examples of research questions in sociology

99 Good Sociology Research Questions Examples

What is a good research question for sociology? Oftentimes, lecturers give their students the freedom to pick their own research questions. While this can be a good thing on its own, at other times, it can drain the brain. Having relevant sociology research question ideas and sociology research questions examples is the right way to start. In this article, you will be receiving 99 sociology research questions examples to help you avoid a brain drain.

Sociology Research Question Topics

What are the Environmental Hazards in Your Society?
What is the Government’s Control of Society?
What are the Impacts of Cancel Culture in Today’s Society?
How Early Should Children be Taught Sex Education?
What Prevention Methods are Effective Against Teenagers Pregnancy?
Should Parents Encourage Their Teenagers to Get an Abortion?
Is Gender Equality Possible?
Why Is Polygamy Ideal For 21st Century Relationships?
What Role Can Parents Play To Help Prevent Sexually Transmitted Infections In Their Teens?
Is Marriage Relevant in the 21st-century?
What Are Transactional Relationships?
What are the Effects of Having Two Mothers?
How Can Schools Help Students Overcome Addiction?
What Can Schools do About Deviant Behaviour in Their Children?
What are the Steps to Overcoming Abuse?
What are the Impacts of Having Two Fathers?
How Does Family Law Help the Family?
Why Should Children Take Over Family Businesses?
Why Should The Use of Marijuana Be Legalized?
What are the Roles of Grandparents in a Family?
What are the Impacts of Endogamy?
What is the Permanent Solution to Bullying?
Body Confidence Or Moral Decadence?
How Can Interpersonal Conflicts be Resolved?
What is Family Inheritance?
Do Vacations Truly Help Couples Bond?
What are the Impacts of House-husband?
What are the Impacts of Being A Housewife?
Should Polygamy be Encouraged in Today’s Society?
What are the Dangers of Helicopter Parenting?
When Should a Couple Consider Divorce?
What are the Underlying Reasons for Suicide in Young People?
What are the Societal Implications of Cohabitation?
What Causes Rebellion in Young People?
What Ways Can Depression be Managed?
Should Free Speech Have Limits?
What is Societal Pressure?
What is the Relevance of Religion in Today’s Society?
Why is Medical Negligence on the Rise?
What is the Relevance of School Uniforms For Students?
What are the Conflicts of Personal Identity?
Should Prisoners be Allowed to Vote?
Do School Uniforms Encourage Bullying?
Should Children Have Parents of the Same-Sex?
What is Social Disorder?
What is Social Anxiety?
What are the Dangers of Home Schooling?
What are the Dangers of Infidelity to the Society at Large?
What are the Dangers of Political Correctness?
Should Traditional Gender Roles Still Exist in Today’s Society?
Do Adults Engage in Bullying More Than Children?
What are the Different Places Bullying Occurs in Today’s Society?
Should Virtual Learning Become the Standard Form of Learning?
Should Religious Activities be Allowed in Schools?
How Can a Family Maintain a Healthy Lifestyle?
How Does the Media Portray Your Society?
Why do Students Dress the Way do?
Whose Responsibility is it to Train the Child: Parents or Society?
Should Children be Allowed to Believe in Magic?
What Causes Social Isolation?
Should Teens Be Allowed to Take Alcohol?
What are the Impacts of Single Parenting?
What is the Attitude Of Students Towards School Work in Your Society?
What Bad Actions Contribute to Pollution in Your Environment?
What Societal Values are Dying?
Should Teachers Have Other Sources Of Income?
What is Care-work in a Family?
Does a Person’s Society Determine How They See Life?
What is the “Standard Family”?
How do Songs Contribute to a Person’s Identity?
What Are The Underlying Causes Of Unemployment in Your Society?
Should Parents Take Parenting Classes?
What Are Societal Values and Norms?
What are the Impacts Of Divorce on the Children?
What are the Impacts of Long-distance Marriage?
Should Personal Ownership of Guns be Revoked in the United States?
What are the Impacts of Moving Places?
What is the Difference Between Equality and Equity?
Is Reincarnation After Death A Possibility?
How Should Errant Behaviour be Punish?
What Are The Distinctions And Similarities Between Millenials And Generation Z?
How Influential is Pop Culture in Colleges?
Why Is There Disparity in Society?
How Should Child Misbehaviour be Punished?
How do TV Shows Influence Our Culture?
What are the Impacts of Having A Multi-Ethnic Family?
What are the Impacts of Diverse Cultures in a Society?
What are Your Society’s Most-Pressing Needs?
What are the Worst Books of all Time in Society?
What is Gender Discrimination in Society?
What is Gender Disparity in the Workplace?
What are the Implications of Peer Pressure?
How Much Influence do Celebrities Have Over a Society?
How does the Media Misrepresent the Youth?
How does the Media Help in Government Propaganda?
How Can Violence in Society be Solved?
What are the Contributors to a Person’s Identity?
Is Monogamy Ideal For 21st Century Relationships?
Is Overpopulation a Bad Thing?

These research questions are more than enough to select from. Simply choose one and write.

examples of research questions in sociology

55 Sociology Research Topics for High School Students
85 Environmental Sociology Research Topics
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30 sociology research questions for your next project

Last updated

30 April 2024

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Being a human being and living in modern society can be confusing and complicated. A wide range of historical, behavioral, and structural factors impact our day-to-day experiences. People who study sociology aim to better understand how culture, social interactions, and relationships impact individual and collective well-being.

Sociology research helps provide answers that policymakers, entrepreneurs, and individuals can use to improve the lives of local and global communities. But they can only do this if they ask and address the right questions.

Use this article to kickstart your research. It will help you choose an in-demand sociology research question to explore for your next project or assignment.

Why sociology research matters

Sociology is a diverse, complex, and essential area of study. It’s the study of life, social change, and human behaviors. Sociology research explores how societal structures and organizations impact everyday life and well-being.

Social communication and interaction are fundamental components of the human experience. Studying these topics in detail helps uncover flaws or biases within our societal structures that impact particular individuals or groups of people.

To properly address societal issues, we first need to identify and understand them. Conducting your own high-quality sociology research gives you the opportunity to explore a topic you are passionate about. You can contribute valuable information to improve our existing societal structures and systems.

How to choose a great sociology research topic

Whether you’re choosing a topic for a school project or want to expand into a new niche with your existing research practices, choosing the right sociology research question is essential during the early stages of your work.

The topic and people you choose to study will greatly differ depending on what you have access to. So, to make your efforts worthwhile, we recommend considering the following points before you make your final decision:

Consider your bandwidth

It’s easy to get in over your head with a particularly ambitious research project.

To be able to produce the best work and ensure you can actually complete your project, consider the following questions before choosing your research question:

What is my research project timeline?

How much support do I have to complete my research?

What research tools and platforms do I have access to?

How much research experience do I have?

Factor in your target audience

Sociology is the study of human behavior, so your study participants will significantly impact the results.

Depending on the scope of your work, research questions that focus on harder-to-access groups may pose a challenge for students, novice researchers, or projects with little funding. Children, people living in rural areas, or people with particular health conditions are all examples of groups that are harder to access for research.

So, depending on your experience level, resources, and support, you should consider these limitations before choosing a research question that involves working with these groups.

Focus on your skills

Everyone has a set of skills they bring to the table. If you want to get the most bang for your buck with your research efforts, lean into your skills when choosing your research question.

Sociology is a diverse area of study that has plenty of room for both anecdotal and emotional research and statistical analysis. For this reason, you need to factor in your preferences and skillset when you decide which type of question to pursue.

If you love talking to people and collecting nuanced opinions, a qualitative -focused question will best suit your project. Or, you might prefer more numeric analysis. In this case, choosing a question that allows you to collect quantitative data about a specific population will be better suited to your skill set.

Catch up on the latest trends

Finally, one of the most important things to consider when choosing your sociology research question is the existing trends within your area of study.

Reading up on the latest research projects surrounding your topic is an absolute must. It’s a great way to stay involved in the research community and ensure you don’t accidentally copy or repeat existing research.

Additionally, your research will become more nuanced and impactful the more plugged into your topic you are. Getting to grips with existing research will provide inspiration and ideas, particularly about knowledge gaps or challenges, giving your project the best chance of success.

Sociology research questions for college students

Sociology research is a common project or assignment for college students looking to learn more about human behavior and society.

College students are often limited by time, resources, and funding. However, they can still explore plenty of incredibly interesting and important sociology research questions. And hey, you never know, maybe this first project will kickstart your career as a sociology researcher!

Consider these examples of trending sociology research topics for college students:

How prevalent is bullying in a particular age category, and what strategies can we use to tackle it?

How does student debt impact college student spending habits?

What impact does living on campus vs. living off campus have on student friendships in the first year of university?

What are the most commonly reported stressors reported by rural students moving to campus for university?

How do students respond to group projects vs. individual assignments, and which option is best suited for post-secondary education?

Sociology research questions about cultural bias

Culture (the behaviors, teachings, and beliefs that a group of people shares) plays a significant role in modern society. It’s often attributed to a specific region or location and is created by groups of like-minded people sharing ideas, opinions, and values.

Culture significantly influences how people interact with the world around them, and studying this impact is a hot-button topic for sociologists.

Here are some examples of sociology research questions about culture and cultural bias:

To what extent does cultural bias impact female empowerment?

What are the predominant traits a person who describes themselves as a “patriot” would attribute to themselves?

To what extent does Westernized culture impact health and wellness?

How are people who belong to cultural minorities treated differently from the majority?

How has globalization and social media affected the concept of cultural heritage?

Sociology research questions about religion

Around the world, religion is a powerful connecting force. Some of the most commonly known religions today have thousands of years of history and impact.

Because of its prevalence and influence, it’s no surprise that religion is a common topic for sociology researchers—especially as the global community becomes more connected and aware of different religious practices.

Examples of trending sociology research questions about religion include the following:

To what extent should schools teach students about religion?

How important is it for [a particular group of people] to follow the rules of their chosen religion? Why do they feel it’s important to do so?

How does spirituality differ from religious practice?

How has religion shaped the structures of modern Western society?

Is it important for people to participate in traditional religious ceremonies, and how do they feel when participating?

Sociology research questions about race and society

The impact of race and ethnicity on a person’s well-being and worldview is always a worthwhile topic to explore. It’s one of the more prevalent themes in sociology research.

Despite the world being more connected than ever, many of our society’s foundational social structures place unnecessary barriers that block people from minority ethnic groups from accessing the same opportunities as the majority.

Sociology research exploring the role of race and ethnicity in society can help provide insights into why this happens. We can use these insights to combat social inequities.

Here are five examples of sociology research questions focused on race, ethnicity, and society:

How does a person’s ethnic background impact their dietary preferences?

To what extent does race impact annual income?

What are the healthcare barriers people from ethnic minorities most commonly report experiencing?

How does international travel impact a person’s understanding of race and ethnicity?

How likely are people from the [X] ethnic community to experience stress, and what are the effects of this?

Sociology research questions about generational differences

Generational differences play a significant role in how a person communicates with, relates to, and understands the people and environment around them.

New generations are entering the workforce and older generations are heading toward retirement. This means you can collect a wealth of information about each group’s experiences, opinions, values, and concerns.

Things like technology, political opinions, and family values are hot-button topics that differ from generation to generation. Choosing a research question that focuses on generational differences will likely be a great choice if you find any of these topics interesting.

Here are some example questions to consider:

To what extent should younger generations be expected to learn from their elders?

What are the financial differences between baby boomers and millennials?

How do different generations feel about the future?

How are people born before 1965 adapting to new changes in technology?

What are the most common stressors reported by people from different generations, and how do they differ from each other?

Controversial sociology research questions

“Controversial” research topics are a popular option for many researchers. This is because they are compelling, modern, and useful for shedding light on emotionally charged topics.

Depending on your personal worldview and opinions, these topics may not be controversial or contentious at all. But, as questions that cover topics that trigger a strong emotional response in certain groups of people, these research questions are worth exploring.

Here are some examples of “controversial” sociology research questions:

To what extent has social media changed communication, and should it be better monitored or regulated?

How have anti-LGBTQ+ policies impacted the health and well-being of people in that community?

How has diet culture impacted how young women feel about their bodies?

To what extent does student debt impact a person’s ability to thrive after post-secondary education?

How does a person’s political views impact their core values?

Sociology research is essential

Sociology is a vibrant, unique, and important area of study. Thorough research in this area, regardless of the topic, is always a valuable endeavor. It helps you gain a better understanding of human life, behavior, and connection.

No matter the size and breadth of your next research project or assignment, choosing the right research question will help you uncover important information about society and its structures.

Help break down existing barriers and improve the quality of life for people around the world by conducting your own sociology research on a topic that resonates with your values and experiences. Any insights you collect are valuable and could play a key role in improving the human experience.

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100+ Sociological Research Questions for You

Sociological questions often aim to address important matters. Some researchers find themselves at a loss on how to structure their sociological research questions. It isn’t unusual also to find people wondering why they should include sociology research questions in their paper. It is however important to note that your sociology questions serve the purpose of creating a base for your research.

Important Features of Sociology Questions

Sociology questions are not so different from research topics. This is because they have similarities in features and goals. Your Sociological questions must be concise In structure, but complex enough that it gives room for critical analysis to reach an answer. Also, it should be clear and straight to the point. Social science research questions should also be open for debate and opinions from different points of view.

100+ Sociology Research Questions Examples for You

From the present political situation across the globe, are youths making a significant appearance in world leadership?
Has self-medication saved more lives than it has caused more harm to the health of drug users?
What are the speculations of the COVID-19 vaccine; should people embrace or steer clear of the vaccine?
Are women up to the task of taking self-defense lessons, and should these lessons be made less complex for them?
Feminism at its peak; can a woman be feminine and believe in feminism?
What are the current and historical causes of xenophobic attacks in Southern Africa, and how can they be quelled?
What does modesty mean; Do present fashion ideas portray modesty?
Is social media culture a positive or negative influence on adolescents and teens?
With the different measures actively put in place to prevent workplace harassment, why is the practice still a common occurrence?
Why do people remain at their jobs, even when they have many reasons to leave?
Should having kids outside marriage be labeled a crime?
Is it proper for children’s cartoons to depict gay scenarios?
To what extent does an abusive marriage affect the growth and thinking of children in the family?
Are victims of child prostitution given the best attention to help them survive?
What happens to witnesses of dangerous court cases after the trial ends?
In what ways does cyberbullying affect the emotional, physical, and mental lives of its victims?
Do the benefits of the global pandemic outweigh the casualties that have occurred?
Are children from a wealthy background more prone to become bullies and abusers?
Are there any positive sides to the persistent crime rates in the drug industry?
Who are the mafia, and how do they thrive with little resistance?
How effective is the age restriction in nightclubs in keeping out minors?
How effective is the punishment for committing rape crimes to stop the crimes?
Do the mythical Amazon women exist and are the stories about them true?
How have nationalism and religious movements fuelled the rise of banditry and terrorism?
To what extent does social media act as a unifying factor against unpopular opinion?
Why do relationships begin to decline after the event of legal marriage?
What is the best way to compensate wrongly convicted prisoners?
The legality of prostitution; is its legality a major cause for its rising significance?
Is the theory of equality practiced among different classes of people in society?
What are the effects of the wrong sex education on growing children?
Why is the LGBTQ community one of the most controversial and misunderstood communities today?
What are the disparities between modern and traditional nationalism?
What are the best ways to handle bullying and social discrimination in schools so that they don’t affect learning kids?
Should teachers get better compensation for the roles they play?
How does PTSD affect a person’s physical, social, and emotional life?
What would be the repercussion if DNA testing is made compulsory upon the birth of a baby?
How impartial and feasible is revenue allocation between the rural and urban sections of the state?
Do people with disabilities appreciate pity, or would they rather be treated equally?
In the 21st century, have the voting rights of people been respected to the maximum?
How do victims of forceful child marriage cope with their reality?
Is the practice of using bizarre means to seek attention on social media becoming a gradual norm?
Is the method of physical punishment to discipline children more effective than other methods?
Is online dating a proven means of finding love?
How can language be a uniting factor, and in what ways has this proven to be effective?
Should politics be actively included in the school curriculum?
What rights do social media owners have to restrict activities on their platform, and how well have they utilized this right?
Are there still practices of exchanging sex for grades or jobs even in highly professional environments?
Is mass media harassment still a common occurrence?
In line with the basic rights of children to education, should all schools be made public, and should private schools eradicate the principle of paying tuition fees?
Are the superstitions of extraordinary humans with unique abilities built on past and current realities?
Is the practice of the male proposing marriage to the female in a relationship a form of gender inequality?
What are the deliberate measures that humankind could take to avoid global warming and its effects?
Do you have to spend so much money to eat healthily?
What is the importance of making school children dress in uniform attire
What is the traditional meaning of taking tea in Chinese culture, and how does it rob off in their art?
Have secret societies always had the aura of mysticism around them; how have they managed to stand the test of time?
Should the attention of rape prevention be focused on dressing the girl child, or should males also be educated?
How can we better adapt to the changing times of the pandemic?
What are the mental side effects of arranged marriages on both parties concerned?
What are the best possible ways to handle and curb bad parenting?
In what ways can people of the world cohabit peacefully?
Do people outgrow their phobias?
Why are feminine men often discriminated against?
Does the male gender have to battle gender discrimination as much as the female gender does?
Do exercises have as many negative effects as they have positive effects?
Should the issue of open sexuality be given much concern?
Do people enjoy dieting for the act in itself?
Are there hidden mysteries behind the big bang theory?
Do constant users of antidepressants suffer any negative side effects?
What are the differences between the parenting patterns of the wealthy and that of the opposite class?
How many efforts are celebrities willing to put into achieving the perfect appearance?
What are some of the most unique collections that exist in human history?
In what ways can the judgemental attitude toward physically challenged people be changed for the better?
How does the smuggling of contrabands still thrive?
Is social interaction an effective tool for tackling trauma?
Can you be an unintentional abuser?
How does one adapt to speaking new languages without trying?
Can vegetarians cope with non-vegetarians?
Why do people practice religion?
Do hospital bills deter people From having routine checkups?
What does the concept of atheism connote?
How can we encourage athletes who can no longer perform due to injuries?
How do people battling severe anxiety carry out their daily activities?
Should there be a legal age for marriage?
Why do people still smoke irrespective of the health risk?
How do Minors get away with fake IDs?
Do interviews always have to be scary?
What are the meanings behind some internet slang?
Do babies understand each other when they blab?

Some Sociology Questions About Race

Despite attempts to educate people on racism, the ideology and character traits of racism persist; why is this so?
Can racism be eradicated when tribalism and ethnicity still thrive within people of the same race?
The most common racist problems are the disparities between whites and blacks. Are other racial groups also affected by this problem?
How best can mankind begin to correct a dysfunctional racial ideology already brewing among our young ones?
Does addressing racism only count when the situation is extreme?
Is the scenario of having a global setting where the racial features of a person are not discriminated against achievable?
What are the historical misconceptions that are responsible for fuelling racism in present times?
What are the effects of labeling some neighborhoods as “black neighborhoods” and some others as “white neighborhoods”?
Are some sensitive feuds between citizens and law enforcers of different races justifiable, or the result of a silent racial battle?
Which countries are tagged as the most racists, and what are the reasons for this conclusion?
How does racism affect global development in general?

A sociology research question should give your research purpose and help you understand what problem you’re trying to address. For instance, sociological questions about race would channel your research on the aspect of racism that you aim to tackle.

100 Sociology Research Topics You Can Use Right Now

Sociology is a study of society, relationships, and culture. It can include multiple topics—ranging from class and social mobility to the Internet and marriage traditions. Research in sociology is used to inform policy makers , educators , businesses , social workers , non-profits , etc.

Below are 100 sociology research topics you can use right now, divided by general topic headings. Feel free to adapt these according to your specific interest. You'll always conduct more thorough and informed research if it's a topic you're passionate about.

Art, Food, Music, and Culture

Does art imitate life or does life imitate art?
How has globalization changed local culture?
What role does food play in cultural identity?
Does technology use affect people's eating habits?
How has fast food affected society?
How can clean eating change a person's life for the better?
Should high-sugar drinks be banned from school campuses?
How can travel change a person for the better?
How does music affect the thoughts and actions of teenagers?
Should performance artists be held partially responsible if someone is inspired by their music to commit a crime?
What are some examples of cultural misappropriation?
What role does music play in cultural identity?

Social Solutions and Cultural Biases

What (if any) are the limits of free speech in a civil society?
What are some reasonable solutions to overpopulation?
What are some ways in which different types of media content influence society's attitudes and behaviors?
What is the solution to stop the rise of homegrown terrorism in the U.S.?
Should prescription drug companies be allowed to advertise directly to consumers?
Is the global warming movement a hoax? Why or why not?
Should the drinking age be lowered?
Should more gun control laws be enacted in the U.S.?
What bias exists against people who are obese?
Should polygamy be legal in the U.S.? Why or why not?
Should there be a legal penalty for using racial slurs?
Should the legal working age of young people be raised or lowered?
Should the death penalty be used in all cases involving first-degree murder?
Should prisons be privately owned? Why or why not?
What is privilege? How is it defined and how can it be used to gain access to American politics and positions of power?
How are women discriminated against in the workplace?
What role does feminism play in current American politics?
What makes a patriot?
Compare/analyze the social views of Plato and Aristotle
How has labor migration changed America?
What important skills have been lost in an industrialized West?
Is the #MeToo movement an important one? Why or why not?
What conflict resolution skills would best serve us in the present times?
How can violence against women be dealt with to lower incidence rates?
Should students be allowed to take any subject they want in High School and avoid the ones they don't like?
How should bullies be dealt with in our country's schools?
Do standardized tests improve education or have the opposite effect?
Should school children be forced to go through metal detectors?
What is the best teacher/student ratio for enhanced learning in school?
Do school uniforms decrease teasing and bullying? If so, how?
Should teachers make more money?
Should public education be handled through private enterprises (like charter schools)?
Should religious education be given priority over academic knowledge?
How can schools help impoverished students in ways that won't embarrass them?
What are ethical values that should be considered in education?
Is it the state's role or the parents' role to educate children? Or a combination of both?
Should education be given more political priority than defense and war?
What would a perfect educational setting look like? How would it operate and what subjects would be taught?

Marriage and Family

How should a "family" be defined? Can it be multiple definitions?
What is a traditional role taken on by women that would be better handled by a man (and vice versa)?
How has marriage changed in the United States?
What are the effects of divorce on children?
Is there a negative effect on children who are adopted by a family whose ethnicity is different than their own?
Can children receive all they need from a single parent?
Does helicopter parenting negatively affect children?
Is marriage outdated?
Should teens have access to birth control without their parents' permission?
Should children be forced to show physical affection (hugs, etc.) to family members they're uncomfortable around?
What are the benefits (or negative impact) of maintaining traditional gender roles in a family?
Are social networks safe for preteens and teens? Why or why not?
Should the government have a say in who can get married?
What (if any) are the benefits of arranged marriages?
What are the benefits for (or negative impact on) children being adopted by LGBTQ couples?
How long should two people date before they marry?
Should children be forced to be involved in activities (such as sports, gymnastics, clubs, etc.), even when they'd rather sit at home and play video games all day?
Should parents be required to take a parenting class before having children?
What are potential benefits to being married but choosing not to have children?

Generational

Should communities take better care of their elderly? How?
What are some generational differences among Generations X, Y, and Z?
What benefits do elderly people get from interaction with children?
How has Generation Y changed the country so far?
What are the differences in communication styles between Generation X and Generation Y (Millennials)?
Why could we learn from our elders that could not be learned from books?
Should the elderly live with their immediate family (children and grandchildren)? How would this resolve some of our country's current problems?
What are some positive or negative consequences to intergenerational marriage?

Sociology explores themes of community and relationships.

Spiritualism, religion, and superstition

Why do some people believe in magic?
What is the difference between religion and spiritualism?
Should a government be a theocracy? Why or why not?
How has religion helped (or harmed) our country?
Should religious leaders be able to support a particular candidate from their pulpit?
How have religious cults shaped the nation?
Should students at religious schools be forced to take state tests?
How has our human connection with nature changed while being trapped in crowded cities?
Which generation from the past 200 years made the biggest impact on culture with their religious practice and beliefs? Explain your answer.

Addiction and Mental Health

How should our society deal with addicts?
What are ethical values that should be considered in mental health treatment?
Should mental health be required coverage on all insurance policies?
Is mental health treatment becoming less stigmatized?
How would better access to mental health change our country?
What are some things we're addicted to as a society that are not seen as "addiction," per se?
Should medicinal marijuana be made legal?
What are some alternative treatments for mental health and wellness instead of antidepressants?
Has social media helped or harmed our society?
Are video games addictive for young people and what should be done to curb the addiction?
Should all recreational drugs be made legal?
How has mental health treatment changed in the past 20 years?
Should recreational marijuana be made legal?
How is family counseling a good option for families going through conflict?

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101 Sociology Research Topics That Make an Impact

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Do you need to write a paper for a sociology class and aren't sure what to write about? Review this big list of impactful sociology research topics for inspiration. Whether you choose one of these topics or they spur another idea, you're sure to come up with a great basis for your research project.

