.7 billion of the world population. This article presents strategies for the mitigation of land degradation and restoration of degraded lands. These strategies are operated either individually or in combination. Furthermore, the article describes physical, chemical and biological methodologies to mitigate degradation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info
• Durable hardcover edition

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Achakzai AK, Bazai ZA, Kayani SA (2011) Accumulation of heavy metals by lettuce ( Lactuca sativa L.) irrigated with different levels of wastewater of Quetta city. Pak J Bot 43(6):2953. www.pakbs.org/pjbot/PDFs/43(6)/51

CAS   Google Scholar  

Adeel Z, Safriel U, Niemeijer D, White R (2005) Ecosystems and human well-being: desertification synthesis. World Resource Institute, Washington, DC. //hdl.handle.net/20.500.11822/8719

Google Scholar  

Adesodun JK, Atayese MO, Agbaje TA, Osadiaye BA, Mafe OF, Soretire AA (2010) Phytoremediation potentials of sunflowers ( Tithonia diversifolia and Helianthus annuus ) for metals in soils contaminated with zinc and lead nitrates. Water Air Soil Pollut 207(1–4):195–201. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-009-0128-3

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Ai Z, Gao Z, Zhang L, He W, Yin JJ (2013) Core-shell structure dependent reactivity of Fe@Fe2O3 nanowires on aerobic degradation of 4-chlorophenol. Environ Sci Technol 47:5344–5352. https://doi.org/10.1021/es4005202

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Akter S, Afrin R, Mia M, Hossen M (2014) Phytoremediation of chromium (cr) from tannery effluent by using water lettuce ( Pistia stratiotes ). ASA Univ Rev 8(2):149

Al Dakheel J, Tabet Aoul K, Hassan A (2018) Enhancing green building rating of a school under the hot climate of UAE; renewable energy application and system integration. Energies 11:2465. https://doi.org/10.3390/en11092465

Article   Google Scholar  

Alaribe FO, Agamuthu P (2015) Assessment of phytoremediation potentials of Lantana camara in Pb impacted soil with organic waste additives. Ecol Eng 83:513–520. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2015.07.001

Al-Dakheel AJ, Hussain MI, Qadir A, Harith A (2016) Impact of salinity on growth and development of eighteen date palm varieties from the Arabian Peninsula. 6th International Date Palm Award & Conference, Abu Dhabi, UAE

Alvarado S, Guedez M, Lue-Meru MP, Nelson G, Alvaro A, Jesus AC, Gyula Z (2008) Arsenic removal from water by bioremediation with the aquatic plants water hyacinth ( Eichhornia crassipes ) and lesser duckweed ( Lemna minor ). Bioresour Technol 99:8436–8440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2008.02.051

Andra SS, Datta R, Sarkar D, Saminathan SK, Mullens CP, Bach SB (2009) Analysis of phytochelatin complexes in the lead tolerant vetiver grass [ Vetiveria zizanioides (L.)] using liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. Environ Pollut 157(7):2173–2183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2009.02.014

Andreolli M, Lampis S, Brignoli P, Vallini G (2015) Bioaugmentation and biostimulation as strategies for the bioremediation of a burned woodland soil contaminated by toxic hydrocarbons: a comparative study. J Environ Manag 153:121–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.02.007

Appenroth KJ (2010) Definition of “heavy metals” and their role in biological systems. Soil heavy metals. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 19–29

Aragay G, Pino F, Merkoçi A (2012) Nanomaterials for sensing and destroying pesticides. Chem Rev 112:5317–5338. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr300020c

Arslan M, Imran A, Khan QM, Afzal M (2015) Plant-bacteria partnerships for the remediation of persistent organic pollutants. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24:01–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-4935-3

Bai ZG, Dent DL, Olsson L, Schaepman, ME (2008) Global assessment of land degradation and improvement 1. Identification by remote sensing. Report 2008/01 . ISRIC – World Soil Information, Wageningen

Bai Z, Dent D, Wu Y, de Jong R (2013) Land degradation and ecosystem services. In: Lal R, Lorenz K, Hüttl RF, Schneider BU, von Braun J (eds) Ecosystem services and carbon sequestration in the biosphere. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 357–381. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6455-2

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Belimov AA, Hontzeas N, Safronova VI, Demchinskaya SV, Piluzza G, Bullitta S, Glick BR (2005) Cadmium-tolerant plant growth-promoting bacteria associated with the roots of Indian mustard ( Brassica juncea L. Czern.). Soil Biol Biochem 37(2):241–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2004.07.033

Bianchi FJ, Booij CJH, Tscharntke T (2006) Sustainable pest regulation in agricultural landscapes: a review on landscape composition, biodiversity and natural pest control. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 273(1595):1715–1727

Biswas B, Sarkar B, Mandal A, Naidu R (2015) Heavy metal-immobilizing organoclay facilitates polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon biodegradation in mixed-contaminated soil. J Hazard Mater 298:129–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.05.009

Bjelková M, Genčurová V, Griga M (2011) Accumulation of cadmium by flax and linseed cultivars in field-simulated conditions: a potential for phytoremediation of Cd-contaminated soils. Ind Crop Prod 33(3):761–774. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2011.01.020

Blaylock JE, Salt DE, Dushenkov S, Zakharova O, Gussman C, Kapulnik Y, Ensley BD, Raskin I (1997) Enhanced accumulation of Pb in Indian mustard by soil-applied chelating agents. Environ Sci Technol 31:860–865. https://doi.org/10.1021/es960552a

Bogan BW, Lahner LM, Sullivan WR, Paterek JR (2003) Degradation of polycyclic aromatic and straight-chain aliphatic hydrocarbons by a strain of Mycobacterium austroafricanum . J Appl Microbiol 94:230–239. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2672.2003.01824.x

Branca G, Lipper L, McCarthy N, Jolejole MC (2013) Food security, climate change, and sustainable land management. A review. Agron Sustain Dev 33(4):635–650

Brookshaw DR, Coker VS, Lloyd JR, Vaughan DJ, Pattrick RAD (2014) Redox interactions between Cr(VI) and Fe(II) in bioreduced biotite and chlorite. Environ Sci Technol 48:11337–11342. https://doi.org/10.1021/es5031849

Cai X, Zhang X, Wang D (2011) Land availability for biofuel production. Environ Sci Technol 45:334–339. https://doi.org/10.1021/es103338e

Campbell S, Paquin D, Awaya JD, Li QX (2002) Remediation of benzo [a] pyrene and chrysene-contaminated soil with industrial hemp ( Cannabis sativa ). Int J Phytoremediation 4(2):157–168. https://doi.org/10.1080/15226510208500080

Campbell JE, Lobell DB, Genova RC, Field CB (2008) The global potential of bioenergy on abandoned agriculture lands. Environ Sci Technol 42:5791–5794. https://doi.org/10.1021/es800052w

Campos EV, de Oliveira JL, da Silva CM, Pascoli M, Pasquoto T, Lima R, Abhilash PC, Fraceto LF (2015) Polymeric and solid lipid nanoparticles for sustained release of carbendazim and tebuconazole in agricultural applications. Sci Rep 5:13809. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep13809

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Casals E, González E, Puntes V (2012) Inorganic nanoparticles and the environment: balancing benefits and risks. In: Barceló D, Farré M (eds) Comprehensive analytical chemistry : analysis and risk of nanomaterials in environment and food samples, vol 59, pp 265–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-56328-6.00008-6

Castro CB, Fernández AP, Kidd PS, Weyens N, Garrido BR, González MT, Acea MJ, Vangronsveld J (2013) Improving performance of Cytisus striatus on substrates contaminated with hexachloro-cyclohexane (HCH) isomers using bacterial inoculants: developing a phytoremediation strategy. Plant Soil 362:247–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-012-1276-6

Celis R, Hermosín HC, Cornejo J (2000) Heavy metal adsorption by functionalized clays. Environ Sci Technol 34:4593–4599. https://doi.org/10.1021/es000013c

Cheema SA, Khan MI, Tang X, Zhang C, Shen C, Malik Z, Ali S, Yang J, Shen K, Chen X, Chen Y (2009) Enhancement of phenanthrene and pyrene degradation in rhizosphere of tall fescue ( Festuca arundinacea ). J Hazard Mater 166(2–3):1226–1231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.12.027

Chen J, Wang W, Fang J, Varahramyan K (2004) Variable-focusing microlens with microfluidic chip. J Micromech Microeng 14(5):675. https://doi.org/10.1088/0960-1317/14/5/003)

Chen X, Yao X, Yu C, Su X, Shen C, Chen C, Huang R, Xu X (2014) Hydrodechlorination of polychlorinated biphenyls in contaminated soil from an e-waste recycling area, using nanoscale zerovalent iron and Pd/Fe bimetallic nanoparticles. Environ Sci Pollut Res 21:5201–5210. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-013-2089-8

