to do a research paper

How To Write A Research Paper

Step-By-Step Tutorial With Examples + FREE Template

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Expert Reviewer: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | March 2024

For many students, crafting a strong research paper from scratch can feel like a daunting task – and rightly so! In this post, we’ll unpack what a research paper is, what it needs to do , and how to write one – in three easy steps. 🙂 

Overview: Writing A Research Paper

What (exactly) is a research paper.

• How to write a research paper
• Stage 1 : Topic & literature search
• Stage 2 : Structure & outline
• Stage 3 : Iterative writing
• Key takeaways

Let’s start by asking the most important question, “ What is a research paper? ”.

Simply put, a research paper is a scholarly written work where the writer (that’s you!) answers a specific question (this is called a research question ) through evidence-based arguments . Evidence-based is the keyword here. In other words, a research paper is different from an essay or other writing assignments that draw from the writer’s personal opinions or experiences. With a research paper, it’s all about building your arguments based on evidence (we’ll talk more about that evidence a little later).

Now, it’s worth noting that there are many different types of research papers , including analytical papers (the type I just described), argumentative papers, and interpretative papers. Here, we’ll focus on analytical papers , as these are some of the most common – but if you’re keen to learn about other types of research papers, be sure to check out the rest of the blog .

With that basic foundation laid, let’s get down to business and look at how to write a research paper .

Overview: The 3-Stage Process

While there are, of course, many potential approaches you can take to write a research paper, there are typically three stages to the writing process. So, in this tutorial, we’ll present a straightforward three-step process that we use when working with students at Grad Coach.

These three steps are:

• Finding a research topic and reviewing the existing literature
• Developing a provisional structure and outline for your paper, and
• Writing up your initial draft and then refining it iteratively

Let’s dig into each of these.

Need a helping hand?

Step 1: Find a topic and review the literature

As we mentioned earlier, in a research paper, you, as the researcher, will try to answer a question . More specifically, that’s called a research question , and it sets the direction of your entire paper. What’s important to understand though is that you’ll need to answer that research question with the help of high-quality sources – for example, journal articles, government reports, case studies, and so on. We’ll circle back to this in a minute.

The first stage of the research process is deciding on what your research question will be and then reviewing the existing literature (in other words, past studies and papers) to see what they say about that specific research question. In some cases, your professor may provide you with a predetermined research question (or set of questions). However, in many cases, you’ll need to find your own research question within a certain topic area.

Finding a strong research question hinges on identifying a meaningful research gap – in other words, an area that’s lacking in existing research. There’s a lot to unpack here, so if you wanna learn more, check out the plain-language explainer video below.

Once you’ve figured out which question (or questions) you’ll attempt to answer in your research paper, you’ll need to do a deep dive into the existing literature – this is called a “ literature search ”. Again, there are many ways to go about this, but your most likely starting point will be Google Scholar .

If you’re new to Google Scholar, think of it as Google for the academic world. You can start by simply entering a few different keywords that are relevant to your research question and it will then present a host of articles for you to review. What you want to pay close attention to here is the number of citations for each paper – the more citations a paper has, the more credible it is (generally speaking – there are some exceptions, of course).

Ideally, what you’re looking for are well-cited papers that are highly relevant to your topic. That said, keep in mind that citations are a cumulative metric , so older papers will often have more citations than newer papers – just because they’ve been around for longer. So, don’t fixate on this metric in isolation – relevance and recency are also very important.

Beyond Google Scholar, you’ll also definitely want to check out academic databases and aggregators such as Science Direct, PubMed, JStor and so on. These will often overlap with the results that you find in Google Scholar, but they can also reveal some hidden gems – so, be sure to check them out.

Once you’ve worked your way through all the literature, you’ll want to catalogue all this information in some sort of spreadsheet so that you can easily recall who said what, when and within what context. If you’d like, we’ve got a free literature spreadsheet that helps you do exactly that.

Step 2: Develop a structure and outline

With your research question pinned down and your literature digested and catalogued, it’s time to move on to planning your actual research paper .

It might sound obvious, but it’s really important to have some sort of rough outline in place before you start writing your paper. So often, we see students eagerly rushing into the writing phase, only to land up with a disjointed research paper that rambles on in multiple

Now, the secret here is to not get caught up in the fine details . Realistically, all you need at this stage is a bullet-point list that describes (in broad strokes) what you’ll discuss and in what order. It’s also useful to remember that you’re not glued to this outline – in all likelihood, you’ll chop and change some sections once you start writing, and that’s perfectly okay. What’s important is that you have some sort of roadmap in place from the start.

At this stage you might be wondering, “ But how should I structure my research paper? ”. Well, there’s no one-size-fits-all solution here, but in general, a research paper will consist of a few relatively standardised components:

• Introduction
• Literature review
• Methodology

Let’s take a look at each of these.

First up is the introduction section . As the name suggests, the purpose of the introduction is to set the scene for your research paper. There are usually (at least) four ingredients that go into this section – these are the background to the topic, the research problem and resultant research question , and the justification or rationale. If you’re interested, the video below unpacks the introduction section in more detail. 

The next section of your research paper will typically be your literature review . Remember all that literature you worked through earlier? Well, this is where you’ll present your interpretation of all that content . You’ll do this by writing about recent trends, developments, and arguments within the literature – but more specifically, those that are relevant to your research question . The literature review can oftentimes seem a little daunting, even to seasoned researchers, so be sure to check out our extensive collection of literature review content here .

With the introduction and lit review out of the way, the next section of your paper is the research methodology . In a nutshell, the methodology section should describe to your reader what you did (beyond just reviewing the existing literature) to answer your research question. For example, what data did you collect, how did you collect that data, how did you analyse that data and so on? For each choice, you’ll also need to justify why you chose to do it that way, and what the strengths and weaknesses of your approach were.

Now, it’s worth mentioning that for some research papers, this aspect of the project may be a lot simpler . For example, you may only need to draw on secondary sources (in other words, existing data sets). In some cases, you may just be asked to draw your conclusions from the literature search itself (in other words, there may be no data analysis at all). But, if you are required to collect and analyse data, you’ll need to pay a lot of attention to the methodology section. The video below provides an example of what the methodology section might look like.

By this stage of your paper, you will have explained what your research question is, what the existing literature has to say about that question, and how you analysed additional data to try to answer your question. So, the natural next step is to present your analysis of that data . This section is usually called the “results” or “analysis” section and this is where you’ll showcase your findings.

Depending on your school’s requirements, you may need to present and interpret the data in one section – or you might split the presentation and the interpretation into two sections. In the latter case, your “results” section will just describe the data, and the “discussion” is where you’ll interpret that data and explicitly link your analysis back to your research question. If you’re not sure which approach to take, check in with your professor or take a look at past papers to see what the norms are for your programme.

Alright – once you’ve presented and discussed your results, it’s time to wrap it up . This usually takes the form of the “ conclusion ” section. In the conclusion, you’ll need to highlight the key takeaways from your study and close the loop by explicitly answering your research question. Again, the exact requirements here will vary depending on your programme (and you may not even need a conclusion section at all) – so be sure to check with your professor if you’re unsure.

Step 3: Write and refine

Finally, it’s time to get writing. All too often though, students hit a brick wall right about here… So, how do you avoid this happening to you?

Well, there’s a lot to be said when it comes to writing a research paper (or any sort of academic piece), but we’ll share three practical tips to help you get started.

First and foremost , it’s essential to approach your writing as an iterative process. In other words, you need to start with a really messy first draft and then polish it over multiple rounds of editing. Don’t waste your time trying to write a perfect research paper in one go. Instead, take the pressure off yourself by adopting an iterative approach.

Secondly , it’s important to always lean towards critical writing , rather than descriptive writing. What does this mean? Well, at the simplest level, descriptive writing focuses on the “ what ”, while critical writing digs into the “ so what ” – in other words, the implications. If you’re not familiar with these two types of writing, don’t worry! You can find a plain-language explanation here.

Last but not least, you’ll need to get your referencing right. Specifically, you’ll need to provide credible, correctly formatted citations for the statements you make. We see students making referencing mistakes all the time and it costs them dearly. The good news is that you can easily avoid this by using a simple reference manager . If you don’t have one, check out our video about Mendeley, an easy (and free) reference management tool that you can start using today.

Recap: Key Takeaways

We’ve covered a lot of ground here. To recap, the three steps to writing a high-quality research paper are:

• To choose a research question and review the literature
• To plan your paper structure and draft an outline
• To take an iterative approach to writing, focusing on critical writing and strong referencing

Remember, this is just a b ig-picture overview of the research paper development process and there’s a lot more nuance to unpack. So, be sure to grab a copy of our free research paper template to learn more about how to write a research paper.

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• How to write a research paper

Last updated

11 January 2024

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With proper planning, knowledge, and framework, completing a research paper can be a fulfilling and exciting experience. 

Though it might initially sound slightly intimidating, this guide will help you embrace the challenge. 

By documenting your findings, you can inspire others and make a difference in your field. Here's how you can make your research paper unique and comprehensive.

• What is a research paper?

Research papers allow you to demonstrate your knowledge and understanding of a particular topic. These papers are usually lengthier and more detailed than typical essays, requiring deeper insight into the chosen topic.

To write a research paper, you must first choose a topic that interests you and is relevant to the field of study. Once you’ve selected your topic, gathering as many relevant resources as possible, including books, scholarly articles, credible websites, and other academic materials, is essential. You must then read and analyze these sources, summarizing their key points and identifying gaps in the current research.