Culture and Society Sociology Research Topics

Sociologists study culture and society, so there are many great ideas for sociology research related to these broad areas.

long term impact of cultural appropriation
impact of media on human behavior and attitude
key social justice issues impacting society
factors contributing to extreme polarization in society
impact of sensationalized media coverage and perceptions of current events
how political differences impact family relationships and friendships
militarized approach to policing
rise of hate groups in society
association between religion and political affiliation
evolution and impact of cancel culture
public distrust in elected officials and political appointees
senior citizens staying in the workforce beyond traditional retirement age
adult children caring for their aging parents while also caring for their own children
unique work-life separation challenges faced by those who work from home

Relationship-Related Sociology Research Topics

Relationships are ideal subject matter for sociology papers. There are many options to consider, including subjects related to family, marriage, dating, and friendships.

impact of social media on human relationships
factors that contribute to spousal abuse
characteristics of childhood friendships that last a lifetime
impact of the industrial revolution on family structure
how marriage has evolved over time
unique challenges of interracial or multiethnic marriages
pros and cons of arranged marriages
relationship factors that commonly lead to divorce
prevalence of shared custody arrangements with children alternating weeks with each parent
impact of living together prior to marriage on long-term relationship success
impact of infertility on marriage success
unique challenges of utilizing a surrogate to carry one's baby
married couples who opt to refrain from having children
single adults who seek to have children without a co-parent
impact of polyamorous relationships on intimacy
impact of birth order (youngest child, middle child, oldest child) on behavior
causes and impact of helicopter parenting

Education Topics for Sociology Papers

Sociologists are very interested in topics related to all levels of education, from preschool through college and beyond. If you're interested in the impact of education on society, you're sure to find some of the topics listed below to be fascinating.

impact of preschool on success in elementary school
relationship between socioeconomic status and success in school
extent to which poor families depend on the school system to provide food for children
differences in school quality based on demographics of the population served
homeschool student outcomes compared to classroom-based learning
impact of inclusion on academic outcomes for students with learning disabilities
prevalence of bias in state-approved K-12 curricula
ensuring equality for schoolchildren from economically disadvantaged backgrounds
role of in-person school attendance on development of social skills in children
relationship between success in K-12 and success in college
extent to which standardized admissions exams predict success in college
impact of peer pressure on schoolchildren

Race and Ethnicity Sociology Research Topics

Sociologists often research societal factors related to race or ethnicity. If this subject matter interests you, there are plenty of options to consider.

impact of racial bias in the workplace
lack of minority representation in leadership roles
racial profiling by law enforcement
code-switching as a mechanism for fitting in with mainstream/majority population
occurrence of officer-involved shootings by race or ethnic group
impact of unconscious bias related to race and ethnicity
how race and ethnicity are represented in the media
separating children from parents attempting to enter a foreign country to seek asylum
extent of migrant assimilation into the culture of their new country of residence
ways immigrants stay connected to homeland culture while becoming part of a new country
extent of immigrant responsibility for financially supporting extended family members in their homeland
resistance to equality by the mainstream majority population
impact of gerrymandering voting districts on election outcomes

Gender-Related Sociology Research Ideas

Conducting sociological research related to gender is a timely choice of subject matter for your research paper. Whether you're exploring gender in the workplace or in another context, the results of your research are sure to be fascinating.

types of sex-based workplace discrimination
impact of bro culture on women's rights
prevalence of the glass ceiling for women seeking executive roles
pay differentials for women vs. men performing similar jobs
gender stereotypes commonly presented in the media and entertainment industry
unique challenges faced by men in jobs traditionally held by women
common difficulties experienced by women in jobs traditionally held by men
ways to reduce violence against women
same-gender co-parenting considerations and concerns
unique challenges faced by individuals who are transgender
incorporating gender-neutral pronouns and other terms into everyday interactions

Sociology research topic gender in the workplace

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Drugs and Crime Topics for Sociology Papers

Sociologists often explore factors related to criminal activity and drug use, both from the perspective of what causes problems associated with these and how they impact people and society overall.

occurrence of opioid addiction based on population demographics
change in crime rate in areas where marijuana has been legalized
impact of unemployment rate on crime
amount of jail and prison space used for inmates with only minor drug offenses
association between drug abuse and prostitution
long-term success rate of addiction treatment programs
impact of methadone treatment on overcoming addiction
association between family socioeconomic status and juvenile crime
factors leading to gang affiliation or membership
drug of choice based on socioeconomic status

Mental Health-Related Sociology Research Ideas

Many factors of interest to sociologists can be associated with or have an impact on mental health. If its aspect of sociology interests you, consider writing a research paper on one of the topics below.

impact of bullying on mental health
impact of competitive sports on kids' mental health
recognizing the signs of substance abuse
impact of medical marijuana use on depression in terminally ill patients
association between social media usage and social anxiety or depression
impact of school shootings on student, faculty, staff, and parent mental health
ways to overcome the stigma associated with mental illness and/or mental health treatment
relationship between mental illness and homelessness
ways to improve access to mental health care for those living in poverty
challenges of transitioning out of inpatient mental health care to independent living
difficulties associated with managing a mental health condition on a day to day basis
mechanisms people use to cope with or manage daily stressors
relationship between social media usage and narcissism

Health and Wellness Sociology Papers Topics

Mental health topics aren't the only health-related factors relevant to the field of sociology. Physical health and wellness also have important sociological implications.

high cost of health insurance and its impact on healthcare options for the working poor
limited access to quality healthcare for those with lower incomes
limited access to prenatal care by impoverished expectant mothers
short- and long-term physical and psychological impacts of living with a chronic illness
how herd immunity is impacted when parents choose not to follow medical recommendations for vaccinating their children
dietary differences as a function of socioeconomic status
health impact of eating a diet high in processed foods with little nutritional value
impact of fad diets on health outcomes
negative health outcomes associated with a sedentary lifestyle
impact of excessive screen time for work and/or entertainment on eyesight
impact on exposure to blue light from electronic devices on sleep habits

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Writing Your Sociology Paper

Now that you have a lot of sociology papers topics ideas, the next step will be to choose one subject about which to write. As you prepare to write your paper, review this list of key sociology terms and concepts . Then, get ready to use your sociological imagination so you can consider the issue you're researching from multiple perspectives. From there, you'll just need to apply what you know about how to write a research paper . You'll be on your way to writing an impactful paper that imparts important information.

Research Topics & Ideas: Sociology

50 Topic Ideas To Kickstart Your Research Project

Research topics and ideas about sociology

If you’re just starting out exploring sociology-related topics for your dissertation, thesis or research project, you’ve come to the right place. In this post, we’ll help kickstart your research by providing a hearty list of research ideas , including real-world examples from recent sociological studies.

PS – This is just the start…

We know it’s exciting to run through a list of research topics, but please keep in mind that this list is just a starting point . These topic ideas provided here are intentionally broad and generic , so keep in mind that you will need to develop them further. Nevertheless, they should inspire some ideas for your project.

To develop a suitable research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , and a viable plan to fill that gap. If this sounds foreign to you, check out our free research topic webinar that explores how to find and refine a high-quality research topic, from scratch. Alternatively, consider our 1-on-1 coaching service .

Sociology-Related Research Topics

Analyzing the social impact of income inequality on urban gentrification.
Investigating the effects of social media on family dynamics in the digital age.
The role of cultural factors in shaping dietary habits among different ethnic groups.
Analyzing the impact of globalization on indigenous communities.
Investigating the sociological factors behind the rise of populist politics in Europe.
The effect of neighborhood environment on adolescent development and behavior.
Analyzing the social implications of artificial intelligence on workforce dynamics.
Investigating the impact of urbanization on traditional social structures.
The role of religion in shaping social attitudes towards LGBTQ+ rights.
Analyzing the sociological aspects of mental health stigma in the workplace.
Investigating the impact of migration on family structures in immigrant communities.
The effect of economic recessions on social class mobility.
Analyzing the role of social networks in the spread of disinformation.
Investigating the societal response to climate change and environmental crises.
The role of media representation in shaping public perceptions of crime.
Analyzing the sociocultural factors influencing consumer behavior.
Investigating the social dynamics of multigenerational households.
The impact of educational policies on social inequality.
Analyzing the social determinants of health disparities in urban areas.
Investigating the effects of urban green spaces on community well-being.
The role of social movements in shaping public policy.
Analyzing the impact of social welfare systems on poverty alleviation.
Investigating the sociological aspects of aging populations in developed countries.
The role of community engagement in local governance.
Analyzing the social effects of mass surveillance technologies.

Sociology Research Ideas (Continued)

Investigating the impact of gentrification on small businesses and local economies.
The role of cultural festivals in fostering community cohesion.
Analyzing the societal impacts of long-term unemployment.
Investigating the role of education in cultural integration processes.
The impact of social media on youth identity and self-expression.
Analyzing the sociological factors influencing drug abuse and addiction.
Investigating the role of urban planning in promoting social integration.
The impact of tourism on local communities and cultural preservation.
Analyzing the social dynamics of protest movements and civil unrest.
Investigating the role of language in cultural identity and social cohesion.
The impact of international trade policies on local labor markets.
Analyzing the role of sports in promoting social inclusion and community development.
Investigating the impact of housing policies on homelessness.
The role of public transport systems in shaping urban social life.
Analyzing the social consequences of technological disruption in traditional industries.
Investigating the sociological implications of telecommuting and remote work trends.
The impact of social policies on gender equality and women’s rights.
Analyzing the role of social entrepreneurship in addressing societal challenges.
Investigating the effects of urban renewal projects on community identity.
The role of public art in urban regeneration and social commentary.
Analyzing the impact of cultural diversity on education systems.
Investigating the sociological factors driving political apathy among young adults.
The role of community-based organizations in addressing urban poverty.
Analyzing the social impacts of large-scale sporting events on host cities.
Investigating the sociological dimensions of food insecurity in affluent societies.

Recent Studies & Publications: Sociology

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a research topic, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual sociology-related studies to see how this all comes together in practice.

Below, we’ve included a selection of recent studies to help refine your thinking. These are actual studies, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

Social system learning process (Subekti et al., 2022)
Sociography: Writing Differently (Kilby & Gilloch, 2022)
The Future of ‘Digital Research’ (Cipolla, 2022).
A sociological approach of literature in Leo N. Tolstoy’s short story God Sees the Truth, But Waits (Larasati & Irmawati, 2022)
Teaching methods of sociology research and social work to students at Vietnam Trade Union University (Huu, 2022)
Ideology and the New Social Movements (Scott, 2023)
The sociological craft through the lens of theatre (Holgersson, 2022).
An Essay on Sociological Thinking, Sociological Thought and the Relationship of a Sociologist (Sönmez & Sucu, 2022)
How Can Theories Represent Social Phenomena? (Fuhse, 2022)
Hyperscanning and the Future of Neurosociology (TenHouten et al., 2022)
Sociology of Wisdom: The Present and Perspectives (Jijyan et al., 2022). Collective Memory (Halbwachs & Coser, 2022)
Sociology as a scientific discipline: the post-positivist conception of J. Alexander and P. Kolomi (Vorona, 2022)
Murder by Usury and Organised Denial: A critical realist perspective on the liberating paradigm shift from psychopathic dominance towards human civilisation (Priels, 2022)
Analysis of Corruption Justice In The Perspective of Legal Sociology (Hayfa & Kansil, 2023)
Contributions to the Study of Sociology of Education: Classical Authors (Quentin & Sophie, 2022)
Inequality without Groups: Contemporary Theories of Categories, Intersectional Typicality, and the Disaggregation of Difference (Monk, 2022)

As you can see, these research topics are a lot more focused than the generic topic ideas we presented earlier. So, for you to develop a high-quality research topic, you’ll need to get specific and laser-focused on a specific context with specific variables of interest. In the video below, we explore some other important things you’ll need to consider when crafting your research topic.

Get 1-On-1 Help

If you’re still unsure about how to find a quality research topic, check out our Research Topic Kickstarter service, which is the perfect starting point for developing a unique, well-justified research topic.

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The Top 10 Most Interesting Sociology Research Topics

Writing a good sociology paper depends on the quality of your sociology research topics. Whether you want to focus on social relationships, the development of our society, human health, or socioeconomic issues, you need to pick the most relevant sociology research questions.

In this article, we will present some interesting sociology research paper topics, as well as provide you with a few examples of sociology research questions that will hopefully inspire your next paper.

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What makes a strong sociology research topic.

A strong sociology research topic needs to be current, relevant, and interesting for you. Society and its challenges are ever-changing so your topic needs to be up to date. You also need to make sure your sociology topic is relevant and interesting, especially to you. Writing about something you like always ensures better research and outcomes.

Tips for Choosing a Sociology Research Topic

Brainstorm. The first step to finding the perfect sociology research paper topic is to brainstorm. Write down all of your ideas, check out topics from previous classes, and look for other ideas online.
Write a list of keywords. If there are a few topics that interest you more than others, write down a list of keywords that relate to them. This might give you some ideas for an even more specific sociology topic and help you come up with relevant research questions.
Choose the topic that inspires you most. If you choose a topic that interests and inspires you, chances are you’ll end up with deeper research, a high level of detail, and a paper that you’re proud of.
Do bibliographical research. Bibliographical research is how you find out if your topic is current and relevant. You’ll want to know exactly what’s been said on your topic and what relevant questions have been previously addressed on the matter.
Identify the main questions that need addressing. When choosing your sociological topic, make sure to think about different questions you would like to address with your research. This might help you determine whether or not the topic in question is right for you.

What’s the Difference Between a Research Topic and a Research Question?

A research topic constitutes a specific niche or area that’s part of a broader general theme. In sociology, there are several different research topics to explore. An example of a relevant and current sociological research topic could be the implementation of gender studies for children.

A research question stems out of the research topic as an issue or problem that needs to be addressed by research. In this case, an example of a sociology research question could be “Should children be exposed to gender studies from a young age?”.

How to Create Strong Sociology Research Questions

Strong sociological research questions take social issues and examine their social meaning and patterns. Once you pick a topic that you like, try narrowing it down to one or two manageable questions that you would like to explore and make sure they’re sociological in nature. The goal is to try and find patterns and meaning for social issues in groups.

2. The Effects of Divorce on Children

Children who have gone through the divorce of their parents may be prone to experience some issues regarding their behavior, social relationships, and mental health. Commonly, these children may display deviant behavior, anger issues, trouble communicating, anxiety, and other issues.

3. The Role of Religious Education in a Modern Society

In a world that’s becoming less religious with time, religious education might seem like a waste of time. However, these types of classes can still be helpful for personal development and provide insight into the different cultures and beliefs that surround us.

4. The Association Between Social Media Usage and Depression in Children

Social media platforms, such as Instagram, can be toxic to the mental health of children and teenagers. Having to grow up in this Internet era is causing children to have depression, anxiety, body image issues, and a lack of social skills. Interesting research questions regarding this topic might try to understand how to reduce social media’s negative effects on mental health.

5. The Phenomenon of Bullying and Aggression Among Teenagers

Acting out is a part of life for most growing teenagers, but recurrent violent behavior among teens might be caused by other external factors. Being victims of violence themselves, bullying, and substance abuse are only a few of the factors behind the aggressive behavior of teenagers today.

6. Factors That Contribute to Abusive Marriages

There are several factors that might contribute to abusive marriages, such as adhering to strict gender roles and family values, abusing substances, and witnessing violence at home. This topic makes way for many other interesting research topics like knowing what causes someone to be an abuser or what major signs indicate a relationship can turn violent.

7. Patterns of Human Behavior Online

The field of digital sociology focuses on the social implications of digital media use. This field of study tries to understand the patterns of human behavior behind new social networks, virtual communities, and cyber crime. It is also responsible for trying to predict people’s personalities through their pattern of online behavior.

8. The Association Between Social Class and Child Obesity

Social class, or socioeconomic status, is one of the many factors associated with childhood obesity . Exploring this sociology research topic could lead to interesting questions regarding ways to combat childhood obesity in low-income families, for example.

9. The Impact of Infertility on a Married Couple

Infertility is a medical condition that affects many couples and is surrounded by heavy social implications. It can negatively impact a couple’s life by causing emotional distress, frustration, low-self esteem, and feelings of worthlessness. Possible research questions might aim to understand why this still happens and what can be done.

10. The Impact of Bullying on Mental Health

We might think of bullying as something that happens during school years, but its repercussions may follow those who were afflicted for the rest of their lives. Bullying can affect mental health by causing anxiety, depression, suicidal thoughts, agoraphobia, and more.

Sociology Research Questions

How can we overcome the stigma against mental disorders?
Should children be exposed to gender studies from a young age?
How did common gender stereotypes appear and how truthful are they?
Should sexual education be a part of school programs?
Should ethical values be reconsidered throughout the healthcare system?

Choosing the Right Sociology Research Topic

Coming up with strong ideas for sociology research doesn’t need to be hard. As long as you keep up with current and relevant trends and choose a focus that inspires you, you’ll have the right topic idea in no time.

You can choose your sociology research topics on social relationships, issues among teenagers, or deviant behavior. What matters is that you dig deep into the topic to extract answers to important questions.

Sociology Research Topics FAQ

There are several things you can do with a degree in sociology . Most sociology majors tend to pursue careers as sociologists, research analysts, human services educators, and social or community service managers.

Yes, a sociology career is worth it. Sociologists earn a mean annual wage of $93,420 , according to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics. Their occupational outlook is projected to grow by five percent , between 2020 and 2030, which is considered slower than the average career. These figures are likely to differ between sociology career paths.

A sociology associate degree is a short, general degree that covers the basics of sociology. While it isn’t as extensive as a four-year degree, it still covers the fundamental principles of sociology and various topics across the field.

The best universities to get a sociology degree include Rutgers University, California-Irvine University, and the University of Illinois at Chicago. However, there are many other colleges that will provide you with an excellent education in sociology.

About us: Career Karma is a platform designed to help job seekers find, research, and connect with job training programs to advance their careers. Learn about the CK publication .

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4.2. Types of Research Questions

Learning Objectives

Define empirical and normative questions and provide examples of each.
Understand the differences between exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory studies and research questions.

As you move from a research topic to a research question, there are some considerations that should guide how you pose your question. First, social scientists are best equipped to answer empirical questions —questions about the facts of the world around us—as opposed to normative or ethical questions—questions about what we as a society should value. Empirical questions can be answered through research, but the answers to normative questions depend on people’s moral opinions. (To say something is “normative” means that it relates to our norms or standards—what we should do.) While research projects can inform how we make decisions about ethical issues, they cannot directly answer normative questions, which are fundamentally a matter of debate within communities and societies about what sorts of principles they want to uphold.

For example, a student in one of our methods classes wanted to research student athletes. Their original research question was: “Should college athletes be paid?” Outside of a research context, this is a great question—the matter of paying or not paying athletes affects the lives of millions of students, and it speaks to critical issues about what we as a society think a college education should entail, and what is a fair reward for the work people do. Unfortunately, this specific question is a normative one that we need to debate, not an empirical question that we can resolve with research. A tip-off here is that it begins with the word “should,” a normative phrasing that you generally want to avoid in research questions. The answer to such a question would be a series of moral arguments, based on the particular values the author and their audience hold in common.

It’s true that research can help us to make moral arguments. For example, if we learn how much money universities make from college sports, or how all the work that athletes put into training and playing shapes their experience of college, that empirical knowledge could help us decide whether we believe student athletes are being exploited by their universities, and whether we believe they have a moral right to be paid for their labor. But then those questions would be our research questions, rather than the normative question of whether athletes “should” be paid.

Let’s consider another ethical question that research can inform but not answer: is SpongeBob SquarePants immoral? In 2012, a Ukrainian government commission began reviewing that cartoon show in response to complaints by a right-wing religious group that its depiction of depraved behaviors—such as SpongeBob’s regular practice of holding his male sidekick Patrick’s hand—amounted to the “promotion of homosexuality” (Marson 2012). (Before the government body was disbanded in 2015, the National Expert Commission of Ukraine on the Protection of Public Morality evaluated media to ensure television shows and other content adhered to the country’s morality laws regarding pornography and other controversial issues.) The agency called a special session to discuss SpongeBob and other suspect kids’ shows, though ultimately the eponymous sponge and his starfish companion stayed on Ukrainian TV. A decade earlier, SpongeBob had also drawn the ire of U.S. conservative groups for appearing with other popular cartoon characters in a music video intended to teach children about multiculturalism—which the advocacy group Focus on the Family said was “pro-homosexual” and served as an “insidious means” of “manipulating and potentially brainwashing kids” (Kirkpatrick 2005).

SpongeBob SquarePants and Patrick Star hold hands while smiling.

Can research answer the question of whether SpongeBob SquarePants is immoral? No, because questions of morality are ethical, not empirical. Your family members and pundits on TV can rant about sponge creatures all they want, and they can make better or worse moral arguments for their positions, but this is not a question a social scientist should build a study around. That said, we sociologists could certainly choose to study the public opinions and cultural meanings that surround a popular show like SpongeBob SquarePants . We could conduct experiments measuring the detrimental effects that watching the show has on children’s behavior. We could even use surveys to find out precisely how many people in the United States find SpongeBob and/or Patrick repugnant. But sadly, we could not settle the question of whether SpongeBob is indeed morally reprehensible, given that it is not an empirical question.

As you start designing your study, your choice of a particular empirical question will also be influenced by your study’s general purpose. There are three approaches that a research study will typically take: exploration , description , or explanation . These are not mutually exclusive categories, and a study may fall into multiple categories.

Exploratory research is often conducted in new areas of inquiry, where the goals of the research are: (1) to scope out the magnitude or extent of a particular phenomenon; (2) to generate some initial ideas or hunches about that phenomenon; or (3) to test the feasibility of undertaking a more extensive study. For instance, if the citizens of a country are generally dissatisfied with their government’s policies during an economic recession, sociologists could create and implement new surveys to measure the extent of that dissatisfaction and probe for possible causes of it, such as anxieties about unemployment, inflation, or higher taxes. This research may not lead to a very accurate understanding of the target problem, but it may be worthwhile nonetheless in order to get a preliminary sense of its nature and extent, serving as a stepping stone to more in-depth research.

Descriptive research is directed at making careful observations and detailed documentation of a phenomenon of interest. Because these observations follow the scientific method, they hopefully are more accurate than casual observations by untrained people. Much exploratory research overlaps with descriptive research: we often want to describe the magnitude of an emerging problem as a starting point in understanding it. Yet descriptive research is also helpful to conduct on an ongoing basis, and it can involve well-studied topics.

A common type of descriptive research is the work of government agencies to tabulate statistics about the population. In the United States, for example, the Bureau of Labor Statistics uses survey questions to estimate employment by sector every month. The U.S. Census Bureau regularly conducts demographic surveys that allow policymakers and social scientists to track the growth of a wide range of racial and ethnic groups over many years. In general, government agencies, corporations, nonprofits, and other organizations are in great need of such descriptive research so that they understand the circumstances that their citizens, clients, and members are experiencing. They can use these assessments to create new programs or policies to meet people’s needs or preferences. For that reason, if you decide to use your sociological research skills in a nonacademic setting (as described in Chapter 2: Using Sociology in Everyday Life ), you will likely be doing a lot of descriptive research.

That said, descriptive research is also a large component of many studies that academic sociologists do. For example, a sociologist’s ethnographic study of gang activities among adolescent youth in urban areas might entail detailed observations of the children’s activities. A study of religious practices in immigrant communities might chronicle the evolution of those practices over time. In conducting this descriptive research, sociologists are gathering essential information about what is actually going on in the social spaces they observe.

Explanatory research seeks explanations of observed behaviors, problems, or other phenomena. You might think of the difference between descriptive and explanatory research in this way: while the former seeks answers to basic “what,” “where,” “who,” and “when” types of questions, the latter examines questions that are more complex—whether or not one concept affects another, and “why” and “how” those concepts are related. Put another way, explanatory research attempts to “connect the dots” in research, by identifying certain important factors and showing how they lead to specific outcomes. Let’s consider the hypothetical studies we discussed at the end of the last paragraph in this light. For an explanatory study about urban gangs, sociologists might seek to understand the reasons that adolescent youth in urban areas get involved with gangs. For an explanatory study of immigrant religious practices, researchers might examine why these practices evolve in the ways they do within particular local or national contexts.

Two heavily tattooed men standing in the street and baring their forearms.

Most studies you read in the academic literature will be explanatory. Why is that? Explanatory research tries to identify causal relationships that are generalizable across space and time. That means the findings of such research should matter to many people: because we’re learning something fundamental about the relationships between the concepts we’re interested in, our conclusions aren’t limited to a one-off situation or scenario. It also means our findings are actionable: because we know what causes what, we can act individually or collectively to promote, discourage, or alter the phenomenon we’re studying. In other words, explanatory research gives us a better sense of how and why society operates the way it does, rather than just describing what particular aspects of society look like.

Arriving at compelling explanations for social phenomena requires especially strong theoretical and empirical skills. You need to have a sophisticated understanding of how a social process operates and rule out any alternative stories, and you need to collect empirically sound data and rigorously analyze it. For these reasons, sociologists often see explanatory research as a “higher” form of research, one that is exceedingly challenging to do well. At the same time, they will frequently engage in some amount of exploratory and descriptive research for any given study, particularly during its initial phases. Indeed, these other approaches can be especially important in helping us understand a relatively new or hard-to-study phenomenon: without good descriptive research to draw from, any theorizing we do will be built on shaky empirical foundations.

Deciding on the primary purpose of your research will shape the study you ultimately propose and conduct. If you are doing academic work, your instructor or advisor may push you to be less “descriptive” in your approach, and to focus more on seeking out explanations for what you observe. If you are studying a topic that so far has generated only a small amount of literature, however, you may very well want to conduct exploratory research to generate plausible theories, or descriptive research to understand the scale or characteristics of a particular phenomenon.

The overall purpose of your research will also inform the research questions that you pose. Probably the easiest questions to think of are descriptive research questions. For example, “What is the average student debt load of college graduates?” is a descriptive question—and an important one. In this case, you aren’t trying to identify a causal relationship. You’re simply trying to describe how much debt students carry. When you seek to answer a descriptive research question like this one, you might find yourself generating descriptive statistics —counting the number of instances of a phenomenon, or determining an average, median, or percentage. You can also pursue descriptive research questions using qualitative methods. For instance, you might conduct in-depth interviews or focus groups to gauge the public’s view of student debt, describing the range of opinions on that subject.

In the next section, we’ll focus on explanatory research questions. We will detail one strategy for developing questions based on whether your study is using quantitative methods or qualitative methods. We’ll also connect those two types of research questions to two kinds of empirical analysis—deduction and induction.