Cho Y, Bolick JA, Butcher DJ (2009) Phytoremediation of lead with green onions ( Allium fistulosum ) and uptake of arsenic compounds by moonlight ferns ( Pteris cretica cv Mayii). Microchem J 91(1):6–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2008.05.008

Choi H, Al-Abed SR, Agarwal S, Dionysiou DD (2008) Synthesis of reactive nano-Fe/Pd bimetallic system-impregnated activated carbon for the simultaneous adsorption and dechlorination of PCBs. Chem Mater 20:3649–3655. https://doi.org/10.1021/cm8003613

Cowie AL, Penman TD, Gorissen L et al (2011) Towards sustainable land management in the drylands: scientific connections in monitoring and assessing dryland degradation , climate change and biodiversity. Land Degrad Dev 260:248–260. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.1086

Dasgupta S, Satvat PS, Mahindrakar AB (2011) Ability of Cicer arietinum (L.) for bioremoval of lead and chromium from soil. Int J Eng Technol 24:338–341

De Boulois HD, Joner EJ, Leyval C, Jakobsen I, Chen BD, Roos P, Thiry Y, Rufyikiri G, Delvaux B, Declerck S (2008) Impact of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on uranium accumulation by plants. J Environ Radioact 99:775–784. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2007.10.009

Dell’Amico E, Cavalca L, Andreoni V (2008) Improvement of Brassica napus growth under cadmium stress by cadmium-resistant rhizobacteria. Soil Biol Biochem 40:74–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2007.06.024

Dinesh R, Anandaraj M, Srinivasan V, Hamza S (2012) Engineered nanoparticles in the soil and their potential implications to microbial activity. Geoderma 173:19–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2011.12.018

Dominguez-Rosado E, Liggat JJ, Snape CE, Eling B, Pichtel J (2002) Thermal degradation of urethane modified polyisocyanurate foams based on aliphatic and aromatic polyester polyol. Polym Degrad Stab 78(1):1–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0141-3910(02)00086-1

Dubey RK, Tripathi V, Dubey PK, Singh HB, Abhilash PC (2016) Exploring rhizospheric interactions for agricultural sustainability: the need of integrative research on multi-trophic interactions. J Clean Prod 115:362–365. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.12.077

Eagle AJ, Olander LP (2012) Greenhouse gas mitigation with agricultural land management activities in the United States-a side-by-side comparison of biophysical potential. In: Advances in agronomy. Academic, New York, pp 79–179

FAO (2011) The state of food insecurity of the world: how does international price volatility affect domestic economies and food security? FAO, WFP, IFAD, Rome

Farnese FS, Oliveira JA, Gusman GS, Leão GA, Silveira NM, Silva PM, Ribeiro C, Cambraia J (2014) Effects of adding nitroprusside on arsenic stressed response of Pistia stratiotes L. under hydroponic conditions. Int J Phytoremediation 16(2):123–137. https://doi.org/10.1080/15226514.2012.759532

Fleskens L, Stringer LC (2014) Land management and policy responses to mitigate desertification and land degradation. Land Degrad Dev 25:1–4. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.2272

Floris B, Galloni P, Sabuzi F, Conte V (2016) Metal systems as tools for soil remediation. Inorg Chim Acta 455:429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ica.2016.04.003

Flowers TJ, Gracia A, Koyama M, Yeo AR (1997) Breeding for salt tolerance in crop plants. The role of molecular biology. Acta Physiol Plant 19:427–433

Foley JA, DeFries R, Asner GP, Barford C, Bonan G, Carpenter SR, Chapin FS, Coe MT, Daily GC, Gibbs HK, Helkowski JH, Holloway T, Howard EA, Kucharik CJ, Monfreda C, Patz JA, Prentice IC, Ramankutty N, Snyder PK (2005) Global consequences of land use. Science 309:570–574. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1111772

Gao Y, Ren L, Ling W, Gong S, Sun B, Zhang Y (2010) Desorption of phenanthrene and pyrene in soils by root exudates. Bioresour Technol 101(4):1159–1165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2009.09.062

Gao Y, Yuan X, Lin X, Sun B, Zhao Z (2015) Low-molecular-weight organic acids enhance the release of bound PAH residues in soils. Soil Tillage Res 145:103–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2014.09.008

Gardea-Torresdey JL, Rico CM, White JC (2014) Trophic transfer, transformation, and impact of engineered nanomaterials in terrestrial environments. Environ Sci Technol 48:2526–2540. https://doi.org/10.1021/es4050665

Garg N, Singla P, Bhandari P (2015) Metal uptake, oxidative metabolism, and mycorrhization in pigeonpeaand pea under arsenic and cadmium stress. Turk J Agric For 39(2):234–250. https://doi.org/10.3906/tar-1406-121

Ghnaya T, Mnassri M, Ghabriche R, Wali M, Poschenrieder C, Lutts S, Abdelly C (2015) Nodulation by Sinorhizobium meliloti originated from a mining soil alleviates Cd toxicity and increases Cd-phytoextraction in Medicago sativa L. Front Plant Sci 6:863. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2015.00863

Gibbs HK, Salmon JM (2015) Mapping the world’s degraded lands. Appl Geogr 57:12–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2014.11.024

Gisladottir G, Stocking M (2005) Land degradation control and its global environmental benefits. Land Degrad Dev 16:99–112. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.687

Godfray HCJ, Beddington JR, Crute IR, Haddad L, Lawrence D, Muir JF, Pretty J, Robinson S, Thomas SM, Toulmin C (2010) Food security: the challenge of feeding 9 billion people. Science 327:812–818. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1185383

Gogos A, Knauer K, Bucheli TD (2012) Nanomaterials in plant protection and fertilization: current state, foreseen applications, and research priorities. J Agric Food Chem 60:9781–9792. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf302154y

Golan-Goldhirsh A (2006) Plant tolerance to heavy metals, a risk for food toxicity or a means for food fortification with essential metals: the Allium schoenoprasum model. In: Soil and water pollution monitoring, protection and remediation. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 479–486

Gong Y, Liu Y, Xiong Z, Kaback D, Zhao D (2012) Immobilization of mercury in field soil and sediment using carboxymethyl cellulose stabilized iron sulfide nanoparticles. Nanotechnology 23:294007–294020. https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-4484/23/29/294007

Grillo R, Abhilash PC, Fraceto LF (2016) Nanotechnology applied to bio-encapsulation of pesticides. J Nanosci Nanotechnol 1:1231–1234. https://doi.org/10.1166/jnn.2016.12332

Gunduz S, Uygur FN, Kahramanoglu I (2012) Heavy metal phytoremediation potentials of Lepidum sativum L, Lactuca sativa L, Spinacia oleracea L and Raphanus sativus L. Agric Food Sci Res 1:01–05. http://www.heraldjournals.org/hjafsr/archive.htm

Hatano KI, Kanazawa K, Tomura H, Yamatsu T, Tsunoda KI, Kubota K (2016) Molasses melanoidin promotes copper uptake for radish sprouts: the potential for an accelerator of phytoextraction. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23(17):17656–17663. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-6904-x

Hegedűsová A, Jakabová S, Vargová A, Hegedűs O, Pernyeszi T (2009) Use of phytoremediation techniques for elimination of lead from polluted soils. Nova Biotechnol 9(2):125. http://nbc-journal.fpv.ucm.sk/archive/revue nova biotechnologica

Hoyle FC, Murphy DV, Fillery IR (2006) Temperature and stubble management influence microbial CO2–C evolution and gross N transformation rates. Soil Biol Biochem 38(1):71–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2005.04.020

Hussain MI, Lyra DA, Farooq M, Nikoloudakis N, Khalid N (2016) Salt and drought stresses in safflower: a review. Agron Sustain Dev 36:4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-015-0344-8

Hussain MI, Al-Dakheel AJ, Reigosa MJ (2018) Genotypic differences in agro-physiological, biochemical and isotopic responses to salinity stress in quinoa ( Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) plants: prospects for salinity tolerance and yield stability. Plant Physiol Biochem 129:411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2018.06.023

Jahanbakhshi S (2014) Optimization of phytoremediation in Cd-contaminated soil by using Taguchi method in Spinacia oleracea . Proc Int Acad Ecol Environ Sci 4(4):185

Jevtić S, Arčon I, Rečnik A, Babić B, Mazaj M, Pavlović J, Matijaševic D, Nikšić M, Rajić N (2014) The iron (III)-modified natural zeolitic tuff as an adsorbent and carrier for selenium oxyanions. Microporous Mesoporous Mater 197:92–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micromeso.2014.06.008

Ji P, Sun T, Song Y, Ackland ML, Liu Y (2011) Strategies for enhancing the phytoremediation of cadmium-contaminated agricultural soils by Solanum nigrum . Environ Pollut 159(3):762–768. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2010.11.029

Judy JD, McNear DH Jr, Chen C, Lewis RW, Tsyusko OV, Bertsch PM, Rao W, Stegemeier J, Lowry GV, McGrath SP, Durenkamp M (2015) Nanomaterials in biosolids inhibit nodulation, shift microbial community composition, and result in increased metal uptake relative to bulk/dissolved metals. Environ Sci Technol 49:8751–8758. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b01208