You can formulate your ideas and opinions once you thoroughly understand the existing research. To get there might involve conducting original research, gathering data, or analyzing existing data sets. It could also involve presenting an original argument or interpretation of the existing research.

Writing a successful research paper involves presenting your findings clearly and engagingly, which might involve using charts, graphs, or other visual aids to present your data and using concise language to explain your findings. You must also ensure your paper adheres to relevant academic formatting guidelines, including proper citations and references.

Overall, writing a research paper requires a significant amount of time, effort, and attention to detail. However, it is also an enriching experience that allows you to delve deeply into a subject that interests you and contribute to the existing body of knowledge in your chosen field.

• How long should a research paper be?

Research papers are deep dives into a topic. Therefore, they tend to be longer pieces of work than essays or opinion pieces. 

However, a suitable length depends on the complexity of the topic and your level of expertise. For instance, are you a first-year college student or an experienced professional? 

Also, remember that the best research papers provide valuable information for the benefit of others. Therefore, the quality of information matters most, not necessarily the length. Being concise is valuable.

Following these best practice steps will help keep your process simple and productive:

1. Gaining a deep understanding of any expectations

Before diving into your intended topic or beginning the research phase, take some time to orient yourself. Suppose there’s a specific topic assigned to you. In that case, it’s essential to deeply understand the question and organize your planning and approach in response. Pay attention to the key requirements and ensure you align your writing accordingly. 

This preparation step entails

Deeply understanding the task or assignment

Being clear about the expected format and length

Familiarizing yourself with the citation and referencing requirements 

Understanding any defined limits for your research contribution

Where applicable, speaking to your professor or research supervisor for further clarification

2. Choose your research topic

Select a research topic that aligns with both your interests and available resources. Ideally, focus on a field where you possess significant experience and analytical skills. In crafting your research paper, it's crucial to go beyond summarizing existing data and contribute fresh insights to the chosen area.

Consider narrowing your focus to a specific aspect of the topic. For example, if exploring the link between technology and mental health, delve into how social media use during the pandemic impacts the well-being of college students. Conducting interviews and surveys with students could provide firsthand data and unique perspectives, adding substantial value to the existing knowledge.

When finalizing your topic, adhere to legal and ethical norms in the relevant area (this ensures the integrity of your research, protects participants' rights, upholds intellectual property standards, and ensures transparency and accountability). Following these principles not only maintains the credibility of your work but also builds trust within your academic or professional community.

For instance, in writing about medical research, consider legal and ethical norms , including patient confidentiality laws and informed consent requirements. Similarly, if analyzing user data on social media platforms, be mindful of data privacy regulations, ensuring compliance with laws governing personal information collection and use. Aligning with legal and ethical standards not only avoids potential issues but also underscores the responsible conduct of your research.

3. Gather preliminary research

Once you’ve landed on your topic, it’s time to explore it further. You’ll want to discover more about available resources and existing research relevant to your assignment at this stage. 

This exploratory phase is vital as you may discover issues with your original idea or realize you have insufficient resources to explore the topic effectively. This key bit of groundwork allows you to redirect your research topic in a different, more feasible, or more relevant direction if necessary. 

Spending ample time at this stage ensures you gather everything you need, learn as much as you can about the topic, and discover gaps where the topic has yet to be sufficiently covered, offering an opportunity to research it further. 

4. Define your research question

To produce a well-structured and focused paper, it is imperative to formulate a clear and precise research question that will guide your work. Your research question must be informed by the existing literature and tailored to the scope and objectives of your project. By refining your focus, you can produce a thoughtful and engaging paper that effectively communicates your ideas to your readers.

5. Write a thesis statement

A thesis statement is a one-to-two-sentence summary of your research paper's main argument or direction. It serves as an overall guide to summarize the overall intent of the research paper for you and anyone wanting to know more about the research.

A strong thesis statement is:

Concise and clear: Explain your case in simple sentences (avoid covering multiple ideas). It might help to think of this section as an elevator pitch.

Specific: Ensure that there is no ambiguity in your statement and that your summary covers the points argued in the paper.

Debatable: A thesis statement puts forward a specific argument––it is not merely a statement but a debatable point that can be analyzed and discussed.

Here are three thesis statement examples from different disciplines:

Psychology thesis example: "We're studying adults aged 25-40 to see if taking short breaks for mindfulness can help with stress. Our goal is to find practical ways to manage anxiety better."

Environmental science thesis example: "This research paper looks into how having more city parks might make the air cleaner and keep people healthier. I want to find out if more green spaces means breathing fewer carcinogens in big cities."

UX research thesis example: "This study focuses on improving mobile banking for older adults using ethnographic research, eye-tracking analysis, and interactive prototyping. We investigate the usefulness of eye-tracking analysis with older individuals, aiming to spark debate and offer fresh perspectives on UX design and digital inclusivity for the aging population."

6. Conduct in-depth research

A research paper doesn’t just include research that you’ve uncovered from other papers and studies but your fresh insights, too. You will seek to become an expert on your topic––understanding the nuances in the current leading theories. You will analyze existing research and add your thinking and discoveries.  It's crucial to conduct well-designed research that is rigorous, robust, and based on reliable sources. Suppose a research paper lacks evidence or is biased. In that case, it won't benefit the academic community or the general public. Therefore, examining the topic thoroughly and furthering its understanding through high-quality research is essential. That usually means conducting new research. Depending on the area under investigation, you may conduct surveys, interviews, diary studies , or observational research to uncover new insights or bolster current claims.

7. Determine supporting evidence

Not every piece of research you’ve discovered will be relevant to your research paper. It’s important to categorize the most meaningful evidence to include alongside your discoveries. It's important to include evidence that doesn't support your claims to avoid exclusion bias and ensure a fair research paper.

8. Write a research paper outline

Before diving in and writing the whole paper, start with an outline. It will help you to see if more research is needed, and it will provide a framework by which to write a more compelling paper. Your supervisor may even request an outline to approve before beginning to write the first draft of the full paper. An outline will include your topic, thesis statement, key headings, short summaries of the research, and your arguments.

9. Write your first draft

Once you feel confident about your outline and sources, it’s time to write your first draft. While penning a long piece of content can be intimidating, if you’ve laid the groundwork, you will have a structure to help you move steadily through each section. To keep up motivation and inspiration, it’s often best to keep the pace quick. Stopping for long periods can interrupt your flow and make jumping back in harder than writing when things are fresh in your mind.

10. Cite your sources correctly

It's always a good practice to give credit where it's due, and the same goes for citing any works that have influenced your paper. Building your arguments on credible references adds value and authenticity to your research. In the formatting guidelines section, you’ll find an overview of different citation styles (MLA, CMOS, or APA), which will help you meet any publishing or academic requirements and strengthen your paper's credibility. It is essential to follow the guidelines provided by your school or the publication you are submitting to ensure the accuracy and relevance of your citations.

11. Ensure your work is original

It is crucial to ensure the originality of your paper, as plagiarism can lead to serious consequences. To avoid plagiarism, you should use proper paraphrasing and quoting techniques. Paraphrasing is rewriting a text in your own words while maintaining the original meaning. Quoting involves directly citing the source. Giving credit to the original author or source is essential whenever you borrow their ideas or words. You can also use plagiarism detection tools such as Scribbr or Grammarly to check the originality of your paper. These tools compare your draft writing to a vast database of online sources. If you find any accidental plagiarism, you should correct it immediately by rephrasing or citing the source.

12. Revise, edit, and proofread

One of the essential qualities of excellent writers is their ability to understand the importance of editing and proofreading. Even though it's tempting to call it a day once you've finished your writing, editing your work can significantly improve its quality. It's natural to overlook the weaker areas when you've just finished writing a paper. Therefore, it's best to take a break of a day or two, or even up to a week, to refresh your mind. This way, you can return to your work with a new perspective. After some breathing room, you can spot any inconsistencies, spelling and grammar errors, typos, or missing citations and correct them. 

• The best research paper format 

The format of your research paper should align with the requirements set forth by your college, school, or target publication. 

There is no one “best” format, per se. Depending on the stated requirements, you may need to include the following elements:

Title page: The title page of a research paper typically includes the title, author's name, and institutional affiliation and may include additional information such as a course name or instructor's name. 

Table of contents: Include a table of contents to make it easy for readers to find specific sections of your paper.

Abstract: The abstract is a summary of the purpose of the paper.

Methods : In this section, describe the research methods used. This may include collecting data , conducting interviews, or doing field research .

Results: Summarize the conclusions you drew from your research in this section.

Discussion: In this section, discuss the implications of your research . Be sure to mention any significant limitations to your approach and suggest areas for further research.

Tables, charts, and illustrations: Use tables, charts, and illustrations to help convey your research findings and make them easier to understand.

Works cited or reference page: Include a works cited or reference page to give credit to the sources that you used to conduct your research.

Bibliography: Provide a list of all the sources you consulted while conducting your research.

Dedication and acknowledgments : Optionally, you may include a dedication and acknowledgments section to thank individuals who helped you with your research.

• General style and formatting guidelines

Formatting your research paper means you can submit it to your college, journal, or other publications in compliance with their criteria.

Research papers tend to follow the American Psychological Association (APA), Modern Language Association (MLA), or Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS) guidelines.

