html assignment questions and answers

HTML Practice Tests

Free mcqs to test your knowledge of html, html basics (test 1).

Objective, MCSA, and Fill-in-the-Blanks type questions.

Topics Covered: HTML Overview, and HTML Basics.

HTML Basics (Test 2)

Objective, and MCSA type questions.

HTML Tags (Test 1)

Topics Covered: HTML Tags.

HTML Tags (Test 2)

Html tags (test 3).

MCSA, and Fill-in-the-Blanks type questions.

HTML Tags (Test 4)

HTML Basics

Basic HTML Exercises about HTML Links, Paragraphs, Layouts, Tags, & Text Formatting

Steps to Create a Webpage in HTML using Notepad

A website is simply a collection of web-pages. A web page or web documents written in HTML (HyperText Markup Language) . These Web pages can be viewed using any web browser and Internet.

Html Language is used to write code and programs to create a webpage. It is easy to create a webpage and you can learn it with few basic steps mentioned below:

HTML Program or page can be created by many HTML or Text Editors. These editors are software that help us writing our code with easy user interface. Today, we will see how to create a html or webpage using Notepad Editor.

Notepad editor is built-in text editor in Windows Computers. You can find similar editors in Mac and Linux Operating system as well.

There are many advanced HTML editor or software are also available. However, we will recommend using default and simple editor like notepad for the beginners. That is always a good way to start learning HTML.

Creating a Simple HTML Page using Notepad Editor

Follow the four steps below to create your first web page with Notepad.

Step 1: Open Notepad (Windows)

Windows 8 or later: Open the Start Screen and Search (Type Notepad)

Windows 7 or previous Windows: Open Start > Programs > Accessories > Notepad

Step 2: Create a New Document

Go to Notepad Menu: File > New

A New blank document will be opened and you can start writing your first HTML Program here.

Step 3: Write Some HTML code or Program

Write some HTML code. If you do not know about HTML Yet, read few chapters in HTML Tutorials Section .

Write your own HTML code or simply copy the following HTML Simple Program into notepad document.

Step 4: Save the HTML Page

Go to Notepad Menu: File > Save (or use short-key CTRL + S)

It will ask you to Save the file on your computer. Give it a name with .html extension and Save it (for example program.html)

Note: HTML page should be saved with .html extension carefully.

Step 5: View the HTML Page using Browser

Web browsers are programs or software that are used to view Webpages/Websites. You can find Internet Explored by default if using Windows Computer machine. You can also download other popular web browsers such as Google Chrome or Firefox. Use any of them.

Now Simply, open the saved HTML file in any browser: Double click on the file or right-click on the file and choose “Open with” option to select other browser.

You HTML File will be opened in web browser and it will show output based on your html program.

Congratulations if you are able to run your first HTML Program.

You can now learn more about HTML Tags and create more HTML web pages. Using these HTML Pages, you can easily create your own website as well.

Program to see difference between paragraphs & normal text with line break

We can write some text in body and it will be displayed in browser. All text will be displayed in single line until it reach browser window border. If you want to add some line break, you can use <br/> tag.

Another option is to use text between paragraph tag. You can use multiple paragraph tags to display multiple text paragraphs.

Different between HTML Paragraph & Regular line break:

Using <br/> tag, it only add a single line break. While using <p> tag it creates a paragraph with extra spacing before and after the paragraph.

Write an HTML program to display hello world.

Description: You need to write an HTML program to display hello world on screen.

Hint : You need to type Hello World inside the body tag.

Write a program to create a webpage to print values 1 to 5

Description: Write a program to create a webpage to print values 1 to 5 on the screen.

Hint: Put values inside the body tag.

Write a program to create a webpage to print your city name in red color.

Description: Write a program to create a webpage to print your city name in red color.

Hint: You need to put the city name inside the body tag and use color attribute to provide the color.

Write a program to print a paragraph with different font and color.

Description: Create a webpage to print a paragraph with 4 – 5 sentences. Each sentence should be in a different font and color.

Hint: Put the paragraph content inside the body tag and paragraph should be enclosed in <p> tag.

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Test your skills: HTML text basics

The aim of this skill test is to assess whether you understand how to mark up text in HTML to give it structure and meaning.

Note: You can try solutions in the interactive editors on this page or in an online editor such as CodePen , JSFiddle , or Glitch .

If you get stuck, you can reach out to us in one of our communication channels .

In this task, we want you to mark up the provided HTML using semantic heading and paragraph elements.

The finished example should look like this:

Try updating the live code below to recreate the finished example:

Download the starting point for this task to work in your own editor or in an online editor.

In this task, we want you to turn the first un-marked up list into an unordered list, and the second one into an ordered list.

In this task, you are provided with a paragraph, and your aim is to use some inline elements to mark up a couple of appropriate words with strong importance, and a couple with emphasis.

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Interview Puzzle

HTML practice exercises with solutions

March 13, 2023 March 13, 2023

In this tutorial, we are sharing some HTML practice exercises with solutions. These questions are very easy so do try first your self then go for solutions.

HTML practice exercises with examples of solutions

Here are direct codes with every question.

1. Write a code for basic HTML webpage with a heading, a paragraph, and an image.

2. Wirte a HTML code with simple form with two input fields and a submit button.

3. Create a HTML webpage with a table have three columns and three rows.

4. Add a dropdown menu with three options in HTML webpage.

5. Write a code for a hyperlink that opens a new tab when clicked.

There are many more HTML elements and attributes to explore and experiment with.

Do comment if you have any doubts or suggestions on this HTML basic code.

Note: The All HTML Examples codes are tested on the Firefox browser and the Chrome browser. OS: Windows 10 Code: HTML 5 Version

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In this article, you will learn HTML interview questions and answers that are most frequently asked in interviews. Before proceeding to learn HTML interview questions, first learn the complete HTML Tutorial .

HTML Interview Questions and Answers

This article contains the list of the top 20 most common & frequently asked HTML & HTML 5 interview questions with their explanations for beginner level.

2. Difference between HTML and XHTML

3. what are the various markup languages available.

HTML : Hypertext Markup Language
KML: Key whole Markup Language
MathML : Mathematical Markup Language
SGML : Standard Generalized Markup Language
XHTML : eXtensible Hypertext Markup Language
XML : eXtensible Markup Language

4. What is the difference between HTML and HTML 5?

Please refer to the Difference between HTML and HTML5 article for a detailed description.

5. What is the current version of HTML?

HTML 5 is the fifth and current version of HTML.

6. What is !DOCTYPE?

A doctype or document-type declaration is an instruction that tells the web browser about the markup language in which the current page is written. The doctype is not an element or tag, it lets the browser know about the version of or standard of HTML or any other markup language that is being used in the document. The DOCTYPE for HTML5 is case-insensitive and can be written as shown below:

Please refer to the HTML Doctypes article for a detailed description.

7. What are elements and tags, and what are the differences between them?

HTML Tags : Tags are the starting and ending parts of an HTML element. They begin with < symbol and end with > symbol. Whatever is written inside < and > are called tags.

HTML elements : Elements enclose the contents in between the tags. They consist of some kind of structure or expression. It generally consists of a start tag, content, and an end tag.

Difference between HTML Tag & HTML Element:

8. What are the various heading tags and their importance?

There are 6 levels of headings defined by HTML. These six heading elements are H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, and H6; with H1 being at the highest level and H6 at the least.

Importance of Heading:

Search Engines use headings for indexing the structure and content of the webpage.
Headings are used for highlighting important topics.
They provide valuable information and tell us about the structure of the document.

9. How to redirect to a particular section of a page using HTML?

One can use the anchor tag to redirect to a particular section on the same page. You need to add “id attribute” to the section that you want to show and use the same id in href attribute with “#” in the anchor tag. So that On click a particular link, you will be redirected to the section that has the same id mentioned in the anchor tag.

Example: When the user clicks on the “Contact Us” link, he will be redirected to the “Contact Us section” on the same page.

Please refer to the How to redirect to a particular section of a page using HTML or jQuery article for a detailed description.

10. What are attributes?

An attribute is used to provide extra or additional information about an element.