Kambhampati MS (2013) EDTA enhanced phytoremediation of copper contaminated soils using chickpea ( Cicer aeritinum L.). Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 91(3):310–313

Kang H, Xiu Z, Chen J, Cao W, Guo Y, Li T, Jin Z (2012) Reduction of nitrate by bimetallic Fe/Ni nanoparticles. Environ Technol 33:2185–2192. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2012.665486

Kijne JW (2005) Towards a strategy for feasible investment in drainage for Aral Sea basin. Synthesis Report, PTRID FAO, June 2005

Knowler DJ (2004) The economics of soil productivity: local, national and global perspectives. Land Degrad Dev 15:543–561. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.635

Kookana RS, Boxall AB, Reeves PT, Ashauer R, Beulke S, Chaudhry Q, Cornelis G, Fernandes TF, Gan J, Kah M, Lynch I (2014) Nanopesticides: guiding principles for regulatory evaluation of environmental risks. J Agric Food Chem 62:4227–4240. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf500232f

Kumar A, Gupta DK, Kumar M (2013) Green manure crops: a boon for agricultural soil. Int J Agric Environ Biotechnol 6:193–198

Lal R (1997) Agroforestry: science, policy and practice. J Environ Qual 26:567

Lal R (2010) Carbon sequestration in saline soil. J Soil Salinity Water Qual 1:30–40

Lal R, Hassan HM, Dumanski JM (1999) Desertification control to sequester carbon and mitigate the greenhouse effect. In: Rosenberg RC, Izaurralde Malone EL (eds) Carbon sequestration in soils: science, monitoring and beyond. Battelle Press, Columbus, pp 83–107

Lal R, Pandey G, Sharma P, Kumari K, Malhotra S, Pandey R, Raina V, Hans-Peter E, Kohler HPE, Holliger C, Jackson C, Oakeshott JG (2010) Biochemistry of microbial degradation of hexachlorocyclohexane and prospects for bioremediation. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 74:58–80. https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.00029-09

Article   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Lambin EF, Meyfroidt P (2011) Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 108:3465–3472. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1100480108

Lee SH, Lee JS, Choi YJ, Kim JG (2009) In situ stabilization of cadmium-, lead-, and zinc-contaminated soil using various amendments. Chemosphere 77:1069–1075. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.08.056

Lee J, Mahendra S, Alvarez PJ (2010) Nanomaterials in the construction industry: a review of their applications and environmental health and safety considerations. ACS Nano 4:3580–3590. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn100866w

Li C, Zhang B, Ertunc T, Schaeffer A, Ji R (2012) Birnessite-induced binding of phenolic monomers to soil humic substances and nature of the bound residues. Environ Sci Technol 46(16):8843–8850

Liao SJ, Chang DY, Chen HJ, Tsou LS, Ho JR, Yau HT, Hsieh WH, Wang JT, Su YC (2004) Optimal process conditions of shrinkage and warpage of thin-wall parts. Polym Eng Sci 44(5):917–928. https://doi.org/10.1002/pen.20083

Lien HL, Zhang WX (2005) Hydrodechlorination of chlorinated ethanes by nanoscale Pd/Fe bimetallic particles. J Environ Eng 131:4–10. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(2005)131:1(4)

Lin Q, Mendelssohn IA, Suidan MT, Lee K, Venosa A (2002) The dose-response relationship between no. 2 fuel oil and the growth of the salt marsh grass, Spartina alterniflora . Mar Pollut Bull 44(9):897–902. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0025-326X(02)00118-2

Liu XQ, Huang W, Jiang YH, Zhu JC, Zhang CZ (2012) Preparation of a bio-based epoxy with comparable properties to those of petroleum-based counterparts. Express Polym Lett 6(4):293. https://doi.org/10.3144/expresspolymlett.2012.32

Liu J, Huang W, Han H, She C, Zhong G (2015a) Characterization of cell-free extracts from fenpropathrin-degrading strain Bacillus cereus ZH-3 and its potential for bioremediation of Pyrethroid-contaminated soils. Sci Total Environ 523:50–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.03.124

Liu H, Liu YG, Zeng GM, Xie JL, Zheng BH, Tan XF, Wang DF, Sun ZC, Nie J, Jiang ZJ, Gan C (2015b) Mitigation mechanism of Cd-contaminated soils by different levels of exogenous low-molecular-weight organic acids and Phytolacca americana . RSC Adv 5:45502–45509. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5RA05700K

Luo S, Xiao Y, Yang L, Liu C, Su F, Li Y, Cai Q, Zeng G (2011) Simultaneous detoxification of hexavalent chromium and acid orange 7 by a novel Au/TiO2 heterojunction composite nanotube arrays. Sep Purif Technol 79:85–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2011.03.019

Makoi JH, Verplancke H (2010) Effect of gypsum placement on the physical chemical properties of a saline sandy loam soil. Aust J Crop Sci 4(7):556

Malash NM, Flowers TJ, Ragab R (2008) Effect of irrigation methods, management and salinity of irrigation water on tomato yield, soil moisture and salinity distribution. Irrig Sci 26(4):313–323. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-007-0095-7

Malecka A, Piechalak A, Morkunas I (2008) Accumulation of lead in root cells of Pisum sativum . Acta Physiol Plant 30(5):629–637. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11738-008-0159-1

Mao K, Chen Y, Wu Z, Zhou X, Shen A, Hu J (2014) Catalytic strategy for efficient degradation of nitroaromatic pesticides by using gold nanoflower. J Agric Food Chem 62:10638–10645. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf5034015

Marchiol L, Assolari S, Sacco P, Zerbi G (2004) Phytoextraction of heavy metals by canola ( Brassica napus ) and radish ( Raphanus sativus ) grown on multicontaminated soil. Environ Pollut 132(1):21–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2004.04.001

Marrugo-Negrete J, Durango-Hernández J, Pinedo-Hernández J, Olivero-Verbel J, Díez S (2015) Phytoremediation of mercury-contaminated soils by Jatropha curcas . Chemosphere 127:58–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.12.073

Maruyama CR, Guilger M, Pascoli M, Bileshy-José N, Abhilash PC, Fraceto LF, de Lima R (2016) Nanoparticles based on chitosan as carriers for the combined herbicides Imazapic and Imazapyr. Sci Rep 6:23854. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep23854

Maurer-Jones MA, Gunsolus IL, Murphy CJ, Haynes CL (2013) Toxicity of engineered nanoparticles in the environment. Anal Chem 85:3036–3049. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac303636s

McShane HVA, Sunahara GI, Whalen JK, Hendershot WH (2014) Differences in soil solution chemistry between soils amended with nanosized CuO or Cu reference materials: implications for nano-toxicity tests. Environ Sci Technol 48:8135–8142

Meers E, Van Slycken S, Adriaensen K, Ruttens A, Vangronsveld J, Du Laing G, Witters N, Thewys T, Tack FM (2010) The use of bio-energy crops ( Zea mays ) for ‘phytoattenuation’ of heavy metals on moderately contaminated soils: a field experiment. Chemosphere 78(1):35–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.08.015

Megharaj M, Ramakrishnan B, Venkateswarlu K, Sethunathan N, Naidu R (2011) Bioremediation approaches for organic pollutants: a critical perspective. Environ Int 37:1362–1375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2011.06.003

Merkl N, Schultze-Kraft R, Infante C (2005) Assessment of tropical grasses and legumes for phytoremediation of petroleum-contaminated soils. Water Air Soil Pollut 165(1–4):195–209

Mishra VK, Tripathi BD (2009) Accumulation of chromium and zinc from aqueous solutions using water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). J Hazard Mater 164(2–3):1059–1063. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.09.020

Mojiri A (2011) The potential of corn (Zea mays) for phytoremediation of soil contaminated with cadmium and lead. J Biol Environ Sci 5(13):17–22

Munns R, Husain S, Rivelli AR, James RA, Condon AT, Lindsay MP, Lagudah ES, Schachtman DP, Hare RA (2002) Avenues for increasing salt tolerance of crops, and the role of physiologically based selection traits. In: Progress in plant nutrition: plenary lectures of the XIV international plant nutrition colloquium. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 93–105. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021119414799

Nakagoshi N, Mabuhay JA (2014) Designing low carbon societies in landscapes. In: Ecological research monographs. Springer, Tokyo, Heidelberg, New York, Dordrecht, London. ISBN 978-4-431-54819-5 (eBook), pp 239–252. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-54819-5

Nijsen M, Smeets E, Stehfest E, Vuuren DP (2012) An evaluation of the global potential of bioenergy production on degraded lands. GCB Bioenergy 4:130–147. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1757-1707.2011.01121.x

Olson PE, Fletcher JS (1999) Field evaluation of mulberry root structure with regard to phytoremediation. Biorem J 3(1):27–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/10889869991219172