Key Takeaways

Empirical questions can be answered through the gathering and analyzing of data. Normative questions have to do with people’s moral values and opinions and can only be informed, but not answered, through empirical research.
Exploratory research focuses on tentatively understanding new and emerging phenomena by gathering details and formulating plausible theories. Descriptive research involves a careful measurement of what a phenomenon looks like. Explanatory research tries to understand whether and to what extent two concepts are causally related, and how and why they are related.
Descriptive questions are helpful for assessing current conditions for policy implementation and other purposes, but they do not investigate causal relationships between variables, which social scientists are often interested in.

The Craft of Sociological Research by Victor Tan Chen; Gabriela León-Pérez; Julie Honnold; and Volkan Aytar is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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What is a Research Question?

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A research question is a statement that defines what is to be studied. It is the core of the research project, study, or literature review. Your research question focuses the study, determines the methodology, and guides all stages of inquiry, analysis, and reporting.

Your research question should...

Be focused
Identify the problem you're writing about
Establish significance

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Sociology Research Guide

Source Selection & Evaluation

Characteristics of a Research Question

Topic selection, topic verification.

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Research questions have a few characteristics.

They're open-ended . (They can't be answered with a simple yes or no response.)
They're often measurable through quantitative data or qualitative measures.
They summarize the issue/topic being researched.
They may take a fresh look at an issue or try to solve a problem.

In addition, research questions may . . .

answer how or why questions.
fit within a cause/effect structure.
have a pro/con format.
introduce an argument that is then supported with evidence .

Topic selection is the process you use to choose your topic. This is the more creative side of topic development. There are several steps to this process.

Brainstorming. Start a list of topics that interest you and are within the guidelines of the assignment. They could be personal, professional, or academic interests. Researching something that interests you is much more enjoyable and will keep you interested in the research process. Write down related words or phrases. These will be useful at the research stage.
Reshaping the topic. Sometimes you'll choose a topic that's either too narrow or too broad. Find out ways to broaden or narrow the topic so that it's a better size to fit your research assignment. This is where Wikipedia and generic Google searches are okay. You can use those sites to get other ideas of how your topic idea may work. Perform some simple searches to see what information is out there. (Just be sure not to cite Wikipedia or Google.)
Looking at the body of research. Once you have a topic that you think is a good size, take a look at the body of research that's available for the topic. Check in catalogs and databases. Look at reputable websites. You want to be sure that your topic has an adequate amount of research before you invest too much time into the idea.
Revising. Throughout this process, be prepared to revise your topic. Don't think that you have to keep the same topic that you started with. Topic revision happens all the time. In fact, we often develop better topics as a result of this revision!

Topic verification is the process you use to confirm your topic is viable for research. This is the more technical side of topic development. There are also several steps to this process.

Using search strategies. Do some experimental searching in the databases using search strategies . Try different combinations to see what you find. Use your notes from your brainstorming to search for different synonyms or phrases.
Locating relevant and reliable information. At this stage, you want to see if you can find both a good quality and good quantity of sources. You don't need to read the entirety of the sources right now. Just read their abstracts and identifying information. Confirm that the sources you find support each other. Double-check the authority of the authors. This is the source evaluation stage.
Verifying information. Once you've confirmed that the sources are reliable and relevant, decide whether or not you can verify the information in the sources. If your sources corrobate each other, you have a good topic. In fact, even if they dispute each other, that is sometimes okay. It just depends on your topic's goal. However, if you cannot verify the reliability of any of your sources' information, then you may need to start over again with a new topic idea.
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Sociology 100: Sociological Theory (Van Natta)

Pre-Work (~10 minutes)
Lesson Plan for 2/6/24
Research is a Process - Overview

Step 1 - Your Research Question

Picking your topic is research (video tutorial), from topic to question (infographic), brainstorming keywords (infographic).

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Coming up with a research question can be challenging, but it's all part of the research process. In some cases, your instructor may give you a topic or in other cases, you may join a lab that is already working on a project with a defined research question, but if you are on your own, this page will give you some guidance.

Part of coming up with a manageable research question is also knowing what your "information need" is. In other words, what kinds of sources do you need to help you answer your question. See the subpage "Article Types" for more info.

Tip: Remember that the research process is non-linear and sometimes messy. You will need to search for and read (or at least skim) some information sources to know if your research question is going to be manageable. Skip to step 4 for some reading tips!

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Long description of "Brainstorming Keywords" for web accessibility

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Use broader or narrower terms and related words as synonyms
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Last Updated: Apr 22, 2024 9:27 PM
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500 Sociology Questions and Topics [Examples & Tips]

Sociology is a study that focuses on people’s interactions. It looks at structures and changes in social life. Any situation involving people can become a topic of sociology.

This article is designed to help high school and college students with sociology assignments. Whether you’re writing an essay, creating a presentation, or preparing for a debate, you will find this page useful. Continue reading to find a broad scope of sociology questions and topics. See how to nail a research paper on this subject regardless of the chosen idea. Besides, you’ll find sociological questions examples based on surveys such as questionnaires and interviews.

Teamwork makes the dream work! Let custom-writing.org team up with you. You will get your assignments done in the best way possible and all your sociological questions answered.

🔝 Top 10 Sociology Questions

⭐ Top 10 Sociological Questions Examples
📱 Social Media Topics
👪 Family Topics
🏺 Culture Topics
⛪ Religion Topics
🗣️ Sociolinguistic Topics
🏅 Sports Topics
😷 Medical Topics
🏙️ Urban Topics
🏫 Education Topics
👨👩 Topics on Gender
📈 About Surveys
📉 For Surveys
👥 Debate Topics
✅ Writing Tips

🔍 References

Should we lower the legal voting age?
What are the benefits of marriages?
Can school uniforms prevent bullying?
Should parenting classes be mandatory?
How does traveling influence your mindset?
What are the cons of standardized tests?
Can we make social networks safe for minors?
How does globalization affect indigenous cultures?
Do Millennials and Gen Z have different values?
What ethical values should be taught in schools?

⭐ Top 10 Sociological Questions Examples 2024

📱 sociological topics related to social media.

Social media helps people connect in all kinds of ways. Sociology’s primary focus is human interactions. Therefore, social media is the subject you’d want to look into. You can write about new behaviors or issues that have emerged online. Here are some great topic ideas for your essay.

Does social media answer the need for socializing among teenagers?
Online dating : pros and cons.
What behaviors are encouraged by Instagram influencers ?
Do social networks fulfill one’s need for self-realization?
Social media’s influence of children and teenagers.
Talk about the role of social networking for your circle of friends.
The effect of social media on offline socialization .
What needs does Facebook satisfy?
Does social media truly connect people?
What forms of relationship have appeared via online connections?
Discuss online socialization across the globe.

Online communication with extended family.
Discover the levels of social media usage across different generations.
What jobs emerged because of social networks?
Interactive media usage and depression levels among young adults.
Do social networks bridge the cultural divide between countries?
How did social media change business communication ?
Exposure of personal information: pros and cons.
Discover the way online camera filters affect users.
Social media’s influence in activism and revolution.
The significance of social networks during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Does Instagram cause anxiety among users?
Is it natural for modern people to socialize online?
Did online communication advance or degrade society?
The effect of social networks on the music industry .
The role of social media in attracting customers.
Discuss common behaviors in online groups.
Do chat rooms create an illusion of friendship?
Understanding problems of social media usage.
New behaviors that emerged through TikTok.
Analyze the meaning of social media followers.
The role of gender in interactions via social media.
Does online dialogue give an accurate image of the interlocutor?
How does self-promotion impact an individual?
What is the social meaning of microblogging?
The influence of memes on online socializing.
Social media and the accountability in organizations.
What issues appeared because of interactive media ?
Discover the demographic of a specific social network.
Social media as a tool in modern marketing.

👪 Sociology of the Family Research Topics

The institution of family stands at the core of society. It also provides space for various interactions. You can choose to write about the functions of a household. Alternatively, focus on conflicts and abusive family environments. Continue reading to find an exciting topic for your assignment.

Discuss the role of the family in children’s socialization .
The impact of divorce on family relationships.
Write about the way a household gives social identity to its members.
Why is it essential for a child to grow up in a family ?
Does the household structure contribute to social inequality ?
What can cause division between relatives?
The impact of an abusive house environment on a child’s social life.
What are the main social functions of a family ?
Discuss healthy marriage and family relationships .
Analyze the financial challenges of having a child.
Discuss types of communication used in a family.
Should couples be encouraged to get married ?
Discuss the American family.
Should parents be encouraged to have more than one child?
How can family increase the moral strength of an individual?
Do unhealthy relational patterns affect one’s social life?
Discover the way a child’s behavior reflects family dynamics.
Family happiness: definition and aspects.
What can lower divorce rates in the U.S.?
How can society protect its members from abusive relatives?
Is it possible to maintain a life-long faithfulness in marriage?
Examine the way some families determine their children’s career paths.
Family building in symbolic interactionism view.
Why do some people physically abuse family members?
What role do siblings play in each other’s socialization?
Cell phones and their effects on one’s family life.
Talk about maintaining good relationships with extended family .
Is professional success related to the household climate?
Discuss the role of family during wars.
Talk about implied gender roles in a household.
Pick a country and write about its attitude towards family.
Analyze family’s factors shaping children’s behavior.
Compare the attitude towards the elderly in various countries.
Why do some people still care about preserving a dynasty?
Discuss the role of the foster care system in modern society.
Families: single parent controversy.
How does family environment affect adopted children ?
Discuss the sociological impact of a child’s separation from parents .
Write about the benefits of having grandparents .
The societal impact of infidelity on family values.

🏺 Sociology Questions about Culture

Culture and society are inseparable. Let’s clarify these two terms. Culture refers to common beliefs, behaviors, and practices of a specific group. Meanwhile, the word “society” describes the social organization of a culture. The following questions can be used as topics for your assignment.

How do sports unite Americans?
Why are national holidays important?
Is the American education system accessible to all citizens?
Is having a car a must?
How does culture affect the fashion industry ?
What are the rules of modern etiquette?
Why is ethnocentrism harmful to society?
Can a person experience culture shock within their own country?
How can society achieve cultural relativism ?

What aspects caused the rise of the feminist movement?
Concept of friendship in American and French cultures.
What percentage of the U.S. population engages in high culture?
How did globalization affect the U.S.?
Analyze the role of food for culture.
Discuss culture wars in contemporary U.S. society.
What’s the significance of language in a civilization?
Which subculture is currently the most dominant?
Global consumer culture: theories and approaches.
What can individuals do to terminate racism?
Reflection of cultural identity through art.
Why do people still visit museums ?
The role of donuts in American food culture.
How does inequality manifest in modern society?
Why is cultural relativism important for Americans?
What factor drives people towards organized protests?
The role of music in boosting national pride.
Social time: the heartbeat of a culture.
What ancient traditions still exist in your culture?
Analyze a standard small talk in your environment.
How does individualistic culture affect the family structure ?
Why do people celebrate national history?
What role did freedom of speech play in American history?
Stages of grief: acceptance of death in diverse cultures.
What does it take to change the social structure of a nation?
What social aspects are unique for Southern and Northern states ?
Will society continue chasing the American dream?
What does the slang mean for Americans?
Will national arts continue to be preserved around the world?
Discuss specific features among cultures.
Analyze the way people connect through eating food together.

⛪ Sociology of Religion Topics for Essays

Religion refers to beliefs and practices that are considered sacred. Every world’s society has believed in some form of supernatural being. Discover the characteristics of a religion or its impact on society. Whether you’re preparing for an essay, quiz, or research project, these topics will be useful.

The role of faith in strengthening families.
Write about the way religion shapes society.
What religious rituals have been accepted by American culture?
Explain the structure of a church organization.
Discuss the connection between religion and ecology.
Do children have the right to choose a religion?
Is there a belief that is not welcomed in the U.S.?
Discover the influence of Christianity on American society.
What conflicts emerge between believers and atheists?
Does society treat religious people and atheists equally?
Write about meditation from a religious standpoint.
Explore the way churches care for the homeless.
What kind of social services do religious groups offer to the community?
Does the church help society solve the drug abuse problem?
Concepts of religion vs. science.
What impact do Sunday schools have on their students?
Write about religion in the light of functionalism theory.
Is it essential for a society to believe in the supernatural ?
The contexts of religion and violence.
Describe the way religion impacts one’s behavior.
What influence does the church have on social media?
Analyze the involvement of religious groups in the healthcare system.
Why are sects dangerous for society?
How do stereotypes about worship practices affect religious congregations?
Talk about the role of religion in national conflicts.
Can faith help a society overcome crisis?
What stereotypical connections exist between faith and race?
Analyze the social structure of a Muslim country.
Discuss social stigma related to religious practices.
Examine the way national religion shapes cultural values .
History of religion: ideological differences.
Write about atheism in American culture.
Describe being a non-Christian in a dominant Christian environment .
How do Americans react to celebrating non-Christian holidays?
Pick a religion and explain its views on women.
Religion in schools: pros and cons.
How does belonging to a religious group reflect on one’s social life ?
Analyze the church’s involvement in the music industry.
Do religious teachings help one make better life choices?
Explore the impact of religion on charity organizations.

🗣️ Sociolinguistic Research Topics for Students

Sociolinguistics studies language in social contexts. Such research pays attention to historical background, cultural features, and other linguistics aspects. Write about a specific language or an element of sociolinguistics. This topic list will help to narrow down your focus.

Is the online language different from the spoken language?
Analyze the origin of the most recent slang words.
The problems of communication via e-mail.
Talk about different dialects in urban areas.
Explore the linguistic difficulties of emerging into a foreign environment.
Discuss social stigma attached to a language of your choice.
Examine the adjustment of vocabulary to a specific situation.
Write about the social aspects of language.
Explain how language helps maintain social roles in the community.
The role of diversity in workplace communication.
Does language reflect cultural values?

How does one judge an interlocutor based on their word choice?
Talk about the importance of prestige in sociolinguistics .
Discuss the benefits of knowing a foreign language.
What are the features of the speech community ?
Baby talk: how do children produce language?
Discover the influence of the peer group on one’s word choice.
What social factors affect language?
Analyze words that have a unique definition in different states.
Communication in shops: face-to-face vs. online.
The benefit of positive reinforcement for a child learning how to speak.
Can one’s vocabulary degrade?
Examine the social benefits of speaking more than one language.
Does a language influence its speakers?
New technology and its toll on communication skills.
What techniques are often used in political speeches?
Explain the impact of emotions on verbal behavior.
Is there a difference between male and female communication?
How does the word choice of a manager impact employees?
Explain the tendency of using vague phrases on social media.
How does occupation impact one’s language?
Why do some words gain new meaning over the years?
Discuss a specific example of a regional dialect.
How can one adapt their vocabulary to a new environment?
Analyze the way children reflect the verbal behavior of their families.
What verbal techniques are used during a job interview?
Intercultural communication in a TV show of your choice.
How can one get rid of distractive verbal behaviors?
What are the features of the sales language?
Discuss one’s verbal patterns when talking to a stranger.

🏅 Sports Sociology Topics to Research

Sports sociology looks at the behaviors of athletes through the sociological lens. It also takes into consideration cultural, economic, and other aspects. You can approach this subject from an individual standpoint as well as from a group perspective.

What behavior is crucial for a team that wants to win?
Why do some people find their identity in sports ?
How does involvement in physical activity affect one’s personal life?
Talk about the challenges of female athletes in professional sports.
How anxiety influences sports performance.
How do teenagers benefit from regular physical activity?
Discuss athletics from a functionalist standpoint.
What controversies emerged because of the sports industry ?
Can professional athletes maintain healthy personal relationships?
What are the ethical issues of college sports?
How does mass media affect professional sports ?
Discover the role of athletics in American national identity .
Analyze the effect of globalization on team competitions.
Do sports contribute to public violence ?
Discuss the financial side of athletic injuries.
Role models in sports.
Pick a sport and discuss its demographics.
How does the violent behavior on the field affect athletes?
Why do people find enjoyment in observing team games?
What’s the fate of an athlete who has lost motivation?
Write about the challenges facing women leaders in sports.
Do interpersonal relationships in sports differ from other occupations?
Are professional athletes obsessed with their body image ?
What stereotypes currently exist about athletes?
How does racism affect the sports industry?
The role of gender in competitive games.
How do school coaches impact their students’ athletic career?
Talk about the average age of athletes experiencing burnout.
What destructive behaviors emerge through sports?
Discuss the value of one’s athletic achievements for society.
The importance of trusting team relationships for athletic success.
How does public opinion affect athletes?
What is the role of commercialization in professional sports?
Write about society’s unfair expectations from national team players.
Analyze the role of patriotism during international athletic competitions.
The importance of preserving tradition in national sports.
Discover the role of sports in migration.
Where is the line between competitive and violent behavior on the field?
Talk about the role of team games in children’s socialization.
Sports events and their promotion.

😷 Medical Sociology Topics to Write About

Medical sociology studies the impact of community on health and medicine. This field has a lot to do with the public healthcare system. You can write about various perspectives on health and illness. Or, choose a specific aspect of the healthcare system. The following list of topics will help you write a great essay!

What’s the general attitude of society towards the public health system?
How often do people resist visiting a doctor due to the financial factor?
How did the industrial revolution affect public health?
Talk about the factors that push a person to get a medical checkup.
Does mass media manipulate public opinion concerning health?
What occupational opportunities are accessible for disabled people?
Analyze unemployment rates due to medical issues.
The role of health promotion in public health.
Discuss the value of health in modern society .
What’s the social meaning of illness across the United States ?
Does social media normalize self-neglect?
Discover the role of gender in medical interactions.
Talk about the social challenges of having Alzheimer’s disease .
Reasons why people fail to take care of their health.
In what way is the medical field affected by racism?
Discuss the financial weight of fighting a chronic illness.
What does the public school system teach about healthcare?
Why do many people resist the national immunization program?
What are the social causes of illness?

Write about a country known for a well-functioning health care system.
What’s it like to be a doctor in modern society?
Conflict resolution in a healthcare setting.
What social services are available for mentally ill people?
The importance of sex education in preventing STDs.
How do social organizations support families with disabled members?
Discuss social patterns in the use of health services .
What can we do to lower the depression rates across the U.S.?
The role of cigarette smoking in public health.
Elements of a successful interaction between a patient and a practitioner.
Does society have a voice in updating health policies?
What medical assistance is offered to foreigners in the U.S.?
How does the growing frequency of cancer cases affect society?
Can most Americans afford essential medicines?
The effect of public opinion on people with psychological abnormalities.
Discuss the effectiveness of recent healthcare system updates in the U.S.
Mental health services: public spending and usage.
Correlation between the price and the quality of medical assistance.
Analyze the role of non-profit organizations in public health.
What social factors are associated with physical wellness?
Analyze the effect of expensive medical care on college students.

🏙️ Urban Sociology Topics to Research

Urban sociology is concerned with human interactions in a city. It examines the advantages and areas of improvement in city life. This section includes topics of demographics, economy, and various aspects of group behavior. Continue reading to find ideas for your assignment.

How well are modern cities adapted for disabled citizens?
Discuss the effect of urban market competition on employment rates.
What are the health issues associated with living in a big city?
What causes the rise of crime rates in urban areas?
Does the city environment make social inequality more distinct?
Political machines in the U.S. urban politics.
In what way did urbanization improve the level of life?
Why are many students dissatisfied with urban education ?
Does urban life give equal opportunities to people of all genders?
What kind of emotional challenges are common for suburban residents?
Talk about demographic data and population pyramids.
What are the economic benefits of residing in the suburbs?
Discuss the common behaviors of small city residents.
How does living in a big city affect one’s worldview?
What are the life possibilities offered in urban areas ?
What conflicts emerge in the
Discover the social dynamics of low-income neighborhoods.
Is racial inequality reflected in city planning?
Talk about social stigma concerning riding public transportation .
Describe the ethnic contention of urban settlements.
Discuss the issue of poverty in urban areas.
How do children in a big city learn to socialize?
What contributes to the fast-paced life in city areas?
Does urban life bring up leadership qualities in people?
Do families of city residents have less time to connect?
Apartment vs. house : which one is better for the urban area?
How do metropolis residents understand personal space?
The benefits of multiracial neighborhoods.
Talk about life satisfaction among suburban residents.
Urban and rural communities: differences in lifestyle.
The power of herd instinct in urban areas.
Social stigma against city police.
How does urban life affect one’s interpersonal relationships?
Analyze the basic needs of a city resident.
Involuntary resettlement in urban transportation projects.
What skills are essential in a big city?
Write about the way city size justifies extended commuting time.
Discuss the role of mass media in urban society .
Why do big cities have problems with garbage disposal?
Does every city have its micro-culture?

🏫 Research Topics in Sociology of Education

Sociology of education studies the impact of learning on an individual and society. This field focuses on various levels of education. Besides, it takes a close look at surrounding social dynamics. You can approach this subject from the perspective of a sociologist, instructor, or a student.

How does higher education impact one’s worldview?
Discuss the role of school in a child’s socialization.
Analyze the social meaning of academic success .
Presentation of African Americans in education programs.
How does the fear of school shootings impact the students?
Describe well-functioning relationships between teachers and parents.
What causes bullying among students ?
What message about gender identity do schools pass to children?
How should educational institutions react to child abuse in families?
The impact of homework overload on one’s emotional state.
Pros and cons of outcome-focused evaluation in teacher preparation.
Do colleges support students from low-income families?

How does one’s school reputation impact their professional career?
Correlation between family relationships and academic performance .
Discuss the problem of unaffordable education.
The value of knowledge in modern society.
Describe the effects of inclusion policies in education.
Single-gender schools: pros and cons.
Should teachers be friends with students?
Write about school principals as role models for children.
How can educational institutions avoid racial discrimination ?
Discuss the way modern schools teach individualism .
Why is it important for teachers to follow moral codes?
Correlation between social class, education, and intelligence.
Should financial factors determine one’s placement in a university?
Education institutions as a place of developing society members.
Analyze the reasons why students engage in alcohol abuse.
Does the schooling system form one’s national identity?
How often do instructors accept bribes from parents and students?
The importance of background checks for all school employees.
What are the essential social dynamics for college campuses?
The role of higher education for African American women.
In what light does socialism view the education system?
What factors discourage high school students from going to college?
Correlation between the classroom size and students’ attention span .
What social factors hinder one’s academic achievements?
The impact of domestic violence on a student.
Discuss the problem of drug abuse in school campuses.
How can teenage pregnancy levels be lowered?
What aspects of the education system need to change?

👨👩 Sociological Reseach Questions on Gender

It is fair to say everyone has been affected by gender socialization. Our surroundings communicate a specific message about sexuality. This section will focus on theories and issues related to gender. Make sure not to fall into extremes and be objective!

How can one avoid being sexist ?
Analyze the role of religion in gender socialization .
Do child toys restrict their gender criteria?
Should children be given the right to determine their gender?
Is it acceptable for men to be aggressive?
Talk about prejudice against divorced women.
How does today’s society view masculinity ?
How do children learn about gender roles ?
Should women choose between family and work ?
Do fraternities promote misogyny?
Does society erase the line between femininity and masculinity?
Write about a culture with very distinct gender roles .
Is it essential to have friends of different genders?
The importance of sexual equality in a work environment.
Discover a culture that undervalues women to this day.
What message does the mass media project about gender?
Should women be given physically challenging jobs?
Talk about essential issues in feminism.
Discuss gender expectations across various ethnicities.
Do teachers have different expectations for boys than for girls?
Is it offensive in the U.S. to offer a woman help carry heavy items?
Examine the income inequality based on gender.
What challenges await women in authority?
Are men often judged for gender nonconformity?
How do modern movies portray male characters?
Analyze the role of gender in cartoons and commercials.
How does gender stratification manifest itself in the U.S.?
Why do many U.S. companies offer paid maternity leave?
Gender-neutral upbringing: is it reasonable?
Is it more difficult for a female student to graduate college than for a male one?
Discover gender factor when it comes to crime rates.
Will there always be a fight for sexual equality?

Reversed gender roles in a family: pros and cons.
Discuss the initial intentions of the feminist movement.
Talk about the social construction of gender.
Are there gender roles in the medical field?
How does modern society distinct biological sex and gender?
The role of fashion in gender socialization.
Is it acceptable for women to be overly emotional?
Discuss gender inequality in the sports industry.

📊 Sociological Survey Topics to Look Into

Sociological surveys gather information from groups of people on various topics. They take the form of questionnaires, interviews, or telephone polls. In this section, you’ll find topics for and about social surveys. Feel free to choose one of them for your assignment.

📈 Topics about Surveys

What questions should social surveys never ask?
Why do many people refuse to participate in phone polls?
Discuss the benefits of social surveys.
Which organizations use information from surveys?
Does the gender factor affect the interview process?
Talk about the reliability of social survey results.
Discover the most common topics for social surveys.
Closed-ended questions: pros and cons.
How can one distinguish a social survey from a scam?
What are the useful skills for conducting an interview?
Write about the most effective survey method.
Analyze the importance of trust during an interview.
Which survey method reaches the largest sample of participants?
Telephone polls: pros and cons.
Can the results of incomplete surveys still be used?
Talk about the imposition problem of social surveys.
Why are social surveys important?
How can one avoid interview bias?
How prevalent are social surveys around the world?
Can cross-cultural interviews be accurate?

📉 Topics for Surveys

How welcomed are women in leadership positions?
Discover the opinions of families concerning gender roles.
How many people prefer working from home?
Are people afraid of mass shootings?
Do disabled people need better housing?
How often can people afford to go through the medical checkup?
Determine the average time U.S. citizens spend on social media .
How many people are satisfied with their financial state?
Discover how many people consider themselves religious.
How many high school students think they won’t graduate college?
Determine the average age for experiencing nurses’ burnout.
Do people consider bribery acceptable?
The percentage of people who have medical insurance.
What percentage of Americans are on a diet?
What are the depression rates in your state?
How many people prefer public transportation over personal vehicles?
Are most students satisfied with their professor’s teaching styles?
Discover how many people are dissatisfied with their current jobs.
Do people wish to have more face-to-face time with friends?
Main reasons why individuals refuse to vote.