All HTML elements can have attributes. Attributes provide additional information about an element.
It takes 2 parameters ie., name and value. These define the properties of the element and are placed inside the opening tag of the element. The name parameter takes the name of the property we would like to assign to the element and the value takes the property value or extent of the property names that can be aligned over the element.
Every name has some value that must be written within quotes.

11. Are <b> and <strong> tags same? If not, then why?

HTML strong tag: The strong tag is one of the elements of HTML used in formatting HTML texts. It is used to show the importance of the text by making it bold or highlighting it semantically.

HTML bold tag: The bold tag or <b> is also one of the formatting elements of HTML. The text written under the <b> tag makes the text bold presentationally to draw attention.

The main difference between the <bold> tag & <strong> tag is that the strong tag semantically emphasizes the important word or section of words while the bold tag is just offset text conventionally styled in bold . Click Here to know more.

12. What is the difference between <em> and <i> tags?

<i> tag: It is one of the elements of HTML which is used in formatting HTML texts. It is used to define a text in technical terms, alternative mood or voice, a thought, etc.

<em> tag : It is also one of the elements of HTML used in formatting texts. It is used to define emphasized text or statements.

By default, the visual result is the same but the main difference between these two tags is that the <em> tag semantically emphasizes the important word or section of words while the <i> tag is just offset text conventionally styled in italic to show alternative mood or voice. Click Here to know the difference between them.

13. How are comments added in HTML?

The comment tag (<!– Comment –>) is used to insert comments in the HTML code.

Types of HTML Comments: There are three types of comments in HTML which are:

Single-line comment
Multi-lines comment
Using <comment> tag

14. What are the different formats in which colors in HTML can be declared?

The color of an element can be defined in the following ways:

Built-In Color
RGBA Format
Hexadecimal Notation
Hue: Hue is the degree of the color wheel. Its value lies between 0 to 360 where 0 represents red, 120 represents green and 240 represents blue color.
Saturation: It takes a percentage value, where 100% represents completely saturated, while 0% represents completely unsaturated (gray).
Lightness: It takes a percentage value, where 100% represents white, while 0% represents black.

15. How to create a link in HTML?

A Link is a connection from one Web resource to another. A link has two ends, An anchor and a direction. The link starts at the “source” anchor and points to the “destination” anchor, which may be any Web resource such as an image, a video clip, a sound bite, a program, an HTML document, or an element within an HTML document.

HTML Link Syntax: Links are specified in HTML using the “a” tag.

Explanation:

href: The href attribute is used to specify the destination address of the link used.
Text link: The text link is the visible part of the link.

16. What is the use of the target attribute in the <link> tag?

The HTML <link> target Attribute is used to specify the window or a frame where the linked document is loaded. It is not supported by HTML 5.

Attribute Values:

_blank: It opens the link in a new window.
_self: It opens the linked document in the same frame.
_parent: It opens the linked document in the parent frameset.
_top: It opens the linked document in the full body of the window.
framename: It opens the linked document in the named frame.

17. What is the use of alt attribute in images?

The <img> alt attribute is used to specify the alternate text for an image. It is useful when the image is not displayed. It is used to give alternative information for an image.

18. What are the HTML tags used to display a table?

<table>: It is used to define a table.
<tr>: It is used to define a row in a table.
<th>: It is used to define a header cell in a table.
<td>: It is used to define a cell in a table.
<caption>: It is used to define the table caption.
<colgroup>: It is used to define a group of one or more columns in a table for formatting.
<col>: It is used with <colgroup> element to specify column properties for each column.
<tbody>: It is used to define a group of body content in a table.
<thead>: It is used to group the header content in a table.
<tfooter>: It is used to group the footer content in a table.

19. What are the different types of lists in HTML?

A list is a record of short pieces of related information used to display the data or any information on web pages in the ordered or unordered form. HTML offers 3 ways for specifying lists of information. All lists must contain one or more list elements. The types of lists that can be used in HTML are:

Unordered List: It will list the items using plain bullets.
Ordered List: It will use different schemes of numbers to list your items.
Definition List: It arranges your items in the same way as they are arranged in a dictionary.

20. What is the difference between block and inline elements?

Every element in HTML has a default display value which depends upon the element type. Block or inline is the default display value for most of the elements.

Block-Level Elements: A block-level element always starts on a new line and stretches out to the left and right as far as it can.

div element: The div element is used as a container for other HTML elements. It has no required attributes. Style , class, and id are the commonly used attributes.
span element: The span element is used as a container for text. It has no required attributes. Style , class, and id are the commonly used attributes.

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HTML <main> Tag

Web Design Basics: How HTML, CSS and JavaScript Work?

HTML (HyperText Markup Language) is a markup language used to structure and organize the content on a web page. It uses various tags to define the different elements on a page, such as headings, paragraphs, and links.

HTML Hierarchy

HTML elements are hierarchical, which means that they can be nested inside each other to create a tree-like structure of the content on the web page.

This hierarchical structure is called the DOM (Document Object Model), and it is used by the web browser to render the web page. For example,

Browser Output

A simple HTML example to demonstrate hierarchy

In this example, the html element is the root element of the hierarchy and contains two child elements: head and body . The head element, in turn, contains a child element called the title , and the body element contains child elements: h1 and p .

Let's see the meaning of the various elements used in the above example.

<html> : the root element of the DOM, and it contains all of the other elements in the code
<head> : contains metadata about the web page, such as the title and any linked CSS or JavaScript files
<title> : contains the title of the web page, which will be displayed in the web browser's title bar or tab
<body> : contains the main content of the web page, which will be displayed in the web browser's window
<p> : contains the paragraphs of text on the web page
<strong> , <em> : child elements of the <p> elements, they are used to mark text as important and emphasized respectively

Note : Only the elements inside the <body> tag renders in the web browser.

What are HTML elements?

HTML elements consist of several parts, including the opening and closing tags, the content, and the attributes. Here is an explanation of each of these parts:

The opening tag : This consists of the element name, wrapped in angle brackets. It indicates the start of the element and the point at which the element's effects begin.
The closing tag : This is the same as the opening tag, but with a forward slash before the element name. It indicates the end of the element and the point at which the element's effects stop.
The content : This is the content of the element, which can be text, other elements, or a combination of both.
The element: The opening tag, the closing tag, and the content together make up the element.
What are HTML Attributes?

HTML elements can have attributes, which provide additional information about the element. They are specified in the opening tag of the element and take the form of name-value pairs. Let's see an example:

The href is an attribute. It provides the link information about the <a> tag. In the above example,

href - the name of attribute
https://www.programiz.com - the value of attribute

Note : HTML attributes are mostly optional.

HTML Syntax

We need to follow a strict syntax guidelines to write valid HTML code. This includes the use of tags, elements, and attributes, as well as the correct use of indentation and white space. Here are some key points about HTML syntax:

1. HTML tags consist of the element name, wrapped in angle brackets. For example, <h1> , <p> , <img> are some HTML tags.

2. HTML elements are created by enclosing the content of the element inside the opening and closing tags of the element. For example,

is an HTML element.

3. HTML attributes are used to provide additional information about HTML elements and are specified in the opening tag of the element. For example,

Here, target is an attribute.

4. HTML code should be well-formed and properly indented, with each element on its own line and each level of hierarchy indented by one level. This makes the code easier to read and understand, and can help to avoid errors. For example,

All Interview

Company interview, technical interview, web interview, php interview, .net interview, java interview, database interview, 8) what are some common lists that are used when designing a page.

There are many common lists which are used to design a page. You can choose any or a combination of the following list types:

Ordered list - The ordered list displays elements in numbered format. It is represented by <ol> tag.
Unordered list - The unordered list displays elements in bulleted format. It is represented by <ul> tag.
Definition list - The definition list displays elements in definition form like in dictionary. The <dl>, <dt> and <dd> tags are used to define description list.

9) What is the difference between HTML elements and tags?

HTML elements communicate to the browser to render text. When the elements are enclosed by brackets <>, they form HTML tags. Most of the time, tags come in a pair and surround content.

10) What is semantic HTML?

Semantic HTML is a coding style. It is the use of HTML markup to reinforce the semantics or meaning of the content. For example: In semantic HTML <b> </b> tag is not used for bold statement as well as <i> </i> tag is used for italic. Instead of these we use <strong></strong> and <em></em> tags.