Ostrowska J, Skrzydlewska E (2006) The comparison of effect of catechins and green tea extract on oxidative modification of LDL in vitro. Adv Med Sci 51:298. //pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17357329/

CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Palmer CE, Warwick S, Keller W (2001) Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) family, plant biotechnology, and phytoremediation. Int J Phytoremediation 3(3):245–287. https://doi.org/10.1080/15226510108500059

Palmroth MR, Pichtel J, Puhakka JA (2002) Phytoremediation of subarctic soil contaminated with diesel fuel. Bioresour Technol 84(3):221–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0960-8524(02)00055-X

Pan B, Xing B (2012) Applications and implications of manufactured nanoparticles in soils: a review. Eur J Soil Sci 63:437–456. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.2012.01475.x

Passatore L, Rossetti S, Juwarkar AA, Massacci A (2014) Phytoremediation and bioremediation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): state of knowledge and research perspectives. J Hazard Mater 278:189–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.05.051

Patel M, Subramanian RB (2006) Effect of a chelating agent on lead uptake by Spinacia olearea . Pollut Res 25(1):77–79

Pathak C, Chopra AK, Srivastava S (2013) Accumulation of heavy metals in Spinacia oleracea irrigated with paper mill effluent and sewage. Environ Monit Assess 85(9):7343–7352. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-013-3104-8

Peuke AD, Rennenberg H (2005) Phytoremediation. EMBO Rep 6:497–501. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.embor.7400445

Pinto AP, Mota AD, De Varennes A, Pinto FC (2004) Influence of organic matter on the uptake of cadmium, zinc, copper and iron by sorghum plants. Sci Total Environ 326(1–3):239–247

Plieninger T, Gaertner M (2011) Harnessing degraded lands for biodiversity conservation. J Nat Conserv 19:18–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2010.04.001

Poeplau C, Don A (2015) Carbon sequestration in agricultural soils via cultivation of cover crops–a meta-analysis. Agric Ecosyst Environ 200:33–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2014.10.024

Prince SD, Becker-Reshef I, Rishmawi K (2009) Detection and mapping of long-term land degradation using local net production scaling: application to Zimbabwe. Remote Sens Environ 113:1046–1057. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2009.01.016

Qadir M, Noble AD, Qureshi AS, Gupta RK, Yuldashev T, Karimov A (2009) Salt-induced land and water degradation in the Aral Sea basin: a challenge to sustainable agriculture in Central Asia. In: Natural resources forum. Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Oxford, pp 134–149

Quainoo AK, Konadu A, Kumi M (2015) The potential of shea nut shells in phytoremediation of heavy metals in contaminated soil using lettuce ( Lactuca sativa ) as a test crop. J Bioremed Biodegr 6(1):1–7. https://doi.org/10.4172/2155-6199.1000268

Qureshi AS, McCornick PG, Qadir M, Aslam Z (2008) Managing salinity and waterlogging in the Indus Basin of Pakistan. Agric Water Manag 95:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2007.09.014

Rapidel B, Ripoche A, Allinne C, Metay A, Deheuvels O, Lamanda N, Blazy JM, Valdés-Gómez H, Gary C (2015) Analysis of ecosystem services trade-offs to design agroecosystems with perennial crops. Agron Sustain Dev 35(4):1373–1390. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-015-0317

Rashid A, Mahmood T, Mehmood F, Khalid A, Saba B, Batool A, Riaz A (2014) Phytoaccumulation, competitive adsorption and evaluation of chelators-metal interaction in lettuce plant. Environ Eng Manag J 13(10):2583. www.eemj.icpm.tuiasi.ro/pdfs/vol13/no10/Full/18_52_Rashid_12

Rayu S, Karpouzas DG, Singh BK (2012) Emerging technologies in bioremediation: constraints and opportunities. Biodegradation 23:917–926. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10532-012-9576-3

Requier Desjardins M, Adhikari B, Sperlich S (2011) Some notes on the economic assessment of land degradation. Land Degrad Dev 22:285–298. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.1056

Reynolds JF, Smith DM, Lambin EF, Turner BL, Mortimore M, Batterbury SP, Downing TE, Dowlatabadi H, Fernández RJ, Herrick JE, Huber-Sannwald E (2007) Global desertification: building a science for dryland development. Science 316:847–851. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1131634

Robinson M (1998) 30 years of forest hydrology changes at Coalburn: water balance and extreme flows. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 2(2/3):233 –238

Rocha ACS, Almeida CMR, Basto MCP, Vasconcelos MTSD (2015) Influence of season and salinity on the exudation of aliphatic low molecular weight organic acids (ALMWOAs) by Phragmites australis and Halimione portulacoides roots. J Sea Res 95:180–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seares.2014.07.001

Roelofsen A, Boon WPC, Kloet RR, Broerse JEW (2011) Stakeholder interaction within research consortia on emerging technologies: learning how and what? Res Policy 40:341–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2010.10.015

Roongtanakiat N, Chairoj P (2001) Uptake potential of some heavy metals by vetiver grass. Agric Nat Resour 35(1):46–50. https://li01.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/anres/article/view/240319/163875

Saathoff AJ, Sarath G, Chow EK, Dien BS, Tobias CM (2011) Downregulation of cinnamyl-alcohol dehydrogenase in switchgrass by RNA silencing results in enhanced glucose release after cellulase treatment. PLoS One 6(1):16416. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2004.04.001

Safriel UN, Adeel Z (2005) Dryland systems. In: Hassan R, Scholes R, Ash N (eds) Ecosystems and human well-being: current state and trends. Island Press, Washington, pp 623–662

Salaskar D, Shrivastava M, Kale SP (2011) Bioremediation potential of spinach ( Spinacia oleracea L.) for decontamination of cadmium in soil. Curr Sci 101:1359–1363. www.jstor.org/stable/24079645

Saleh HM (2012) Water hyacinth for phytoremediation of radioactive waste simulate contaminated with cesium and cobalt radionuclides. Nucl Eng Des 242:425–432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nucengdes.2011.10.023

Sarkar B, Naidu R, Krishnamurti GSR, Megharaj M (2013) Manganese(II)-catalyzed and clay-minerals-mediated reduction of chromium(VI) by citrate. Environ Sci Technol 47:13629–13636. https://doi.org/10.1021/es401568k

Schnoor JL, Light LA, McCutcheon SC, Wolfe NL, Carreia LH (1995) Phytoremediation of organic and nutrient contaminants. Environ Sci Technol 29(7):318A–323A. https://doi.org/10.1021/es00007a002

Schwilch G, Bestelmeyer B, Bunning S, Critchley W, Herrick J, Kellner K, Liniger HP, Nachtergaele F, Ritsema CJ, Schuster B, Tabo R (2011) Experiences in monitoring and assessment of sustainable land management. Land Degrad Dev 22:214–225. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.1040

Shanker AK, Cervantes C, Loza-Tavera H, Avudainayagam S (2005) Chromium toxicity in plants. Environ Int 31(5):739–753. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2005.02.003

Sharma H (2016) Phytoremediation of lead using Brasica juncea and Vetiveria zizanoides . Int J Life Sci Res 4(1):91–96

Sharma A, Gontia I, Agarwal PK, Jha B (2010) Accumulation of heavy metals and its biochemical responses in Salicornia brachiata , an extreme halophyte. Mar Biol Res 6(5):511–518. https://doi.org/10.1080/17451000903434064

Sheng XF, Xia JJ (2006) Improvement of rape ( Brassica napus ) plant growth and cadmium uptake by cadmium-resistant bacteria. Chemosphere 64:1036–1042. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2006.01.051

Sheng-wang PA, Shi-qiang WE, Xin YU, Sheng-xian CA (2008) The removal and remediation of phenanthrene and pyrene in soil by mixed cropping of alfalfa and rape. Agric Sci China 7(11):1355–1364. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1671-2927(08)60185-6

Shi X, Zhang X, Chen G, Chen Y, Wang L, Shan X (2011) Seedling growth and metal accumulation of selected woody species in copper and lead/zinc mine tailings. J Environ Sci 23(2):266–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1001-0742(10)60402-0

Simpanen S, Mäkelä R, Mikola J, Silvennoinen H, Romantschuk M (2014) Bioremediation of creosote contaminated soil in both laboratory and field scale: investigating the ability of methyl-β-cyclodextrin to enhance biostimulation. Int J Biodeterior Biodegrad 106:117–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibiod.2015.10.013

Singh A, Fulekar MH (2012) Phytoremediation of heavy metals by Brassica juncea in aquatic and terrestrial environment. In: The plant family Brassicaceae. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 153–169

Singh S, Sinha S (2005) Accumulation of metals and its effects in Brassica juncea (L.) Czern.(cv. Rohini) grown on various amendments of tannery waste. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 62(1):118–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2004.12.026