👥 Sociology Debate Topics for Students

Sociology is a diverse subject with an endless number of theories. For an excellent debate, pick a controversial topic you’re familiar with. Make sure to support your position with research and facts. The following list of issues will work for a discussion or a persuasive essay.

Should the drinking age be lowered?
We must provide every homeless person with accommodation.
Large families should have discounts for groceries.
The inability of parents to send children to college.
Most young women have poor body image.
College athletes have to invest in their education.
The meaning of education level in modern society.

High school students need more help in determining their career.
Analyze overbuying in stores during the COVID-19 pandemic.
What are the means of manipulating public opinion?
Equality, freedom, and protection of human rights in the U.S.
Social dynamics during natural disasters .
Discuss the role of patriotism in American society.
Smartphones as an obstacle for socialization in schools.
Localized ethnic subcultures in big cities.
What factors strengthen interpersonal relationships?
Common shopping behaviors in modern malls.
The impact of social media ads on young adults.
Why is depression common among Americans?
What does informational overload do to one’s self?
The causes of social anxiety among teenagers.
What can be done about suicidal behavior?
The overuse of electronic devices harms society.
Analyze the reasons for job dissatisfaction.
Migration has a positive effect on individuals.
Are today’s public schools safe for children?
Should children be allowed to have a paid job if they want to?
The education system must teach students to handle their finances.
What factors cause people to break the law ?
The importance of ethnic diversity in the workplace .
The average age for accepting a marriage proposal in the U.S.
The impact of relational tension on professional performance.
What social norms are violated in show business?
Is the depiction of old age on TV accurate?
The consequences of permitting commercial cannabis.
Discuss typical group dynamics among college students.
The social meaning of small talk.
Analyze the roots of modern female beauty standards.
Why do people buy items that they cannot afford?
Is it possible to preserve high culture in social media?

✅ Sociological Research Paper Writing Tips

Having questions about sociology research writing? For starters, don’t rely on your imagination. This paper should be based on a thorough study and contain a clear perspective. The sociological perspective focuses on interactions between individuals and groups.

To write a research paper, you need to:

Choose a topic. Make sure that the subject you choose centers on human interactions. You can select one of the topics presented in this article. Feel free to modify them the way you want.

The effect of divorce on society.

Write a thesis statement. A thesis is a sentence that reflects the focus of your paper. Once you formulate the statement, use it as a navigator throughout the whole essay. It will help you to stay on point.

Divorce has a negative effect on individuals, which affects society as a whole.

Make an outline. It’s a plan of the paper. Each point in it should be connected to the thesis. Make sure to maintain a logical flow of your outline.
Introduction;
Causes of divorce;
Impact on individuals;
Impact on society;
Possible solutions;
Conclusion.
Research. Gather all information you have on the subject. Make sure to include statistics and other valid evidence. Don’t hesitate to leave out the unreliable information. You can also change things up using auto rewriter tool .
Proofread. After completing the research paper, read it thoroughly several times. Sign it and turn it in!

We hope you’ve found a stunning topic for your assignment. Good luck with your sociological discoveries!

Any question that focuses on human interactions is called sociological. It might be related to phenomena observed in a community. Keep in mind that a sociological question always involves more than one person. Therefore, it applies to society.

Sociologists recognize four types of questions:

Factual questions seek to provide the facts without explanations.
Developmental questions are concerned with social evolution.
Comparative questions look at similar examples in various contexts.
Theoretical questions ask why circumstances occur and attempt to explain them.

Sociologists seek to investigate human interactions in various settings. A sociologist might be interested in family relationships, specific cultures, or social media. Sociologists can also study education, religion, and sports.

What is Sociology?: Case Western Reserve University
Sociology’s Role in Social Media: A-State
Sociology and Social Media: Social Media Today
Sociological Perspectives on the Family: University of Minnesota Twin Cities
Sociology of Religion: Oxford University Press
Sociolinguistics: Encyclopedia Britannica
What Is the Sociology of Sport?: University of Wisconsin-Madison
Research Agenda in Medical Sociology: Frontiers
The Role of Sociology In Health Affairs: Health Affairs
Urban Sociology: Science Direct
Feminist Perspectives on Sex and Gender: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
New Topics in Sociology: University of Toronto
How to Write Sociology Papers: SUNY Geneseo
Sociology: University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Feminism and Sexism: University of Minnesota Twin Cities
Research: Kent State University
Research Clusters: Department of Sociology: Harvard University
Kinds of Feminism: University of Alabama in Huntsville
Advances in Medical Sociology: Emerald Insight
Sociology of Sport: Research Gate
Department of Sociology: Course Highlights: University of Notre Dame
The Family and Family Structure Classification Redefined for the Current Times: NIH
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Chapter 2. Sociological Research

Learning objectives.

2.1. Approaches to Sociological Research

Define and describe the scientific method
Explain how the scientific method is used in sociological research
Understand the difference between positivist and interpretive approaches to the scientific method in sociology
Define what reliability and validity mean in a research study

2.2. Research Methods

Differentiate between four kinds of research methods: surveys, experiments, field research, and secondary data and textual analysis
Understand why different topics are better suited to different research approaches

2.3. Ethical Concerns

Understand why ethical standards exist
Demonstrate awareness of the Canadian Sociological Association’s Code of Ethics
Define value neutrality
Outline some of the issues of value neutrality in sociology

Introduction to Sociological Research

In the university cafeteria, you set your lunch tray down at a table, grab a chair, join a group of your classmates, and hear the start of two discussions. One person says, “It’s weird how Justin Bieber has 48 million followers on Twitter.” Another says, “Disney World is packed year round.” Those two seemingly benign statements are claims, or opinions, based on everyday observation of human behaviour. Perhaps the speakers had firsthand experience, talked to experts, conducted online research, or saw news segments on TV. In response, two conversations erupt. “I don’t see why anyone would want to go to Disney World and stand in those long lines.” “Are you kidding?! Going to Disney World is one of my favourite childhood memories.” “It’s the opposite for me with Justin Bieber. Seeing people camp out outside his hotel just to get a glimpse of him; it doesn’t make sense.” “Well, you’re not a teenage girl.” “Going to a theme park is way different than trying to see a teenage heart throb.” “But both are things people do for the same reason: they’re looking for a good time.” “If you call getting crushed by a crowd of strangers fun.”

As your classmates at the lunch table discuss what they know or believe, the two topics converge. The conversation becomes a debate. Someone compares Beliebers to Beatles fans. Someone else compares Disney World to a cruise. Students take sides, agreeing or disagreeing, as the conversation veers to topics such as crowd control, mob mentality, political protests, and group dynamics. If you contributed your expanding knowledge of sociological research to this conversation, you might make statements like these: “Justin Bieber’s fans long for an escape from the boredom of real teenage life. Beliebers join together claiming they want romance, except what they really want is a safe place to explore the confusion of teenage sexual feelings.” And this: “Mickey Mouse is a larger-than-life cartoon celebrity. Disney World is a place where families go to see what it would be like to live inside a cartoon.” You finish lunch, clear away your tray, and hurry to your next class. But you are thinking of Justin Bieber and Disney World. You have a new perspective on human behaviour and a list of questions that you want answered. That is the purpose of sociological research—to investigate and provide insights into how human societies function.

Although claims and opinions are part of sociology, sociologists use empirical evidence (that is, evidence corroborated by direct experience and/or observation) combined with the scientific method or an interpretive framework to deliver sound sociological research. They also rely on a theoretical foundation that provides an interpretive perspective through which they can make sense of scientific results. A truly scientific sociological study of the social situations up for discussion in the cafeteria would involve these prescribed steps: defining a specific question, gathering information and resources through observation, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis in a reproducible manner, analyzing and drawing conclusions from the data, publishing the results, and anticipating further development when future researchers respond to and retest findings.

An appropriate starting point in this case might be the question “What do fans of Justin Bieber seek that drives them to follow his Twitter comments so faithfully?” As you begin to think like a sociologist, you may notice that you have tapped into your observation skills. You might assume that your observations and insights are valuable and accurate. But the results of casual observation are limited by the fact that there is no standardization—who is to say one person’s observation of an event is any more accurate than another’s? To mediate these concerns, sociologists rely on systematic research processes.

When sociologists apply the sociological perspective and begin to ask questions, no topic is off limits. Every aspect of human behaviour is a source of possible investigation. Sociologists question the world that humans have created and live in. They notice patterns of behaviour as people move through that world. Using sociological methods and systematic research within the framework of the scientific method and a scholarly interpretive perspective, sociologists have discovered workplace patterns that have transformed industries, family patterns that have enlightened parents, and education patterns that have aided structural changes in classrooms. The students at that university cafeteria discussion put forth a few loosely stated opinions.

If the human behaviours around those claims were tested systematically, a student could write a report and offer the findings to fellow sociologists and the world in general. The new perspective could help people understand themselves and their neighbours and help people make better decisions about their lives. It might seem strange to use scientific practices to study social trends, but, as we shall see, it’s extremely helpful to rely on systematic approaches that research methods provide. Sociologists often begin the research process by asking a question about how or why things happen in this world. It might be a unique question about a new trend or an old question about a common aspect of life. Once a question is formed, a sociologist proceeds through an in-depth process to answer it. In deciding how to design that process, the researcher may adopt a positivist approach or an interpretive approach. The following sections describe these approaches to knowledge.

The Scientific Method

Sociologists make use of tried-and-true methods of research, such as experiments, surveys, field research, and textual analysis. But humans and their social interactions are so diverse that they can seem impossible to chart or explain. It might seem that science is about discoveries and chemical reactions or about proving ideas right or wrong rather than about exploring the nuances of human behaviour. However, this is exactly why scientific models work for studying human behaviour. A scientific process of research establishes parameters that help make sure results are objective and accurate. Scientific methods provide limitations and boundaries that focus a study and organize its results. This is the case for both positivist or quantitative methodologies and interpretive or qualitative methodologies. The scientific method involves developing and testing theories about the world based on empirical evidence. It is defined by its commitment to systematic observation of the empirical world and strives to be objective, critical, skeptical, and logical. It involves a series of prescribed steps that have been established over centuries of scholarship.

But just because sociological studies use scientific methods does not make the results less human. Sociological topics are not reduced to right or wrong facts. In this field, results of studies tend to provide people with access to knowledge they did not have before—knowledge of other cultures, knowledge of rituals and beliefs, knowledge of trends and attitudes. No matter what research approach is used, researchers want to maximize the study’s reliability (how likely research results are to be replicated if the study is reproduced). Reliability increases the likelihood that what is true of one person will be true of all people in a group. Researchers also strive for validity (how well the study measures what it was designed to measure).

Returning to the Disney World topic, reliability of a study would reflect how well the resulting experience represents the average experience of theme park-goers. Validity would ensure that the study’s design accurately examined what it was designed to study, so an exploration of adults’ interactions with costumed mascots should address that issue and not veer into other age groups’ interactions with them or into adult interactions with staff or other guests.

In general, sociologists tackle questions about the role of social characteristics in outcomes. For example, how do different communities fare in terms of psychological well-being, community cohesiveness, range of vocation, wealth, crime rates, and so on? Are communities functioning smoothly? Sociologists look between the cracks to discover obstacles to meeting basic human needs. They might study environmental influences and patterns of behaviour that lead to crime, substance abuse, divorce, poverty, unplanned pregnancies, or illness. And, because sociological studies are not all focused on problematic behaviours or challenging situations, researchers might study vacation trends, healthy eating habits, neighbourhood organizations, higher education patterns, games, parks, and exercise habits.

Sociologists can use the scientific method not only to collect but to interpret and analyze the data. They deliberately apply scientific logic and objectivity. They are interested in but not attached to the results. Their research work is independent of their own political or social beliefs. This does not mean researchers are not critical. Nor does it mean they do not have their own personalities, complete with preferences and opinions. But sociologists deliberately use the scientific method to maintain as much objectivity, focus, and consistency as possible in a particular study. With its systematic approach, the scientific method has proven useful in shaping sociological studies. The scientific method provides a systematic, organized series of steps that help ensure objectivity and consistency in exploring a social problem. They provide the means for accuracy, reliability, and validity. In the end, the scientific method provides a shared basis for discussion and analysis (Merton 1963). Typically, the scientific method starts with these steps—1) ask a question, 2) research existing sources, 3) formulate a hypothesis—described below.

Ask a Question

The first step of the scientific method is to ask a question, describe a problem, and identify the specific area of interest. The topic should be narrow enough to study within a geography and timeframe. “Are societies capable of sustained happiness?” would be too vague. The question should also be broad enough to have universal merit. “What do personal hygiene habits reveal about the values of students at XYZ High School?” would be too narrow. That said, happiness and hygiene are worthy topics to study.

Sociologists do not rule out any topic, but would strive to frame these questions in better research terms. That is why sociologists are careful to define their terms. In a hygiene study, for instance, hygiene could be defined as “personal habits to maintain physical appearance (as opposed to health),” and a researcher might ask, “How do differing personal hygiene habits reflect the cultural value placed on appearance?” When forming these basic research questions, sociologists develop an operational definition ; that is, they define the concept in terms of the physical or concrete steps it takes to objectively measure it. The concept is translated into an observable variable , a measure that has different values. The operational definition identifies an observable condition of the concept.

By operationalizing a variable of the concept, all researchers can collect data in a systematic or replicable manner. The operational definition must be valid in the sense that it is an appropriate and meaningful measure of the concept being studied. It must also be reliable, meaning that results will be close to uniform when tested on more than one person. For example, “good drivers” might be defined in many ways: those who use their turn signals, those who don’t speed, or those who courteously allow others to merge. But these driving behaviours could be interpreted differently by different researchers and could be difficult to measure. Alternatively, “a driver who has never received a traffic violation” is a specific description that will lead researchers to obtain the same information, so it is an effective operational definition.

Research Existing Sources

The next step researchers undertake is to conduct background research through a literature review , which is a review of any existing similar or related studies. A visit to the library and a thorough online search will uncover existing research about the topic of study. This step helps researchers gain a broad understanding of work previously conducted on the topic at hand and enables them to position their own research to build on prior knowledge. It allows them to sharpen the focus of their research question and avoid duplicating previous research. Researchers—including student researchers—are responsible for correctly citing existing sources they use in a study or that inform their work. While it is fine to build on previously published material (as long as it enhances a unique viewpoint), it must be referenced properly and never plagiarized. To study hygiene and its value in a particular society, a researcher might sort through existing research and unearth studies about childrearing, vanity, obsessive-compulsive behaviours, and cultural attitudes toward beauty. It’s important to sift through this information and determine what is relevant. Using existing sources educates a researcher and helps refine and improve a study’s design.

Formulate a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is an assumption about how two or more variables are related; it makes a conjectural statement about the relationship between those variables. It is an “educated guess” because it is not random but based on theory, observations, patterns of experience, or the existing literature. The hypothesis formulates this guess in the form of a testable proposition. However, how the hypothesis is handled differs between the positivist and interpretive approaches. Positivist methodologies are often referred to as hypothetico-deductive methodologies . A hypothesis is derived from a theoretical proposition. On the basis of the hypothesis a prediction or generalization is logically deduced. In positivist sociology, the hypothesis predicts how one form of human behaviour influences another.

Successful prediction will determine the adequacy of the hypothesis and thereby test the theoretical proposition. Typically positivist approaches operationalize variables as quantitative data ; that is, by translating a social phenomenon like “health” into a quantifiable or numerically measurable variable like “number of visits to the hospital.” This permits sociologists to formulate their predictions using mathematical language like regression formulas, to present research findings in graphs and tables, and to perform mathematical or statistical techniques to demonstrate the validity of relationships.

Variables are examined to see if there is a correlation between them. When a change in one variable coincides with a change in another variable there is a correlation. This does not necessarily indicate that changes in one variable causes a change in another variable, however, just that they are associated. A key distinction here is between independent and dependent variables. In research, independent variables are the cause of the change. The dependent variable is the effect , or thing that is changed. For example, in a basic study, the researcher would establish one form of human behaviour as the independent variable and observe the influence it has on a dependent variable. How does gender (the independent variable) affect rate of income (the dependent variable)? How does one’s religion (the independent variable) affect family size (the dependent variable)? How is social class (the dependent variable) affected by level of education (the independent variable)? For it to become possible to speak about causation, three criteria must be satisfied:

There must be a relationship or correlation between the independent and dependent variables.
The independent variable must be prior to the dependent variable.
There must be no other intervening variable responsible for the causal relationship.

Table 2.1. Examples of Dependent and Independent Variables Typically, the independent variable causes the dependent variable to change in some way.

At this point, a researcher’s operational definitions help measure the variables. In a study asking how tutoring improves grades, for instance, one researcher might define “good” grades as a C or better, while another uses a B+ as a starting point for “good.” Another operational definition might describe “tutoring” as “one-on-one assistance by an expert in the field, hired by an educational institution.” Those definitions set limits and establish cut-off points, ensuring consistency and replicability in a study. As the chart shows, an independent variable is the one that causes a dependent variable to change. For example, a researcher might hypothesize that teaching children proper hygiene (the independent variable) will boost their sense of self-esteem (the dependent variable). Or rephrased, a child’s sense of self-esteem depends, in part, on the quality and availability of hygienic resources.

Of course, this hypothesis can also work the other way around. Perhaps a sociologist believes that increasing a child’s sense of self-esteem (the independent variable) will automatically increase or improve habits of hygiene (now the dependent variable). Identifying the independent and dependent variables is very important. As the hygiene example shows, simply identifying two topics, or variables, is not enough: Their prospective relationship must be part of the hypothesis. Just because a sociologist forms an educated prediction of a study’s outcome doesn’t mean data contradicting the hypothesis are not welcome. Sociologists analyze general patterns in response to a study, but they are equally interested in exceptions to patterns.

In a study of education, a researcher might predict that high school dropouts have a hard time finding a rewarding career. While it has become at least a cultural assumption that the higher the education, the higher the salary and degree of career happiness, there are certainly exceptions. People with little education have had stunning careers, and people with advanced degrees have had trouble finding work. A sociologist prepares a hypothesis knowing that results will vary.

While many sociologists rely on the positivist hypothetico-deductive method in their research, others operate from an interpretive approach . While systematic, this approach does not follow the hypothesis-testing model that seeks to make generalizable predictions from quantitative variables. Instead, an interpretive framework seeks to understand social worlds from the point of view of participants, leading to in-depth knowledge. It focuses on qualitative data, or the meanings that guide people’s behaviour. Rather than relying on quantitative instruments like questionnaires or experiments, which can be artificial, the interpretive approach attempts to find ways to get closer to the informants’ lived experience and perceptions. Interpretive research is generally more descriptive or narrative in its findings. It can begin from a deductive approach, by deriving a hypothesis from theory and then seeking to confirm it through methodologies like in-depth interviews.

However, it is ideally suited to an inductive approach in which the hypothesis emerges only after a substantial period of direct observation or interaction with subjects. This type of approach is exploratory in that the researcher also learns as he or she proceeds, sometimes adjusting the research methods or processes midway to respond to new insights and findings as they evolve. Once the preliminary work is done, it’s time for the next research steps: designing and conducting a study, and drawing conclusions. These research methods are discussed below.

Sociologists examine the world, see a problem or interesting pattern, and set out to study it. They use research methods to design a study—perhaps a positivist, quantitative method for conducting research and obtaining data, or perhaps an ethnographic study utilizing an interpretive framework. Planning the research design is a key step in any sociological study. When entering a particular social environment, a researcher must be careful. There are times to remain anonymous and times to be overt. There are times to conduct interviews and times to simply observe. Some participants need to be thoroughly informed; others should not know they are being observed. A researcher would not stroll into a crime-ridden neighbourhood at midnight, calling out, “Any gang members around?” And if a researcher walked into a coffee shop and told the employees they would be observed as part of a study on work efficiency, the self-conscious, intimidated baristas might not behave naturally.

In the 1920s, leaders of a Chicago factory called Hawthorne Works commissioned a study to determine whether or not changing certain aspects of working conditions could increase or decrease worker productivity. Sociologists were surprised when the productivity of a test group increased when the lighting of their workspace was improved. They were even more surprised when productivity improved when the lighting of the workspace was dimmed. In fact almost every change of independent variable—lighting, breaks, work hours—resulted in an improvement of productivity. But when the study was over, productivity dropped again.

Why did this happen? In 1953, Henry A. Landsberger analyzed the study results to answer this question. He realized that employees’ productivity increased because sociologists were paying attention to them. The sociologists’ presence influenced the study results. Worker behaviours were altered not by the lighting but by the study itself. From this, sociologists learned the importance of carefully planning their roles as part of their research design (Franke and Kaul 1978). Landsberger called the workers’ response the Hawthorne effect —people changing their behaviour because they know they are being watched as part of a study.

The Hawthorne effect is unavoidable in some research. In many cases, sociologists have to make the purpose of the study known for ethical reasons. Subjects must be aware that they are being observed, and a certain amount of artificiality may result (Sonnenfeld 1985). Making sociologists’ presence invisible is not always realistic for other reasons. That option is not available to a researcher studying prison behaviours, early education, or the Ku Klux Klan. Researchers cannot just stroll into prisons, kindergarten classrooms, or Ku Klux Klan meetings and unobtrusively observe behaviours. In situations like these, other methods are needed. All studies shape the research design, while research design simultaneously shapes the study. Researchers choose methods that best suit their study topic and that fit with their overall goal for the research.

In planning a study’s design, sociologists generally choose from four widely used methods of social investigation: survey, experiment, field research, and textual or secondary data analysis (or use of existing sources). Every research method comes with plusses and minuses, and the topic of study strongly influences which method or methods are put to use.

As a research method, a survey collects data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about behaviours and opinions, often in the form of a questionnaire. The survey is one of the most widely used positivist research methods. The standard survey format allows individuals a level of anonymity in which they can express personal ideas.

At some point or another, everyone responds to some type of survey. The Statistics Canada census is an excellent example of a large-scale survey intended to gather sociological data. Customers also fill out questionnaires at stores or promotional events, responding to questions such as “How did you hear about the event?” and “Were the staff helpful?” You’ve probably picked up the phone and heard a caller ask you to participate in a political poll or similar type of survey: “Do you eat hot dogs? If yes, how many per month?” Not all surveys would be considered sociological research. Marketing polls help companies refine marketing goals and strategies; they are generally not conducted as part of a scientific study, meaning they are not designed to test a hypothesis or to contribute knowledge to the field of sociology. The results are not published in a refereed scholarly journal, where design, methodology, results, and analyses are vetted.

Often, polls on TV do not reflect a general population, but are merely answers from a specific show’s audience. Polls conducted by programs such as American Idol or Canadian Idol represent the opinions of fans but are not particularly scientific. A good contrast to these are the BBM Ratings, which determine the popularity of radio and television programming in Canada through scientific market research. Sociologists conduct surveys under controlled conditions for specific purposes. Surveys gather different types of information from people. While surveys are not great at capturing the ways people really behave in social situations, they are a great method for discovering how people feel and think—or at least how they say they feel and think. Surveys can track attitudes and opinions, political preferences, reported individual behaviours (such as sleeping, driving, or texting habits), or factual information such as employment status, income, and education levels. A survey targets a specific population , people who are the focus of a study, such as university athletes, international students, or teenagers living with type 1 (juvenile-onset) diabetes.

Most researchers choose to survey a small sector of the population, or a sample : that is, a manageable number of subjects who represent a larger population. The success of a study depends on how well a population is represented by the sample. In a random sample , every person in a population has the same chance of being chosen for the study. According to the laws of probability, random samples represent the population as a whole. For instance, an Ipsos Reid poll, if conducted as a nationwide random sampling, should be able to provide an accurate estimate of public opinion whether it contacts 2,000 or 10,000 people. However the validity of surveys can be threatened when part of the population is inadvertently excluded from the sample (e.g., telephone surveys that rely on land lines exclude people that use only cell phones) or when there is a low response rate. After selecting subjects, the researcher develops a specific plan to ask questions and record responses.

It is important to inform subjects of the nature and purpose of the study upfront. If they agree to participate, researchers thank subjects and offer them a chance to see the results of the study if they are interested. The researcher presents the subjects with an instrument (a means of gathering the information). A common instrument is a structured questionnaire, in which subjects answer a series of set questions. For some topics, the researcher might ask yes-or-no or multiple-choice questions, allowing subjects to choose possible responses to each question.

This kind of quantitative data —research collected in numerical form that can be counted—is easy to tabulate. Just count up the number of “yes” and “no” answers or tabulate the scales of “strongly agree,” “agree,” disagree,” etc. responses and chart them into percentages. This is also their chief drawback however: their artificiality. In real life, there are rarely any unambiguously yes-or-no answers. Questionnaires can also ask more complex questions with more complex answers—beyond “yes,” “no,” “agree,” “strongly agree,” or an option next to a checkbox. In those cases, the answers are subjective, varying from person to person. How do you plan to use your university education? Why do you follow Justin Bieber around the country and attend every concert? Those types of questions require short essay responses, and participants willing to take the time to write those answers will convey personal information about religious beliefs, political views, and morals.

Some topics that reflect internal thought are impossible to observe directly and are difficult to discuss honestly in a public forum. People are more likely to share honest answers if they can respond to questions anonymously. This type of information is qualitative data —results that are subjective and often based on what is seen in a natural setting. Qualitative information is harder to organize and tabulate. The researcher will end up with a wide range of responses, some of which may be surprising. The benefit of written opinions, though, is the wealth of material that they provide.