11) What is an image map?

Image map facilitates you to link many different web pages using a single image. It is represented by <map> tag. You can define shapes in images that you want to make part of an image mapping.

12) How to insert a copyright symbol on a browser page?

You can insert a copyright symbol by using © or © in an HTML file.

13) How to create a nested webpage in HTML?

The HTML iframe tag is used to display a nested webpage. In other words, it represents a webpage within a webpage. The HTML <iframe> tag defines an inline frame. For example:

14) How do you keep list elements straight in an HTML file?

You can keep the list elements straight by using indents.

15) Does a hyperlink only apply to text?

16) what is a style sheet.

A style sheet is used to build a consistent, transportable, and well-designed style template. You can add these templates on several different web pages. It describes the look and formatting of a document written in markup language.

17) Can you create a multi-colored text on a web page?

Yes. To create a multicolor text on a web page you can use <font color ="color"> </font> for the specific texts you want to color.

18) Is it possible to change the color of the bullet?

The color of the bullet is always the color of the first text of the list. So, if you want to change the color of the bullet, you must change the color of the text.

19) Explain the layout of HTML?

HTML layout specifies a way in which the web page is arranged.

Every website has a specific layout to display content in a specific manner.

Following are different HTML5 elements which are used to define the different parts of a webpage.

<header>: It is used to define a header for a document or a section.
<nav>: It is used to define a container for navigation links
<section>: It is used to define a section in a document
<article>: It is used to define an independent, self-contained article
<aside>: It is used to define content aside from the content (like a sidebar)
<footer>: It is used to define a footer for a document or a section

20) What is a marquee?

Marquee is used to put the scrolling text on a web page. It scrolls the image or text up, down, left or right automatically. You should put the text which you want to scroll within the <marquee>......</marquee> tag. More details.

21) How many tags can be used to separate a section of texts?

Three tags are used to separate the texts.

<br> tag - Usually <br> tag is used to separate the line of text. It breaks the current line and conveys the flow to the next line
<p> tag - The <p> tag contains the text in the form of a new paragraph.
<blockquote> tag - It is used to define a large quoted section. If you have a large quotation, then put the entire text within <blockquote>.............</blockquote> tag.

22) How to make a picture of a background image of a web page?

To make a picture a background image on a web page, you should put the following tag code after the </head> tag.

Here, replace the "image.gif" with the name of your image file which you want to display on your web page.

23) What are empty elements?

HTML elements with no content are called empty elements. For example: <br>, <hr> etc.

24) What is the use of a span tag? Give one example.

The span tag is used for following things:

For adding color on text
For adding background on text
Highlight any color text

In this page we use span.

25) What is the use of an iframe tag?

An iframe is used to display a web page within a web page.

Target to a link:

26) What are the entities in HTML?

The HTML character entities are used as a replacement for reserved characters in HTML. You can also replace characters that are not present on your keyboard by entities. These characters are replaced because some characters are reserved in HTML.

27) Why is a URL encoded in HTML?

An URL is encoded to convert non-ASCII characters into a format that can be used over the Internet because a URL is sent over the Internet by using the ASCII character-set only. If a URL contains characters outside the ASCII set, the URL has to be converted. The non-ASCII characters are replaced with a "%" followed by hexadecimal digits.

28) Does a <!DOCTYPE html> tag is a HTML tag?

No, the <!DOCTYPE html> declaration is not an HTML tag. There are many type of HTML e.g. HTML 4.01 Strict, HTML 4.01 Transitional, HTML 4.01 Frameset, XHTML 1.0 Strict, XHTML 1.0 Transitional, XHTML 1.0 Frameset, XHTML 1.1 etc. So, <!DOCTYPE html> is used to instruct the web browser about the HTML page.

HTML5 Interview Questions

Let's see a list of top HTML5 interview questions and answers.

29) What is the canvas element in HTML5?

The <canvas> element is a container that is used to draw graphics on the web page using scripting language like JavaScript. It allows for dynamic and scriptable rendering of 2D shapes and bitmap images. There are several methods in canvas to draw paths, boxes, circles, text and add images. For Example:

30) What is SVG?

31) what are the different new form element types in html 5.

Following is a list of 10 frequently used new elements in HTML 5:

Datetime-local

32) Is there any need to change the web browsers to support HTML5?

No. Almost all browsers (updated versions) support HTML 5. For example Chrome, Firefox, Opera, Safari, IE.

33) Which type of video formats are supported by HTML5?

HTML 5 supports three types of video format:

34) Is audio tag supported in HTML 5?

Yes. It is used to add sound or music files on the web page. There are three supported file formats for HTML 5 audio tag.

Let's see the code to play mp3 file using HTML audio tag.

Instead of koyal.mp3, you can pass any mp3 file name.

35) What is the difference between progress and meter tag?

The progress tag is used to represent the progress of the task only while the meter tag is used to measure data within a given range. More details.

36) What is the use of figure tag in HTML 5?

The figure tag is used to add a photo in the document on the web page. It is used to handle the group of diagrams, photos, code listing with some embedded content.

37) What is the use of figcaption tag in HTML 5?

The <figcaption> element is used to provide a caption to an image. It is an optional tag and can appear before or after the content within the <figure> tag. The <figcaption> element is used with <figure> element and it can be placed as the first or last child of the <figure> element.

38) What is button tag?

The button tag is used in HTML 5. It is used to create a clickable button within the HTML form on the web page. It is generally used to create a "submit" or "reset" button. Let's see the code to display the button.

39) What is the use of details and summary tag?

The details tag is used to specify some additional details on the web page. It can be viewed or hidden on demand. The summary tag is used with details tag. More details.

40) What is datalist tag?

The HTML 5 datalist tag provides an autocomplete feature on the form element. It facilitates users to choose the predefined options to the users to select data.

41) How are tags migrated from HTML4 to HTML5?

Header and footer example.

HTML 4 Header and Footer:

Monday Times

HTML 5 Header and Footer:

Menu Example

HTML 4 Menu:

HTML 5 Menu:

42) If I do not put <!DOCTYPE html> will HTML 5 work?

No, the browser will not be able to identify that it is an HTML document and HTML 5 tags do not function properly..

43) What is the use of the required attribute in HTML5?

It forces a user to fill text on the text field or text area before submitting the form. It is used for form validation.

44) What are the new <input> types for form validation in HTML5?

The new input types for form validation are email, URL, number, tel, and date.

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Basic html interview questions and answers for freshers, intermediate html interview questions and answers, advanced html interview questions and answers, get ahead of the curve and master programming today, top 55+ html interview questions & answers in 2024.

HTML stands for HyperText Markup Language. It is arguably the most widely-used and popular programming language used for web application development. Created in 191 by Berners-Lee but first published in 1995, HTML has, over the years, evolved and has seen multiple releases.HTML 4, published in 1999, was a breakthrough version in its evolution and gained a lot of popularity, seeing wide-spread adoption all over the globe. The latest and current version is HTML 5 which was published in the 2012.

In this article, we will discuss the top 55+ HTML Interview Questions you should absolutely know to crack those trying interviews and land your dream job.

HTML is critical for web development, and if you’ve ever thought about choosing that career path, you’d unquestionably have come across this language. And that’s probably why you are here in the first place.

For aspiring developers aiming to excel in the web development domain, mastering HTML is crucial. It serves as the backbone of web design, dictating the structure and layout of web pages. To navigate the complexities of HTML and broader web development technologies effectively, engaging with a java full stack developer course can be a game-changer.

So without further ado, let’s get started!

1. What is HTML?

HTML stands for HyperText Markup Language and is the language of the internet. It is the standard text formatting language used for creating and displaying pages on the Internet

HTML documents are made up of the elements and the tags that format it for proper display on pages.

2. What are HTML tags?

We use HTML tags for placing the elements in the proper and appropriate format. Tags use the symbols <, and > to set them apart from the HTML content.

The HTML tags need not be closed always. For example, in the case of images, the closing tags are not required as <img> tag.

3. What are HTML Attributes?

Attributes are the properties that can be added to an HTML tag. These attributes change the way the tag behaves or is displayed. For example, a <img> tag has an src attribute, which you use to add the source from which the image should be displayed.