Here’s how each style guide is typically used:

Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS):

CMOS is a versatile style guide used for various types of writing. It's known for its flexibility and use in the humanities. CMOS provides guidelines for citations, formatting, and overall writing style. It allows for both footnotes and in-text citations, giving writers options based on their preferences or publication requirements.

American Psychological Association (APA):

APA is common in the social sciences. It’s hailed for its clarity and emphasis on precision. It has specific rules for citing sources, creating references, and formatting papers. APA style uses in-text citations with an accompanying reference list. It's designed to convey information efficiently and is widely used in academic and scientific writing.

Modern Language Association (MLA):

MLA is widely used in the humanities, especially literature and language studies. It emphasizes the author-page format for in-text citations and provides guidelines for creating a "Works Cited" page. MLA is known for its focus on the author's name and the literary works cited. It’s frequently used in disciplines that prioritize literary analysis and critical thinking.

To confirm you're using the latest style guide, check the official website or publisher's site for updates, consult academic resources, and verify the guide's publication date. Online platforms and educational resources may also provide summaries and alerts about any revisions or additions to the style guide.

Citing sources

When working on your research paper, it's important to cite the sources you used properly. Your citation style will guide you through this process. Generally, there are three parts to citing sources in your research paper: 

First, provide a brief citation in the body of your essay. This is also known as a parenthetical or in-text citation. 

Second, include a full citation in the Reference list at the end of your paper. Different types of citations include in-text citations, footnotes, and reference lists. 

In-text citations include the author's surname and the date of the citation. 

Footnotes appear at the bottom of each page of your research paper. They may also be summarized within a reference list at the end of the paper. 

A reference list includes all of the research used within the paper at the end of the document. It should include the author, date, paper title, and publisher listed in the order that aligns with your citation style.

10 research paper writing tips:

Following some best practices is essential to writing a research paper that contributes to your field of study and creates a positive impact.

These tactics will help you structure your argument effectively and ensure your work benefits others:

Clear and precise language:  Ensure your language is unambiguous. Use academic language appropriately, but keep it simple. Also, provide clear takeaways for your audience.

Effective idea separation:  Organize the vast amount of information and sources in your paper with paragraphs and titles. Create easily digestible sections for your readers to navigate through.

Compelling intro:  Craft an engaging introduction that captures your reader's interest. Hook your audience and motivate them to continue reading.

Thorough revision and editing:  Take the time to review and edit your paper comprehensively. Use tools like Grammarly to detect and correct small, overlooked errors.

Thesis precision:  Develop a clear and concise thesis statement that guides your paper. Ensure that your thesis aligns with your research's overall purpose and contribution.

Logical flow of ideas:  Maintain a logical progression throughout the paper. Use transitions effectively to connect different sections and maintain coherence.

Critical evaluation of sources:  Evaluate and critically assess the relevance and reliability of your sources. Ensure that your research is based on credible and up-to-date information.

Thematic consistency:  Maintain a consistent theme throughout the paper. Ensure that all sections contribute cohesively to the overall argument.

Relevant supporting evidence:  Provide concise and relevant evidence to support your arguments. Avoid unnecessary details that may distract from the main points.

Embrace counterarguments:  Acknowledge and address opposing views to strengthen your position. Show that you have considered alternative arguments in your field.

7 research tips 

If you want your paper to not only be well-written but also contribute to the progress of human knowledge, consider these tips to take your paper to the next level:

Selecting the appropriate topic: The topic you select should align with your area of expertise, comply with the requirements of your project, and have sufficient resources for a comprehensive investigation.

Use academic databases: Academic databases such as PubMed, Google Scholar, and JSTOR offer a wealth of research papers that can help you discover everything you need to know about your chosen topic.

Critically evaluate sources: It is important not to accept research findings at face value. Instead, it is crucial to critically analyze the information to avoid jumping to conclusions or overlooking important details. A well-written research paper requires a critical analysis with thorough reasoning to support claims.

Diversify your sources: Expand your research horizons by exploring a variety of sources beyond the standard databases. Utilize books, conference proceedings, and interviews to gather diverse perspectives and enrich your understanding of the topic.

Take detailed notes: Detailed note-taking is crucial during research and can help you form the outline and body of your paper.

Stay up on trends: Keep abreast of the latest developments in your field by regularly checking for recent publications. Subscribe to newsletters, follow relevant journals, and attend conferences to stay informed about emerging trends and advancements. 

Engage in peer review: Seek feedback from peers or mentors to ensure the rigor and validity of your research . Peer review helps identify potential weaknesses in your methodology and strengthens the overall credibility of your findings.

• The real-world impact of research papers

Writing a research paper is more than an academic or business exercise. The experience provides an opportunity to explore a subject in-depth, broaden one's understanding, and arrive at meaningful conclusions. With careful planning, dedication, and hard work, writing a research paper can be a fulfilling and enriching experience contributing to advancing knowledge.

How do I publish my research paper? 

Many academics wish to publish their research papers. While challenging, your paper might get traction if it covers new and well-written information. To publish your research paper, find a target publication, thoroughly read their guidelines, format your paper accordingly, and send it to them per their instructions. You may need to include a cover letter, too. After submission, your paper may be peer-reviewed by experts to assess its legitimacy, quality, originality, and methodology. Following review, you will be informed by the publication whether they have accepted or rejected your paper. 

What is a good opening sentence for a research paper? 

Beginning your research paper with a compelling introduction can ensure readers are interested in going further. A relevant quote, a compelling statistic, or a bold argument can start the paper and hook your reader. Remember, though, that the most important aspect of a research paper is the quality of the information––not necessarily your ability to storytell, so ensure anything you write aligns with your goals.

Research paper vs. a research proposal—what’s the difference?

While some may confuse research papers and proposals, they are different documents. 

A research proposal comes before a research paper. It is a detailed document that outlines an intended area of exploration. It includes the research topic, methodology, timeline, sources, and potential conclusions. Research proposals are often required when seeking approval to conduct research. 

A research paper is a summary of research findings. A research paper follows a structured format to present those findings and construct an argument or conclusion.

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How to start your research paper [step-by-step guide]

1. Choose your topic

2. find information on your topic, 3. create a thesis statement, 4. create a research paper outline, 5. organize your notes, 6. write your introduction, 7. write your first draft of the body, 9. write your conclusion, 10. revise again, edit, and proofread, frequently asked questions about starting your research paper, related articles.

Research papers can be short or in-depth, but no matter what type of research paper, they all follow pretty much the same pattern and have the same structure .

A research paper is a paper that makes an argument about a topic based on research and analysis.

There will be some basic differences, but if you can write one type of research paper, you can write another. Below is a step-by-step guide to starting and completing your research paper.

Choose a topic that interests you. Writing your research paper will be so much more pleasant with a topic that you actually want to know more about. Your interest will show in the way you write and effort you put into the paper. Consider these issues when coming up with a topic:

• make sure your topic is not too broad
• narrow it down if you're using terms that are too general

Academic search engines are a great source to find background information on your topic. Your institution's library will most likely provide access to plenty of online research databases. Take a look at our guide on how to efficiently search online databases for academic research to learn how to gather all the information needed on your topic.

Tip: If you’re struggling with finding research, consider meeting with an academic librarian to help you come up with more balanced keywords.

If you’re struggling to find a topic for your thesis, take a look at our guide on how to come up with a thesis topic .

The thesis statement is one of the most important elements of any piece of academic writing. It can be defined as a very brief statement of what the main point or central message of your paper is. Our thesis statement guide will help you write an excellent thesis statement.

In the next step, you need to create your research paper outline . The outline is the skeleton of your research paper. Simply start by writing down your thesis and the main ideas you wish to present. This will likely change as your research progresses; therefore, do not worry about being too specific in the early stages of writing your outline.

Then, fill out your outline with the following components:

• the main ideas that you want to cover in the paper
• the types of evidence that you will use to support your argument
• quotes from secondary sources that you may want to use

Organizing all the information you have gathered according to your outline will help you later on in the writing process. Analyze your notes, check for accuracy, verify the information, and make sure you understand all the information you have gathered in a way that you can communicate your findings effectively.

Start with the introduction. It will set the direction of your paper and help you a lot as you write. Waiting to write it at the end can leave you with a poorly written setup to an otherwise well-written paper.

The body of your paper argues, explains or describes your topic. Start with the first topic from your outline. Ideally, you have organized your notes in a way that you can work through your research paper outline and have all the notes ready.

After your first draft, take some time to check the paper for content errors. Rearrange ideas, make changes and check if the order of your paragraphs makes sense. At this point, it is helpful to re-read the research paper guidelines and make sure you have followed the format requirements. You can also use free grammar and proof reading checkers such as Grammarly .

Tip: Consider reading your paper from back to front when you undertake your initial revision. This will help you ensure that your argument and organization are sound.

Write your conclusion last and avoid including any new information that has not already been presented in the body of the paper. Your conclusion should wrap up your paper and show that your research question has been answered.

Allow a few days to pass after you finished writing the final draft of your research paper, and then start making your final corrections. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill gives some great advice here on how to revise, edit, and proofread your paper.

Tip: Take a break from your paper before you start your final revisions. Then, you’ll be able to approach your paper with fresh eyes.

As part of your final revision, be sure to check that you’ve cited everything correctly and that you have a full bibliography. Use a reference manager like Paperpile to organize your research and to create accurate citations.

The first step to start writing a research paper is to choose a topic. Make sure your topic is not too broad; narrow it down if you're using terms that are too general.