An interview is a one-on-one conversation between the researcher and the subject, and is a way of conducting surveys on a topic. Interviews are similar to the short answer questions on surveys in that the researcher asks subjects a series of questions. However, participants are free to respond as they wish, without being limited by predetermined choices. In the back-and-forth conversation of an interview, a researcher can ask for clarification, spend more time on a subtopic, or ask additional questions. In an interview, a subject will ideally feel free to open up and answer questions that are often complex. There are no right or wrong answers. The subject might not even know how to answer the questions honestly. Questions such as “How did society’s view of alcohol consumption influence your decision whether or not to take your first sip of alcohol?” or “Did you feel that the divorce of your parents would put a social stigma on your family?” involve so many factors that the answers are difficult to categorize. A researcher needs to avoid steering or prompting the subject to respond in a specific way; otherwise, the results will prove to be unreliable. And, obviously, a sociological interview is not an interrogation. The researcher will benefit from gaining a subject’s trust, from empathizing or commiserating with a subject, and from listening without judgment.

Experiments

You’ve probably tested personal social theories. “If I study at night and review in the morning, I’ll improve my retention skills.” Or, “If I stop drinking soda, I’ll feel better.” Cause and effect. If this, then that. When you test the theory, your results either prove or disprove your hypothesis. One way researchers test social theories is by conducting an experiment , meaning they investigate relationships to test a hypothesis—a scientific approach. There are two main types of experiments: lab-based experiments and natural or field experiments.

In a lab setting, the research can be controlled so that perhaps more data can be recorded in a certain amount of time. In a natural or field-based experiment, the generation of data cannot be controlled but the information might be considered more accurate since it was collected without interference or intervention by the researcher. As a research method, either type of sociological experiment is useful for testing if-then statements: if a particular thing happens, then another particular thing will result.

To set up a lab-based experiment, sociologists create artificial situations that allow them to manipulate variables. Classically, the sociologist selects a set of people with similar characteristics, such as age, class, race, or education. Those people are divided into two groups. One is the experimental group and the other is the control group . The experimental group is exposed to the independent variable(s) and the control group is not. This is similar to pharmaceutical drug trials in which the experimental group is given the test drug and the control group is given a placebo or sugar pill. To test the benefits of tutoring, for example, the sociologist might expose the experimental group of students to tutoring while the control group does not receive tutoring. Then both groups would be tested for differences in performance to see if tutoring had an effect on the experimental group of students. As you can imagine, in a case like this, the researcher would not want to jeopardize the accomplishments of either group of students, so the setting would be somewhat artificial. The test would not be for a grade reflected on their permanent record, for example.

The Stanford Prison Experiment is perhaps one of the most famous sociological experiments ever conducted. In 1971, 24 healthy, middle-class male university students were selected to take part in a simulated jail environment to examine the effects of social setting and social roles on individual psychology and behaviour. They were randomly divided into 12 guards and 12 prisoners. The prisoner subjects were arrested at home and transported blindfolded to the simulated prison in the basement of the psychology building on the campus of Stanford University. Within a day of arriving the prisoners and the guards began to display signs of trauma and sadism respectively. After some prisoners revolted by blockading themselves in their cells, the guards resorted to using increasingly humiliating and degrading tactics to control the prisoners through psychological manipulation. The experiment had to be abandoned after only six days because the abuse had grown out of hand (Haney, Banks, and Zimbardo 1973). While the insights into the social dynamics of authoritarianism it generated were fascinating, the Stanford Prison Experiment also serves as an example of the ethical issues that emerge when experimenting on human subjects.

Making Connections: Sociological Research

An experiment in action: mincome.

A real-life example will help illustrate the experimental process in sociology. Between 1974 and 1979 an experiment was conducted in the small town of Dauphin, Manitoba (the “garden capital of Manitoba”). Each family received a modest monthly guaranteed income—a “mincome”—equivalent to a maximum of 60 percent of the “low-income cut-off figure” (a Statistics Canada measure of poverty, which varies with family size). The income was 50 cents per dollar less for families who had incomes from other sources. Families earning over a certain income level did not receive mincome. Families that were already collecting welfare or unemployment insurance were also excluded. The test families in Dauphin were compared with control groups in other rural Manitoba communities on a range of indicators such as number of hours worked per week, school performance, high school dropout rates, and hospital visits (Forget 2011). A guaranteed annual income was seen at the time as a less costly, less bureaucratic public alternative for addressing poverty than the existing employment insurance and welfare programs. Today it is an active proposal being considered in Switzerland (Lowrey 2013).

Intuitively, it seems logical that lack of income is the cause of poverty and poverty-related issues. One of the main concerns, however, was whether a guaranteed income would create a disincentive to work. The concept appears to challenge the principles of the Protestant work ethic (see the discussion of Max Weber in Chapter 1). The study did find very small decreases in hours worked per week: about 1 percent for men, 3 percent for wives, and 5 percent for unmarried women. Forget (2011) argues this was because the income provided an opportunity for people to spend more time with family and school, especially for young mothers and teenage girls. There were also significant social benefits from the experiment, including better test scores in school, lower high school dropout rates, fewer visits to hospital, fewer accidents and injuries, and fewer mental health issues.

Ironically, due to lack of guaranteed funding (and lack of political interest by the late 1970s), the data and results of the study were not analyzed or published until 2011. The data were archived and sat gathering dust in boxes. The mincome experiment demonstrated the benefits that even a modest guaranteed annual income supplement could have on health and social outcomes in communities. People seem to live healthier lives and get a better education when they do not need to worry about poverty. In her summary of the research, Forget notes that the impact of the income supplement was surprisingly large given that at any one time only about a third of the families were receiving the income and, for some families, the income amount would have been very small. The income benefit was largest for low-income working families but the research showed that the entire community profited. The improvement in overall health outcomes for the community suggest that a guaranteed income would also result in savings for the public health system.

Field Research

The work of sociology rarely happens in limited, confined spaces. Sociologists seldom study subjects in their own offices or laboratories. Rather, sociologists go out into the world. They meet subjects where they live, work, and play. Field research refers to gathering primary data from a natural environment without doing a lab experiment or a survey. It is a research method suited to an interpretive approach rather than to positivist approaches. To conduct field research, the sociologist must be willing to step into new environments and observe, participate, or experience those worlds. In fieldwork, the sociologists, rather than the subjects, are the ones out of their element. The researcher interacts with or observes a person or people, gathering data along the way. The key point in field research is that it takes place in the subject’s natural environment, whether it’s a coffee shop or tribal village, a homeless shelter or a care home, a hospital, airport, mall, or beach resort.

While field research often begins in a specific setting , the study’s purpose is to observe specific behaviours in that setting. Fieldwork is optimal for observing how people behave. It is less useful, however, for developing causal explanations of why they behave that way. From the small size of the groups studied in fieldwork, it is difficult to make predictions or generalizations to a larger population. Similarly, there are difficulties in gaining an objective distance from research subjects. It is difficult to know whether another researcher would see the same things or record the same data. We will look at three types of field research: participant observation, ethnography, and the case study.

Making Connections: Sociology in the Real World

When is sharing not such a good idea.

Choosing a research methodology depends on a number of factors, including the purpose of the research and the audience for whom the research is intended. If we consider the type of research that might go into producing a government policy document on the effectiveness of safe injection sites for reducing the public health risks of intravenous drug use, we would expect public administrators to want “hard” (i.e., quantitative) evidence of high reliability to help them make a policy decision. The most reliable data would come from an experimental or quasi-experimental research model in which a control group can be compared with an experimental group using quantitative measures.

This approach has been used by researchers studying InSite in Vancouver (Marshall et al. 2011; Wood et al. 2006). InSite is a supervised safe-injection site where heroin addicts and other intravenous drug users can go to inject drugs in a safe, clean environment. Clean needles are provided and health care professionals are on hand to intervene in the case of overdose or other medical emergency. It is a controversial program both because heroin use is against the law (the facility operates through a federal ministerial exemption) and because the heroin users are not obliged to quit using or seek therapy. To assess the effectiveness of the program, researchers compared the risky usage of drugs in populations before and after the opening of the facility and geographically near and distant to the facility. The results from the studies have shown that InSite has reduced both deaths from overdose and risky behaviours, such as the sharing of needles, without increasing the levels of crime associated with drug use and addiction.

On the other hand, if the research question is more exploratory (for example, trying to discern the reasons why individuals in the crack smoking subculture engage in the risky activity of sharing pipes), the more nuanced approach of fieldwork is more appropriate. The research would need to focus on the subcultural context, rituals, and meaning of sharing pipes, and why these phenomena override known health concerns. Graduate student Andrew Ivsins at the University of Victoria studied the practice of sharing pipes among 13 habitual users of crack cocaine in Victoria, B.C. (Ivsins 2010). He met crack smokers in their typical setting downtown and used an unstructured interview method to try to draw out the informal norms that lead to sharing pipes. One factor he discovered was the bond that formed between friends or intimate partners when they shared a pipe. He also discovered that there was an elaborate subcultural etiquette of pipe use that revolved around the benefit of getting the crack resin smokers left behind. Both of these motives tended to outweigh the recognized health risks of sharing pipes (such as hepatitis) in the decision making of the users. This type of research was valuable in illuminating the unknown subcultural norms of crack use that could still come into play in a harm reduction strategy such as distributing safe crack kits to addicts.

Participant Observation

In 2000, a comic writer named Rodney Rothman wanted an insider’s view of white-collar work. He slipped into the sterile, high-rise offices of a New York “dot com” agency. Every day for two weeks, he pretended to work there. His main purpose was simply to see if anyone would notice him or challenge his presence. No one did. The receptionist greeted him. The employees smiled and said good morning. Rothman was accepted as part of the team. He even went so far as to claim a desk, inform the receptionist of his whereabouts, and attend a meeting. He published an article about his experience in The New Yorker called “My Fake Job” (2000). Later, he was discredited for allegedly fabricating some details of the story and The New Yorker issued an apology. However, Rothman’s entertaining article still offered fascinating descriptions of the inside workings of a “dot com” company and exemplified the lengths to which a sociologist will go to uncover material.

Rothman had conducted a form of study called participant observation , in which researchers join people and participate in a group’s routine activities for the purpose of observing them within that context. This method lets researchers study a naturally occurring social activity without imposing artificial or intrusive research devices, like fixed questionnaire questions, onto the situation. A researcher might go to great lengths to get a firsthand look into a trend, institution, or behaviour. Researchers temporarily put themselves into “native” roles and record their observations. A researcher might work as a waitress in a diner, or live as a homeless person for several weeks, or ride along with police officers as they patrol their regular beat. Often, these researchers try to blend in seamlessly with the population they study, and they may not disclose their true identity or purpose if they feel it would compromise the results of their research.

At the beginning of a field study, researchers might have a question: “What really goes on in the kitchen of the most popular diner on campus?” or “What is it like to be homeless?” Participant observation is a useful method if the researcher wants to explore a certain environment from the inside. Field researchers simply want to observe and learn. In such a setting, the researcher will be alert and open minded to whatever happens, recording all observations accurately. Soon, as patterns emerge, questions will become more specific, observations will lead to hypotheses, and hypotheses will guide the researcher in shaping data into results. In a study of small-town America conducted by sociological researchers John S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd, the team altered their purpose as they gathered data. They initially planned to focus their study on the role of religion in American towns. As they gathered observations, they realized that the effect of industrialization and urbanization was the more relevant topic of this social group. The Lynds did not change their methods, but they revised their purpose. This shaped the structure of Middletown: A Study in Modern American Culture , their published results (Lynd and Lynd 1959).

The Lynds were upfront about their mission. The townspeople of Muncie, Indiana, knew why the researchers were in their midst. But some sociologists prefer not to alert people to their presence. The main advantage of covert participant observation is that it allows the researcher access to authentic, natural behaviours of a group’s members. The challenge, however, is gaining access to a setting without disrupting the pattern of others’ behaviour. Becoming an inside member of a group, organization, or subculture takes time and effort. Researchers must pretend to be something they are not. The process could involve role playing, making contacts, networking, or applying for a job. Once inside a group, some researchers spend months or even years pretending to be one of the people they are observing. However, as observers, they cannot get too involved. They must keep their purpose in mind and apply the sociological perspective. That way, they illuminate social patterns that are often unrecognized. Because information gathered during participant observation is mostly qualitative, rather than quantitative, the end results are often descriptive or interpretive. The researcher might present findings in an article or book, describing what he or she witnessed and experienced.

This type of research is what journalist Barbara Ehrenreich conducted for her book Nickel and Dimed . One day over lunch with her editor, as the story goes, Ehrenreich mentioned an idea. How can people exist on minimum-wage work? How do low-income workers get by? she wondered. Someone should do a study. To her surprise, her editor responded, Why don’t you do it? That is how Ehrenreich found herself joining the ranks of the low-wage service sector. For several months, she left her comfortable home and lived and worked among people who lacked, for the most part, higher education and marketable job skills. Undercover, she applied for and worked minimum wage jobs as a waitress, a cleaning woman, a nursing home aide, and a retail chain employee. During her participant observation, she used only her income from those jobs to pay for food, clothing, transportation, and shelter. She discovered the obvious: that it’s almost impossible to get by on minimum wage work. She also experienced and observed attitudes many middle- and upper-class people never think about. She witnessed firsthand the treatment of service work employees. She saw the extreme measures people take to make ends meet and to survive. She described fellow employees who held two or three jobs, worked seven days a week, lived in cars, could not pay to treat chronic health conditions, got randomly fired, submitted to drug tests, and moved in and out of homeless shelters. She brought aspects of that life to light, describing difficult working conditions and the poor treatment that low-wage workers suffer.

Ethnography

Ethnography is the extended observation of the social perspective and cultural values of an entire social setting. Researchers seek to immerse themselves in the life of a bounded group, by living and working among them. Often ethnography involves participant observation, but the focus is the systematic observation of an entire community.

The heart of an ethnographic study focuses on how subjects view their own social standing and how they understand themselves in relation to a community. An ethnographic study might observe, for example, a small Newfoundland fishing town, an Inuit community, a village in Thailand, a Buddhist monastery, a private boarding school, or Disney World. These places all have borders. People live, work, study, or vacation within those borders. People are there for a certain reason and therefore behave in certain ways and respect certain cultural norms. An ethnographer would commit to spending a determined amount of time studying every aspect of the chosen place, taking in as much as possible, and keeping careful notes on his or her observations.

A sociologist studying a tribe in the Amazon might learn the language, watch the way villagers go about their daily lives, ask individuals about the meaning of different aspects of activity, study the group’s cosmology and then write a paper about it. To observe a spiritual retreat centre, an ethnographer might sign up for a retreat and attend as a guest for an extended stay, observe and record how people experience spirituality in this setting, and collate the material into results.

The Feminist Perspective: Institutional Ethnography

Dorothy Smith elaborated on traditional ethnography to develop what she calls institutional ethnography (2005). In modern society the practices of everyday life in any particular local setting are often organized at a level that goes beyond what an ethnographer might observe directly. Everyday life is structured by “extralocal,” institutional forms; that is, by the practices of institutions that act upon people from a distance. It might be possible to conduct ethnographic research on the experience of domestic abuse by living in a women’s shelter and directly observing and interviewing victims to see how they form an understanding of their situation. However, to the degree that the women are seeking redress through the criminal justice system a crucial element of the situation would be missing. In order to activate a response from the police or the courts, a set of standard legal procedures must be followed, a “case file” must be opened, legally actionable evidence must be established, forms filled out, etc. All of this allows criminal justice agencies to organize and coordinate the response.

The urgent and immediate experience of the domestic abuse victims needs to be translated into a format that enables distant authorities to take action. Often this is a frustrating and mysterious process in which the immediate needs of individuals are neglected so that needs of institutional processes are met. Therefore to research the situation of domestic abuse victims, an ethnography needs to somehow operate at two levels: the close examination of the local experience of particular women and the simultaneous examination of the extralocal, institutional world through which their world is organized. In order to accomplish this, institutional ethnography focuses on the study of the way everyday life is coordinated through “textually mediated” practices: the use of written documents, standardized bureaucratic categories, and formalized relationships (Smith 1990).

Institutional paperwork translates the specific details of locally lived experience into a standardized format that enables institutions to apply the institution’s understandings, regulations, and operations in different local contexts. The study of these textual practices reveal otherwise inaccessible processes that formal organizations depend on: their formality, their organized character, and their ongoing methods of coordination, etc. An institutional ethnography often begins by following the paper trail that emerges when people interact with institutions: how does a person formulate a narrative about what has happened to him or her in a way that the institution will recognize? How is it translated into the abstract categories on a form or screen that enable an institutional response to be initiated? What is preserved in the translation to paperwork and what is lost? Where do the forms go next? What series of “processing interchanges” take place between different departments or agencies through the circulation of paperwork? How is the paperwork modified and made actionable through this process (e.g., an incident report, warrant request, motion for continuance)?

Smith’s insight is that the shift from the locally lived experience of individuals to the extralocal world of institutions is nothing short of a radical metaphysical shift in worldview. In institutional worlds, meanings are detached from directly lived processes and reconstituted in an organizational time, space, and consciousness that is fundamentally different from their original reference point. For example, the crisis that has led to a loss of employment becomes a set of anonymous criteria that determines one’s eligibility for Employment Insurance.

The unique life of a disabled child becomes a checklist that determines the content of an “individual education program” in the school system, which in turn determines whether funding will be provided for special aid assistants or therapeutic programs. Institutions put together a picture of what has occurred that is not at all the same as what was lived. The ubiquitous but obscure mechanism by which this is accomplished is textually mediated communication . The goal of institutional ethnography therefore is to making “documents or texts visible as constituents of social relations” (Smith 1990). Institutional ethnography is very useful as a critical research strategy. It is an analysis that gives grassroots organizations, or those excluded from the circles of institutional power, a detailed knowledge of how the administrative apparatuses actually work. This type of research enables more effective actions and strategies for change to be pursued.

The Case Study

Sometimes a researcher wants to study one specific person or event. A case study is an in-depth analysis of a single event, situation, or individual. To conduct a case study, a researcher examines existing sources like documents and archival records, conducts interviews, engages in direct observation, and even participant observation, if possible. Researchers might use this method to study a single case of, for example, a foster child, drug lord, cancer patient, criminal, or rape victim. However, a major criticism of the case study as a method is that a developed study of a single case, while offering depth on a topic, does not provide enough evidence to form a generalized conclusion. In other words, it is difficult to make universal claims based on just one person, since one person does not verify a pattern. This is why most sociologists do not use case studies as a primary research method.

However, case studies are useful when the single case is unique. In these instances, a single case study can add tremendous knowledge to a certain discipline. For example, a feral child, also called “wild child,” is one who grows up isolated from human beings. Feral children grow up without social contact and language, elements crucial to a “civilized” child’s development. These children mimic the behaviours and movements of animals, and often invent their own language. There are only about 100 cases of “feral children” in the world. As you may imagine, a feral child is a subject of great interest to researchers. Feral children provide unique information about child development because they have grown up outside of the parameters of “normal” child development. And since there are very few feral children, the case study is the most appropriate method for researchers to use in studying the subject. At age three, a Ukrainian girl named Oxana Malaya suffered severe parental neglect. She lived in a shed with dogs, eating raw meat and scraps. Five years later, a neighbour called authorities and reported seeing a girl who ran on all fours, barking. Officials brought Oxana into society, where she was cared for and taught some human behaviours, but she never became fully socialized. She has been designated as unable to support herself and now lives in a mental institution (Grice 2006). Case studies like this offer a way for sociologists to collect data that may not be collectable by any other method.

Secondary Data or Textual Analysis

While sociologists often engage in original research studies, they also contribute knowledge to the discipline through secondary data or textual analysis . Secondary data do not result from firsthand research collected from primary sources, but are drawn from the already-completed work of other researchers. Sociologists might study texts written by historians, economists, teachers, or early sociologists. They might search through periodicals, newspapers, or magazines from any period in history. Using available information not only saves time and money, but it can add depth to a study. Sociologists often interpret findings in a new way, a way that was not part of an author’s original purpose or intention. To study how women were encouraged to act and behave in the 1960s, for example, a researcher might watch movies, televisions shows, and situation comedies from that period. Or to research changes in behaviour and attitudes due to the emergence of television in the late 1950s and early 1960s, a sociologist would rely on new interpretations of secondary data. Decades from now, researchers will most likely conduct similar studies on the advent of mobile phones, the Internet, or Facebook.

One methodology that sociologists employ with secondary data is content analysis. Content analysis is a quantitative approach to textual research that selects an item of textual content (i.e., a variable) that can be reliably and consistently observed and coded, and surveys the prevalence of that item in a sample of textual output. For example, Gilens (1996) wanted to find out why survey research shows that the American public substantially exaggerates the percentage of African Americans among the poor. He examined whether media representations influence public perceptions and did a content analysis of photographs of poor people in American news magazines. He coded and then systematically recorded incidences of three variables: (1) Race: white, black, indeterminate; (2) Employed: working, not working; and (3) Age. Gilens discovered that not only were African Americans markedly overrepresented in news magazine photographs of poverty, but that the photos also tended to underrepresent “sympathetic” subgroups of the poor—the elderly and working poor—while overrepresenting less sympathetic groups—unemployed, working age adults. Gilens concluded that by providing a distorted representation of poverty, U.S. news magazines “reinforce negative stereotypes of blacks as mired in poverty and contribute to the belief that poverty is primarily a ‘black problem’” (1996).

Social scientists also learn by analyzing the research of a variety of agencies. Governmental departments and global groups, like Statistics Canada or the World Health Organization, publish studies with findings that are useful to sociologists. A public statistic that measures inequality of incomes might be useful for studying who benefited and who lost as a result of the 2008 recession; a demographic profile of different immigrant groups might be compared with data on unemployment to examine the reasons why immigration settlement programs are more effective for some communities than for others. One of the advantages of secondary data is that it is nonreactive (or unobtrusive) research, meaning that it does not include direct contact with subjects and will not alter or influence people’s behaviours. Unlike studies requiring direct contact with people, using previously published data does not require entering a population and the investment and risks inherent in that research process. Using available data does have its challenges. Public records are not always easy to access. A researcher needs to do some legwork to track them down and gain access to records. In some cases there is no way to verify the accuracy of existing data. It is easy, for example, to count how many drunk drivers are pulled over by the police. But how many are not? While it’s possible to discover the percentage of teenage students who drop out of high school, it might be more challenging to determine the number who return to school or get their GED later.

Another problem arises when data are unavailable in the exact form needed or do not include the precise angle the researcher seeks. For example, the salaries paid to professors at universities is often published. But the separate figures do not necessarily reveal how long it took each professor to reach the salary range, what their educational backgrounds are, or how long they have been teaching. In his research, sociologist Richard Sennett uses secondary data to shed light on current trends. In The Craftsman (2008), he studied the human desire to perform quality work, from carpentry to computer programming. He studied the line between craftsmanship and skilled manual labour. He also studied changes in attitudes toward craftsmanship that occurred not only during and after the Industrial Revolution, but also in ancient times. Obviously, he could not have firsthand knowledge of periods of ancient history; he had to rely on secondary data for part of his study. When conducting secondary data or textual analysis, it is important to consider the date of publication of an existing source and to take into account attitudes and common cultural ideals that may have influenced the research. For example, Robert S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd gathered research for their book Middletown: A Study in Modern American Culture in the 1920s. Attitudes and cultural norms were vastly different then than they are now. Beliefs about gender roles, race, education, and work have changed significantly since then. At the time, the study’s purpose was to reveal the truth about small American communities. Today, it is an illustration of 1920s attitudes and values.

Sociologists conduct studies to shed light on human behaviours. Knowledge is a powerful tool that can be used toward positive change. And while a sociologist’s goal is often simply to uncover knowledge rather than to spur action, many people use sociological studies to help improve people’s lives. In that sense, conducting a sociological study comes with a tremendous amount of responsibility. Like any researchers, sociologists must consider their ethical obligation to avoid harming subjects or groups while conducting their research. The Canadian Sociological Association, or CSA, is the major professional organization of sociologists in Canada. The CSA is a great resource for students of sociology as well.

The CSA maintains a code of ethics —formal guidelines for conducting sociological research—consisting of principles and ethical standards to be used in the discipline. It also describes procedures for filing, investigating, and resolving complaints of unethical conduct. These are in line with the Tri-Council Policy Statement on Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans (2010) , which applies to any research with human subjects funded by one of the three federal research agencies – the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR), the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC).

Practising sociologists and sociology students have a lot to consider. Some of the guidelines state that researchers must try to be skillful and fair-minded in their work, especially as it relates to their human subjects. Researchers must obtain participants’ informed consent, and inform subjects of the responsibilities and risks of research before they agree to participate. During a study, sociologists must ensure the safety of participants and immediately stop work if a subject becomes potentially endangered on any level. Researchers are required to protect the privacy of research participants whenever possible. Even if pressured by authorities, such as police or courts, researchers are not ethically allowed to release confidential information. Researchers must make results available to other sociologists, must make public all sources of financial support, and must not accept funding from any organization that might cause a conflict of interest or seek to influence the research results for its own purposes. The CSA’s ethical considerations shape not only the study but also the publication of results.

Pioneer German sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920) identified another crucial ethical concern. Weber understood that personal values could distort the framework for disclosing study results. While he accepted that some aspects of research design might be influenced by personal values, he declared it was entirely inappropriate to allow personal values to shape the interpretation of the responses. Sociologists, he stated, must establish value neutrality , a practice of remaining impartial, without bias or judgment, during the course of a study and in publishing results (1949). Sociologists are obligated to disclose research findings without omitting or distorting significant data. Value neutrality does not mean having no opinions. It means striving to overcome personal biases, particularly subconscious biases, when analyzing data. It means avoiding skewing data in order to match a predetermined outcome that aligns with a particular agenda, such as a political or moral point of view. Investigators are ethically obligated to report results, even when they contradict personal views, predicted outcomes, or widely accepted beliefs. Is value neutrality possible?