Singh R, Manickam N, Mudiam MK, Murthy RC, Misra V (2013) An integrated (nano-bio) technique for degradation of γ-HCH contaminated soil. J Hazard Mater 258:35–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2013.04.016

Soleimania M, Afyuni M, Hajabbasi MA, Nourbakhsh F, Sabzalian MR, Christensen JH (2010) Phytoremediation of an aged petroleum contaminated soil using endophyte infected and non-infected grasses. Chemosphere 81:1084–1090. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.09.034

Song H, Carraway ER (2005) Reduction of chlorinated ethanes by nanosized zero-valent iron: kinetics, pathways, and effects of reaction conditions. Environ Sci Technol 39(16):6237–6245. https://doi.org/10.1021/es048262e

Srivastava V, Gusain D, Sharma YC (2015) Critical review on the toxicity of some widely used engineered nanoparticles. Ind Eng Chem Res 54:6209–6233. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.5b01610

Suja F, Rahim F, Taha MR, Hambali N, Razali MR, Khalid A, Hamzah A (2014) Effects of local microbial bioaugmentation and biostimulation on the bioremediation of total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) in crude oil contaminated soil based on laboratory and field observations. Int J Biodeterior Biodegrad 90:115–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibiod.2014.03.006

Sunkara B, Zhan J, Kolesnichenko I, Wang Y, He J, Holland JE, McPherson GL, John VT (2011) Modifying metal nanoparticle placement on carbon supports using an aerosol-based process, with application to the environmental remediation of chlorinated hydrocarbons. Langmuir 27(12):7854–7859. https://doi.org/10.1021/la200657m

Swenson TL, Bowen BP, Nico PS, Northen TR (2015) Competitive sorption of microbial metabolites on an iron oxide mineral. Soil Biol Biochem 90:34–41

Takeda K, Isomura M (2006) Method for forming ZnO film, method for forming ZnO semiconductor layer, method for fabricating semiconductor device, and semiconductor device. United States patent US 7,049,190. patents.google.com/patent/US7049190B2/en

Tica D, Udovic M, Lestan D (2011) Immobilization of potentially toxic metals using different soil amendments. Chemosphere 85:577–583

Tomich TP, Kilby P, Johnston BF (1995) Transforming agrarian economies: opportunities seized, opportunities missed. Cornell University Press, Ithaca

Book   Google Scholar  

Towhid (2014) In: Osman KT (ed) Soil degradation, conservation, and remediation. Springer, Dordrecht, p 273

Tripathi V, Dubey RK, Edrisi SA, Narain K, Singh HB, Singh N, Abhilash PC (2014) Towards the ecological profiling of a pesticide contaminated soil site for remediation and management. Ecol Eng 71:318–325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2014.07.059

Tripathi V, Fraceto LF, Abhilash PC (2015) Sustainable clean-up technologies for soils contaminated with multiple pollutants: plant-microbe-pollutant and climate nexus. Ecol Eng 28:330–335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2015.05.027

Turan M, Esringu A (2007) Phytoremediation based on canola (Brassica napus L.) and Indian mustard ( Brassica juncea ) planted on spiked soil by aliquot amount of Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn. Plant Soil Environ 53(1):7

Tyagi M, da Fonseca MR, de Carvalho CCCR (2010) Bioaugmentation and biostimulation strategies to improve the effectiveness of bioremediation processes. Biodegradation 22:231–241. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10532-010-9394-4

UNCCD (1994) General Assembly of United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. http://www.unccd.int/Lists/SiteDocumentLibrary/conventionText/conv-eng.pdf

Varanasi P, Fullana A, Sidhu S (2007) Remediation of PCB contaminated soils using iron nano-particles. Chemosphere 66(6):1031–1038. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2006.07.036

Verzeaux J, Alahmad A, Habbib H, Nivelle E, Roger D, Lacoux J, Decocq G, Hirel B, Catterou M, Spicher F, Dubois F (2016) Cover crops prevent the deleterious effect of nitrogen fertilisation on bacterial diversity by maintaining the carbon content of ploughed soil. Geoderma 281:49–57

Vítková M, Komárek M, Tejnecky V, Sillerová H (2015) Interactions of nano-oxides with low-molecular-weight organic acids in a contaminated soil. J Hazard Mater 293:7–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.03.033

Wang B, Lai Q, Cui Z, Tan T, Shao Z (2008) A pyrene-degrading consortium from deep-sea sediment of the West Pacific and its key member Cycloclasticus sp. P1. Environ Microbiol 10(8):1948–1963

Wang Y, Fang L, Lin L, Luan T, Tam NFY (2014) Effects of low molecular-weight organic acids and dehydrogenase activity in rhizosphere sediments of mangrove plants on phytoremediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Chemosphere 99:152–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.10.054

Wang H, Kim B, Wunder SL (2015) Nanoparticle-supported lipid bilayers as an in situ remediation strategy for hydrophobic organic contaminants in soils. Environ Sci Technol 49:529–536. https://doi.org/10.1021/es504832n

Wani PA, Khan MS, Zaidi A (2007) Cadmium, chromium and copper in greengram plants. Agron Sustain Dev 27(2):145–153. https://doi.org/10.1051/agro:2007036

Wani RA, Ganai BA, Shah MA, Uqab B (2017) Heavy metal uptake potential of aquatic plants through phytoremediation technique-a review. J Bioremed Biodegr 8(404):2. https://doi.org/10.4172/2155-6199.1000404

Wani W, Masoodi KZ, Zaid A, Wani SH, Shah F, Meena VS, Wani SA, Mosa KA (2018) Engineering plants for heavy metal stress tolerance. Rendiconti Lincei. Sci Fis Natur 29(3):709–723. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12210-018-0702-y

Wei S, Li Y, Zhou Q, Srivastava M, Chiu S, Zhan J, Wu Z, Sun T (2010) Effect of fertilizer amendments on phytoremediation of Cd-contaminated soil by a newly discovered hyperaccumulator Solanum nigrum L. J Hazard Mater 176(1–3):269–273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.11.023

Weis JS, Weis P (2004) Metal uptake, transport and release by wetland plants: implications for phytoremediation and restoration. Environ Int 30(5):685–700. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2003.11.002

Wessels K (2009) Comments on proxy global assessment of land degradation. Soil Use Manag 5:91–92. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-2743.2009.00195.x

White JC (2009) Optimizing planting density for p, p′-DDE phytoextraction by Cucurbita pepo . Environ Eng Sci 26(2):369–376. https://doi.org/10.1089/ees.2007.0347

White PM, Wolf DC, Thoma GJ, Reynolds CM (2006) Phytoremediation of alkylated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in a crude oil-contaminated soil. Water Air Soil Pollut 169(1–4):207–220

WHO (2005) Ecosystem and human wellbeing, health synthesis. A report of the millennium ecosystem assessment . http://www.who.int/globalchange/ecosystems/ecosys.pdf

Yadav AK, Abbassi R, Gupta A, Dadashzadeh M (2013) Removal of fluoride from aqueous solution and groundwater by wheat straw, sawdust and activated bagasse carbon of sugarcane. Ecol Eng 52:211–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2012.12.069

Yang J, Sun H (2015) Degradation of γ-hexachlorocyclohexane using carboxymethylcellulose-stabilized Fe/Ni nanoparticles. Water Air Soil Pollut 226:1–5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-015-2553-9

Zhang X, Xia H, Li Z, Zhuang P, Gao B (2010) Potential of four forage grasses in remediation of Cd and Zn contaminated soils. Bioresour Technol 101(6):2063–2066. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2009.11.065

Zhi-Xin N, Sun LN, Sun TH, Li YS, Hong WA (2007) Evaluation of phytoextracting cadmium and lead by sunflower, ricinus, alfalfa and mustard in hydroponic culture. J Environ Sci 19(8):961–967. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1001-0742(07)60158-2

Zhu YL, Pilon-Smits EA, Tarun AS, Weber SU, Jouanin L, Terry N (1999) Cadmium tolerance and accumulation in Indian mustard is enhanced by overexpressing γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase. Plant Physiol 121(4):1169–1177. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.121.4.1169

Zhu Z, Li X, Zeng Y, Sun W, Zhu W, Huang X (2011) Application of cobalt oxide nanoflower for direct electrochemistry and electrocatalysis of hemoglobin with ionic liquid as enhancer. J Phys Chem 115:12547–12553

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Plant Biology & Soil Science, Universidade de Vigo, Vigo, Spain

M. Iftikhar Hussain

Research Institute of Science and Engineering, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates

Dr Muhammad Ajmal Khan Institute of Sustainable Halophyte Utilization, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan

Zainul Abideen

Natural Resources Management Division, International Center for Biosaline Agriculture (ICBA), Dubai, United Arab Emirates

Asad Sarwar Qureshi

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

Aix-Marseille University, CNRS, IRD, INRAE, Coll France, CEREGE, Aix-en-Provence, France