We add attributes right after the name of the HTML tag, inside the brackets. We can only add the attributes to opening or self-closing tags, but never be in closing tags.

4. What is a marquee in HTML?

Marquee is used for scrolling text on a web page. It scrolls the image or text up, down, left, or right automatically. To apply for a marquee, you have to use </marquee> tags.

5. How do you separate a section of texts in HTML?

We separate a section of texts in HTML using the below tags:

<br> tag – It is used to separate the line of text. It breaks the current line and shifts the flow of the text to a new line.
<p> tag–This tag is used to write a paragraph of text.
<blockquote> tag–This tag is used to define large quoted sections.

6. Define the list types in HTML?

The list types in HTML are as below:

Ordered list–The ordered list uses <ol> tag and displays elements in a numbered format.
Unordered list–The unordered list uses <ul> tag and displays elements in a bulleted format.
Definition list–The definition list uses <dl>, <dt>, <dd> tags and displays elements in definition form like in a dictionary.

7. How do you align list elements in an HTML file?

We can align the list elements in an HTML file by using indents. If you indent each nested list in further than the parent list, you can easily align and determine the various lists and the elements that it contains.

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8. Differentiate between an Ordered list and an Unordered list?

An unordered list uses <ul> </ul> tags and each element of the list is written between <li> </li> tags. The list items are displayed as bullets rather than numbers.

An ordered list uses <ol> </ol> tags and each element of the list is written between <li> </li> tags. The list items are displayed as numbers rather than bullet points.

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<body>

<h2>HTML List Example</h2>

<ul>

<li>Coffee</li>

</ul>

<ol>

</ol>

</body>

</html>

9. What is an element in HTML?

An element in HTML is a set of tags that define a specific part of a web page. It consists of a start tag, content, and an end tag.

10. What is the difference between HTML and CSS?

HTML is used to create the structure and content of a web page, while CSS is used to define the appearance and layout of the page.

11. Are the HTML tags and elements the same thing?

No, HTML tags are used to define the structure of a web page, while HTML elements are made up of a set of tags that define a specific part of a web page.

12. What are void elements in HTML?

Void elements in HTML are tags that do not require a closing tag. They are used to insert images, line breaks, and other content that does not require additional information.

13. What is the advantage of collapsing white space?

Collapsing white space in HTML can help to reduce the size of web pages and make them load faster. It involves removing unnecessary white space between HTML elements.

14. What are HTML Entities?

HTML Entities are special characters used to represent characters that cannot be typed on a keyboard. They are often used to display special symbols and foreign characters.

15. How do you display a table in an HTML webpage?

The HTML <table> tag is used to display data in a tabular format. It is also used to manage the layout of the page, for example, header section, navigation bar, body content, footer section. Given below are the list of HTML tags used for displaying a table in an HTML webpage:

16. How would you display the given table on an HTML webpage?

The HTML Code for the problem depicted above is:

<table>

<tr>

</tr>

</table>

17. How do we insert a comment in HTML?

We can insert a comment in HTML by beginning with a lesser than sign and ending with a greater than sign. For example, “<!-“ and “->.”

18. How do you insert a copyright symbol in HTML?

You can insert a copyright symbol by using © or © in an HTML file.

19. What is white space in HTML?

An empty sequence of space characters is called the white space in HTML. This white space is considered as a single space character in the HTML.

White space helps the browser to merge multiple spaces into one single space, and so taking care of indentation becomes easier. White space helps in better organizing the content and tags, making them readable and easy to understand.

20. How do you create links to different sections within the same HTML web page?

We use the <a> tag, along with referencing through the use of the # symbol, to create several links to different sections within the same web page.

21. How do you create a hyperlink in HTML?

We use the anchor tag <a> to create a hyperlink in HTML that links one page to another page. The hyperlink can be added to images too.

22. Define an image map?

An image map in HTML helps in linking with the different kinds of web pages using a single image. It can be used for defining shapes in the images that are made part of the image mapping process.

23. Why do we use a style sheet in HTML?

A style sheet helps in creating a well-defined template for an HTML webpage that is both consistent as well as portable. We can link a single style sheet template to various web pages, which makes it easier to maintain and change the look of the website.

24. What is semantic HTML?

Semantic HTML is a coding style. It is the use of HTML markup to reinforce the semantics or meaning of the content.

For example: In semantic HTML <b> </b> tag is not used for bold statement as well as <i> </i> tag is not used for italic. Instead of these we use <strong></strong> and <em></em> tags.

25. What is SVG in HTML?

HTML SVG is used to describe the vector or raster graphics. SVG images and their behaviors are defined in XML text files.

We mostly use it for vector type diagrams like pie charts, 2-Dimensional graphs in an X, Y coordinate system.

</svg>

26. What would happen if there is no text between the HTML tags?

There would be nothing to format if there is no text present between the tags. Therefore, nothing will appear on the screen.

Some tags, such as the tags without a closing tag like the <img> tag, do not require any text between them.

27. How do you create nested web pages in HTML?

Nested web pages basically mean a webpage within a webpage. We can create nested web pages in HTML using the built-in iframe tag. The HTML <iframe> tag defines an inline frame. For example:

<h2>HTML Iframes example</h2>

<p>

specify the size of the iframe using the height and width attributes:

</p>

28. How do you add buttons in HTML?

We can use the built-in Button tag in HTML to add buttons to an HTML web page.

<h2>HTML Button Tag Example</h2>

<button name="button" type="button">CLICK ME</button>

29. What are the different types of headings in HTML?

There are six types of heading tags in HTML which are defined with the <h1> to <h6> tags. Each type of heading tag displays a different text size from another. <h1> is the largest heading tag and <h6> is the smallest. For example:

<h1>This is Heading 1</h1>

<h2>This is Heading 2</h2>

<h3>This is Heading 3</h3>

<h4>This is Heading 4</h4>

<h5>This is Heading 5</h5>

<h6>This is Heading 6</h6>

29. How do you insert an image in the HTML webpage?

You can insert an image in the HTML webpage by using the following code:

<h2>HTML Image Example</h2>

30. What is the alt attribute in HTML?

The alt attribute is used for displaying a text in place of an image whenever the image cannot be loaded due to any technical issue.

<h2>HTML Alt Example</h2>

31. How are hyperlinks inserted in the HTML webpage?

You can insert a hyperlink in the HTML webpage by using the following code:

<h2>HTML Hyperlink Example</h2>

32. How do you add colour to the text in HTML?

You can add colour to the text in HTML by using the following code:

<h2>HTML Color Text Example</h2>

<h1 style="color: Red">Hello HTML</h1>

33. How do you add CSS styling in HTML?

There are three ways to include the CSS with HTML:

Inline CSS: It is used when less amount of styling is needed or in cases where only a single element has to be styled. To use inline styles add the style attribute in the relevant tag.
External Style Sheet: This is used when the style is applied to many elements or HTML pages. Each page must link to the style sheet using the <link> tag:

<head>

</head>

Internal Style Sheet: It is used when a single HTML document has a unique style and several elements need to be styled to follow the format. Internal styles sheet is added in the head section of an HTML page, by using the <style> tag:

color: sienna;

margin-left: 20px;

background-image: url("images/back40.gif");

</style>

34. What hierarchy do the style sheets follow?

If a single selector includes three different style definitions, the definition that is closest to the actual tag takes precedence. Inline style takes priority over embedded style sheets, which takes priority over external style sheets.

35. How do you add JavaScript to an HTML webpage?

JavaScript is used for making HTML web pages more interactive, and user-friendly. It is a scripting language that allows you to interact with certain elements on the page, based on user input. As with CSS, there are three major ways of including JavaScript:

You can add JavaScript to your HTML elements directly whenever a certain event occurs. We can add the JavaScript code using attributes of the HTML tags that support it. Here is an example that shows an alert with a message when the user clicks on it:

</button>

Script block:

You can define a script block anywhere on the HTML code, which will get executed as soon as the browser reaches that part of the document. This is why script blocks are usually added at the bottom of HTML documents.

var x = 1;

var y = 2;

var result = x + y;

alert("X + Y is equal to " + result);

</script>

External JavaScript file:

You can also import the JavaScript code from a separate file and keep your HTML code clutter-free. This is especially useful if there is a large amount of scripting added to an HTML webpage.