Many sociologists believe it is impossible to set aside personal values and retain complete objectivity. Individuals inevitably see the world from a partial perspective. Their interests are central to the types of topics they choose, the types of questions they ask, the way they frame their research and the research methodologies they select to pursue it. Moreover, facts, however objective, do not exist in a void. As we noted in Chapter 1, Jürgen Habermas (1972) argues that sociological research has built-in interests quite apart from the personal biases of individual researchers. Positivist sociology has an interest in pursuing types of knowledge that are useful for controlling and administering social life. Interpretive sociology has an interest in pursuing types of knowledge that promote greater mutual understanding and the possibility of consensus among members of society. Critical sociology has an interest in types of knowledge that enable emancipation from power relations and forms of domination in society. In Habermas’ view, sociological knowledge is not disinterested knowledge. This does not discredit the results of sociological research but allows readers to take into account the perspective of the research when judging the validity and applicability of its outcomes.

case study in-depth analysis of a single event, situation, or individual

code of ethics a set of guidelines that the Canadian Sociological Association has established to foster ethical research and professionally responsible scholarship in sociology

content analysis a quantitative approach to textual research that selects an item of textual content that can be reliably and consistently observed and coded, and surveys the prevalence of that item in a sample of textual output

control group an experimental group that is not exposed to the independent variable

correlation when a change in one variable coincides with a change in another variable, but does not necessarily indicate causation

d ependent variable variable changed by another variable

empirical evidence evidence corroborated by direct experience and/or observation

ethnography observing a complete social setting and all that it entails

experiment the testing of a hypothesis under controlled conditions

field research gathering data from a natural environment without doing a lab experiment or a survey

Hawthorne effect when study subjects behave in a certain manner due to their awareness of being observed by a researcher

hypothesis an educated guess with predicted outcomes about the relationship between two or more variables hypothetico-deductive methodologies methodologies based on deducing a prediction from a hypothesis and testing the validity of the hypothesis by whether it correctly predicts observations

independent variable variable that causes change in a dependent variable

inductive approach methodologies that derive a general statement from a series of empirical observations

institutional ethnography the study of the way everyday life is coordinated through institutional, textually mediated practices

interpretive approach a sociological research approach that seeks in-depth understanding of a topic or subject through observation or interaction

interview a one-on-one conversation between a researcher and a subject

literature review a scholarly research step that entails identifying and studying all existing studies on a topic to create a basis for new research

nonreactive unobtrusive research that does not include direct contact with subjects and will not alter or influence people’s behaviours

operational definitions specific explanations of abstract concepts that a researcher plans to study

participant observation immersion by a researcher in a group or social setting in order to make observations from an “insider” perspective

population a defined group serving as the subject of a study

positivist approach a research approach based on the natural science model of knowledge utilizing a hypothetico-deductive formulation of the research question and quantitative data

primary data data collected directly from firsthand experience

qualitative data information based on interpretations of meaning

quantitative data information from research collected in numerical form that can be counted

random sample a study’s participants being randomly selected to serve as a representation of a larger population reliability a measure of a study’s consistency that considers how likely results are to be replicated if a study is reproduced research design a detailed, systematic method for conducting research and obtaining data

sample small, manageable number of subjects that represent the population

scientific method a systematic research method that involves asking a question, researching existing sources, forming a hypothesis, designing and conducting a study, and drawing conclusions

secondary data analysis using data collected by others but applying new interpretations

surveys data collections from subjects who respond to a series of questions about behaviours and opinions, often in the form of a questionnaire

textually mediated communication institutional forms of communication that rely on written documents, texts, and paperwork

validity the degree to which a sociological measure accurately reflects the topic of study

value neutrality a practice of remaining impartial, without bias or judgment during the course of a study and in publishing results

variable a characteristic or measure of a social phenomenon that can take different values

Section Summary

2.1. Approaches to Sociological Research Using the scientific method, a researcher conducts a study in five phases: asking a question, researching existing sources, formulating a hypothesis, conducting a study, and drawing conclusions. The scientific method is useful in that it provides a clear method of organizing a study. Some sociologists conduct scientific research through a positivist framework utilizing a hypothetico-deductive formulation of the research question. Other sociologists conduct scientific research by employing an interpretive framework that is often inductive in nature. Scientific sociological studies often observe relationships between variables. Researchers study how one variable changes another. Prior to conducting a study, researchers are careful to apply operational definitions to their terms and to establish dependent and independent variables.

2.2. Research Methods Sociological research is a fairly complex process. As you can see, a lot goes into even a simple research design. There are many steps and much to consider when collecting data on human behaviour, as well as in interpreting and analyzing data in order to form conclusive results. Sociologists use scientific methods for good reason. The scientific method provides a system of organization that helps researchers plan and conduct the study while ensuring that data and results are reliable, valid, and objective. The many methods available to researchers—including experiments, surveys, field studies, and secondary data analysis—all come with advantages and disadvantages. The strength of a study can depend on the choice and implementation of the appropriate method of gathering research. Depending on the topic, a study might use a single method or a combination of methods. It is important to plan a research design before undertaking a study. The information gathered may in itself be surprising, and the study design should provide a solid framework in which to analyze predicted and unpredicted data.

Table 2.2. Main Sociological Research Methods. Sociological research methods have advantages and disadvantages.

2.3. Ethical Concerns Sociologists and sociology students must take ethical responsibility for any study they conduct. They must first and foremost guarantee the safety of their participants. Whenever possible, they must ensure that participants have been fully informed before consenting to be part of a study. The CSA (Canadian Sociological Association) maintains ethical guidelines that sociologists must take into account as they conduct research. The guidelines address conducting studies, properly using existing sources, accepting funding, and publishing results. Sociologists must try to maintain value neutrality. They must gather and analyze data objectively, setting aside their personal preferences, beliefs, and opinions. They must report findings accurately, even if they contradict personal convictions.

Section Quiz

2.1. Approaches to Sociological Research 1. A measurement is considered ______ if it actually measures what it is intended to measure, according to the topic of the study.

sociological
quantitative

2. Sociological studies test relationships in which change in one ______ causes change in another.

test subject
operational definition

3. In a study, a group of 10-year-old boys are fed doughnuts every morning for a week and then weighed to see how much weight they gained. Which factor is the dependent variable?

the doughnuts
the duration of a week
the weight gained

4. Which statement provides the best operational definition of “childhood obesity”?

children who eat unhealthy foods and spend too much time watching television and playing video games
a distressing trend that can lead to health issues including type 2 diabetes and heart disease
body weight at least 20 percent higher than a healthy weight for a child of that height
the tendency of children today to weigh more than children of earlier generations

2.2. Research Methods 5. Which materials are considered secondary data?

photos and letters given to you by another person
books and articles written by other authors about their studies
information that you have gathered and now have included in your results
responses from participants whom you both surveyed and interviewed

6. What method did Andrew Ivsins use to study crack users in Victoria?

field research
content analysis

7. Why is choosing a random sample an effective way to select participants?

Participants do not know they are part of a study
The researcher has no control over who is in the study
It is larger than an ordinary sample
Everyone has the same chance of being part of the study

8. What research method did John S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd mainly use in their Middletown study?

secondary data
participant observation

9. Which research approach is best suited to the positivist approach?

questionnaire
ethnography
secondary data analysis

10. The main difference between ethnography and other types of participant observation is:

ethnography isn’t based on hypothesis testing
ethnography subjects are unaware they’re being studied
ethnographic studies always involve minority ethnic groups
there is no difference

11. Which best describes the results of a case study?

it produces more reliable results than other methods because of its depth
its results are not generally applicable
it relies solely on secondary data analysis
all of the above

12. Using secondary data is considered an unobtrusive or ________ research method.

nonreactive
nonparticipatory
nonrestrictive
nonconfrontive

2.3. Ethical Concerns 13. Which statement illustrates value neutrality?

Obesity in children is obviously a result of parental neglect and, therefore, schools should take a greater role to prevent it.
In 2003, states like Arkansas adopted laws requiring elementary schools to remove soft drink vending machines from schools.
Merely restricting children’s access to junk food at school is not enough to prevent obesity.
Physical activity and healthy eating are a fundamental part of a child’s education.

14. Which person or organization defined the concept of value neutrality?

Institutional Review Board (IRB)
Peter Rossi
Canadian Sociological Association (CSA)

15. To study the effects of fast food on lifestyle, health, and culture, from which group would a researcher ethically be unable to accept funding?

a fast-food restaurant
a nonprofit health organization
a private hospital
a governmental agency like Health and Social Services

Short Answer

Write down the first three steps of the scientific method. Think of a broad topic that you are interested in and which would make a good sociological study—for example, ethnic diversity in a college, homecoming rituals, athletic scholarships, or teen driving. Now, take that topic through the first steps of the process. For each step, write a few sentences or a paragraph: 1) Ask a question about the topic. 2) Do some research and write down the titles of some articles or books you’d want to read about the topic. 3) Formulate a hypothesis.

2.2.Research Methods

What type of data do surveys gather? For what topics would surveys be the best research method? What drawbacks might you expect to encounter when using a survey? To explore further, ask a research question and write a hypothesis. Then create a survey of about six questions relevant to the topic. Provide a rationale for each question. Now define your population and create a plan for recruiting a random sample and administering the survey.
Imagine you are about to do field research in a specific place for a set time. Instead of thinking about the topic of study itself, consider how you, as the researcher, will have to prepare for the study. What personal, social, and physical sacrifices will you have to make? How will you manage your personal effects? What organizational equipment and systems will you need to collect the data?
Create a brief research design about a topic in which you are passionately interested. Now write a letter to a philanthropic or grant organization requesting funding for your study. How can you describe the project in a convincing yet realistic and objective way? Explain how the results of your study will be a relevant contribution to the body of sociological work already in existence.
Why do you think the CSA crafted such a detailed set of ethical principles? What type of study could put human participants at risk? Think of some examples of studies that might be harmful. Do you think that, in the name of sociology, some researchers might be tempted to cross boundaries that threaten human rights? Why?
Would you willingly participate in a sociological study that could potentially put your health and safety at risk, but had the potential to help thousands or even hundreds of thousands of people? For example, would you participate in a study of a new drug that could cure diabetes or cancer, even if it meant great inconvenience and physical discomfort for you or possible permanent damage?

Further Research

2.1. Approaches to Sociological Research For a historical perspective on the scientific method in sociology, read “The Elements of Scientific Method in Sociology” by F. Stuart Chapin (1914) in the American Journal of Sociology : http://openstaxcollege.org/l/Method-in-Sociology

2.2. Research Methods For information on current real-world sociology experiments, visit: http://openstaxcollege.org/l/Sociology-Experiments

2.3. Ethical Concerns Founded in 1966, the CSA is a nonprofit organization located in Montreal, Quebec, with a membership of 900 researchers, faculty members, students, and practitioners of sociology. Its mission is to promote “research, publication and teaching in Sociology in Canada.” Learn more about this organization at http://www.csa-scs.ca/ .

2.1. Approaches to Sociological Research Merton, Robert. 1968 [1949]. Social Theory and Social Structure . New York: Free Press.

2.2. Research Methods Forget, Evelyn. 2011. “The Town with no Poverty: Using Health Administration Data to Revisit Outcomes of a Canadian Guaranteed Annual Income Field Experiement.” Canadian Public Policy . 37(3): 282-305.

Franke, Richard and James Kaul. 1978. “The Hawthorne Experiments: First Statistical Interpretation.” American Sociological Review 43(5):632–643.

Gilens, Martin. 1996. “Race and Poverty in America: Public Misperceptions and the American News Media.” The Public Opinion Quarterly 60(4):515–541. Grice, Elizabeth. 2006. “Cry of an Enfant Sauvage.” The Telegraph . Retrieved July 20, 2011 ( http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/3653890/Cry-of-an-enfant-sauvage.html ).

Haney, C., Banks, W. C., and Zimbardo, P. G. 1973. “Interpersonal Dynamics in a Simulated Prison.” International Journal of Criminology and Penology 1:69–97.

Ivsins, A.K. 2010. “’Got a pipe?’ The social dimensions and functions of crack pipe sharing among crack users in Victoria, BC.” MA thesis, Department of Sociology, University of Victoria. Retrieved February 14, 2014 ( http://dspace.library.uvic.ca:8080/bitstream/handle/1828/3044/Full%20thesis%20Ivsins_CPS.2010_FINAL.pdf?sequence=1 )

Lowrey, Annie. 2013. “Switzerland’s Proposal to Pay People for Being Alive.” The New York Times Magazine. Retrieved February 17, 2014 ( http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/17/magazine/switzerlands-proposal-to-pay-people-for-being-alive.html?pagewanted=1&_r=2 ).

Lynd, Robert S. and Helen Merrell Lynd. 1959. Middletown: A Study in Modern American Culture . San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace Javanovich.

Lynd, Staughton. 2005. “Making Middleton.” Indiana Magazine of History 101(3):226–238.

Marshall, B.D.L., M.J. Milloy, E. Wood, J.S.G. Montaner, and T. Kerr. 2011. “Reduction in overdose mortality after the opening of North America’s first medically supervised safer injecting facility: A retrospective population-based study.” Lancet 377(9775):1429–1437.

Rothman, Rodney. 2000. “My Fake Job.” The New Yorker , November 27, 120.

Sennett, Richard. 2008. The Craftsman . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Retrieved July 18, 2011 ( http://www.richardsennett.com/site/SENN/Templates/General.aspx?pageid=40 ).

Smith, Dorothy. 1990. “Textually Mediated Social Organization” Pp. 209–234 in Texts, Facts and Femininity: Exploring the Relations of Ruling. London: Routledge.

Smith, Dorothy. 2005. Institutional Ethnography: A Sociology for People. Toronto: Altamira Press.

Sonnenfeld, Jeffery A. 1985. “Shedding Light on the Hawthorne Studies.” Journal of Occupational Behavior 6:125.

Wood, E., M.W. Tyndall, J.S. Montaner, and T. Kerr. 2006. “Summary of findings from the evaluation of a pilot medically supervised safer injecting facility.” Canadian Medical Association Journal 175(11):1399–1404.

2.3. Ethical Concerns Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, and Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. 2010. Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans . Retrieved February 15, 2014 ( http://www.pre.ethics.gc.ca/pdf/eng/tcps2/TCPS_2_FINAL_Web.pdf ).

Canadian Sociological Association. 2012. Statement of Professional Ethics . Retrieved February 15, 2014 ( http://www.csa-scs.ca/files/www/csa/documents/codeofethics/2012Ethics.pdf ).

Habermas, Jürgen. 1972. Knowledge and Human Interests. Boston: Beacon Press

Weber, Max. 1949. Methodology of the Social Sciences . Translated by H. Shils and E. Finch. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.

Solutions to Section Quiz

1. C | 2. C | 3. D | 4. C | 5. B | 6. C | 7. D | 8. C | 9. A | 10. A | 11. B | 12. A | 13. B | 14. D | 15. A

Image Attributions

Figure 2.3. Didn’t they abolish the mandatory census? Then what’s this? by Khosrow Ebrahimpour ( https://www.flickr.com/photos/xosrow/5685345306/in/photolist-9EoT5W-ow4tdu-oeGG4m-oeMEcK-oy2jM2-ovJC8w-oePSRQ-9J2V24-of1Hnu-of243u-of2K2B-of2FHn-owiBSA-owtQN3-of1Ktd-oitLSC-oeVJte-oep8KX-ovEz8w-oeohhF-oew5Xb-oewdWN-owavju-oeMEnV-oweLcN-ovEPGG-ovAQUX-oeo2eL-oeo3Fd-oeoqxh-oxCKnv-ovEzA5-oewFHa-ovHRSz-ow8QtY-oeQY6Y-oeZReR-oeQmHw-oeKXid-oeQLKa-oy6fNT-ow4sVT-oeQMQq-oeQPPr-oeQYbL-ow8hS1-ow4n8v-owiPKS-oeQF41-oeiH5z ) used under CC BY 2.0 ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/ )

Figure 2.4. Dauphin Canadian Northern Railway Station by Bobak Ha’Eri ( http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2009-0520-TrainStation-Dauphin.jpg ) used under CC BY 3.0 license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en )

Figure 2.5. Punk Band by Patrick ( https://www.flickr.com/photos/lordkhan/181561343/in/photostream/ ) used under CC BY 2.0 ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/ )

Figure 2.6. Crack Cocaine Smokers in Vancouver Alleyway ( http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Crack_Cocaine_Smokers_in_Vancouver_Alleyway.jpg ) is in the public domain ( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain )

Figure 2.8. Muncie, Indiana High School: 1917 by Don O’Brien ( https://www.flickr.com/photos/dok1/3694125269/ ) used under CC BY 2.0 license ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/ )

Introduction to Sociology - 1st Canadian Edition Copyright © 2014 by William Little and Ron McGivern is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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2.2 Research Methods

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you should be able to:

Recall the 6 Steps of the Scientific Method
Differentiate between four kinds of research methods: surveys, field research, experiments, and secondary data analysis.
Explain the appropriateness of specific research approaches for specific topics.

Sociologists examine the social world, see a problem or interesting pattern, and set out to study it. They use research methods to design a study. Planning the research design is a key step in any sociological study. Sociologists generally choose from widely used methods of social investigation: primary source data collection such as survey, participant observation, ethnography, case study, unobtrusive observations, experiment, and secondary data analysis , or use of existing sources. Every research method comes with plusses and minuses, and the topic of study strongly influences which method or methods are put to use. When you are conducting research think about the best way to gather or obtain knowledge about your topic, think of yourself as an architect. An architect needs a blueprint to build a house, as a sociologist your blueprint is your research design including your data collection method.

When entering a particular social environment, a researcher must be careful. There are times to remain anonymous and times to be overt. There are times to conduct interviews and times to simply observe. Some participants need to be thoroughly informed; others should not know they are being observed. A researcher wouldn’t stroll into a crime-ridden neighborhood at midnight, calling out, “Any gang members around?”

Making sociologists’ presence invisible is not always realistic for other reasons. That option is not available to a researcher studying prison behaviors, early education, or the Ku Klux Klan. Researchers can’t just stroll into prisons, kindergarten classrooms, or Klan meetings and unobtrusively observe behaviors or attract attention. In situations like these, other methods are needed. Researchers choose methods that best suit their study topics, protect research participants or subjects, and that fit with their overall approaches to research.

As a research method, a survey collects data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about behaviors and opinions, often in the form of a questionnaire or an interview. The survey is one of the most widely used scientific research methods. The standard survey format allows individuals a level of anonymity in which they can express personal ideas.

At some point, most people in the United States respond to some type of survey. The 2020 U.S. Census is an excellent example of a large-scale survey intended to gather sociological data. Since 1790, United States has conducted a survey consisting of six questions to received demographical data pertaining to residents. The questions pertain to the demographics of the residents who live in the United States. Currently, the Census is received by residents in the United Stated and five territories and consists of 12 questions.

Not all surveys are considered sociological research, however, and many surveys people commonly encounter focus on identifying marketing needs and strategies rather than testing a hypothesis or contributing to social science knowledge. Questions such as, “How many hot dogs do you eat in a month?” or “Were the staff helpful?” are not usually designed as scientific research. The Nielsen Ratings determine the popularity of television programming through scientific market research. However, polls conducted by television programs such as American Idol or So You Think You Can Dance cannot be generalized, because they are administered to an unrepresentative population, a specific show’s audience. You might receive polls through your cell phones or emails, from grocery stores, restaurants, and retail stores. They often provide you incentives for completing the survey.

Sociologists conduct surveys under controlled conditions for specific purposes. Surveys gather different types of information from people. While surveys are not great at capturing the ways people really behave in social situations, they are a great method for discovering how people feel, think, and act—or at least how they say they feel, think, and act. Surveys can track preferences for presidential candidates or reported individual behaviors (such as sleeping, driving, or texting habits) or information such as employment status, income, and education levels.

A survey targets a specific population , people who are the focus of a study, such as college athletes, international students, or teenagers living with type 1 (juvenile-onset) diabetes. Most researchers choose to survey a small sector of the population, or a sample , a manageable number of subjects who represent a larger population. The success of a study depends on how well a population is represented by the sample. In a random sample , every person in a population has the same chance of being chosen for the study. As a result, a Gallup Poll, if conducted as a nationwide random sampling, should be able to provide an accurate estimate of public opinion whether it contacts 2,000 or 10,000 people.

After selecting subjects, the researcher develops a specific plan to ask questions and record responses. It is important to inform subjects of the nature and purpose of the survey up front. If they agree to participate, researchers thank subjects and offer them a chance to see the results of the study if they are interested. The researcher presents the subjects with an instrument, which is a means of gathering the information.

A common instrument is a questionnaire. Subjects often answer a series of closed-ended questions . The researcher might ask yes-or-no or multiple-choice questions, allowing subjects to choose possible responses to each question. This kind of questionnaire collects quantitative data —data in numerical form that can be counted and statistically analyzed. Just count up the number of “yes” and “no” responses or correct answers, and chart them into percentages.

Questionnaires can also ask more complex questions with more complex answers—beyond “yes,” “no,” or checkbox options. These types of inquiries use open-ended questions that require short essay responses. Participants willing to take the time to write those answers might convey personal religious beliefs, political views, goals, or morals. The answers are subjective and vary from person to person. How do you plan to use your college education?

Some topics that investigate internal thought processes are impossible to observe directly and are difficult to discuss honestly in a public forum. People are more likely to share honest answers if they can respond to questions anonymously. This type of personal explanation is qualitative data —conveyed through words. Qualitative information is harder to organize and tabulate. The researcher will end up with a wide range of responses, some of which may be surprising. The benefit of written opinions, though, is the wealth of in-depth material that they provide.

An interview is a one-on-one conversation between the researcher and the subject, and it is a way of conducting surveys on a topic. However, participants are free to respond as they wish, without being limited by predetermined choices. In the back-and-forth conversation of an interview, a researcher can ask for clarification, spend more time on a subtopic, or ask additional questions. In an interview, a subject will ideally feel free to open up and answer questions that are often complex. There are no right or wrong answers. The subject might not even know how to answer the questions honestly.

Questions such as “How does society’s view of alcohol consumption influence your decision whether or not to take your first sip of alcohol?” or “Did you feel that the divorce of your parents would put a social stigma on your family?” involve so many factors that the answers are difficult to categorize. A researcher needs to avoid steering or prompting the subject to respond in a specific way; otherwise, the results will prove to be unreliable. The researcher will also benefit from gaining a subject’s trust, from empathizing or commiserating with a subject, and from listening without judgment.

Surveys often collect both quantitative and qualitative data. For example, a researcher interviewing people who are incarcerated might receive quantitative data, such as demographics – race, age, sex, that can be analyzed statistically. For example, the researcher might discover that 20 percent of incarcerated people are above the age of 50. The researcher might also collect qualitative data, such as why people take advantage of educational opportunities during their sentence and other explanatory information.

The survey can be carried out online, over the phone, by mail, or face-to-face. When researchers collect data outside a laboratory, library, or workplace setting, they are conducting field research, which is our next topic.

Field Research

The work of sociology rarely happens in limited, confined spaces. Rather, sociologists go out into the world. They meet subjects where they live, work, and play. Field research refers to gathering primary data from a natural environment. To conduct field research, the sociologist must be willing to step into new environments and observe, participate, or experience those worlds. In field work, the sociologists, rather than the subjects, are the ones out of their element.

The researcher interacts with or observes people and gathers data along the way. The key point in field research is that it takes place in the subject’s natural environment, whether it’s a coffee shop or tribal village, a homeless shelter or the DMV, a hospital, airport, mall, or beach resort.

While field research often begins in a specific setting , the study’s purpose is to observe specific behaviors in that setting. Field work is optimal for observing how people think and behave. It seeks to understand why they behave that way. However, researchers may struggle to narrow down cause and effect when there are so many variables floating around in a natural environment. And while field research looks for correlation, its small sample size does not allow for establishing a causal relationship between two variables. Indeed, much of the data gathered in sociology do not identify a cause and effect but a correlation .

Sociology in the Real World

Beyoncé and lady gaga as sociological subjects.

Sociologists have studied Lady Gaga and Beyoncé and their impact on music, movies, social media, fan participation, and social equality. In their studies, researchers have used several research methods including secondary analysis, participant observation, and surveys from concert participants.

In their study, Click, Lee & Holiday (2013) interviewed 45 Lady Gaga fans who utilized social media to communicate with the artist. These fans viewed Lady Gaga as a mirror of themselves and a source of inspiration. Like her, they embrace not being a part of mainstream culture. Many of Lady Gaga’s fans are members of the LGBTQ community. They see the “song “Born This Way” as a rallying cry and answer her calls for “Paws Up” with a physical expression of solidarity—outstretched arms and ﬁngers bent and curled to resemble monster claws.”

Sascha Buchanan (2019) made use of participant observation to study the relationship between two fan groups, that of Beyoncé and that of Rihanna. She observed award shows sponsored by iHeartRadio, MTV EMA, and BET that pit one group against another as they competed for Best Fan Army, Biggest Fans, and FANdemonium. Buchanan argues that the media thus sustains a myth of rivalry between the two most commercially successful Black women vocal artists.

Participant Observation

In 2000, a comic writer named Rodney Rothman wanted an insider’s view of white-collar work. He slipped into the sterile, high-rise offices of a New York “dot com” agency. Every day for two weeks, he pretended to work there. His main purpose was simply to see whether anyone would notice him or challenge his presence. No one did. The receptionist greeted him. The employees smiled and said good morning. Rothman was accepted as part of the team. He even went so far as to claim a desk, inform the receptionist of his whereabouts, and attend a meeting. He published an article about his experience in The New Yorker called “My Fake Job” (2000). Later, he was discredited for allegedly fabricating some details of the story and The New Yorker issued an apology. However, Rothman’s entertaining article still offered fascinating descriptions of the inside workings of a “dot com” company and exemplified the lengths to which a writer, or a sociologist, will go to uncover material.