Eric Lichtfouse

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Hussain, M.I., Abideen, Z., Qureshi, A.S. (2021). Soil Degradation, Resilience, Restoration and Sustainable Use. In: Lichtfouse, E. (eds) Sustainable Agriculture Reviews 52. Sustainable Agriculture Reviews, vol 52. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73245-5_10

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73245-5_10

Published : 03 August 2021

Publisher Name : Springer, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-030-73244-8

Online ISBN : 978-3-030-73245-5

eBook Packages : Biomedical and Life Sciences Biomedical and Life Sciences (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

• भाषा : हिंदी
• Classroom Courses
• Our Selections
• Student Login
• About NEXT IAS
• Director’s Desk
• Advisory Panel
• Faculty Panel
• General Studies Courses
• Optional Courses
• Interview Guidance Program
• Postal Courses
• Test Series
• Current Affairs
• Student Portal

• Pre Cum Mains Foundation Courses
• GS + CSAT Pre cum Main Foundation Course
• GS Pre cum Main Foundation Course
• GS + CSAT + Optional
• GS + Optional
• Prelims Courses
• Current Affairs Course for CSE 2025
• CSAT Course
• Current Affairs for Prelims (CAP)-2024
• Mains Courses
• Mains Advance Course (MAC)
• Essay Course Cum Test Series
• First Step — NCERT Based Course
• Optional Foundation Courses
• Mathematics
• Anthropology
• Political Science and International Relations (PSIR)
• Optional Advance Courses (Optional Through Questions)
• Civil Engineering
• Electrical Engineering
• Mechanical Engineering
• Interview Guidance Programme / Personality Test Training Program
• GS + CSAT Postal Courses
• Current Affairs Magazine – Annual Subscription
• GS+CSAT Postal Study Course
• First Step Postal Course
• Postal Study Course for Optional Subjects
• Prelims Test Series for CSE 2024 (Offline/Online)
• General Studies
• GS Mains Test Series for CSE 2024
• Mains Test Series (Optional)
• Paarth PSIR
• PSIR Answer Writing Program
• PSIR PRO Plus Test Series
• Mathematics Year Long Test Series (MYTS) 2024
• Indian Economic Services
• Anubhav (All India Open Mock Test)
• Prelims (GS + CSAT)
• Headlines of the Day
• Daily Current Affairs
• Editorial Analysis
• Monthly MCQ Compilation
• Monthly Current Affairs Magazine
• Previous Year Papers
• Down to Earth
• Kurukshetra
• Union Budget
• Economic Survey
• NIOS Study Material
• Beyond Classroom
• Environment and Ecology

Soil Degradation: Types, Causes, Effects, and Solutions

Soils are essential natural resources that serve as the foundation for all terrestrial life, making the prevention of soil degradation crucial for our well-being.

Examples encompass physical, chemical, and biological declines in soil quality. It can manifest as the loss of organic matter, reduced fertility, deterioration of soil structure, erosion through water or wind, changes in salinity levels (such as dryland, irrigation, or urban salinity), increased soil acidity or alkalinity, compaction, surface sealing, mass movement, and contamination from toxic chemicals or pollutants.

Types of Soil Degradation

It can occur through various processes, such as water erosion, which includes sheet, rill, and gully erosion caused by excessive water runoff.

• Wind erosion is another form, where soil particles are carried away by wind forces.
• Salinity refers to the accumulation of salts in the soil, whether through natural processes in arid regions, excessive irrigation, or urban activities.
• Loss of organic matter reduces the soil’s nutrient content and ability to retain moisture.
• Soil acidity or alkalinity imbalances affect plant growth and nutrient availability. Declining soil structure involves compaction, which hampers root growth and water infiltration.
• Mass movement occurs when gravity causes soil to slide or erode.
• Soil contamination results from the introduction of toxic chemicals or pollutants, impacting soil health and potentially affecting human health and ecosystems.

Causes of Soil Degradation

There are a large number of factors that are responsible for this. Some of them are:

• Physical Factors: Factors such as rainfall, surface runoff, floods, wind erosion, tillage, and mass movements can lead to the degradation of soil. These factors cause different types of soil erosion and detachment, wearing away the topsoil and organic matter.
• Biological Factors: These involve human and plant activities that reduce soil quality. Overgrowth of bacteria and fungi can impact microbial activity in the soil, leading to decreased crop yields and reduced soil productivity. Poor farming practices and mismanagement of soil nutrients can also deplete soil fertility.
• Chemical Factors: Chemical factors include soil nutrient reduction due to alkalinity, acidity, or waterlogging. They result in alterations in the soil’s chemical properties, affecting nutrient availability. Salt buildup and leaching of nutrients can corrupt the soil’s quality by causing undesirable changes in essential soil chemical components. These chemical factors lead to the irreversible loss of soil nutrients and the hardening of certain soil types.
• Deforestation: This exposes soil minerals by removing trees and crop cover, which play a vital role in soil formation. Vegetation cover promotes soil binding, aeration, water-holding capacity, and biological activity. Removing trees through logging and slash-and-burn techniques can increase erosion, and toxic buildup, and render the soil unproductive.
• Misuse or Excess Use of Fertilizers: The misuse or excessive use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers can harm soil organisms that contribute to soil cohesion. Improper use of fertilizers can denature essential soil minerals and result in nutrient losses. This destroys the soil’s biological activity and can lead to the buildup of toxic substances.
• Industrial and Mining Activities: These activities contribute to soil pollution. Mining destroys crop cover and releases toxic chemicals into the soil, rendering it unproductive. Industrial activities release effluents and wastes that pollute the soil, affecting its physical, chemical, and biological properties.
• Improper Cultivation Practices: Certain agricultural practices, such as excessive tillage, deep plowing, farming on steep slopes, mono-cropping, row-cropping, and surface irrigation, can degrade the soil’s composition and fertility. Improper cultivation practices lead to erosion, reduced soil regeneration, and decreased agricultural productivity.
• Urbanization: It results in the denudation of soil vegetation cover, compaction during construction, and altered drainage patterns. The impermeable surfaces of urban areas increase surface runoff and erosion. Runoff from urban areas often contains pollutants that can contaminate water bodies and disrupt ecosystems.
• Overgrazing: It contributes to soil erosion, loss of soil nutrients, and decreased agricultural productivity. It destroys surface crop cover and breaks down soil particles, increasing erosion rates.

Effects of Soil Degradation

Methods to address soil degradation.

It’s important to note that soil degradation is a complex issue that requires a holistic and multifaceted approach involving sustainable land management practices, proper agricultural techniques, and policies that prioritize soil conservation and restoration.

Addressing soil degradation requires implementing sustainable land management practices, including erosion control measures, proper soil conservation techniques, responsible use of fertilizers and pesticides, afforestation and reforestation efforts, and promoting awareness and education about soil conservation. By prioritizing the health and preservation of our soils, we can mitigate the negative impacts of soil degradation and ensure a sustainable future.

What is the Cause of Soil Degradation?  

Soil degradation is primarily caused by human activities and natural processes. Some of the main causes include deforestation, overgrazing, agricultural practices, soil erosion, industrial activities, urbanization, climate change, land mismanagement, and desertification.

What are the 3 types of Soil Degradation?

The three main types of soil degradation are: 1. Erosion: This refers to the physical removal of topsoil through the action of water, wind, or ice, leading to the loss of fertile soil and nutrients. 2. Nutrient depletion: Continuous or excessive cultivation without proper nutrient management can deplete essential nutrients from the soil, making it less fertile and reducing crop productivity. 3. Salinization: It occurs when the salt concentration in the soil increases to levels that are harmful to plant growth. Salinization can happen due to factors such as irrigation with salt-affected water or poor drainage.

What are the 10 Causes of Soil Degradation?

The top 10 causes of soil degradation are overgrazing, deforestation, overuse of fertilizers, urbanization, concretization, climate change, jhum cultivation, unscientific farming practices, etc 

What are the 5 Effects of Soil Degradation?

Soil degradation has several detrimental effects on the environment and human well-being. The five main effects include 1. Reduced agricultural productivity: Degraded soil has lower fertility, reduced water-holding capacity, and fewer nutrients, leading to decreased crop yields and food production. 2. Increased soil erosion: Degraded soil is more susceptible to erosion, which can result in the loss of fertile topsoil and sedimentation in water bodies, impacting water quality and aquatic ecosystems. 3. Desertification: Soil degradation can contribute to the expansion of desert-like conditions, where land becomes arid, devoid of vegetation, and unsuitable for agriculture or other productive activities. 4. Decline in biodiversity: Degraded soil supports fewer plant and animal species, leading to a loss of biodiversity and disruption of ecosystems. 5. Water scarcity: Soil degradation can affect water infiltration and storage capacity, leading to reduced groundwater recharge, increased runoff, and decreased availability of water for plants, animals, and human use.

How can we Control Soil Degradation?