The format of your research paper will vary depending on the journal you submit to. Make sure to check first which citation style does the journal follow, in order to format your paper accordingly. Check Getting started with your research paper outline to have an idea of what a research paper looks like.

The last step of your research paper should be proofreading. Allow a few days to pass after you finished writing the final draft of your research paper, and then start making your final corrections. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill gives some great advice here on how to revise, edit and proofread your paper.

There are plenty of software you can use to write a research paper. We recommend our own citation software, Paperpile , as well as grammar and proof reading checkers such as Grammarly .

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Home » Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

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Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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How to Write a Research Paper

Last Updated: February 18, 2024 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Chris Hadley, PhD . Chris Hadley, PhD is part of the wikiHow team and works on content strategy and data and analytics. Chris Hadley earned his PhD in Cognitive Psychology from UCLA in 2006. Chris' academic research has been published in numerous scientific journals. There are 14 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 4,186,866 times.

Whether you’re in a history, literature, or science class, you’ll probably have to write a research paper at some point. It may seem daunting when you’re just starting out, but staying organized and budgeting your time can make the process a breeze. Research your topic, find reliable sources, and come up with a working thesis. Then create an outline and start drafting your paper. Be sure to leave plenty of time to make revisions, as editing is essential if you want to hand in your best work!

Sample Research Papers and Outlines

Researching Your Topic

• For instance, you might start with a general subject, like British decorative arts. Then, as you read, you home in on transferware and pottery. Ultimately, you focus on 1 potter in the 1780s who invented a way to mass-produce patterned tableware.

Tip: If you need to analyze a piece of literature, your task is to pull the work apart into literary elements and explain how the author uses those parts to make their point.

• Authoritative, credible sources include scholarly articles (especially those other authors reference), government websites, scientific studies, and reputable news bureaus. Additionally, check your sources' dates, and make sure the information you gather is up to date.
• Evaluate how other scholars have approached your topic. Identify authoritative sources or works that are accepted as the most important accounts of the subject matter. Additionally, look for debates among scholars, and ask yourself who presents the strongest evidence for their case. [3] X Trustworthy Source Purdue Online Writing Lab Trusted resource for writing and citation guidelines Go to source
• You’ll most likely need to include a bibliography or works cited page, so keep your sources organized. List your sources, format them according to your assigned style guide (such as MLA or Chicago ), and write 2 or 3 summary sentences below each one. [4] X Research source

• Imagine you’re a lawyer in a trial and are presenting a case to a jury. Think of your readers as the jurors; your opening statement is your thesis and you’ll present evidence to the jury to make your case.
• A thesis should be specific rather than vague, such as: “Josiah Spode’s improved formula for bone china enabled the mass production of transfer-printed wares, which expanded the global market for British pottery.”

Drafting Your Essay

• Your outline is your paper’s skeleton. After making the outline, all you’ll need to do is fill in the details.
• For easy reference, include your sources where they fit into your outline, like this: III. Spode vs. Wedgewood on Mass Production A. Spode: Perfected chemical formula with aims for fast production and distribution (Travis, 2002, 43) B. Wedgewood: Courted high-priced luxury market; lower emphasis on mass production (Himmelweit, 2001, 71) C. Therefore: Wedgewood, unlike Spode, delayed the expansion of the pottery market.

• For instance, your opening line could be, “Overlooked in the present, manufacturers of British pottery in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries played crucial roles in England’s Industrial Revolution.”
• After presenting your thesis, lay out your evidence, like this: “An examination of Spode’s innovative production and distribution techniques will demonstrate the importance of his contributions to the industry and Industrial Revolution at large.”

Tip: Some people prefer to write the introduction first and use it to structure the rest of the paper. However, others like to write the body, then fill in the introduction. Do whichever seems natural to you. If you write the intro first, keep in mind you can tweak it later to reflect your finished paper’s layout.

• After setting the context, you'd include a section on Josiah Spode’s company and what he did to make pottery easier to manufacture and distribute.
• Next, discuss how targeting middle class consumers increased demand and expanded the pottery industry globally.
• Then, you could explain how Spode differed from competitors like Wedgewood, who continued to court aristocratic consumers instead of expanding the market to the middle class.
• The right number of sections or paragraphs depends on your assignment. In general, shoot for 3 to 5, but check your prompt for your assigned length.

• If you bring up a counterargument, make sure it’s a strong claim that’s worth entertaining instead of ones that's weak and easily dismissed.
• Suppose, for instance, you’re arguing for the benefits of adding fluoride to toothpaste and city water. You could bring up a study that suggested fluoride produced harmful health effects, then explain how its testing methods were flawed.

• Sum up your argument, but don’t simply rewrite your introduction using slightly different wording. To make your conclusion more memorable, you could also connect your thesis to a broader topic or theme to make it more relatable to your reader.
• For example, if you’ve discussed the role of nationalism in World War I, you could conclude by mentioning nationalism’s reemergence in contemporary foreign affairs.

Revising Your Paper

• This is also a great opportunity to make sure your paper fulfills the parameters of the assignment and answers the prompt!
• It’s a good idea to put your essay aside for a few hours (or overnight, if you have time). That way, you can start editing it with fresh eyes.

Tip: Try to give yourself at least 2 or 3 days to revise your paper. It may be tempting to simply give your paper a quick read and use the spell-checker to make edits. However, revising your paper properly is more in-depth.

• The passive voice, such as “The door was opened by me,” feels hesitant and wordy. On the other hand, the active voice, or “I opened the door,” feels strong and concise.
• Each word in your paper should do a specific job. Try to avoid including extra words just to fill up blank space on a page or sound fancy.
• For instance, “The author uses pathos to appeal to readers’ emotions” is better than “The author utilizes pathos to make an appeal to the emotional core of those who read the passage.”

• Read your essay out loud to help ensure you catch every error. As you read, check for flow as well and, if necessary, tweak any spots that sound awkward. [13] X Trustworthy Source University of North Carolina Writing Center UNC's on-campus and online instructional service that provides assistance to students, faculty, and others during the writing process Go to source

• It’s wise to get feedback from one person who’s familiar with your topic and another who’s not. The person who knows about the topic can help ensure you’ve nailed all the details. The person who’s unfamiliar with the topic can help make sure your writing is clear and easy to understand.

Community Q&A

• Remember that your topic and thesis should be as specific as possible. Thanks Helpful 5 Not Helpful 0
• Researching, outlining, drafting, and revising are all important steps, so do your best to budget your time wisely. Try to avoid waiting until the last minute to write your paper. Thanks Helpful 6 Not Helpful 2

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• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/planresearchpaper/
• ↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/evaluating-print-sources/
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/conducting_research/research_overview/index.html
• ↑ https://poorvucenter.yale.edu/writing/graduate-writing-lab/writing-through-graduate-school/working-sources
• ↑ https://opentextbc.ca/writingforsuccess/chapter/chapter-5-putting-the-pieces-together-with-a-thesis-statement/
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/the_writing_process/developing_an_outline/index.html
• ↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/introductions/
• ↑ https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/writingcenter/writingprocess/counterarguments
• ↑ https://writingcenter.fas.harvard.edu/pages/ending-essay-conclusions
• ↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/revising-drafts/
• ↑ https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/formandstyle/writing/scholarlyvoice/activepassive
• ↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/editing-and-proofreading/
• ↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/reading-aloud/
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/the_writing_process/proofreading/index.html

About This Article

To write a research paper, start by researching your topic at the library, online, or using an academic database. As you conduct your research and take notes, zero in on a specific topic that you want to write about and create a 1-2 sentence thesis to state the focus of your paper. Then, create an outline that includes an introduction, 3 to 5 body paragraphs to present your arguments, and a conclusion to sum up your main points. Once you have your paper's structure organized, draft your paragraphs, focusing on 1 argument per paragraph. Use the information you found through your research to back up your claims and prove your thesis statement. Finally, proofread and revise your content until it's polished and ready to submit. For more information on researching and citing sources, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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How to Write a Research Paper

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Research Paper Fundamentals

How to choose a topic or question, how to create a working hypothesis or thesis, common research paper methodologies, how to gather and organize evidence , how to write an outline for your research paper, how to write a rough draft, how to revise your draft, how to produce a final draft, resources for teachers .

It is not fair to say that no one writes anymore. Just about everyone writes text messages, brief emails, or social media posts every single day. Yet, most people don't have a lot of practice with the formal, organized writing required for a good academic research paper. This guide contains links to a variety of resources that can help demystify the process. Some of these resources are intended for teachers; they contain exercises, activities, and teaching strategies. Other resources are intended for direct use by students who are struggling to write papers, or are looking for tips to make the process go more smoothly.

The resources in this section are designed to help students understand the different types of research papers, the general research process, and how to manage their time. Below, you'll find links from university writing centers, the trusted Purdue Online Writing Lab, and more.

What is an Academic Research Paper?

"Genre and the Research Paper" (Purdue OWL)

There are different types of research papers. Different types of scholarly questions will lend themselves to one format or another. This is a brief introduction to the two main genres of research paper: analytic and argumentative. 

"7 Most Popular Types of Research Papers" (Personal-writer.com)

This resource discusses formats that high school students commonly encounter, such as the compare and contrast essay and the definitional essay. Please note that the inclusion of this link is not an endorsement of this company's paid service.

How to Prepare and Plan Out Writing a Research Paper

Teachers can give their students a step-by-step guide like these to help them understand the different steps of the research paper process. These guides can be combined with the time management tools in the next subsection to help students come up with customized calendars for completing their papers.