36. What are the different types of lists in HTML?

There are three lists in HTML: ordered, unordered, and definition. Ordered lists are numbered lists, unordered lists are bulleted lists, and definition lists are lists of terms and their definitions.

37. What is the ‘class' attribute in HTML?

The ‘class' attribute in HTML defines a class for an HTML element. It can be used to apply a specific style to a group of elements on a web page.

38. What is the difference between the ‘id' and ‘class' attributes of HTML elements?

The ‘id' attribute defines a unique identifier for an HTML element, while the ‘class' attribute defines a class for a group of elements. An ‘id' can only be used once on a page, while a ‘class' can be used multiple times.

39. What is the difference between HTML and XHTML?

HTML and XHTML are both markup languages used to create web pages. However, XHTML is stricter than HTML and requires developers to write well-formed code that adheres to specific rules and guidelines. XHTML also requires all tags to be closed and all attributes to be quoted.

40. What is the difference between HTML and HTML5?

HTML5 is the latest version of HTML and includes new features and improvements over previous versions. Some key differences between HTML and HTML5 include support for multimedia elements (such as video and audio), improved semantics, and better support for mobile devices.

41. What is the role of the <head> tag in HTML?

The <head> tag defines information about the web page that is not displayed on the page itself, such as its title, keywords, and other metadata. It is located between the <html> and <body> tags and is usually the first element in the document.

42. What is the role of the <meta> tag in HTML?

The <meta> tag provides additional information about the web page, such as the author, description, and keywords. It is located within the <head> section of the HTML document.

43. What is the difference between an absolute and relative URL?

An absolute URL includes the full web address, the protocol (such as http or https) and the domain name (such as www.example.com). A relative URL, on the other hand, specifies the location of a resource relative to the current web page. For example, a relative URL might include the file path (such as /images/picture.jpg) or the relative path (such as ../images/picture.jpg).

44. What is the role of the alt attribute in HTML?

The alt attribute provides alternative text for an image in case the image cannot be displayed. This is important for accessibility, as screen readers can read the alt text to describe the image to visually impaired users.

45. What is the role of the title attribute in HTML?

The title attribute provides additional information about an element, such as a link or an image. The title text is displayed as a tooltip when a user hovers over the element.

46. What is a form in HTML?

A form is a set of input fields and other elements to collect user data. Forms can be used for various purposes, such as logging in, submitting feedback, or purchasing.

47. What are the different types of form input fields in HTML?

Several form input fields in HTML include text fields, checkboxes, radio buttons, select menus, and text areas. Each input field type is used to collect different types of data from users.

48. What is the role of the action attribute in HTML forms?

The action attribute is used to specify the URL of the script or program that will process the data submitted by the form. When the user clicks the submit button, the form data is sent to the specified URL for processing.

49. What is the role of the method attribute in HTML forms?

The method attribute is used to specify the HTTP method that will be used to submit the form data. The two most common methods are GET and POST. GET is used to retrieve data from the server, while POST is used to send data to the server

50. In how many ways can you display HTML elements?

HTML elements can be displayed in several ways, including block, inline, inline-block, and none. The display property can specify how an element should be displayed.

51. What is the difference between “display: none” and “visibility: hidden” when used as attributes to the HTML element?

The main difference between “display: none” and “visibility: hidden” is that the former removes the element from the document flow, while the latter simply hides it. Elements with “display: none” are not visible and do not take up any space on the page, while elements with “visibility: hidden” are not visible but still take up space.

52. How to specify the link in HTML and explain the target attribute?

Links can be specified using the <a> tag. The href attribute is used to specify the URL of the page that the link should go to. The target attribute can specify where the linked page should open, such as in a new or similar window.

53. In how many ways can we specify the CSS styles for the HTML element?

CSS styles can be specified in several ways, including inline, internal, and external stylesheets. Inline styles are applied directly to the HTML element using the style attribute. Internal styles are defined within the <head> section of the HTML document using the <style> tag. External stylesheets are defined in a separate CSS file and linked to the HTML document using the <link> tag.

54. What is the difference between link tag <link> and anchor tag <a>?

The <link> tag links external resources, such as CSS stylesheets, to an HTML document. The <a> tag creates links to other pages or resources within the same document.

55. When to use scripts in the head and when to use scripts in the body?

Scripts can be placed in the <head> section of the HTML document or in the <body> section. Scripts that must be executed before the page is displayed, such as scripts that define variables or functions, should be placed in the <head> section. Scripts that must be executed after the page is displayed, such as scripts that manipulate the DOM, should be placed in the <body> section.

56. What are forms, and how to create forms in HTML?

Forms collect user data, such as login information or search queries. Forms can be created using the <form> tag, and input fields, such as text fields and checkboxes, can be added using various other tags.

57. How to handle events in HTML?

Events can be handled using JavaScript, which can be included in the HTML document using the <script> tag. Event listeners can be added to HTML elements using the addEventListener() method, which allows custom code to be executed in response to user actions, such as clicks or keystrokes.

58. What are some advantages of HTML5 over its previous versions?

HTML5 includes several new features and improvements over previous versions, including better multimedia support, semantic elements, and better support for mobile devices. HTML5 also includes new APIs for working with web applications, such as the Geolocation API and the Canvas API.

As you get prepared for your job interview, we hope that these HTML Interview Questions have provided more insight into what types of questions you are likely to come across.

Now that you are well-versed with the top HTML Interview Questions, you should be seeking out opportunities to gain the skills you need to leverage the immense popularity of software development and build a successful career in it. Well, you needn’t look any further. We have got your back! Our comprehensive Post Graduate Program in Full Stack Web Development , which will help you with the necessary skills and more that you need and help you become career-ready upon completion.

If you are looking for more information, do check out our YouTube video that further explains these HTML interview questions and answers, and helps you become more confident while appearing for the interview processes.

Do you have any questions for us? Well, feel free to mention them in the comments section of this “Top 55+ HTML Interview Questions’’ article. Our subject matter experts will review and answer them for you soon.

1) How would you define HTML in the best possible way?

HTML (HyperText Markup Language) is the standard markup language used for creating and structuring the content of web pages. It uses a system of tags and attributes to define the structure and layout of a webpage, allowing browsers to interpret and display the content correctly.

2) How to prepare for an HTML interview?

To prepare for an HTML interview, consider the following steps:

Review the basics of HTML, including tags, attributes, and their usage.
Practice writing HTML code to create various elements and layouts.
Familiarize yourself with HTML5 features and improvements.
Learn about semantic HTML and the importance of accessibility.
Study CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) as it is often used in conjunction with HTML for styling web pages.
Explore common interview questions related to HTML and be ready to explain your solutions.

3) What are the 3 required parts of HTML?

The three required parts of HTML are:

1) DOCTYPE declaration: It defines the version of HTML being used and ensures proper rendering in different browsers. 2) <html> element: This element wraps all the content on the webpage and signifies the beginning of an HTML document. 3) <body> element: It contains the visible content of the webpage, such as text, images, links, and other elements displayed in the browser window.

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Man or bear? Hypothetical question sparks conversation about women's safety

Women explain why they would feel safer encountering a bear in the forest than a man they didn't know. the hypothetical has sparked a broader discussion about why women fear men..

If you were alone in the woods, would you rather encounter a bear or a man? Answers to that hypothetical question have sparked a debate about why the vast majority say they would feel more comfortable choosing a bear.

The topic has been hotly discussed for weeks as men and women chimed in with their thoughts all over social media.

Screenshot HQ , a TikTok account, started the conversation, asking a group of women whether they would rather run into a man they didn't know or a bear in the forest. Out of the seven women interviewed for the piece, only one picked a man.

"Bear. Man is scary," one of the women responds.

A number of women echoed the responses given in the original video, writing in the comments that they, too, would pick a bear over a man. The hypothetical has people split, with some expressing their sadness over the state of the world and others cracking jokes. Some men were flabbergasted.

Here's what we know.

A bear is the safer choice, no doubt about it, many say

There were a lot of responses, more than 65,000, under the original post. Many wrote that they understood why the women would choose a bear.