Several approaches can help control and mitigate soil degradation: – Conservation agriculture – Terracing and contour plowing – Afforestation and reforestation – Agroforestry – Sustainable land management

RELATED ARTICLES MORE FROM AUTHOR

Kaziranga national park: location, fauna, vegetation & key facts, invasive alien species: characteristics, promoting factors, impacts & measures taken, marsupials: key characteristics, peculiar behaviors, distribution, threats & conservation measures, the waggle dance: features & prominent species of honeybees, congo basin: location, geographical features & peatlands, protected area network in india, leave a reply cancel reply.

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Featured Post

IvyPanda . (2023) 'Soil Erosion and Land Degradation'. 14 April.

IvyPanda . 2023. "Soil Erosion and Land Degradation." April 14, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/soil-erosion-and-land-degradation/.

1. IvyPanda . "Soil Erosion and Land Degradation." April 14, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/soil-erosion-and-land-degradation/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Soil Erosion and Land Degradation." April 14, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/soil-erosion-and-land-degradation/.

• Citrus Greening Disease in The United States
• Greening of Hotels. Concept
• Authoritarian vs. Permissive Parenting Styles
• The Family of Woody Guthrie: A Long Way to Oklahoma
• Nomadic Pastoralism and Cultural Survival
• Samsung Electronics Co.'s Ethics and Greening
• The shortcomings of the WOODY 2000 Project
• "Greening the Ghetto" by Majora Carter
• The Custom Woody Company Management
• Citi Group: Perennial Issue in Global Communication
• Three Sisters Springs Natural Resource in Florida
• The Importance of the Ecosystems of the Continental Shelves
• Environmental Feedback Loop and Ecological Systems
• The London Underground Mosquitos
• The Impact of Invasive Species in Missouri

Land Degradation

The following example essay on “Land Degradation” talks about a set of processes that lead to a change in the functions of the soil, a quantitative and qualitative deterioration of its properties.

It thus covers the various forms of soil degradation, adverse human impacts on water resources, deforestation, ND lowering of the productive capacity of rangelands. This study takes the degradation Of soil resources as its focus. This includes soil erosion by water and wind, deterioration in soil physical, chemical and biological properties, water logging, and the build-up of toxicities, particularly salts, in the soil.

Since soil productivity is intimately connected with water availability, lowering of the groundwater table is also noted. Since deforestation is being treated in detail in a current FAA study, it is here considered primarily as a cause of soil degradation, particularly erosion. Land degradation has both on-site and off- tie effects. On-site effects are the lowering of the productive capacity of the land, causing either reduced outputs (crop yields, livestock yields) or the need for increased inputs.

Off-site effects of water erosion occur through changes in the water regime, including decline in river water quality, and sedimentation of river beds and reservoirs. The main off-site effect Of wind erosion is over blowing, or sand deposition. Types of land degradation in Ghana Water Pollution: water pollution is the contamination Of water bodies. Air Pollution: Air pollution is the process by which poisonous gases are leased into the atmosphere.

Land Degradation: Land degradation is the gradual depletion of the quantity and quality of the land.

Proficient in: Pollution

“ Ok, let me say I’m extremely satisfy with the result while it was a last minute thing. I really enjoy the effort put in. ”

Other types Of land degradation in Ghana. Overgrazing – It is the act of putting a lot of animals (herbivores) on a small piece of land to feed. Over cropping – It is act of growing too many crops on a small piece of land. Bush fires – A bushfire is an uncontrolled fire in an area of combustible vegetation that occurs in the countryside or a wilderness area. [l Other names such as brush fire, wildfire, forest fire, desert fire, grass fire, hill fire, eat fire, vegetation fire, and vilified may be used to describe the same phenomenon depending on the type of vegetation being burned. Natural events (disaster) – A natural disaster IS a major adverse event resulting from natural processes of the Earth; examples include floods, severe weather, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and other geologic processes.

Types of land degradation assessed For the purpose of this study, the many and varied processes of land degradation have been grouped into six classes: water erosion, wind erosion, soil fertility decline, Stabilization, water logging, and lowering of the water able. Water erosion covers all forms of soil erosion by water, including sheet and rill erosion and gulling. Human-induced intensification Of land sliding, caused by vegetation clearance, road construction, etc. , is also included. Wind erosion refers to loss of soil by wind, occurring primarily in dry regions.

Soil fertility decline is used as a short term to refer to what is more precisely described as deterioration in soil physical, chemical and biological properties. Whilst decline in fertility is indeed a major effect of erosion, the term is used here of cover effects of processes other than erosion.

The main processes involved are: lowering of soil organic master, with associated decline in soil biological activity; degradation of soil physical properties (structure, aeration, water holding capacity), as brought about by reduced organic master; adverse changes in soil nutrient resources, including reduction in availability of the major nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium), onset of encountering deficiencies, and development of nutrient imbalances.

Buildup of toxicities, primarily acidification through incorrect fertilizer use. Water logging is the lowering in land productivity through the rise in roundtable close to the soil surface. Also included under this heading is the severe form, termed pending where the water table rises above the surface. Water logging is linked with Stabilization, both being brought about by incorrect irrigation management. Stabilization is used in its broad sense, to refer to all types of soil degradation brought about by the increase of salts in the soil. It thus covers both Sterilizations in its strict sense, the buildup of free salts; and codification (also called legalization), and the development of dominance of the exchange complex by sodium.

As human-induced processes, these occur mainly through incorrect planning and management of irrigation schemes. Also covered is saline intrusion, the incursion of sea water into coastal soils arising from over-abstraction of groundwater. Lowering of the water table is a self-explanatory form of land degradation, brought about through tubercle pumping of groundwater for irrigation exceeding the natural recharge capacity. This occurs in areas of non-saline (sweet’) groundwater.

The term desertification originated with a specific meaning, as or example in the 1977 World map of desertification (UNEVEN, 1977). It was subsequently widely used and misused in a broader sense. These wider meanings have sometimes been extended to almost all forms of land degradation, for example soil erosion in the humid tropics (Young, 1985).

The recent World atlas of desertification (UNEVEN, AAA) includes all the six groups of land degradation covered in the present study thus implicitly, from its title, using the term in the broader sense. Following agreement at a recent UNEVEN conference, the term has been defined with a more restricted meaning: Desertification is land degradation in aria, semi-arid and dry sub humid areas resulting from adverse human impact (LESSEN, Bibb). This is the meaning in which the term is employed in the ESCAPE network on desertification (ESCAPE, 1983, 1 991 b).

In this study, therefore, desertification is equivalent to land degradation in the dry zone, and need not be separately assessed as a type of degradation. Other types Of degradation included Other types of land degradation are treated briefly, treated as causes, or excluded from this review. This is because they are localized or of small extent on a regional scale, or because they are more fully treated elsewhere. Four further classes are recognized as types of land degradation, and as having considerable importance in the region. One case, deforestation, has been treated by reference to an external review.

The two other types are considered in more generalized terms. Deforestation. The occurrence of deforestation is widespread and extremely serious in the region. It is not independently assessed here, in view of more detailed treatment in the current FAA Forest resources assessment 1990 project. Deforestation is also issued as a cause of erosion. Forest degradation This is the reduction of biotic resources and lowering of productive capacity of forests through human activities. It is under review in a current survey (Bannered and Grimes, in preparation).

This is the lowering of the productive capacity of rangelands. It is considered in generalized terms, but no quantitative data have been identified. Types of degradation excluded from the study Other types of degradation are excluded from this study, either because they are of small extent on a regional scale, or they are more fully treated elsewhere. These are: Acid sulfate formation, a serious but localized form of degradation, which may occur on drainage of coastal swamps. Soil pollution, from industrial or mining effluents, to the atmosphere, rivers or groundwater. This is an important concern in the region, but is strongly localized. Soil destruction through mining and quarrying activities, the failure to restore soil after extraction.

The same remarks apply as for soil pollution. Urban and industrial encroachment onto agricultural land. With the projected increase in arbitration, this will continue to be a substantial cause of loss of agricultural land, but it is a different problem from land degradation. Effects of war. Land degradation on a substantial scale through effects of war has been reported from Iran (western borderlands) and Afghanistan, in the latter case including the destruction of irrigation schemes. Potential effects of global climatic change. It is beyond question that the composition of the world’s atmosphere is being substantially altered as a result of human activities. A small but significant global warming has already been observed and is projected to continue.

It is possible that this may lead o modifications to the general atmospheric circulation with consequent changes in rainfall. These changes could be beneficial or adverse to land productivity or human welfare: specifically, in semi-arid regions, rainfall might become higher or longer, more reliable or less, or with longer or higher incidence of droughts.

There is, however, no firm evidence of what such changes may tee. If adverse changes occur in some areas, then these will certainly constitute a most serious form of human-induced degradation of natural resources. It is accepted that, for a range of reasons, action should be oaken to reduce emissions of ‘greenhouse gases’. However, until there is clearer evidence, its potential effects upon climate must remain a master of research, and these will not be further considered.