Rothman had conducted a form of study called participant observation , in which researchers join people and participate in a group’s routine activities for the purpose of observing them within that context. This method lets researchers experience a specific aspect of social life. A researcher might go to great lengths to get a firsthand look into a trend, institution, or behavior. A researcher might work as a waitress in a diner, experience homelessness for several weeks, or ride along with police officers as they patrol their regular beat. Often, these researchers try to blend in seamlessly with the population they study, and they may not disclose their true identity or purpose if they feel it would compromise the results of their research.

Field researchers simply want to observe and learn. In such a setting, the researcher will be alert and open minded to whatever happens, recording all observations accurately. Soon, as patterns emerge, questions will become more specific, observations will lead to hypotheses, and hypotheses will guide the researcher in analyzing data and generating results.

In a study of small towns in the United States conducted by sociological researchers John S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd, the team altered their purpose as they gathered data. They initially planned to focus their study on the role of religion in U.S. towns. As they gathered observations, they realized that the effect of industrialization and urbanization was the more relevant topic of this social group. The Lynds did not change their methods, but they revised the purpose of their study.

This shaped the structure of Middletown: A Study in Modern American Culture , their published results (Lynd & Lynd, 1929).

Once inside a group, some researchers spend months or even years pretending to be one of the people they are observing. However, as observers, they cannot get too involved. They must keep their purpose in mind and apply the sociological perspective. That way, they illuminate social patterns that are often unrecognized. Because information gathered during participant observation is mostly qualitative, rather than quantitative, the end results are often descriptive or interpretive. The researcher might present findings in an article or book and describe what he or she witnessed and experienced.

This type of research is what journalist Barbara Ehrenreich conducted for her book Nickel and Dimed . One day over lunch with her editor, Ehrenreich mentioned an idea. How can people exist on minimum-wage work? How do low-income workers get by? she wondered. Someone should do a study . To her surprise, her editor responded, Why don’t you do it?

That’s how Ehrenreich found herself joining the ranks of the working class. For several months, she left her comfortable home and lived and worked among people who lacked, for the most part, higher education and marketable job skills. Undercover, she applied for and worked minimum wage jobs as a waitress, a cleaning woman, a nursing home aide, and a retail chain employee. During her participant observation, she used only her income from those jobs to pay for food, clothing, transportation, and shelter.

She discovered the obvious, that it’s almost impossible to get by on minimum wage work. She also experienced and observed attitudes many middle and upper-class people never think about. She witnessed firsthand the treatment of working class employees. She saw the extreme measures people take to make ends meet and to survive. She described fellow employees who held two or three jobs, worked seven days a week, lived in cars, could not pay to treat chronic health conditions, got randomly fired, submitted to drug tests, and moved in and out of homeless shelters. She brought aspects of that life to light, describing difficult working conditions and the poor treatment that low-wage workers suffer.

The book she wrote upon her return to her real life as a well-paid writer, has been widely read and used in many college classrooms.

Ethnography

Ethnography is the immersion of the researcher in the natural setting of an entire social community to observe and experience their everyday life and culture. The heart of an ethnographic study focuses on how subjects view their own social standing and how they understand themselves in relation to a social group.

An ethnographic study might observe, for example, a small U.S. fishing town, an Inuit community, a village in Thailand, a Buddhist monastery, a private boarding school, or an amusement park. These places all have borders. People live, work, study, or vacation within those borders. People are there for a certain reason and therefore behave in certain ways and respect certain cultural norms. An ethnographer would commit to spending a determined amount of time studying every aspect of the chosen place, taking in as much as possible.

A sociologist studying a tribe in the Amazon might watch the way villagers go about their daily lives and then write a paper about it. To observe a spiritual retreat center, an ethnographer might sign up for a retreat and attend as a guest for an extended stay, observe and record data, and collate the material into results.

Institutional Ethnography

Institutional ethnography is an extension of basic ethnographic research principles that focuses intentionally on everyday concrete social relationships. Developed by Canadian sociologist Dorothy E. Smith (1990), institutional ethnography is often considered a feminist-inspired approach to social analysis and primarily considers women’s experiences within male- dominated societies and power structures. Smith’s work is seen to challenge sociology’s exclusion of women, both academically and in the study of women’s lives (Fenstermaker, n.d.).

Historically, social science research tended to objectify women and ignore their experiences except as viewed from the male perspective. Modern feminists note that describing women, and other marginalized groups, as subordinates helps those in authority maintain their own dominant positions (Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada n.d.). Smith’s three major works explored what she called “the conceptual practices of power” and are still considered seminal works in feminist theory and ethnography (Fensternmaker n.d.).

Sociological Research

The making of middletown: a study in modern u.s. culture.

In 1924, a young married couple named Robert and Helen Lynd undertook an unprecedented ethnography: to apply sociological methods to the study of one U.S. city in order to discover what “ordinary” people in the United States did and believed. Choosing Muncie, Indiana (population about 30,000) as their subject, they moved to the small town and lived there for eighteen months.

Ethnographers had been examining other cultures for decades—groups considered minorities or outsiders—like gangs, immigrants, and the poor. But no one had studied the so-called average American.

Recording interviews and using surveys to gather data, the Lynds objectively described what they observed. Researching existing sources, they compared Muncie in 1890 to the Muncie they observed in 1924. Most Muncie adults, they found, had grown up on farms but now lived in homes inside the city. As a result, the Lynds focused their study on the impact of industrialization and urbanization.

They observed that Muncie was divided into business and working class groups. They defined business class as dealing with abstract concepts and symbols, while working class people used tools to create concrete objects. The two classes led different lives with different goals and hopes. However, the Lynds observed, mass production offered both classes the same amenities. Like wealthy families, the working class was now able to own radios, cars, washing machines, telephones, vacuum cleaners, and refrigerators. This was an emerging material reality of the 1920s.

As the Lynds worked, they divided their manuscript into six chapters: Getting a Living, Making a Home, Training the Young, Using Leisure, Engaging in Religious Practices, and Engaging in Community Activities.

When the study was completed, the Lynds encountered a big problem. The Rockefeller Foundation, which had commissioned the book, claimed it was useless and refused to publish it. The Lynds asked if they could seek a publisher themselves.

Middletown: A Study in Modern American Culture was not only published in 1929 but also became an instant bestseller, a status unheard of for a sociological study. The book sold out six printings in its first year of publication, and has never gone out of print (Caplow, Hicks, & Wattenberg. 2000).

Nothing like it had ever been done before. Middletown was reviewed on the front page of the New York Times. Readers in the 1920s and 1930s identified with the citizens of Muncie, Indiana, but they were equally fascinated by the sociological methods and the use of scientific data to define ordinary people in the United States. The book was proof that social data was important—and interesting—to the U.S. public.

Researchers might use this method to study a single case of a foster child, drug lord, cancer patient, criminal, or rape victim. However, a major criticism of the case study as a method is that while offering depth on a topic, it does not provide enough evidence to form a generalized conclusion. In other words, it is difficult to make universal claims based on just one person, since one person does not verify a pattern. This is why most sociologists do not use case studies as a primary research method.

However, case studies are useful when the single case is unique. In these instances, a single case study can contribute tremendous insight. For example, a feral child, also called “wild child,” is one who grows up isolated from human beings. Feral children grow up without social contact and language, which are elements crucial to a “civilized” child’s development. These children mimic the behaviors and movements of animals, and often invent their own language. There are only about one hundred cases of “feral children” in the world.

As you may imagine, a feral child is a subject of great interest to researchers. Feral children provide unique information about child development because they have grown up outside of the parameters of “normal” growth and nurturing. And since there are very few feral children, the case study is the most appropriate method for researchers to use in studying the subject.

At age three, a Ukranian girl named Oxana Malaya suffered severe parental neglect. She lived in a shed with dogs, and she ate raw meat and scraps. Five years later, a neighbor called authorities and reported seeing a girl who ran on all fours, barking. Officials brought Oxana into society, where she was cared for and taught some human behaviors, but she never became fully socialized. She has been designated as unable to support herself and now lives in a mental institution (Grice 2011). Case studies like this offer a way for sociologists to collect data that may not be obtained by any other method.

Experiments

You have probably tested some of your own personal social theories. “If I study at night and review in the morning, I’ll improve my retention skills.” Or, “If I stop drinking soda, I’ll feel better.” Cause and effect. If this, then that. When you test the theory, your results either prove or disprove your hypothesis.

One way researchers test social theories is by conducting an experiment , meaning they investigate relationships to test a hypothesis—a scientific approach.

There are two main types of experiments: lab-based experiments and natural or field experiments. In a lab setting, the research can be controlled so that more data can be recorded in a limited amount of time. In a natural or field- based experiment, the time it takes to gather the data cannot be controlled but the information might be considered more accurate since it was collected without interference or intervention by the researcher.

As a research method, either type of sociological experiment is useful for testing if-then statements: if a particular thing happens (cause), then another particular thing will result (effect). To set up a lab-based experiment, sociologists create artificial situations that allow them to manipulate variables.

Classically, the sociologist selects a set of people with similar characteristics, such as age, class, race, or education. Those people are divided into two groups. One is the experimental group and the other is the control group. The experimental group is exposed to the independent variable(s) and the control group is not. To test the benefits of tutoring, for example, the sociologist might provide tutoring to the experimental group of students but not to the control group. Then both groups would be tested for differences in performance to see if tutoring had an effect on the experimental group of students. As you can imagine, in a case like this, the researcher would not want to jeopardize the accomplishments of either group of students, so the setting would be somewhat artificial. The test would not be for a grade reflected on their permanent record of a student, for example.

And if a researcher told the students they would be observed as part of a study on measuring the effectiveness of tutoring, the students might not behave naturally. This is called the Hawthorne effect —which occurs when people change their behavior because they know they are being watched as part of a study. The Hawthorne effect is unavoidable in some research studies because sociologists have to make the purpose of the study known. Subjects must be aware that they are being observed, and a certain amount of artificiality may result (Sonnenfeld 1985).

A real-life example will help illustrate the process. In 1971, Frances Heussenstamm, a sociology professor at California State University at Los Angeles, had a theory about police prejudice. To test her theory, she conducted research. She chose fifteen students from three ethnic backgrounds: Black, White, and Hispanic. She chose students who routinely drove to and from campus along Los Angeles freeway routes, and who had had perfect driving records for longer than a year.

Next, she placed a Black Panther bumper sticker on each car. That sticker, a representation of a social value, was the independent variable. In the 1970s, the Black Panthers were a revolutionary group actively fighting racism. Heussenstamm asked the students to follow their normal driving patterns. She wanted to see whether seeming support for the Black Panthers would change how these good drivers were treated by the police patrolling the highways. The dependent variable would be the number of traffic stops/citations.

The first arrest, for an incorrect lane change, was made two hours after the experiment began. One participant was pulled over three times in three days. He quit the study. After seventeen days, the fifteen drivers had collected a total of thirty-three traffic citations. The research was halted. The funding to pay traffic fines had run out, and so had the enthusiasm of the participants (Heussenstamm, 1971).

Secondary Data Analysis

While sociologists often engage in original research studies, they also contribute knowledge to the discipline through secondary data analysis . Secondary data does not result from firsthand research collected from primary sources, but are the already completed work of other researchers or data collected by an agency or organization. Sociologists might study works written by historians, economists, teachers, or early sociologists. They might search through periodicals, newspapers, or magazines, or organizational data from any period in history.

Using available information not only saves time and money but can also add depth to a study. Sociologists often interpret findings in a new way, a way that was not part of an author’s original purpose or intention. To study how women were encouraged to act and behave in the 1960s, for example, a researcher might watch movies, televisions shows, and situation comedies from that period. Or to research changes in behavior and attitudes due to the emergence of television in the late 1950s and early 1960s, a sociologist would rely on new interpretations of secondary data. Decades from now, researchers will most likely conduct similar studies on the advent of mobile phones, the Internet, or social media.

Social scientists also learn by analyzing the research of a variety of agencies. Governmental departments and global groups, like the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics or the World Health Organization (WHO), publish studies with findings that are useful to sociologists. A public statistic like the foreclosure rate might be useful for studying the effects of a recession. A racial demographic profile might be compared with data on education funding to examine the resources accessible by different groups.

One of the advantages of secondary data like old movies or WHO statistics is that it is nonreactive research (or unobtrusive research), meaning that it does not involve direct contact with subjects and will not alter or influence people’s behaviors. Unlike studies requiring direct contact with people, using previously published data does not require entering a population and the investment and risks inherent in that research process.

Using available data does have its challenges. Public records are not always easy to access. A researcher will need to do some legwork to track them down and gain access to records. To guide the search through a vast library of materials and avoid wasting time reading unrelated sources, sociologists employ content analysis , applying a systematic approach to record and value information gleaned from secondary data as they relate to the study at hand.

Also, in some cases, there is no way to verify the accuracy of existing data. It is easy to count how many drunk drivers, for example, are pulled over by the police. But how many are not? While it’s possible to discover the percentage of teenage students who drop out of high school, it might be more challenging to determine the number who return to school or get their GED later.

Another problem arises when data are unavailable in the exact form needed or do not survey the topic from the precise angle the researcher seeks. For example, the average salaries paid to professors at a public school is public record. But these figures do not necessarily reveal how long it took each professor to reach the salary range, what their educational backgrounds are, or how long they’ve been teaching.

When conducting content analysis, it is important to consider the date of publication of an existing source and to take into account attitudes and common cultural ideals that may have influenced the research. For example, when Robert S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd gathered research in the 1920s, attitudes and cultural norms were vastly different then than they are now. Beliefs about gender roles, race, education, and work have changed significantly since then. At the time, the study’s purpose was to reveal insights about small U.S. communities. Today, it is an illustration of 1920s attitudes and values.

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Book title: Introduction to Sociology 3e
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Book URL: https://openstax.org/books/introduction-sociology-3e/pages/1-introduction
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8.4: Designing Effective Questions and Questionnaires

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Learning Objectives

Identify the steps one should take in order to write effective survey questions.
Describe some of the ways that survey questions might confuse respondents and how to overcome that possibility.
Recite the two response option guidelines when writing closed-ended questions.
Define fence-sitting and floating.
Describe the steps involved in constructing a well-designed questionnaire.
Discuss why pretesting is important.

To this point we’ve considered several general points about surveys including when to use them, some of their pros and cons, and how often and in what ways to administer surveys. In this section we’ll get more specific and take a look at how to pose understandable questions that will yield useable data and how to present those questions on your questionnaire.

Asking Effective Questions

The first thing you need to do in order to write effective survey questions is identify what exactly it is that you wish to know. As silly as it sounds to state what seems so completely obvious, I can’t stress enough how easy it is to forget to include important questions when designing a survey. Let’s say you want to understand how students at your school made the transition from high school to college. Perhaps you wish to identify which students were comparatively more or less successful in this transition and which factors contributed to students’ success or lack thereof. To understand which factors shaped successful students’ transitions to college, you’ll need to include questions in your survey about all the possible factors that could contribute. Consulting the literature on the topic will certainly help, but you should also take the time to do some brainstorming on your own and to talk with others about what they think may be important in the transition to college. Perhaps time or space limitations won’t allow you to include every single item you’ve come up with, so you’ll also need to think about ranking your questions so that you can be sure to include those that you view as most important.

Although I have stressed the importance of including questions on all topics you view as important to your overall research question, you don’t want to take an everything-but-the-kitchen-sink approach by uncritically including every possible question that occurs to you. Doing so puts an unnecessary burden on your survey respondents. Remember that you have asked your respondents to give you their time and attention and to take care in responding to your questions; show them your respect by only asking questions that you view as important.

Once you’ve identified all the topics about which you’d like to ask questions, you’ll need to actually write those questions. Questions should be as clear and to the point as possible. This is not the time to show off your creative writing skills; a survey is a technical instrument and should be written in a way that is as direct and succinct as possible. As I’ve said, your survey respondents have agreed to give their time and attention to your survey. The best way to show your appreciation for their time is to not waste it. Ensuring that your questions are clear and not overly wordy will go a long way toward showing your respondents the gratitude they deserve.

Related to the point about not wasting respondents’ time, make sure that every question you pose will be relevant to every person you ask to complete it. This means two things: first, that respondents have knowledge about whatever topic you are asking them about, and second, that respondents have experience with whatever events, behaviors, or feelings you are asking them to report. You probably wouldn’t want to ask a sample of 18-year-old respondents, for example, how they would have advised President Reagan to proceed when news of the United States’ sale of weapons to Iran broke in the mid-1980s. For one thing, few 18-year-olds are likely to have any clue about how to advise a president (nor does this 30-something-year-old). Furthermore, the 18-year-olds of today were not even alive during Reagan’s presidency, so they have had no experience with the event about which they are being questioned. In our example of the transition to college, heeding the criterion of relevance would mean that respondents must understand what exactly you mean by “transition to college” if you are going to use that phrase in your survey and that respondents must have actually experienced the transition to college themselves.

If you decide that you do wish to pose some questions about matters with which only a portion of respondents will have had experience, it may be appropriate to introduce a filter question into your survey. A filter question is designed to identify some subset of survey respondents who are asked additional questions that are not relevant to the entire sample. Perhaps in your survey on the transition to college you want to know whether substance use plays any role in students’ transitions. You may ask students how often they drank during their first semester of college. But this assumes that all students drank. Certainly some may have abstained, and it wouldn’t make any sense to ask the nondrinkers how often they drank. Nevertheless, it seems reasonable that drinking frequency may have an impact on someone’s transition to college, so it is probably worth asking this question even if doing so violates the rule of relevance for some respondents. This is just the sort of instance when a filter question would be appropriate. You may pose the question as it is presented in Figure 8.8.

Figure 8.8 Filter Question

There are some ways of asking questions that are bound to confuse a good many survey respondents. Survey researchers should take great care to avoid these kinds of questions. These include questions that pose double negatives, those that use confusing or culturally specific terms, and those that ask more than one question but are posed as a single question. Any time respondents are forced to decipher questions that utilize two forms of negation, confusion is bound to ensue. Taking the previous question about drinking as our example, what if we had instead asked, “Did you not drink during your first semester of college?” A response of no would mean that the respondent did actually drink—he or she did not not drink. This example is obvious, but hopefully it drives home the point to be careful about question wording so that respondents are not asked to decipher double negatives. In general, avoiding negative terms in your question wording will help to increase respondent understanding.Though this is generally true, some researchers argue that negatively worded questions should be integrated with positively worded questions in order to ensure that respondents have actually carefully read each question. See, for example, the following: Vaterlaus, M., & Higgenbotham, B. (2011). Writing survey questions for local program evaluations. Retrieved from http://extension.usu.edu/files/publi..._2011-02pr.pdf

You should also avoid using terms or phrases that may be regionally or culturally specific (unless you are absolutely certain all your respondents come from the region or culture whose terms you are using). When I first moved to Maine from Minnesota, I was totally confused every time I heard someone use the word wicked . This term has totally different meanings across different regions of the country. I’d come from an area that understood the term wicked to be associated with evil. In my new home, however, wicked is used simply to put emphasis on whatever it is that you’re talking about. So if this chapter is extremely interesting to you, if you live in Maine you might say that it is “wicked interesting.” If you hate this chapter and you live in Minnesota, perhaps you’d describe the chapter simply as wicked. I once overheard one student tell another that his new girlfriend was “wicked athletic.” At the time I thought this meant he’d found a woman who used her athleticism for evil purposes. I’ve come to understand, however, that this woman is probably just exceptionally athletic. While wicked may not be a term you’re likely to use in a survey, the point is to be thoughtful and cautious about whatever terminology you do use.

Asking multiple questions as though they are a single question can also be terribly confusing for survey respondents. There’s a specific term for this sort of question; it is called a double-barreled question . Using our example of the transition to college, Figure 8.9shows a double-barreled question.

Figure 8.9 Double-Barreled Question

Do you see what makes the question double-barreled? How would someone respond if they felt their college classes were more demanding but also more boring than their high school classes? Or less demanding but more interesting? Because the question combines “demanding” and “interesting,” there is no way to respond yes to one criterion but no to the other.

Another thing to avoid when constructing survey questions is the problem of social desirability . We all want to look good, right? And we all probably know the politically correct response to a variety of questions whether we agree with the politically correct response or not. In survey research, social desirability refers to the idea that respondents will try to answer questions in a way that will present them in a favorable light. Perhaps we decide that to understand the transition to college, we need to know whether respondents ever cheated on an exam in high school or college. We all know that cheating on exams is generally frowned upon (at least I hope we all know this). So it may be difficult to get people to admit to cheating on a survey. But if you can guarantee respondents’ confidentiality, or even better, their anonymity, chances are much better that they will be honest about having engaged in this socially undesirable behavior. Another way to avoid problems of social desirability is to try to phrase difficult questions in the most benign way possible. Earl Babbie (2010)Babbie, E. (2010). The practice of social research (12th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. offers a useful suggestion for helping you do this—simply imagine how you would feel responding to your survey questions. If you would be uncomfortable, chances are others would as well.

Finally, it is important to get feedback on your survey questions from as many people as possible, especially people who are like those in your sample. Now is not the time to be shy. Ask your friends for help, ask your mentors for feedback, ask your family to take a look at your survey as well. The more feedback you can get on your survey questions, the better the chances that you will come up with a set of questions that are understandable to a wide variety of people and, most importantly, to those in your sample.

In sum, in order to pose effective survey questions, researchers should do the following:

Identify what it is they wish to know.
Keep questions clear and succinct.
Make questions relevant to respondents.
Use filter questions when necessary.
Avoid questions that are likely to confuse respondents such as those that use double negatives, use culturally specific terms, or pose more than one question in the form of a single question.
Imagine how they would feel responding to questions.
Get feedback, especially from people who resemble those in the researcher’s sample.

Response Options

While posing clear and understandable questions in your survey is certainly important, so, too, is providing respondents with unambiguous response options . Response options are the answers that you provide to the people taking your survey. Generally respondents will be asked to choose a single (or best) response to each question you pose, though certainly it makes sense in some cases to instruct respondents to choose multiple response options. One caution to keep in mind when accepting multiple responses to a single question, however, is that doing so may add complexity when it comes to tallying and analyzing your survey results.

Offering response options assumes that your questions will be closed-ended questions . In a quantitative written survey, which is the type of survey we’ve been discussing here, chances are good that most if not all your questions will be closed ended. This means that you, the researcher, will provide respondents with a limited set of options for their responses. To write an effective closed-ended question, there are a couple of guidelines worth following. First, be sure that your response options are mutually exclusive . Look back at Figure 8.8, which contains questions about how often and how many drinks respondents consumed. Do you notice that there are no overlapping categories in the response options for these questions? This is another one of those points about question construction that seems fairly obvious but that can be easily overlooked. Response options should also be exhaustive . In other words, every possible response should be covered in the set of response options that you provide. For example, note that in question 10a in Figure 8.8 we have covered all possibilities—those who drank, say, an average of once per month can choose the first response option (“less than one time per week”) while those who drank multiple times a day each day of the week can choose the last response option (“7+”). All the possibilities in between these two extremes are covered by the middle three response options.

Surveys need not be limited to closed-ended questions. Sometimes survey researchers include open-ended questions in their survey instruments as a way to gather additional details from respondents. An open-ended question does not include response options; instead, respondents are asked to reply to the question in their own way, using their own words. These questions are generally used to find out more about a survey participant’s experiences or feelings about whatever they are being asked to report in the survey. If, for example, a survey includes closed-ended questions asking respondents to report on their involvement in extracurricular activities during college, an open-ended question could ask respondents why they participated in those activities or what they gained from their participation. While responses to such questions may also be captured using a closed-ended format, allowing participants to share some of their responses in their own words can make the experience of completing the survey more satisfying to respondents and can also reveal new motivations or explanations that had not occurred to the researcher.

In Section 8.4.1 "Asking Effective Questions" we discussed double-barreled questions, but response options can also be double barreled, and this should be avoided. Figure 8.10 is an example of a question that uses double-barreled response options.

Figure 8.10 Double-Barreled Response Options

Other things to avoid when it comes to response options include fence-sitting and floating. Fence-sitters are respondents who choose neutral response options, even if they have an opinion. This can occur if respondents are given, say, five rank-ordered response options, such as strongly agree, agree, no opinion, disagree, and strongly disagree. Some people will be drawn to respond “no opinion” even if they have an opinion, particularly if their true opinion is the nonsocially desirable opinion. Floaters , on the other hand, are those that choose a substantive answer to a question when really they don’t understand the question or don’t have an opinion. If a respondent is only given four rank-ordered response options, such as strongly agree, agree, disagree, and strongly disagree, those who have no opinion have no choice but to select a response that suggests they have an opinion.

As you can see, floating is the flip side of fence-sitting. Thus the solution to one problem is often the cause of the other. How you decide which approach to take depends on the goals of your research. Sometimes researchers actually want to learn something about people who claim to have no opinion. In this case, allowing for fence-sitting would be necessary. Other times researchers feel confident their respondents will all be familiar with every topic in their survey. In this case, perhaps it is OK to force respondents to choose an opinion. There is no always-correct solution to either problem.

Finally, using a matrix is a nice way of streamlining response options. A matrix is a question type that that lists a set of questions for which the answer categories are all the same. If you have a set of questions for which the response options are the same, it may make sense to create a matrix rather than posing each question and its response options individually. Not only will this save you some space in your survey but it will also help respondents progress through your survey more easily. A sample matrix can be seen in Figure 8.11.

Figure 8.11 Survey Questions Utilizing Matrix Format

Designing Questionnaires

In addition to constructing quality questions and posing clear response options, you’ll also need to think about how to present your written questions and response options to survey respondents. Questions are presented on a questionnaire , the document (either hard copy or online) that contains all your survey questions that respondents read and mark their responses on. Designing questionnaires takes some thought, and in this section we’ll discuss the sorts of things you should think about as you prepare to present your well-constructed survey questions on a questionnaire.