"Ten Steps for Writing Research Papers" (American University)  

This resource from American University is a comprehensive guide to the research paper writing process, and includes examples of proper research questions and thesis topics.

"Steps in Writing a Research Paper" (SUNY Empire State College)

This guide breaks the research paper process into 11 steps. Each "step" links to a separate page, which describes the work entailed in completing it.

How to Manage Time Effectively

The links below will help students determine how much time is necessary to complete a paper. If your sources are not available online or at your local library, you'll need to leave extra time for the Interlibrary Loan process. Remember that, even if you do not need to consult secondary sources, you'll still need to leave yourself ample time to organize your thoughts.

"Research Paper Planner: Timeline" (Baylor University)

This interactive resource from Baylor University creates a suggested writing schedule based on how much time a student has to work on the assignment.

"Research Paper Planner" (UCLA)

UCLA's library offers this step-by-step guide to the research paper writing process, which also includes a suggested planning calendar.

There's a reason teachers spend a long time talking about choosing a good topic. Without a good topic and a well-formulated research question, it is almost impossible to write a clear and organized paper. The resources below will help you generate ideas and formulate precise questions.

"How to Select a Research Topic" (Univ. of Michigan-Flint)

This resource is designed for college students who are struggling to come up with an appropriate topic. A student who uses this resource and still feels unsure about his or her topic should consult the course instructor for further personalized assistance.

"25 Interesting Research Paper Topics to Get You Started" (Kibin)

This resource, which is probably most appropriate for high school students, provides a list of specific topics to help get students started. It is broken into subsections, such as "paper topics on local issues."

"Writing a Good Research Question" (Grand Canyon University)

This introduction to research questions includes some embedded videos, as well as links to scholarly articles on research questions. This resource would be most appropriate for teachers who are planning lessons on research paper fundamentals.

"How to Write a Research Question the Right Way" (Kibin)

This student-focused resource provides more detail on writing research questions. The language is accessible, and there are embedded videos and examples of good and bad questions.

It is important to have a rough hypothesis or thesis in mind at the beginning of the research process. People who have a sense of what they want to say will have an easier time sorting through scholarly sources and other information. The key, of course, is not to become too wedded to the draft hypothesis or thesis. Just about every working thesis gets changed during the research process.

CrashCourse Video: "Sociology Research Methods" (YouTube)

Although this video is tailored to sociology students, it is applicable to students in a variety of social science disciplines. This video does a good job demonstrating the connection between the brainstorming that goes into selecting a research question and the formulation of a working hypothesis.

"How to Write a Thesis Statement for an Analytical Essay" (YouTube)

Students writing analytical essays will not develop the same type of working hypothesis as students who are writing research papers in other disciplines. For these students, developing the working thesis may happen as a part of the rough draft (see the relevant section below). 

"Research Hypothesis" (Oakland Univ.)

This resource provides some examples of hypotheses in social science disciplines like Political Science and Criminal Justice. These sample hypotheses may also be useful for students in other soft social sciences and humanities disciplines like History.

When grading a research paper, instructors look for a consistent methodology. This section will help you understand different methodological approaches used in research papers. Students will get the most out of these resources if they use them to help prepare for conversations with teachers or discussions in class.

"Types of Research Designs" (USC)

A "research design," used for complex papers, is related to the paper's method. This resource contains introductions to a variety of popular research designs in the social sciences. Although it is not the most intuitive site to read, the information here is very valuable. 

"Major Research Methods" (YouTube)

Although this video is a bit on the dry side, it provides a comprehensive overview of the major research methodologies in a format that might be more accessible to students who have struggled with textbooks or other written resources.

"Humanities Research Strategies" (USC)

This is a portal where students can learn about four methodological approaches for humanities papers: Historical Methodologies, Textual Criticism, Conceptual Analysis, and the Synoptic method.

"Selected Major Social Science Research Methods: Overview" (National Academies Press)

This appendix from the book  Using Science as Evidence in Public Policy , printed by National Academies Press, introduces some methods used in social science papers.

"Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: 6. The Methodology" (USC)

This resource from the University of Southern California's library contains tips for writing a methodology section in a research paper.

How to Determine the Best Methodology for You

Anyone who is new to writing research papers should be sure to select a method in consultation with their instructor. These resources can be used to help prepare for that discussion. They may also be used on their own by more advanced students.

"Choosing Appropriate Research Methodologies" (Palgrave Study Skills)

This friendly and approachable resource from Palgrave Macmillan can be used by students who are just starting to think about appropriate methodologies.

"How to Choose Your Research Methods" (NFER (UK))

This is another approachable resource students can use to help narrow down the most appropriate methods for their research projects.

The resources in this section introduce the process of gathering scholarly sources and collecting evidence. You'll find a range of material here, from introductory guides to advanced explications best suited to college students. Please consult the LitCharts  How to Do Academic Research guide for a more comprehensive list of resources devoted to finding scholarly literature.

Google Scholar

Students who have access to library websites with detailed research guides should start there, but people who do not have access to those resources can begin their search for secondary literature here.

"Gathering Appropriate Information" (Texas Gateway)

This resource from the Texas Gateway for online resources introduces students to the research process, and contains interactive exercises. The level of complexity is suitable for middle school, high school, and introductory college classrooms.

"An Overview of Quantitative and Qualitative Data Collection Methods" (NSF)

This PDF from the National Science Foundation goes into detail about best practices and pitfalls in data collection across multiple types of methodologies.

"Social Science Methods for Data Collection and Analysis" (Swiss FIT)

This resource is appropriate for advanced undergraduates or teachers looking to create lessons on research design and data collection. It covers techniques for gathering data via interviews, observations, and other methods.

"Collecting Data by In-depth Interviewing" (Leeds Univ.)

This resource contains enough information about conducting interviews to make it useful for teachers who want to create a lesson plan, but is also accessible enough for college juniors or seniors to make use of it on their own.

There is no "one size fits all" outlining technique. Some students might devote all their energy and attention to the outline in order to avoid the paper. Other students may benefit from being made to sit down and organize their thoughts into a lengthy sentence outline. The resources in this section include strategies and templates for multiple types of outlines. 

"Topic vs. Sentence Outlines" (UC Berkeley)

This resource introduces two basic approaches to outlining: the shorter topic-based approach, and the longer, more detailed sentence-based approach. This resource also contains videos on how to develop paper paragraphs from the sentence-based outline.

"Types of Outlines and Samples" (Purdue OWL)

The Purdue Online Writing Lab's guide is a slightly less detailed discussion of different types of outlines. It contains several sample outlines.

"Writing An Outline" (Austin C.C.)

This resource from a community college contains sample outlines from an American history class that students can use as models.

"How to Structure an Outline for a College Paper" (YouTube)

This brief (sub-2 minute) video from the ExpertVillage YouTube channel provides a model of outline writing for students who are struggling with the idea.

"Outlining" (Harvard)

This is a good resource to consult after completing a draft outline. It offers suggestions for making sure your outline avoids things like unnecessary repetition.

As with outlines, rough drafts can take on many different forms. These resources introduce teachers and students to the various approaches to writing a rough draft. This section also includes resources that will help you cite your sources appropriately according to the MLA, Chicago, and APA style manuals.

"Creating a Rough Draft for a Research Paper" (Univ. of Minnesota)

This resource is useful for teachers in particular, as it provides some suggested exercises to help students with writing a basic rough draft. 

Rough Draft Assignment (Duke of Definition)

This sample assignment, with a brief list of tips, was developed by a high school teacher who runs a very successful and well-reviewed page of educational resources.

"Creating the First Draft of Your Research Paper" (Concordia Univ.)

This resource will be helpful for perfectionists or procrastinators, as it opens by discussing the problem of avoiding writing. It also provides a short list of suggestions meant to get students writing.

Using Proper Citations

There is no such thing as a rough draft of a scholarly citation. These links to the three major citation guides will ensure that your citations follow the correct format. Please consult the LitCharts How to Cite Your Sources guide for more resources.

Chicago Manual of Style Citation Guide

Some call  The Chicago Manual of Style , which was first published in 1906, "the editors' Bible." The manual is now in its 17th edition, and is popular in the social sciences, historical journals, and some other fields in the humanities.

APA Citation Guide

According to the American Psychological Association, this guide was developed to aid reading comprehension, clarity of communication, and to reduce bias in language in the social and behavioral sciences. Its first full edition was published in 1952, and it is now in its sixth edition.

MLA Citation Guide

The Modern Language Association style is used most commonly within the liberal arts and humanities. The  MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing  was first published in 1985 and (as of 2008) is in its third edition.

Any professional scholar will tell you that the best research papers are made in the revision stage. No matter how strong your research question or working thesis, it is not possible to write a truly outstanding paper without devoting energy to revision. These resources provide examples of revision exercises for the classroom, as well as tips for students working independently.

"The Art of Revision" (Univ. of Arizona)

This resource provides a wealth of information and suggestions for both students and teachers. There is a list of suggested exercises that teachers might use in class, along with a revision checklist that is useful for teachers and students alike.

"Script for Workshop on Revision" (Vanderbilt University)

Vanderbilt's guide for leading a 50-minute revision workshop can serve as a model for teachers who wish to guide students through the revision process during classtime. 

"Revising Your Paper" (Univ. of Washington)

This detailed handout was designed for students who are beginning the revision process. It discusses different approaches and methods for revision, and also includes a detailed list of things students should look for while they revise.