Problems of the natural environment. Aridity and drought ‘Aridity’ and ‘drought’ are referred to in the COSEC resolution on which this study is based. These, however, are problems of the natural environment in semi-arid and aria areas. In the subsequent amplifications of the terms of reference it is clear that degradation, namely human-induced adverse environmental changes, is the intended focus. Therefore aridity and drought would only properly be included if it could be shown that rainfall had been reduced, or drought spells made more frequent, as a result of man’s activities. This has not been established. Problem soils. Soils which present special difficulties for agriculture may be called problem soils. They include saline soils, sandy soils, cracking clays, strongly acid soils, shallow soils, and soils on steeply sloping or poorly drained land.

A comprehensive review for Asia and the Pacific is given in FAA/ ARPA (1990) and a map of problem soils is in preparation. To the extent that these are problems of the natural environment, problem soils do not constitute land degradation. However, land degradation frequently leads to an increase in the extent or severity of problem soils, for example, erosion causes shallow soils. A clear case is that of saline soils: these occur naturally, in which case they are problem soils, but their extent has been greatly increased by human-induced Stabilization.

Reversible degradation and land reclamation. The effects of water and wind erosion are largely irreversible. Although plant nutrients and soil organic master may be replaced, to replace the actual loss f soil material would require taking the soil out of use for many thousands of years, an impractical course of action. In other cases, land degradation is reversible: soils with reduced organic master can be restored by additions Of plant residues, degraded pastures may recover under improved range management. Stabilized soils can be restored to productive use, although at a high cost, through salinity control and reclamation projects.

Cite this page

Land Degradation. (2018, Jan 22). Retrieved from https://paperap.com/paper-on-land-degradation/

"Land Degradation." PaperAp.com , 22 Jan 2018, https://paperap.com/paper-on-land-degradation/

PaperAp.com. (2018). Land Degradation . [Online]. Available at: https://paperap.com/paper-on-land-degradation/ [Accessed: 21 Apr. 2024]

"Land Degradation." PaperAp.com, Jan 22, 2018. Accessed April 21, 2024. https://paperap.com/paper-on-land-degradation/

"Land Degradation," PaperAp.com , 22-Jan-2018. [Online]. Available: https://paperap.com/paper-on-land-degradation/. [Accessed: 21-Apr-2024]

PaperAp.com. (2018). Land Degradation . [Online]. Available at: https://paperap.com/paper-on-land-degradation/ [Accessed: 21-Apr-2024]

• Furagin: Forced Degradation Studies Pages: 17 (4856 words)
• Society's Moral Degradation or Moral Evolution Pages: 4 (946 words)
• Environmental Pollution And Degradation Pages: 6 (1773 words)
• The Degradation and Humiliation of Native Americans in Sports Fandom Pages: 2 (347 words)
• The Degradation of the Hawaiian Culture during the European Invasion Pages: 4 (1178 words)
• The Waste Land and Waiting for Godot Pages: 9 (2606 words)
• Water, Land and Air Pollution Pages: 1 (296 words)
• Air Water and Land Pollution Pages: 14 (4155 words)
• Welcome to the land of Happiness is our motto Lottoland is an Pages: 7 (1900 words)
• Solution Of Land Pollution Pages: 2 (307 words)

• Share full article

Advertisement

Supported by

Guest Essay

J.D. Vance: The Math on Ukraine Doesn’t Add Up

By J. D. Vance

Mr. Vance, a Republican, is the junior senator from Ohio.

President Biden wants the world to believe that the biggest obstacle facing Ukraine is Republicans and our lack of commitment to the global community. This is wrong.

Ukraine’s challenge is not the G.O.P.; it’s math. Ukraine needs more soldiers than it can field, even with draconian conscription policies. And it needs more matériel than the United States can provide. This reality must inform any future Ukraine policy, from further congressional aid to the diplomatic course set by the president.

The Biden administration has applied increasing pressure on Republicans to pass a supplemental aid package of more than $60 billion to Ukraine. I voted against this package in the Senate and remain opposed to virtually any proposal for the United States to continue funding this war. Mr. Biden has failed to articulate even basic facts about what Ukraine needs and how this aid will change the reality on the ground.

The most fundamental question: How much does Ukraine need and how much can we actually provide? Mr. Biden suggests that a $60 billion supplemental means the difference between victory and defeat in a major war between Russia and Ukraine. That is also wrong. This $60 billion is a fraction of what it would take to turn the tide in Ukraine’s favor. But this is not just a matter of dollars. Fundamentally, we lack the capacity to manufacture the amount of weapons Ukraine needs us to supply to win the war.

Consider our ability to produce 155-millimeter artillery shells. Last year, Ukraine’s defense minister estimated that the country’s base-line requirement for these shells was over four million per year but that it could fire up to seven million if that many were available. Since the start of the conflict, the United States has gone to great lengths to ramp up production of 155-millimeter shells. We’ve roughly doubled our capacity and can now produce 360,000 per year — less than a tenth of what Ukraine says it needs. The administration’s goal is to get this to 1.2 million — 30 percent of what’s needed — by the end of 2025. This would cost the American taxpayers dearly while yielding an unpleasantly familiar result: failure abroad.

Just this week, the top American military commander in Europe argued that absent further security assistance, Russia could soon have a 10-to-1 artillery advantage over Ukraine. What didn’t gather as many headlines is that Russia’s current advantage is at least 5 to 1, even after all the money we have poured into the conflict. Neither of these ratios plausibly leads to Ukrainian victory.

Proponents of American aid to Ukraine have argued that our approach has been a boon to our own economy, creating jobs here in the factories that manufacture weapons. But our national security interests can be — and often are — separate from our economic interests. The notion that we should prolong a bloody and gruesome war because it’s been good for American business is grotesque. We can and should rebuild our industrial base without shipping its products to a foreign conflict.

The story is the same when we look at other munitions. Take the Patriot missile system — our premier air defense weapon. It’s of such importance in this war that Ukraine’s foreign minister has specifically demanded them. That’s because in March alone, Russia reportedly launched over 3,000 guided aerial bombs, 600 drones and 400 missiles at Ukraine. To fend off these attacks, the Ukrainian president, Volodymyr Zelensky, and others have indicated they need thousands of Patriot interceptors per year. The problem is this: The United States only manufactures 550 per year. If we pass the supplemental aid package currently being considered in Congress, we could potentially increase annual production to 650, but that’s still less than a third of what Ukraine requires.

These weapons are not only needed by Ukraine. If China were to set its sights on Taiwan, the Patriot missile system would be critical to its defense. In fact, the United States has promised to send Taiwan nearly $900 million worth of Patriot missiles, but delivery of those weapons and other essential resources has been severely delayed, partly because of shortages caused by the war in Ukraine.

If that sounds bad, Ukraine’s manpower situation is even worse. Here are the basics: Russia has nearly four times the population of Ukraine. Ukraine needs upward of half a million new recruits, but hundreds of thousands of fighting-age men have already fled the country. The average Ukrainian soldier is roughly 43 years old , and many soldiers have already served two years at the front with few, if any, opportunities to stop fighting. After two years of conflict, there are some villages with almost no men left. The Ukrainian military has resorted to coercing men into service, and women have staged protests to demand the return of their husbands and fathers after long years of service at the front. This newspaper reported one instance in which the Ukrainian military attempted to conscript a man with a diagnosed mental disability.

Many in Washington seem to think that hundreds of thousands of young Ukrainians have gone to war with a song in their heart and are happy to label any thought to the contrary Russian propaganda. But major newspapers on both sides of the Atlantic are reporting that the situation on the ground in Ukraine is grim.

These basic mathematical realities were true, but contestable, at the outset of the war. They were obvious and incontestable a year ago, when American leadership worked closely with Mr. Zelensky to undertake a disastrous counteroffensive. The bad news is that accepting brute reality would have been most useful last spring, before the Ukrainians launched that extremely costly and unsuccessful military campaign. The good news is that even now, a defensive strategy can work. Digging in with old-fashioned ditches, cement and land mines are what enabled Russia to weather Ukraine’s 2023 counteroffensive. Our allies in Europe could better support such a strategy, as well. While some European countries have provided considerable resources, the burden of military support has thus far fallen heaviest on the United States.

By committing to a defensive strategy, Ukraine can preserve its precious military manpower, stop the bleeding and provide time for negotiations to commence. But this would require both the American and Ukrainian leadership to accept that Mr. Zelensky’s stated goal for the war — a return to 1991 boundaries — is fantastical.

The White House has said time and again that it can’t negotiate with President Vladimir Putin of Russia. This is absurd. The Biden administration has no viable plan for the Ukrainians to win this war. The sooner Americans confront this truth, the sooner we can fix this mess and broker for peace.

J.D. Vance ( @JDVance1 ), a Republican, is the junior senator from Ohio.

The Times is committed to publishing a diversity of letters to the editor. We’d like to hear what you think about this or any of our articles. Here are some tips . And here’s our email: [email protected] .

Follow the New York Times Opinion section on Facebook , Instagram , TikTok , WhatsApp , X and Threads .