One of the first things to do once you’ve come up with a set of survey questions you feel confident about is to group those questions thematically. In our example of the transition to college, perhaps we’d have a few questions asking about study habits, others focused on friendships, and still others on exercise and eating habits. Those may be the themes around which we organize our questions. Or perhaps it would make more sense to present any questions we had about precollege life and habits and then present a series of questions about life after beginning college. The point here is to be deliberate about how you present your questions to respondents.

Once you have grouped similar questions together, you’ll need to think about the order in which to present those question groups. Most survey researchers agree that it is best to begin a survey with questions that will want to make respondents continue (Babbie, 2010; Dillman, 2000; Neuman, 2003).Babbie, E. (2010). The practice of social research (12th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth; Dillman, D. A. (2000). Mail and Internet surveys: The tailored design method (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Wiley; Neuman, W. L. (2003). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson. In other words, don’t bore respondents, but don’t scare them away either. There’s some disagreement over where on a survey to place demographic questions such as those about a person’s age, gender, and race. On the one hand, placing them at the beginning of the questionnaire may lead respondents to think the survey is boring, unimportant, and not something they want to bother completing. On the other hand, if your survey deals with some very sensitive or difficult topic, such as child sexual abuse or other criminal activity, you don’t want to scare respondents away or shock them by beginning with your most intrusive questions.

In truth, the order in which you present questions on a survey is best determined by the unique characteristics of your research—only you, the researcher, hopefully in consultation with people who are willing to provide you with feedback, can determine how best to order your questions. To do so, think about the unique characteristics of your topic, your questions, and most importantly, your sample. Keeping in mind the characteristics and needs of the people you will ask to complete your survey should help guide you as you determine the most appropriate order in which to present your questions.

You’ll also need to consider the time it will take respondents to complete your questionnaire. Surveys vary in length, from just a page or two to a dozen or more pages, which means they also vary in the time it takes to complete them. How long to make your survey depends on several factors. First, what is it that you wish to know? Wanting to understand how grades vary by gender and year in school certainly requires fewer questions than wanting to know how people’s experiences in college are shaped by demographic characteristics, college attended, housing situation, family background, college major, friendship networks, and extracurricular activities. Keep in mind that even if your research question requires a good number of questions be included in your questionnaire, do your best to keep the questionnaire as brief as possible. Any hint that you’ve thrown in a bunch of useless questions just for the sake of throwing them in will turn off respondents and may make them not want to complete your survey.

Second, and perhaps more important, how long are respondents likely to be willing to spend completing your questionnaire? If you are studying college students, asking them to use their precious fun time away from studying to complete your survey may mean they won’t want to spend more than a few minutes on it. But if you have the endorsement of a professor who is willing to allow you to administer your survey in class, students may be willing to give you a little more time (though perhaps the professor will not). The time that survey researchers ask respondents to spend on questionnaires varies greatly. Some advise that surveys should not take longer than about 15 minutes to complete (cited in Babbie 2010),This can be found at http://www.worldopinion.com/the_frame/frame4.html , cited in Babbie, E. (2010). The practice of social research (12th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. others suggest that up to 20 minutes is acceptable (Hopper, 2010).Hopper, J. (2010). How long should a survey be? Retrieved from http://www.verstaresearch.com/blog/h...ld-a-survey-be As with question order, there is no clear-cut, always-correct answer about questionnaire length. The unique characteristics of your study and your sample should be considered in order to determine how long to make your questionnaire.

A good way to estimate the time it will take respondents to complete your questionnaire is through pretesting . Pretesting allows you to get feedback on your questionnaire so you can improve it before you actually administer it. Pretesting can be quite expensive and time consuming if you wish to test your questionnaire on a large sample of people who very much resemble the sample to whom you will eventually administer the finalized version of your questionnaire. But you can learn a lot and make great improvements to your questionnaire simply by pretesting with a small number of people to whom you have easy access (perhaps you have a few friends who owe you a favor). By pretesting your questionnaire you can find out how understandable your questions are, get feedback on question wording and order, find out whether any of your questions are exceptionally boring or offensive, and learn whether there are places where you should have included filter questions, to name just a few of the benefits of pretesting. You can also time pretesters as they take your survey. Ask them to complete the survey as though they were actually members of your sample. This will give you a good idea about what sort of time estimate to provide respondents when it comes time to actually administer your survey, and about whether you have some wiggle room to add additional items or need to cut a few items.

Perhaps this goes without saying, but your questionnaire should also be attractive. A messy presentation style can confuse respondents or, at the very least, annoy them. Be brief, to the point, and as clear as possible. Avoid cramming too much into a single page, make your font size readable (at least 12 point), leave a reasonable amount of space between items, and make sure all instructions are exceptionally clear. Think about books, documents, articles, or web pages that you have read yourself—which were relatively easy to read and easy on the eyes and why? Try to mimic those features in the presentation of your survey questions.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Brainstorming and consulting the literature are two important early steps to take when preparing to write effective survey questions.
Make sure that your survey questions will be relevant to all respondents and that you use filter questions when necessary.
Getting feedback on your survey questions is a crucial step in the process of designing a survey.
When it comes to creating response options, the solution to the problem of fence-sitting might cause floating, whereas the solution to the problem of floating might cause fence sitting.
Pretesting is an important step for improving one’s survey before actually administering it.
Do a little Internet research to find out what a Likert scale is and when you may use one.
Write a closed-ended question that follows the guidelines for good survey question construction. Have a peer in the class check your work (you can do the same for him or her!).

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Research Methods in Sociology – An Introduction

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Last Updated on May 4, 2023 by Karl Thompson

An introduction to research methods in Sociology covering quantitative, qualitative, primary and secondary data and defining the basic types of research method including social surveys, experiments, interviews, participant observation, ethnography and longitudinal studies.

Why do social research?

The simple answer is that without it, our knowledge of the social world is limited to our immediate and limited life-experiences. Without some kind of systematic research, we cannot know the answer to even basic questions such as how many people live in the United Kingdom, let alone the answers to more complex questions about why working class children get worse results at school or why the crime rate has been falling every year since 1995.

So the most basic reason for doing social research is to describe the social world around us: To find out what people think and feel about social issues and how these thoughts and feelings vary across social groups and regions. Without research, you simply do not know with any degree of certainty, what is going on in the world.

However, most research has the aim of going beyond mere description. Sociologists typically limit themselves to a specific research topic and conduct research in order to achieve a research aim or sometimes to answer a specific question.

Subjective and Objective Knowledge in Social Research

Research in Sociology is usually carefully planned, and conducted using well established procedures to ensure that knowledge is objective – where the information gathered reflects what is really ‘out there’ in the social, world rather than ‘subjective’ – where it only reflects the narrow opinions of the researchers. The careful, systematic and rigorous use of research methods is what makes sociological knowledge ‘objective’ rather than ‘subjective’.

Subjective knowledge – is knowledge based purely on the opinions of the individual, reflecting their values and biases, their point of view

Objective knowledge – is knowledge which is free of the biases, opinions and values of the researcher, it reflects what is really ‘out there’ in the social world.

While most Sociologists believe that we should strive to make our data collection as objective as possible, there are some Sociologists (known as Phenomenologists) who argue that it is not actually possible to collect data which is purely objective – The researcher’s opinions always get in the way of what data is collected and filtered for publication.

Sources and types of data

In social research, it is usual to distinguish between primary and secondary data and qualitative and quantitative data

Quantitative data refers to information that appears in numerical form, or in the form of statistics.

Qualitative data refers to information that appears in written, visual or audio form, such as transcripts of interviews, newspapers and web sites. (It is possible to analyse qualitative data and display features of it numerically!)

Secondary data is data that has been collected by previous researchers or organisations such as the government. Quantitative sources of secondary data include official government statistics and qualitative sources are very numerous including government reports, newspapers, personal documents such as diaries as well as the staggering amount of audio-visual content available online.

Primary data is data collected first hand by the researcher herself. If a sociologist is conducting her own unique sociological research, she will normally have specific research questions she wants answered and thus tailor her research methods to get the data she wants. The main methods sociologists use to generate primary data include social surveys (normally using questionnaire), interviews, experiments and observations.

Four main primary research methods

For the purposes of A-level sociology there are four major primary research methods

social surveys (typically questionnaires)
experiments
participant observation

I have also included in this section longitudinal studies and ethnographies/ case studies.

Social Surveys

Social Surveys – are typically structured questionnaires designed to collect information from large numbers of people in standardised form.

Social Surveys are written in advance by the researcher and tend to to be pre-coded and have a limited number of closed-questions and they tend to focus on relatively simple topics. A good example is the UK National Census. Social Surveys can be administered (carried out) in a number of different ways – they might be self-completion (completed by the respondents themselves) or they might take the form of a structured interview on the high street, as is the case with some market research.

Experiments

Experiments – aim to measure as precisely as possible the effect which one variable has on another, aiming to establish cause and effect relationships between variables.

Experiments typically start off with a hypothesis – a theory or explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation, and will typically take the form of a testable statement about the effect which one or more independent variables will have on the dependent variable. A good experiment will be designed in such a way that objective cause and effect relationships can be established, so that the original hypothesis can verified, or rejected and modified.

There are two types of experiment – laboratory and field experiments – A laboratory experiment takes place in a controlled environment, such as a laboratory, whereas a field experiment takes place in a real-life setting such as a classroom, the work place or even the high street.

Interviews – A method of gathering information by asking questions orally, either face to face or by telephone.

Structured Interviews are basically social surveys which are read out by the researcher – they use pre-set, standardised, typically closed questions. The aim of structured interviews is to produce quantitative data.

Unstructured Interviews , also known as informal interviews, are more like a guided conversation, and typically involve the researcher asking open-questions which generate qualitative data. The researcher will start with a general research topic in and ask questions in response to the various and differentiated responses the respondents give. Unstructured Interviews are thus a flexible, respondent-led research method.

Semi-Structured Interviews consist of an interview schedule which typically consists of a number of open-ended questions which allow the respondent to give in-depth answers. For example, the researcher might have 10 questions (hence structured) they will ask all respondents, but ask further differentiated (unstructured) questions based on the responses given.

Participant Observation

Participant Observation – involves the researcher joining a group of people, taking an active part in their day to day lives as a member of that group and making in-depth recordings of what she sees.

Participant Observation may be overt , in which case the respondents know that researcher is conducing sociological research, or covert (undercover) where the respondents are deceived into thinking the researcher is ‘one of them’ do not know the researcher is conducting research.

Ethnographies and Case Studies

Ethnographies are an in-depth study of the way of life of a group of people in their natural setting. They are typically very in-depth and long-term and aim for a full (or ‘thick’), multi-layred account of the culture of a group of people. Participant Observation is typically the main method used, but researchers will use all other methods available to get even richer data – such as interviews and analysis of any documents associated with that culture.

Case Studies involves researching a single case or example of something using multiple methods – for example researching one school or factory. An ethnography is simply a very in-depth case study.

Longitudinal Studies

Longitudinal Studies are studies of a sample of people in which information is collected from the same people at intervals over a long period of time. For example, a researcher might start off in 2015 by getting a sample of 1000 people to fill in a questionnaire, and then go back to the same people in 2020, and again in 2025 to collect further information.

Secondary Research Methods

The main type of secondary quantitative data which students of A-level sociology need to know about are official statistics, which are data collected by government agencies, usually on a regular basis and include crime statistics, the Census and quantitative schools data such as exam results.

Secondary qualitative data is data which already exists in written or audiovisual form and include news media, the entire qualitative content of the internent (so blogs and social media data), and more old-school data sources such as diaries, autobiographies and letters.

Sociologists sometimes distinguish between private and public documents, which is a starting point to understanding the enormous variety of data out there!

Secondary data can be a challenge to get your head around because there are so many different types, all with subtly different advantages and disadvantages, and so this particular sub-topic is more likely to demand you to apply your knowledge (rather than just wrote learn) compared to other research methods!

Factors Effecting the Choice of Research Method

Positivism and Interpretivism – A Very Brief Overview

my main research methods page contains links to all of my posts on research methods.

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15 thoughts on “Research Methods in Sociology – An Introduction”

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Thanks for the feedback, I do go through and refine as and when I can. Although for the sake of A-level sociology the distinction between research design and research methods would be lost on something like 95% of the students I taught – most just aren’t that interested – hence why I just stick with simple terminology like ‘methods’. Those that take this on to degree level, that’s where those sorts of distinctions start to matter, but point taken, I could be tighter in many places!

You’re all over the place here. You’re confusing research designs and research methods. A survey for example is research design and can be done by different methods. You talk about ‘structured questionnaires’. What, then, would an unstructured questionnaire look like? Can you find an example? You need to put more work in. This will confuse students.

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Qualitative Methods in Sociological Research

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Qualitative Methods in Sociological Research by Jeff Sallaz LAST REVIEWED: 27 July 2011 LAST MODIFIED: 27 July 2011 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756384-0043

Qualitative research methods have a long and distinguished history within sociology. They trace their roots back to Max Weber’s call for an interpretive understanding of action. Today, qualitative sociology encompasses a variety of specific procedures for collecting data, ranging from life history interviews to direct observation of social interaction to embedded participant observation. In all of these cases, the social scientist directly interacts with those whom he or she is studying. The social scientist attempts to see the world from their perspective and to interpret their practices in a meaningful way. In fact, scholars such as Howard Becker and Clifford Geertz have argued that the ultimate test of the validity of a qualitative research study is whether it produces an account of social action that would make sense to the actors themselves. As this would imply, the foundational logic underlying qualitative studies differs from that of variable-oriented quantitative research. The latter measures particular properties of social phenomena and then uses statistical models to determine patterns of association among these properties, or variables. Because these models require a larger number of cases to establish statistically significant associations, quantitative researchers necessarily must sacrifice depth for breadth. Qualitative researchers, in contrast, are comfortable working with a small number of cases, or even a single case. They have at their disposal a variety of assumptions, theories, and methods to produce rich accounts of social life. In addition, qualitative research can offer unique insight into the relationship between microsocial and macrosocial worlds and even global forces.

The following texts offer the interested reader a general introduction to basic principles and debates associated with qualitative research methods. Ross 1992 and Abbott 1999 situate these methods in historical context. During the first half of the 20th century, ethnographic field research was the gold standard for sociology—especially at the famed Chicago school. The same was true in much of Europe, as Masson 2008 describes in the case of France. Katz 1997 , Burawoy 1998 , and Steinmetz 2005 , in turn, defend ethnography against recent critiques that it does not represent a legitimate mode of inquiry according to the standards of positivist science. That such debates are intertwined with larger moral concerns is demonstrated by Smith 2005 and Van Manen 1990 , both of which argue that qualitative methods are uniquely suited to study the lives of oppressed and subaltern groups.

Abbott, Andrew. 1999. Department and discipline: Chicago sociology at one hundred . Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.

Robert Park, a sociologist at the University of Chicago in the early 20th century, ordered his students to “Go get the seat of your pants dirty.” Abbott offers a balanced insider account of the famed Chicago School of ethnographic field research.

Burawoy, Michael. 1998. The extended case method. Sociological Theory 16.1: 5–33.

Argues that qualitative methods should not be held to the standards of “positive science.” Rather, they represent an equally valid mode of analysis grounded in a “reflexive science.”

Katz, Jack. 1997. Ethnography’s warrants. Sociological Methods and Research 25.4: 391–423.

DOI: 10.1177/0049124197025004002

Addresses the question how qualitative researchers can justify, or warrant, their case studies in relation to potentially hostile audiences who adhere to a mainstream quantitative view.

Masson, Philippe. 2008. Faire de la sociologie: Les grandes enquêtes françaises depuis 1945 . Grands repères. Guides. Paris: La Découverte.

Currently available only in French, this book covers the history of qualitative field methods in French sociology, especially the diffusion of ideas from the United States.

Ross, Dorothy. 1992. The origins of American social science . Ideas in Context. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.

A comprehensive study of the history of sociology in America, this book argues that the legitimacy of qualitative research has been tied to the preeminence of various universities, departments, and faculties.

Smith, Dorothy. 2005. Institutional ethnography: A sociology for people . Gender Lens series. Lanham, MD: AltaMira.

Argues persuasively that ethnographers have a responsibility to impart in their research subjects an understanding of the powerful external forces shaping their everyday life worlds. Very much in the spirit of what C. Wright Mills referred to as the sociological imagination: the capacity to understand personal issues in the context of larger public problems.

Steinmetz, George, ed. 2005. The politics of method in the human sciences: Positivism and its epistemological others . Politics, History and Culture. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.

Collection of essays examining how positivism (i.e., an epistemology valorizing empirical observations and the application of the scientific method) came to dominate many human sciences, including sociology. Qualitative researchers often have to deal with the critique that their methods do not meet the standards of positivism.

Van Manen, Max. 1990. Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy . SUNY Series in Philosophy of Education. Albany: State Univ. of New York Press.

A short but powerful book offering an accessible introduction to hermeneutic and phenomenological methods. It focuses on the applied aspects of qualitative methods for simultaneously teaching and learning from our subjects.

Users without a subscription are not able to see the full content on this page. Please subscribe or login .

Oxford Bibliographies Online is available by subscription and perpetual access to institutions. For more information or to contact an Oxford Sales Representative click here .

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Research Methods: Questionnaires

Last updated 15 Jun 2020

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A questionnaire, or social survey, is a popular research method that consists of a list of questions.

If administered directly by the researcher to the subject in person then this is the same as a structured interview ; however, questionnaires can also be completed independently (self-completion questionnaires) and therefore administered in bulk, through the post or electronically for example. The method can use closed or open questions or indeed a mixture of the two, depending on what sort of data is desired and how the researcher intends to analyse it.

Reliability and Validity of Questionnaires

In the context of research, the reliability of a method refers to the extent to which, were the same study to be repeated, it would produce the same results. For this to be the case, samples need to be representative, questions or processes need to be uniform and data would generally need to be quantitative. Researchers need to be confident that if they repeat the same research and the result is different that what they are studying has genuinely changed and not just that their original method was not sufficiently reliable. If you take the example of opinion polls on people's voting preferences: if the support for parties changes by several points, the researchers (and their "customers") need to be confident that this is because people are really changing their minds about how they intend to vote; that it is not simply that the research method is unreliable and therefore changes between polls are likely and unpredictable. If that were the case it would render their data useless.

Questionnaires are generally considered to be high in reliability . This is because it is possible to ask a uniform set of questions. Any problems in the design of the survey can be ironed out after a pilot study . The more closed questions used, the more reliable the research.

Valid research reveals a true picture. Data that is high in validity tends to be qualitative and is often described as "rich". It seeks to provide the researcher with verstehen - a deep, true understanding of their research object. The validity of data produced by questionnaires can be undermined by the use of closed questions which limit respondents' answers.

In a questionnaire (or structured interview ) it is possible to ask open questions or closed questions. Closed questions are those with a limited number of possible responses, often "yes" or "no". Closed questions help to make data easier to analyse and more reliable. This is because closed questions produce quantitative data. However, restricting responses can impact validity. To try to overcome this, sociologists often broaden possible responses to closed questions, by, for example, ranking possible responses or indicating the degree of agreement with a statement. The latter is known as the Likert Scale, and is a way of quantifying qualitative data for ease of analysis. It is also possible to mix closed questions with an open "other (please specify)" option.

Open questions do not limit the possible answers that the responder can give, producing qualitative data which is generally considered to be higher in validity. This is because it can be detailed and the respondent can give their own views, rather than be limited by the assumptions of the researcher. However, such data can be very difficult to analyse. There is also the danger that options are simply limited during analysis rather than design (ie. the researcher puts the wide range of responses into a smaller number of categories in order to analyse them). This depends on the researcher's interpretation of the respondent's response which could be affected by subjectivity or the researcher's values.

Because questionnaires are usually used to produce quantitative data, they are generally thought to be more reliable than valid. However, they do have the advantage of being able to produce a mixture of reliable and valid data, known as triangulation .

Questionnaire
Closed Questions
Open Question
Primary Data
Response Rate

The british census.

18th February 2020

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Sociology is a study of society, relationships, and culture. It can include multiple topics—ranging from class and social mobility to the Internet and marriage traditions. Research in sociology is used to inform policy makers, educators, businesses, social workers, non-profits, etc. Below are 100 sociology research topics you can use right now, divided by general topic headings. Feel free to ...
10 Research Question Examples to Guide your Research Project
The first question asks for a ready-made solution, and is not focused or researchable. The second question is a clearer comparative question, but note that it may not be practically feasible. For a smaller research project or thesis, it could be narrowed down further to focus on the effectiveness of drunk driving laws in just one or two countries.
101 Sociology Research Topics That Make an Impact
What kind of sociology research topics have you looked at lately? Do they make the right impact? Check out this list that assures you'll be passionate!
200+ Sociology Research Topics with Step-by-Step Guide
Sociology Research Topics Ideas Sociology includes a systematic plan for gathering and analyzing observations about the world. Determine the field that you find exciting. Finding problematic questions is the next step. The last research paper step is determining that there is enough literature on specific topic. Defining the field and unsettled ...
Sociology Research Topics & Ideas (Free Webinar + Template)
If you're just starting out exploring sociology-related topics for your dissertation, thesis or research project, you've come to the right place. In this post, we'll help kickstart your research by providing a hearty list of research ideas, including real-world examples from recent sociological studies.. PS - This is just the start…
Top 50 Sociology Research Topics Ideas and Questions
Interesting Sociology Research Topics and Questions: Due to the vastness of the possibilities, coming up with sociological research topics can be stressful. ... Reconceptualizing the underlying differences between Race and Ethnicity with the help of examples and examining the interchangeable usage of the two terms;
Sociology Research Topics
In this case, an example of a sociology research question could be "Should children be exposed to gender studies from a young age?". How to Create Strong Sociology Research Questions. Strong sociological research questions take social issues and examine their social meaning and patterns. Once you pick a topic that you like, try narrowing it ...
4.2. Types of Research Questions
Exploratory research is often conducted in new areas of inquiry, where the goals of the research are: (1) to scope out the magnitude or extent of a particular phenomenon; (2) to generate some initial ideas or hunches about that phenomenon; or (3) to test the feasibility of undertaking a more extensive study. For instance, if the citizens of a ...
McQuade LibGuides: Sociology: Developing a Research Question
A research question is a statement that defines what is to be studied. It is the core of the research project, study, or literature review. Your research question focuses the study, determines the methodology, and guides all stages of inquiry, analysis, and reporting. Your research question should... Be focused ; Identify the problem you're ...
Construct a Research Question
Research questions have a few characteristics. They're open-ended. (They can't be answered with a simple yes or no response.) They're often measurable through quantitative data or qualitative measures. They summarize the issue/topic being researched. They may take a fresh look at an issue or try to solve a problem. In addition, research ...
What Makes a Research Question Sociological?
A research question is considered sociological when it pertains to the study of human society and social behavior. This can include topics such as social structures, institutions, culture, groups, and individuals within society. A sociological research question should be specific, measurable, and address a gap in current knowledge or ...
1. Your Research Question
Part of coming up with a manageable research question is also knowing what your "information need" is. In other words, what kinds of sources do you need to help you answer your question. See the subpage "Article Types" for more info. Tip: Remember that the research process is non-linear and sometimes messy. You will need to search for and read ...
500 Sociology Questions and Topics [Examples & Tips]
🏙️ Urban Sociology Topics to Research. Urban sociology is concerned with human interactions in a city. It examines the advantages and areas of improvement in city life. This section includes topics of demographics, economy, and various aspects of group behavior. Continue reading to find ideas for your assignment.
Chapter 2. Sociological Research
2.2. Research Methods Sociological research is a fairly complex process. As you can see, a lot goes into even a simple research design. There are many steps and much to consider when collecting data on human behaviour, as well as in interpreting and analyzing data in order to form conclusive results.
2.1 Approaches to Sociological Research
Step 1: Ask a Question or Find a Research Topic. The first step of the scientific method is to ask a question, select a problem, and identify the specific area of interest. The topic should be narrow enough to study within a geographic location and time frame. "Are societies capable of sustained happiness?" would be too vague.
2.2 Research Methods
Field Research. The work of sociology rarely happens in limited, confined spaces. Rather, sociologists go out into the world. They meet subjects where they live, work, and play. Field research refers to gathering primary data from a natural environment. To conduct field research, the sociologist must be willing to step into new environments and ...
8.4: Designing Effective Questions and Questionnaires
Learning Objectives. Identify the steps one should take in order to write effective survey questions. Describe some of the ways that survey questions might confuse respondents and how to overcome that possibility. Recite the two response option guidelines when writing closed-ended questions. Define fence-sitting and floating.
Research Methods in Sociology
Four main primary research methods. For the purposes of A-level sociology there are four major primary research methods. social surveys (typically questionnaires) experiments. interviews. participant observation. I have also included in this section longitudinal studies and ethnographies/ case studies.
Qualitative Methods in Sociological Research
Introduction. Qualitative research methods have a long and distinguished history within sociology. They trace their roots back to Max Weber's call for an interpretive understanding of action. Today, qualitative sociology encompasses a variety of specific procedures for collecting data, ranging from life history interviews to direct ...
Research Methods: Questionnaires
Research Methods: Questionnaires. A questionnaire, or social survey, is a popular research method that consists of a list of questions. If administered directly by the researcher to the subject in person then this is the same as a structured interview; however, questionnaires can also be completed independently (self-completion questionnaires ...

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100 Sociology Research Topics You Can Use Right Now

Art, Food, Music, and Culture

Social Solutions and Cultural Biases

Marriage and Family

Generational

Spiritualism, religion, and superstition

Addiction and Mental Health

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Top 10 Sociology Research Paper Topics

2. The Effects of Divorce on Children

3. The Role of Religious Education in a Modern Society

4. The Association Between Social Media Usage and Depression in Children

5. The Phenomenon of Bullying and Aggression Among Teenagers

6. Factors That Contribute to Abusive Marriages

7. Patterns of Human Behavior Online

8. The Association Between Social Class and Child Obesity

9. The Impact of Infertility on a Married Couple

10. The Impact of Bullying on Mental Health

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