"No one’s gonna ask me if I led the bear on or give me a pamphlet on bear attack prevention tips," @celestiallystunning wrote.

@Brennduhh wrote: "When I die leave my body in the woods, the wolves will be gentler than any man."

"I know a bear's intentions," another woman wrote. "I don't know a man's intentions. no matter how nice they are."

Other TikTok users took it one step further, posing the hypothetical question to loved ones. Meredith Steele, who goes by @babiesofsteele , asked her husband last week whether he would rather have their daughter encounter a bear or a man in the woods. Her husband said he "didn't like either option" but said he was leaning toward the bear.

"Maybe it's a friendly bear," he says.

Diana, another TikTok user , asked her sister-in-law what she would choose and was left speechless.

"I asked her the question, you know, just for giggles. She was like, 'You know, I would rather it be a bear because if the bear attacks me, and I make it out of the woods, everybody’s gonna believe me and have sympathy for me," she said. "But if a man attacks me and I make it out, I’m gonna spend my whole life trying to get people to believe me and have sympathy for me.'"

Bear vs. man debate stirs the pot, woman and some men at odds

The hypothetical has caused some tension, with some women arguing that men will never truly understand what it's like to be a woman or the inherent dangers at play.

Social media users answered this question for themselves, producing memes, spoken word poetry and skits in the days and weeks since.

So, what would you choose?

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Answering readers’ questions about the protest movement on US college campuses

A student encampment is shown at Middlebury College as they protest the Israel-Hamas war in Middlebury, Vt., on Thursday, May 2, 2024. (AP Photo/Lisa Rathke)

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A wave of demonstrations has spread across U.S. campuses over the last two weeks, led by students who have pitched tents or occupied buildings in protest of the Israel-Hamas war.

It started April 18 when police moved to break up an encampment at Columbia University in New York City. Since then, it has spread to dozens of other campuses from Harvard to the University of California, Los Angeles.

Students are calling on their colleges to stop doing business with Israel or companies they say support the war in Gaza. Some also have asked for amnesty for student protesters who could face suspensions or other discipline.

University officials have negotiated deals with protesters at campuses including Northwestern University . Others have called the police to clear camps or campus buildings, as happened at UCLA .

At least 2,000 people have been arrested at campus protests nationwide in the last two weeks, according to a tally by The Associated Press.

Here are some questions readers sent to the AP , lightly edited for publication.

How many protesters are not students and who are they? Are there outside agitators?

City and campus leaders in some places have alleged protests are being led by “outside agitators” with no connection to universities. Student protesters have rejected the claims. Those who are arrested often include a mix of students and non-students. Some claims about agitators have failed to hold up.

Protesters stand on the University of Pennsylvania campus, in Philadelphia, on Friday, May 10, 2024. (Jessica Griffin/The Philadelphia Inquirer via AP)

New York City Mayor Eric Adams alleged that “outside agitators” had co-opted the Columbia University demonstration before police officers came and arrested more than 100 people on Tuesday night. Adams referenced a woman whose husband was “convicted for terrorism.”

The woman he cited, Nahla Al-Arian , wasn’t on the campus, isn’t among those who were arrested and has not been accused of any crime.

The New York mayor has also noted many of the tents in the encampment were the same brand — more evidence of agitators, he said. Students who organized it said the tents were simply ordered in bulk.

Others have made similar claims elsewhere. After breaking up a demonstration at Northeastern University in Boston, campus officials said it had been “infiltrated by professional organizers.” Students denied it.

What is the real endgame here? One article states they want the universities to separate themselves from companies furthering Israel’s military efforts. What companies are these?

Pro-Palestinian activists are demanding that universities cut financial ties with Israel and companies that they say support it. Specific demands vary by campus.

On many campuses, students say they don’t know the extent of the campus ties with Israel. Yale is one of many campuses where students are demanding transparency around investments. The school doesn’t make all its investments public, and money can be hard to track after it goes to outside investment managers hired by colleges.

Activists in some places have identified specific ties they want to end. Students at the University of Michigan said the school sends billions of dollars to investment mangers that profit from the war. They cited investments in firms that produce drones and surveillance technology used in Israel.

Michigan officials said they have no direct investments with Israeli businesses and that direct investments make up a fraction of 1% of the $18 billion endowment.

Protesters at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology are also demanding an end to research contracts from Israel. They have published the names of researchers who accept money from Israel’s defense ministry for projects that they say help with drone navigation and missile protection.

As for the endgame, a big part of the protests is visibility — protesters say they want their message heard around the world. In that, they have succeeded, as demonstrations have led news coverage in areas including the Middle East.

What percentage of college campuses across America have witnessed violent pro-Palestine protests?

It’s hard to know the exact percentage, but it’s relatively small. More than 2,000 people have been arrested across more than 30 colleges.

By comparison, the U.S. has about 6,000 colleges and universities, including all types of institutions. Those schools serve roughly 18 million students, including undergraduate and graduate students.

Protests have spread to dozens of campuses across the country but violence has been relatively rare.

How does this situation compare and contrast with the student protests in the 1960s? Is there historical context to these protests that could illuminate the current situation?

The wave of protests is among the largest on U.S. campuses in recent history, but it’s still nowhere near as widespread or as violent as student demonstrations of the Vietnam War era.

Some historians say the movement might be the largest of the 21st century, but it doesn’t have a whole lot of competition.

And so far, the violence has paled in comparison to that of previous eras. There have been no bombings, for example, like the one in August 1970 at the University of Wisconsin that killed a researcher. And there has been no repeat of the infamous Kent State massacre.

Still, the movement has drawn comparisons to that era, especially with its roots at Columbia and its echoes of a 1968 protest in which students took over campus buildings to protest the Vietnam War.

What does neurodivergent mean? Answers to frequently asked questions

As the scientific community's understanding of the human brain has evolved over the past few decades, there has been a growing consensus that many traits that have typically been seen as signs of disorders should more accurately be described as differences.

This improved understanding has occurred alongside a growing movement of neurodivergent people who have become empowered to advocate for themselves and to point out that, while they often need societal accommodations for their challenges, they also benefit from the different ways their brains work.

For example, in the book, "Sincerely, your autistic child: What people on the autism spectrum wish their parents knew about growing up, acceptance, and identity," Lynne Soraya describes being affected by sensory sensitivity:

"Just as I react painfully to someone whistling nearby, a single note or chord in a piece of music can touch me deeply and bring me to tears. Both are forms of sensitivity to a sensory stimulus: sound. They are two sides to a coin. I can't eliminate one without eliminating the other."

What does it mean to be neurodivergent?

According to a Cambridge University study , neurodivergent people are those whose neurocognitive functions fall outside "prevalent social norms." Those neurocognitive functions include things like learning, regulating emotions, sensory processing, social behaviors, attention span and controlling impulses.

Although neurodivergent people do not all have the same traits, there are some strengths (such as attention to detail and the ability to focus on subjects of intense interest) and challenges (such as sensory sensitivities and communication difficulties) that are commonly expressed among neurodivergent people.

And, although diagnoses considered to be neurodivergent are also evolving, some current diagnoses are listed in "The Neurodiverse Classroom" by Victoria Honeybourne :

Autism : Traits of autistic people differ, and their support needs vary, but to receive a diagnosis, people will generally be characterized as having "persistent difficulties with social interaction and communication, and restricted and repetitive patterns of behaviors, activities and interests."
ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) : People with ADHD generally have brain differences that affect their executive functioning abilities — things like organization, memory, motivation to perform tasks and emotional regulation.
Developmental Language Disorder : People can have difficulties understanding language, expressing themselves using language, or knowing the accepted ways to use language in social situations.
Dyslexia : People with dyslexia have a brain difference that affects their ability to read and spell accurately and fluently.
Dysgraphia : People with dysgraphia have challenges with writing as quickly or fluently as other people.
Dyscalculia : People with dyscalculia have a brain difference that affects their abilities with numbers and math.
Dyspraxia, also known as Developmental Coordination Disorder : People with dyspraxia often have difficulties with coordination, movement and balance.

How does neurodivergent differ from neurodiverse?