"Revising Drafts" (UNC Writing Center)

This resource is designed for students and suggests things to look for during the revision process. It provides steps for the process and has a FAQ for students who have questions about why it is important to revise.

Conferencing with Writing Tutors and Instructors

No writer is so good that he or she can't benefit from meeting with instructors or peer tutors. These resources from university writing, learning, and communication centers provide suggestions for how to get the most out of these one-on-one meetings.

"Getting Feedback" (UNC Writing Center)

This very helpful resource talks about how to ask for feedback during the entire writing process. It contains possible questions that students might ask when developing an outline, during the revision process, and after the final draft has been graded.

"Prepare for Your Tutoring Session" (Otis College of Art and Design)

This guide from a university's student learning center contains a lot of helpful tips for getting the most out of working with a writing tutor.

"The Importance of Asking Your Professor" (Univ. of Waterloo)

This article from the university's Writing and Communication Centre's blog contains some suggestions for how and when to get help from professors and Teaching Assistants.

Once you've revised your first draft, you're well on your way to handing in a polished paper. These resources—each of them produced by writing professionals at colleges and universities—outline the steps required in order to produce a final draft. You'll find proofreading tips and checklists in text and video form.

"Developing a Final Draft of a Research Paper" (Univ. of Minnesota)

While this resource contains suggestions for revision, it also features a couple of helpful checklists for the last stages of completing a final draft.

Basic Final Draft Tips and Checklist (Univ. of Maryland-University College)

This short and accessible resource, part of UMUC's very thorough online guide to writing and research, contains a very basic checklist for students who are getting ready to turn in their final drafts.

Final Draft Checklist (Everett C.C.)

This is another accessible final draft checklist, appropriate for both high school and college students. It suggests reading your essay aloud at least once.

"How to Proofread Your Final Draft" (YouTube)

This video (approximately 5 minutes), produced by Eastern Washington University, gives students tips on proofreading final drafts.

"Proofreading Tips" (Georgia Southern-Armstrong)

This guide will help students learn how to spot common errors in their papers. It suggests focusing on content and editing for grammar and mechanics.

This final set of resources is intended specifically for high school and college instructors. It provides links to unit plans and classroom exercises that can help improve students' research and writing skills. You'll find resources that give an overview of the process, along with activities that focus on how to begin and how to carry out research. 

"Research Paper Complete Resources Pack" (Teachers Pay Teachers)

This packet of assignments, rubrics, and other resources is designed for high school students. The resources in this packet are aligned to Common Core standards.

"Research Paper—Complete Unit" (Teachers Pay Teachers)

This packet of assignments, notes, PowerPoints, and other resources has a 4/4 rating with over 700 ratings. It is designed for high school teachers, but might also be useful to college instructors who work with freshmen.

"Teaching Students to Write Good Papers" (Yale)

This resource from Yale's Center for Teaching and Learning is designed for college instructors, and it includes links to appropriate activities and exercises.

"Research Paper Writing: An Overview" (CUNY Brooklyn)

CUNY Brooklyn offers this complete lesson plan for introducing students to research papers. It includes an accompanying set of PowerPoint slides.

"Lesson Plan: How to Begin Writing a Research Paper" (San Jose State Univ.)

This lesson plan is designed for students in the health sciences, so teachers will have to modify it for their own needs. It includes a breakdown of the brainstorming, topic selection, and research question process. 

"Quantitative Techniques for Social Science Research" (Univ. of Pittsburgh)

This is a set of PowerPoint slides that can be used to introduce students to a variety of quantitative methods used in the social sciences.

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How to Write a Research Paper

If you already have a headache trying to understand what research paper is all about, we have created an ultimate guide for you on how to write a research paper. You will find all the answers to your questions regarding structure, planning, doing investigation, finding the topic that appeals to you. Plus, you will find out the secret to an excellent paper. Are you at the edge of your seat? Let us start with the basics then.

• What is a Research Paper
• Reasons for Writing a Research Paper
• Report Papers and Thesis Papers
• How to Start a Research Paper
• How to Choose a Topic for a Research Paper
• How to Write a Proposal for a Research Paper
• How to Write a Research Plan
• How to Do Research
• How to Write an Outline for a Research Paper
• How to Write a Thesis Statement for a Research Paper
• How to Write a Research Paper Rough Draft
• How to Write an Introduction for a Research Paper
• How to Write a Body of a Research Paper
• How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper
• How to Write an Abstract for a Research Paper
• How to Revise and Edit a Research Paper
• How to Write a Bibliography for a Research Paper
• What Makes a Good Research Paper

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What is a research paper.

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You probably know the saying ‘the devil is not as black as he is painted’. This particular saying is absolutely true when it comes to writing a research paper. Your feet are cold even with the thought of this assignment. You have heard terrifying stories from older students. You have never done this before, so certainly you are scared. What is a research paper? How should I start? What are all these requirements about?

Luckily, you have a friend in need. That is our writing service. First and foremost, let us clarify the definition. A research paper is a piece of academic writing that provides information about a particular topic that you’ve researched . In other words, you choose a topic: about historical events, the work of some artist, some social issues etc. Then you collect data on the given topic and analyze it. Finally, you put your analysis on paper. See, it is not as scary as it seems. If you are still having doubts, whether you can handle it yourself, we are here to help you. Our team of writers can help you choose the topic, or give you advice on how to plan your work, or how to start, or craft a paper for you. Just contact us 24/7 and see everything yourself.

5 Reasons for Writing a Research Paper

Why should I spend my time writing some academic paper? What is the use of it? Is not some practical knowledge more important? The list of questions is endless when it comes to a research paper. That is why we have outlined 5 main reasons why writing a research paper is a good thing.

• You will learn how to organize your time

If you want to write a research paper, you will have to learn how to manage your time. This type of assignment cannot be done overnight. It requires careful planning and you will need to learn how to do it. Later, you will be able to use these time-managing skills in your personal life, so why not developing them?

• You will discover your writing skills

You cannot know something before you try it. This rule relates to writing as well. You cannot claim that you cannot write until you try it yourself. It will be really difficult at the beginning, but then the words will come to your head themselves.

• You will improve your analytical skills

Writing a research paper is all about investigation and analysis. You will need to collect data, examine and classify it. These skills are needed in modern life more than anything else is.

• You will gain confidence

Once you do your own research, it gives you the feeling of confidence in yourself. The reason is simple human brain likes solving puzzles and your assignment is just another puzzle to be solved.

• You will learn how to persuade the reader

When you write your paper, you should always remember that you are writing it for someone to read. Moreover, you want this someone to believe in your ideas. For this reason, you will have to learn different convincing methods and techniques. You will learn how to make your writing persuasive. In turns, you will be able to use these methods in real life.

What is the Difference between Report and Thesis Papers?

A common question is ‘what is the difference between a report paper and a thesis paper?’ The difference lies in the aim of these two assignments. While the former aims at presenting the information, the latter aims at providing your opinion on the matter. In other words, in a report paper you have to summarize your findings. In a thesis paper, you choose some issue and defend your point of view by persuading the reader. It is that simple.

A thesis paper is a more common assignment than a report paper. This task will help a professor to evaluate your analytical skills and skills to present your ideas logically. These skills are more important than just the ability to collect and summarize data.

How to Write a Research Paper Step by Step

Research comes from the French word  rechercher , meaning “to seek out.” Writing a research paper requires you to seek out information about a subject, take a stand on it, and back it up with the opinions, ideas, and views of others. What results is a printed paper variously known as a term paper or library paper, usually between five and fifteen pages long—most instructors specify a minimum length—in which you present your views and findings on the chosen subject.

It is not a secret that the majority of students hate writing a research paper. The reason is simple it steals your time and energy. Not to mention, constant anxiety that you will not be able to meet the deadline or that you will forget about some academic requirement.

We will not lie to you; a research paper is a difficult assignment. You will have to spend a lot of time. You will need to read, to analyze, and to search for the material. You will probably be stuck sometimes. However, if you organize your work smart, you will gain something that is worth all the effort – knowledge, experience, and high grades.

The reason why many students fail writing a research paper is that nobody explained them how to start and how to plan their work. Luckily, you have found our writing service and we are ready to shed the light on this dark matter.

We have created a step by step guide for you on how to write a research paper. We will dwell upon the structure, the writing tips, the writing strategies as well as academic requirements. Read this whole article and you will see that you can handle writing this assignment and our team of writers is here to assist you.

How to Start a Research Paper?

It all starts with the assignment. Your professor gives you the task. It may be either some general issue or specific topic to write about. Your assignment is your first guide to success. If you understand what you need to do according to the assignment, you are on the road to high results. Do not be scared to clarify your task if you need to. There is nothing wrong in asking a question if you want to do something right. You can ask your professor or you can ask our writers who know a thing or two in academic writing.

It is essential to understand the assignment. A good beginning makes a good ending, so start smart.

Learn how to start a research paper .

Choosing a Topic for a Research Paper

We have already mentioned that it is not enough to do great research. You need to persuade the reader that you have made some great research. What convinces better that an eye-catching topic? That is why it is important to understand how to choose a topic for a research paper.

First, you need to delimit the general idea to a more specific one. Secondly, you need to find what makes this topic interesting for you and for the academia. Finally, you need to refine you topic. Remember, it is not something you will do in one day. You can be reshaping your topic throughout your whole writing process. Still, reshaping not changing it completely. That is why keep in your head one main idea: your topic should be precise and compelling .