The term "neurodiversity" applies to the entire population ; both neurodivergent people and neurotypical people are included. Neurodivergent people are considered to have brain differences — not necessarily disorders — outside the societal norm for those traits.

As Victoria Honeybourne in "The Neurodiverse Classroom" says: "Instead of pathologizing individuals with perceived 'deficits' in the way that they think, learn and relate to others, the neurodiversity paradigm considers this diversity and variation of differences to be a normal, and totally expected, aspect of human variation."

Why have diagnosis rates changed over the years?

Diagnosis rates for neurodivergent conditions vary widely as definitions are changed and as understanding of the conditions and traits that fall under the neurodivergent umbrella change.

For example, autism diagnosis rates have changed dramatically over the decades. Most of those changes are due to subjective diagnosis criteria, changing definitions of autism and differences in reporting methodologies.

In the 1960s, Victor Lotter made the first attempt to determine the prevalence rate of autism by trying to track the number of children in London who were autistic. In the book, "In a different key: The story of autism," authors John Donvan and Caren Zucker clarify the complexity of Lotter's quest. He combed through records, went door to door to confirm diagnoses and eventually had to decide whom to count. Donvan and Zucker explain that, since there wasn't (and still isn't) a biological marker for autism, it "could only be diagnosed through the observation and interpretation of a person's behaviors, which meant it was next to impossible to avoid subjectivity in judgment."

Lotter finally arrived at a 4.5 in 10,000 prevalence rate, which would become the number against which all future rates would be measured — even though, as Donvan and Zucker write, Lotter himself noted in his paper that the number could have been drastically different with very few tweaks in how he chose to define symptoms and behaviors.

Psychiatrist and researcher Lorna Wing started using the word "spectrum" to describe autism in 1988, observing that more rigid definitions had the effect of denying accommodations to people who needed them because they didn't fit previously accepted categories. Donvan and Zucker say that Wing's research showed that "autism's traits could appear in a huge number of combinations and infinite shades of intensity, 'right up to the borderline of normality.'"

Additionally, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders changed the definition of autism over the years; according to Donvan and Zucker, "people diagnosed with autism using the DSM in 1997, for example, might not have qualified for it using an earlier DSM in 1990 and vice versa."

People started referring to autism as an epidemic in the late 1990s after a study by the California Department of Disability Services compared the number of people receiving services for developmental disabilities in 1987 vs. 1998.

The study reported a 273% increase in the number of people receiving services for autism. The number shocked people, but it was explainable both by the changing definitions of autism as well as by differing requirements for reporting to state agencies.

For example, starting with the 1992-93 school year, Congress required states to report the number of students with autism who were enrolled in special education programs. Donvan and Zucker point out that, "many of the children about to be counted were already in school by then, and some had been for several years. But previously, they had been lumped together into the category of 'other health impairments,' or perhaps other categories such as 'mentally retarded' or 'learning disabled.'"

Where to learn more

The Autistic Self-Advocacy Network is a nonprofit organization run by autistic people that advocates for autistic people to be involved in policymaking, and that celebrates and promotes autistic community and culture.

The Supporting Neurodiverse Students (SNS) Professional Learning System provides a number of learning opportunities, events and resources for teachers and families who want to learn more about and support the neurodivergent people in their lives.

Contact Amy Schwabe at [email protected] .

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As bird flu spreads in cows, here are 4 big questions scientists are trying to answer.

Bird flu is spreading through U.S. dairy cattle. Scientists say the risk to people is minimal, but open questions remain, including how widespread the outbreak is and how the virus is spreading. DOUGLAS MAGNO/AFP via Getty Images hide caption

Bird flu is spreading through U.S. dairy cattle. Scientists say the risk to people is minimal, but open questions remain, including how widespread the outbreak is and how the virus is spreading.

On Friday, Colorado became the latest state to detect the bird flu virus spreading in dairy cattle. It follows revelations earlier in the week that viral fragments are turning up in retail milk.

Still, scientists don't view this as an immediate threat to human health.

Genetic material is not the same as infectious virus and pasteurization is expected to inactivate the virus in milk, but the findings speak to the broader uncertainty about the extent of the spread.

"There's so many critical things that we still need to know to get a better perspective on how bad this is, or maybe it's not so bad," says Dr. Rick Bright, a virologist and the former head of the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA).

Federal health agencies started sharing more details publicly this week, but Bright says there's still not enough transparency.

"It's the void that just leaves everyone nervous," he says

Other scientists say the reality is that there are still many unresolved questions about this outbreak, given how novel it is.

"There's a couple big unknowns at this point," says Louise Moncla, a virologist at the University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine.

Here's what scientists who are tracking the virus still want to know:

How widespread is the virus in dairy cattle?

That's still far from clear.

While the official tally shows it's been detected in nine states and just over 30 herds, the actual number could be much larger.

First of all, there hasn't been widespread testing in cattle.

The fact that viral material is now being found in retail milk suggests "this virus is probably spread around quite a bit," says Richard Webby , a virologist at St. Jude Children's Research Hospital in Tennessee.

On Thursday, the FDA said that preliminary results from nationwide samples of retail milk indicate about one in five samples are positive for viral traces. A survey of retail milk in the Midwest found 58 out of 150 samples were positive, according to Andrew Bowman at the Ohio State University.

Webby discovered this himself when he went to the store to grab a carton of milk, which he intended to use as a negative control in his work on H5N1.

To his surprise, even that ended up being positive (unfazed, he kept the milk).

Currently the virus has only been detected in a tiny fraction of dairy herds in the U.S., but it's hard to know the significance of that finding when you don't also have details on the overall number of cattle tested, says Dr. Tom Inglesby, director of the Johns Hopkins Centers for Health Security.

" Those are kind of basic questions that would really help get us more ground truth quickly," he says.

The USDA has just taken some new steps that could offer a better picture of the outbreak. There will be mandatory reporting of positive tests in cattle and a requirement that dairy cattle test negative for the virus before they move across state lines.

Potentially complicating the picture: Some unknown number of cattle could be shedding the virus without showing obvious symptoms. Federal health officials have confirmed this.

"We don't know how many animals have this," says Alexis Thompson, a veterinarian at Texas A&M Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory. "There has been very little sampling done. We don't know how many [sick] animals we have. We don't know how many asymptomatic animals we have. That testing has not been done."

Because milk from sick cows is supposed to be discarded, this could help explain how remnants of the virus entered the milk supply.

If it turns out there are lots of animals shedding the virus and not symptomatic, the outbreak could be "substantially larger" than we realize, says Inglesby. "To get to the bottom of that, we would need to do surveillance testing in places that don't already have clear outbreaks."

Does the milk testing positive on retail shelves contain infectious virus?

So far, it doesn't appear that way, but scientists who are studying this possibility acknowledge it's too soon to say that with absolute certainty.

The PCR testing that has found evidence of viral fragments in the milk on grocery store shelves doesn't actually tell you whether or not it's "live" virus, meaning whether it's capable of replicating.

This form of testing is extraordinarily sensitive and detects small pieces of genetic material, says Lee-Ann Jaykus , a food microbiologist at North Carolina State University.

"There's evidence that that milk at one point in time may have had virus associated with it, but there is no evidence that that virus would be infectious, at least with the information we currently have," she says.

Pasteurizing milk can knock out bacteria and viruses; however, it doesn't erase every trace of those germs.

Federal health officials have stressed that avian influenza doesn't stand up well to the high temperatures and past research on pasteurization indicates "it's very likely to effectively inactivate heat-sensitive viruses like H5N1 in milk from cows."

"We've seen nothing that would change our assessment that the commercial milk supply is safe," said Don Prater from the Food and Drug Administration.

Research on pasteurization in eggs, which happens at a lower temperature than milk, shows that the process inactivates the bird flu virus.

Jaykus and other scientists agree that finding viral material doesn't necessarily suggest an immediate threat to human health.

"It's really important to sort of not get out of control about fear of consuming milk," says Jaykus.

There is an important caveat though: There has been no direct research on how pasteurizing cow milk affects bird flu virus. Those studies are taking place right now.

Early experiments on a small number of samples suggest there is no viable virus in these positive samples, said Jeanne Marrazzo , who directs the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases.