Learn how to choose a topic for a research paper .

How to Write a Proposal for a Research Paper?

If you do not know what a proposal is, let us explain it to you. A proposal should answer three main questions:

• What is the main aim of your investigation?
• Why is your investigation important?
• How are you going to achieve the results?

In other words, proposal should show why your topic is interesting and how you are going to prove it. As to writing requirements, they may differ. That is why make sure you find out all the details at your department. You can ask your departmental administrator or find information online at department’s site. It is crucial to follow all the administrative requirements, as it will influence your grade.

Learn how to write a proposal for a research paper .

How to Write a Research Plan?

The next step is writing a plan. You have already decided on the main issues, you have chosen the bibliography, and you have clarified the methods. Here comes the planning. If you want to avoid writer’s block, you have to structure you work. Discuss your strategies and ideas with your instructor. Think thoroughly why you need to present some data and ideas first and others second. Remember that there are basic structure elements that your research paper should include:

• Thesis Statement
• Introduction
• Bibliography

You should keep in mind this skeleton when planning your work. This will keep your mind sharp and your ideas will flow logically.

Learn how to write a research plan .

How to Do Research?

Your research will include three stages: collecting data, reading and analyzing it, and writing itself.

First, you need to collect all the material that you will need for you investigation: films, documents, surveys, interviews, and others. Secondly, you will have to read and analyze. This step is tricky, as you need to do this part smart. It is not enough just to read, as you cannot keep in mind all the information. It is essential that you make notes and write down your ideas while analyzing some data. When you get down to the stage number three, writing itself, you will already have the main ideas written on your notes. Plus, remember to jot down the reference details. You will then appreciate this trick when you will have to write the bibliography.

If you do your research this way, it will be much easier for you to write the paper. You will already have blocks of your ideas written down and you will just need to add some material and refine your paper.

Learn how to do research .

How to Write an Outline for a Research Paper?

To make your paper well organized you need to write an outline. Your outline will serve as your guiding star through the writing process. With a great outline you will not get sidetracked, because you will have a structured plan to follow. Both you and the reader will benefit from your outline. You present your ideas logically and you make your writing coherent according to your plan. As a result, this outline guides the reader through your paper and the reader enjoys the way you demonstrate your ideas.

Learn how to write an outline for a research paper . See research paper outline examples .

How to Write a Thesis Statement for a Research Paper?

Briefly, the thesis is the main argument of your research paper. It should be precise, convincing and logical. Your thesis statement should include your point of view supported by evidence or logic. Still, remember it should be precise. You should not beat around the bush, or provide all the possible evidence you have found. It is usually a single sentence that shows your argument. In on sentence you should make a claim, explain why it significant and convince the reader that your point of view is important.

Learn how to write a thesis statement for a research paper . See research paper thesis statement examples .

Should I Write a Rough Draft for a Research Paper?

Do you know any writer who put their ideas on paper, then never edited them and just published? Probably, no writer did so. Writing a research paper is no exception. It is impossible to cope with this assignment without writing a rough draft.

Your draft will help you understand what you need to polish to make your paper perfect. All the requirements, academic standards make it difficult to do everything flawlessly at the first attempt. Make sure you know all the formatting requirements: margins, words quantity, reference requirements, formatting styles etc.

Learn how to write a rough draft for a research paper .

How to Write an Introduction for a Research Paper?

Let us make it more vivid for you. We have narrowed down the tips on writing an introduction to the three main ones:

• Include your thesis in your introduction

Remember to include the thesis statement in your introduction. Usually, it goes at the end of the first paragraph.

• Present the main ideas of the body

You should tell the main topics you are going to discuss in the main body. For this reason, before writing this part of introduction, make sure you know what is your main body is going to be about. It should include your main ideas.

• Polish your thesis and introduction

When you finish the main body of your paper, come back to the thesis statement and introduction. Restate something if needed. Just make it perfect; because introduction is like the trailer to your paper, it should make the reader want to read the whole piece.

Learn how to write an introduction for a research paper . See research paper introduction examples .

How to Write a Body of a Research Paper?

A body is the main part of your research paper. In this part, you will include all the needed evidence; you will provide the examples and support your argument.

It is important to structure your paragraphs thoroughly. That is to say, topic sentence and the evidence supporting the topic. Stay focused and do not be sidetracked. You have your outline, so follow it.

Here are the main tips to keep in head when writing a body of a research paper:

• Let the ideas flow logically
• Include only relevant information
• Provide the evidence
• Structure the paragraphs
• Make the coherent transition from one paragraph to another

See? When it is all structured, it is not as scary as it seemed at the beginning. Still, if you have doubts, you can always ask our writers for help.

Learn how to write a body of a research paper . See research paper transition examples .

How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper?

Writing a good conclusion is important as writing any other part of the paper. Remember that conclusion is not a summary of what you have mentioned before. A good conclusion should include your last strong statement.

If you have written everything according to the plan, the reader already knows why your investigation is important. The reader has already seen the evidence. The only thing left is a strong concluding thought that will organize all your findings.

Never include any new information in conclusion. You need to conclude, not to start a new discussion.

Learn how to write a conclusion for a research paper .

How to Write an Abstract for a Research Paper?

An abstract is a brief summary of your paper, usually 100-200 words. You should provide the main gist of your paper in this short summary. An abstract can be informative, descriptive or proposal. Depending on the type of abstract, you need to write, the requirements will differ.

To write an informative abstract you have to provide the summary of the whole paper. Informative summary. In other words, you need to tell about the main points of your work, the methods used, the results and the conclusion of your research.

To write a descriptive abstract you will not have to provide any summery. You should write a short teaser of your paper. That is to say, you need to write an overview of your paper. The aim of a descriptive abstract is to interest the reader.

Finally, to write a proposal abstract you will need to write the basic summary as for the informative abstract. However, the difference is the following: you aim at persuading someone to let you write on the topic. That is why, a proposal abstract should present your topic as the one worth investigating.

Learn how to write an abstract for a research paper .

Should I Revise and Edit a Research Paper?

Revising and editing your paper is essential if you want to get high grades. Let us help you revise your paper smart:

• Check your paper for spelling and grammar mistakes
• Sharpen the vocabulary
• Make sure there are no slang words in your paper
• Examine your paper in terms of structure
• Compare your topic, thesis statement to the whole piece
• Check your paper for plagiarism

If you need assistance with proofreading and editing your paper, you can turn to the professional editors at our service. They will help you polish your paper to perfection.

Learn how to revise and edit a research paper .

How to Write a Bibliography for a Research Paper?

First, let us make it clear that bibliography and works cited are two different things. Works cited are those that you cited in your paper. Bibliography should include all the materials you used to do your research. Still, remember that bibliography requirements differ depending on the formatting style of your paper. For this reason, make sure you ask you professor all the requirements you need to meet to avoid any misunderstanding.

Learn how to write a bibliography for a research paper .

The Key Secret to a Good Research Paper

Now when you know all the stages of writing a research paper, you are ready to find the key to a good research paper:

• Choose the topic that really interests you
• Make the topic interesting for you even if it is not at the beginning
• Follow the step by step guide and do not get sidetracked
• Be persistent and believe in yourself
• Really do research and write your paper from scratch
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Sat / act prep online guides and tips, 113 great research paper topics.

General Education

One of the hardest parts of writing a research paper can be just finding a good topic to write about. Fortunately we've done the hard work for you and have compiled a list of 113 interesting research paper topics. They've been organized into ten categories and cover a wide range of subjects so you can easily find the best topic for you.

In addition to the list of good research topics, we've included advice on what makes a good research paper topic and how you can use your topic to start writing a great paper.

What Makes a Good Research Paper Topic?

Not all research paper topics are created equal, and you want to make sure you choose a great topic before you start writing. Below are the three most important factors to consider to make sure you choose the best research paper topics.

#1: It's Something You're Interested In

A paper is always easier to write if you're interested in the topic, and you'll be more motivated to do in-depth research and write a paper that really covers the entire subject. Even if a certain research paper topic is getting a lot of buzz right now or other people seem interested in writing about it, don't feel tempted to make it your topic unless you genuinely have some sort of interest in it as well.

#2: There's Enough Information to Write a Paper

Even if you come up with the absolute best research paper topic and you're so excited to write about it, you won't be able to produce a good paper if there isn't enough research about the topic. This can happen for very specific or specialized topics, as well as topics that are too new to have enough research done on them at the moment. Easy research paper topics will always be topics with enough information to write a full-length paper.

Trying to write a research paper on a topic that doesn't have much research on it is incredibly hard, so before you decide on a topic, do a bit of preliminary searching and make sure you'll have all the information you need to write your paper.

#3: It Fits Your Teacher's Guidelines

Don't get so carried away looking at lists of research paper topics that you forget any requirements or restrictions your teacher may have put on research topic ideas. If you're writing a research paper on a health-related topic, deciding to write about the impact of rap on the music scene probably won't be allowed, but there may be some sort of leeway. For example, if you're really interested in current events but your teacher wants you to write a research paper on a history topic, you may be able to choose a topic that fits both categories, like exploring the relationship between the US and North Korea. No matter what, always get your research paper topic approved by your teacher first before you begin writing.

113 Good Research Paper Topics

Below are 113 good research topics to help you get you started on your paper. We've organized them into ten categories to make it easier to find the type of research paper topics you're looking for.