Webby, who looked at samples of milk sent by Bowman, says they tried to grow the virus in cultured cells and embryonated chicken eggs — two places where flu loves to grow — and found that it did not reproduce.

"It's pretty good evidence," he says, "We could never say there's none, but we could say if it's there, it's at a very, very, very low level."

Jaykus says even if the milk did happen to have a small amount of infectious virus, "there just isn't evidence that that is a transmission route for flu."

Rick Bright, on the other hand, has more concerns about the milk.

"It's a small inconvenience for me not to drink milk until we have more data," he says, "It doesn't mean that I think everyone should stop drinking milk. It's a personal risk assessment."

He says the key question is how much virus is in the milk, and whether that changes if more cows get sick and more virus enters the milk supply.

"The higher the viral load in the milk, the more difficult it is for pasteurization to work completely," he says. "If they show at this point there's no viable virus in the milk, that's a point in time. And what's going to be really critical is that the FDA continues to monitor this."

How exactly is the virus spreading?

For weeks, the leading theory has been that the primary route of spread is through the milk. This is where high concentrations of the virus are being found.

This general idea was affirmed again this week by Mike Watson with the United States Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, who said the evidence still points to some form of "mechanical transmission."

Virus could be spread on "milking equipment," by "individuals moving from facility to facility," and via rodents that come in contact with milk and then move around, he said.

Federal health officials and scientists believe the virus has moved with lactating cattle from one herd to another. But how it's getting from one cow to another on a given farm "is a key missing piece of knowledge," says Webby.

Genetic sequencing indicates that there was likely a single introduction from birds into cattle, which then resulted in further spread among cattle, says Moncla, who has been analyzing the genomic data.

"A lot of these cattle sequences are quite similar to each other, suggesting that there's almost certainly some degree of cattle-to-cattle transmission going on," she says.

Moncla says it's hard to say exactly how long the virus has been spreading through dairy cattle, although some scientists have suggested it may have been circulating for many months, even earlier than February.

The USDA has also noted another concerning development — that there have been some instances of the virus moving from domesticated poultry to cattle.

"The degree of transmission, combined with the fact that we're likely missing cases in cattle, leads to a bit of concern," says Moncla.

What is the risk to humans as the virus keeps spreading?

First the reassuring news: Even with all these cows being infected, there has only been one documented human infection during the current outbreak in dairy cattle.

That person, a dairy worker in Texas, had conjunctivitis.

This week, federal health officials reiterated that the overall risk to the general public remains low, in part because "we have not observed changes to the virus's genetic makeup that would suggest an enhanced ability to spread to humans or among humans," said Dr. Nirav Shah , principal deputy director at the CDC.

So far, states have tested 23 people for avian flu and have monitored 44 people who were considered exposed and at risk for infection, he said.

Generally, cases of bird flu are rare in humans and it takes a big dose of virus — for example through direct contact while slaughtering poultry — to get infected. Since 2022, there have been 26 human cases of H5N1 virus infection reported worldwide.

Webby says it is possible that cows don't put that much "pressure on the virus to change," which could be one reason scientists haven't seen alarming mutations in the samples collected.

"I don't think the needle has moved at all" in terms of human risk, he says.

Of course, the perennial fear is that the virus could mutate while in cows, or an intermediary animal, and then find its way into humans.

Scientists have documented some mutations in bird flu when it has spread in other mammals. But previous research has shown there needs to be a host of changes — most of all, the virus would have to evolve a way to bind to receptors in the upper airway of humans — to become a pandemic threat.

When it comes to cattle, the CDC's Sonja Olsen says they still aren't sure if it's the exposure to raw milk on the farms that's the primary risk to humans. "We don't know if it's [surface] transmission. We don't know if there's aerosolization of the milk."

Dr. Bright says the CDC should be conducting antibody studies on dairy workers to see if human cases have escaped detection, rather than waiting for cases to show up in the emergency room.

"I am going to keep my radar up," he says. "If this were to get out of hand, we have to be prepared to respond really quickly. And I'm not quite sure we're fully ready to respond if we needed to."

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Checking in With an Airline Reporter

To cover the bustling world of aviation, Christine Chung considers the plights and predicaments of readers.

Part of an airplane in a large room, with an inflatable slide attached to one of the plane doors. Christine Chung is sliding down the slide on her back with her arms crossed over her chest, as two people wait with open arms at the bottom of the slide.

By Josh Ocampo

Times Insider explains who we are and what we do and delivers behind-the-scenes insights into how our journalism comes together.

Christine Chung has a few rules when it comes to flying.

She never checks a bag, traveling exclusively with a carry-on. She flies as early in the day as possible, to avoid crowds and long security lines. And perhaps her most controversial take: She never arrives at an airport more than an hour and a half before her departure time, no matter where she’s flying.

“Growing up, my dad would always insist on us being at the airport four hours early,” she said in an interview. “It was always a stressful experience, and I remember thinking, even then, that air travel was so complicated. Now I probably don’t leave myself enough time.”

Ms. Chung, who covers airlines and consumer travel for The New York Times, joined the Travel section in March 2023 from the Express desk, where she reported breaking news. Her beat involves untangling the confusing rules and regulations of aviation, like passengers’ rights to refunds and what the grounding of Boeing Max 9 planes means for travelers.

In a recent conversation, she shared how she arrived at the travel beat and the questions she most often receives from readers. This interview has been edited.

Were you always interested in travel journalism?

I love traveling, but I’m not someone who, say, reads about the different types of planes or loves to plane-spot. I joined the Express desk in late 2021, and was looking for an opportunity to strengthen my feature writing skills. Reporting breaking news is super dynamic and fun, but I wanted to have time to delve more deeply into topics that interested me. On Express, you often write a story in a day. On Travel, you might have a couple of days or a week to work on a feature story. It’s a huge luxury to work with talented editors and have time to develop story ideas.

Do you travel often for your reporting?

I do. I recently went to Seattle to observe a flight attendant safety training with Alaska Airlines. On the Express desk, all of my reporting was by phone, which is an effective and fast way to interview sources. But one of the best parts of my job now is getting to visit places and conduct interviews in person.

How has your beat surprised you?

We have so many reporters at The Times whose beats also touch aviation, so there’s a lot of interesting collaboration. There’s a Washington angle on the recent Boeing news, which Mark Walker covers. He has written about what the Federal Aviation Administration is doing, the ongoing investigation and the lawsuits filed by passengers. The Business desk also covers travel, including air traffic control and airline finances . I’ve been pleasantly surprised by how we all work together to cover this beat effectively, and more thoroughly than one person ever could.

What’s your biggest challenge?

There is so much daily news about airlines that it can be overwhelming. The questions I try to ask myself when determining whether to cover a story are: What are passengers focusing on right now? What are people complaining about? In the past year, I’ve become better at noticing a trend early, seeing the bigger, underlying narrative and distilling that into a story.

What travel trends are you following?

I’m interested in all the moving parts that we don’t think about. For example, I’m really interested in baggage handling. Many bags are lost, though the baggage loss rate in the United States has been decreasing year to year. It’s a miracle how bag handlers and airlines achieve this. I would like to better understand air traffic control and all the levers that keep the aviation system moving nearly three million passengers a day in the United States. It’s a hugely complicated system.

I’m also interested in the broader, growing stratification of travel. Travel is becoming ever more luxurious for some people; it kind of mirrors the divisions in society.

What’s the most common question you receive from readers?

The Travel desk gets a lot of questions about things that went wrong for travelers, like “My flight’s been disrupted. What can I do about that? What are my rights?” I think the most confusing part of air travel for a lot of people is knowing their rights. It can be hard to get your money back from an airline when you don’t know what caused a flight delay or cancellation . It’s easy to feel disempowered .

You’ve written about upgraded airport lounges with amenities like caviar service and nap pods. I have to ask: Do you have a favorite airport?

I think we’re really lucky in New York. We are pretty well served by all the local airports. La Guardia Airport is stunning. It’s pretty amazing how that airport has gone from the bottom to one of the best. It’s home to some fantastic new lounges. I did travel through Newark Liberty International Airport in New Jersey recently. It has a new terminal and was such a breeze to get through security. It was delightful, which is a word I never thought I would use when talking about an airport.

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