Arts/Culture

• Discuss the main differences in art from the Italian Renaissance and the Northern Renaissance .
• Analyze the impact a famous artist had on the world.
• How is sexism portrayed in different types of media (music, film, video games, etc.)? Has the amount/type of sexism changed over the years?
• How has the music of slaves brought over from Africa shaped modern American music?
• How has rap music evolved in the past decade?
• How has the portrayal of minorities in the media changed?

Current Events

• What have been the impacts of China's one child policy?
• How have the goals of feminists changed over the decades?
• How has the Trump presidency changed international relations?
• Analyze the history of the relationship between the United States and North Korea.
• What factors contributed to the current decline in the rate of unemployment?
• What have been the impacts of states which have increased their minimum wage?
• How do US immigration laws compare to immigration laws of other countries?
• How have the US's immigration laws changed in the past few years/decades?
• How has the Black Lives Matter movement affected discussions and view about racism in the US?
• What impact has the Affordable Care Act had on healthcare in the US?
• What factors contributed to the UK deciding to leave the EU (Brexit)?
• What factors contributed to China becoming an economic power?
• Discuss the history of Bitcoin or other cryptocurrencies  (some of which tokenize the S&P 500 Index on the blockchain) .
• Do students in schools that eliminate grades do better in college and their careers?
• Do students from wealthier backgrounds score higher on standardized tests?
• Do students who receive free meals at school get higher grades compared to when they weren't receiving a free meal?
• Do students who attend charter schools score higher on standardized tests than students in public schools?
• Do students learn better in same-sex classrooms?
• How does giving each student access to an iPad or laptop affect their studies?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Montessori Method ?
• Do children who attend preschool do better in school later on?
• What was the impact of the No Child Left Behind act?
• How does the US education system compare to education systems in other countries?
• What impact does mandatory physical education classes have on students' health?
• Which methods are most effective at reducing bullying in schools?
• Do homeschoolers who attend college do as well as students who attended traditional schools?
• Does offering tenure increase or decrease quality of teaching?
• How does college debt affect future life choices of students?
• Should graduate students be able to form unions?

• What are different ways to lower gun-related deaths in the US?
• How and why have divorce rates changed over time?
• Is affirmative action still necessary in education and/or the workplace?
• Should physician-assisted suicide be legal?
• How has stem cell research impacted the medical field?
• How can human trafficking be reduced in the United States/world?
• Should people be able to donate organs in exchange for money?
• Which types of juvenile punishment have proven most effective at preventing future crimes?
• Has the increase in US airport security made passengers safer?
• Analyze the immigration policies of certain countries and how they are similar and different from one another.
• Several states have legalized recreational marijuana. What positive and negative impacts have they experienced as a result?
• Do tariffs increase the number of domestic jobs?
• Which prison reforms have proven most effective?
• Should governments be able to censor certain information on the internet?
• Which methods/programs have been most effective at reducing teen pregnancy?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Keto diet?
• How effective are different exercise regimes for losing weight and maintaining weight loss?
• How do the healthcare plans of various countries differ from each other?
• What are the most effective ways to treat depression ?
• What are the pros and cons of genetically modified foods?
• Which methods are most effective for improving memory?
• What can be done to lower healthcare costs in the US?
• What factors contributed to the current opioid crisis?
• Analyze the history and impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic .
• Are low-carbohydrate or low-fat diets more effective for weight loss?
• How much exercise should the average adult be getting each week?
• Which methods are most effective to get parents to vaccinate their children?
• What are the pros and cons of clean needle programs?
• How does stress affect the body?
• Discuss the history of the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians.
• What were the causes and effects of the Salem Witch Trials?
• Who was responsible for the Iran-Contra situation?
• How has New Orleans and the government's response to natural disasters changed since Hurricane Katrina?
• What events led to the fall of the Roman Empire?
• What were the impacts of British rule in India ?
• Was the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki necessary?
• What were the successes and failures of the women's suffrage movement in the United States?
• What were the causes of the Civil War?
• How did Abraham Lincoln's assassination impact the country and reconstruction after the Civil War?
• Which factors contributed to the colonies winning the American Revolution?
• What caused Hitler's rise to power?
• Discuss how a specific invention impacted history.
• What led to Cleopatra's fall as ruler of Egypt?
• How has Japan changed and evolved over the centuries?
• What were the causes of the Rwandan genocide ?

• Why did Martin Luther decide to split with the Catholic Church?
• Analyze the history and impact of a well-known cult (Jonestown, Manson family, etc.)
• How did the sexual abuse scandal impact how people view the Catholic Church?
• How has the Catholic church's power changed over the past decades/centuries?
• What are the causes behind the rise in atheism/ agnosticism in the United States?
• What were the influences in Siddhartha's life resulted in him becoming the Buddha?
• How has media portrayal of Islam/Muslims changed since September 11th?

Science/Environment

• How has the earth's climate changed in the past few decades?
• How has the use and elimination of DDT affected bird populations in the US?
• Analyze how the number and severity of natural disasters have increased in the past few decades.
• Analyze deforestation rates in a certain area or globally over a period of time.
• How have past oil spills changed regulations and cleanup methods?
• How has the Flint water crisis changed water regulation safety?
• What are the pros and cons of fracking?
• What impact has the Paris Climate Agreement had so far?
• What have NASA's biggest successes and failures been?
• How can we improve access to clean water around the world?
• Does ecotourism actually have a positive impact on the environment?
• Should the US rely on nuclear energy more?
• What can be done to save amphibian species currently at risk of extinction?
• What impact has climate change had on coral reefs?
• How are black holes created?
• Are teens who spend more time on social media more likely to suffer anxiety and/or depression?
• How will the loss of net neutrality affect internet users?
• Analyze the history and progress of self-driving vehicles.
• How has the use of drones changed surveillance and warfare methods?
• Has social media made people more or less connected?
• What progress has currently been made with artificial intelligence ?
• Do smartphones increase or decrease workplace productivity?
• What are the most effective ways to use technology in the classroom?
• How is Google search affecting our intelligence?
• When is the best age for a child to begin owning a smartphone?
• Has frequent texting reduced teen literacy rates?

How to Write a Great Research Paper

Even great research paper topics won't give you a great research paper if you don't hone your topic before and during the writing process. Follow these three tips to turn good research paper topics into great papers.

#1: Figure Out Your Thesis Early

Before you start writing a single word of your paper, you first need to know what your thesis will be. Your thesis is a statement that explains what you intend to prove/show in your paper. Every sentence in your research paper will relate back to your thesis, so you don't want to start writing without it!

As some examples, if you're writing a research paper on if students learn better in same-sex classrooms, your thesis might be "Research has shown that elementary-age students in same-sex classrooms score higher on standardized tests and report feeling more comfortable in the classroom."

If you're writing a paper on the causes of the Civil War, your thesis might be "While the dispute between the North and South over slavery is the most well-known cause of the Civil War, other key causes include differences in the economies of the North and South, states' rights, and territorial expansion."

#2: Back Every Statement Up With Research

Remember, this is a research paper you're writing, so you'll need to use lots of research to make your points. Every statement you give must be backed up with research, properly cited the way your teacher requested. You're allowed to include opinions of your own, but they must also be supported by the research you give.

#3: Do Your Research Before You Begin Writing

You don't want to start writing your research paper and then learn that there isn't enough research to back up the points you're making, or, even worse, that the research contradicts the points you're trying to make!

Get most of your research on your good research topics done before you begin writing. Then use the research you've collected to create a rough outline of what your paper will cover and the key points you're going to make. This will help keep your paper clear and organized, and it'll ensure you have enough research to produce a strong paper.

What's Next?

Are you also learning about dynamic equilibrium in your science class? We break this sometimes tricky concept down so it's easy to understand in our complete guide to dynamic equilibrium .

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Want to know the fastest and easiest ways to convert between Fahrenheit and Celsius? We've got you covered! Check out our guide to the best ways to convert Celsius to Fahrenheit (or vice versa).

These recommendations are based solely on our knowledge and experience. If you purchase an item through one of our links, PrepScholar may receive a commission.

Christine graduated from Michigan State University with degrees in Environmental Biology and Geography and received her Master's from Duke University. In high school she scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT and was named a National Merit Finalist. She has taught English and biology in several countries.

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13.1 Formatting a Research Paper

Learning objectives.

• Identify the major components of a research paper written using American Psychological Association (APA) style.
• Apply general APA style and formatting conventions in a research paper.

In this chapter, you will learn how to use APA style , the documentation and formatting style followed by the American Psychological Association, as well as MLA style , from the Modern Language Association. There are a few major formatting styles used in academic texts, including AMA, Chicago, and Turabian:

• AMA (American Medical Association) for medicine, health, and biological sciences
• APA (American Psychological Association) for education, psychology, and the social sciences
• Chicago—a common style used in everyday publications like magazines, newspapers, and books
• MLA (Modern Language Association) for English, literature, arts, and humanities
• Turabian—another common style designed for its universal application across all subjects and disciplines

While all the formatting and citation styles have their own use and applications, in this chapter we focus our attention on the two styles you are most likely to use in your academic studies: APA and MLA.

If you find that the rules of proper source documentation are difficult to keep straight, you are not alone. Writing a good research paper is, in and of itself, a major intellectual challenge. Having to follow detailed citation and formatting guidelines as well may seem like just one more task to add to an already-too-long list of requirements.

Following these guidelines, however, serves several important purposes. First, it signals to your readers that your paper should be taken seriously as a student’s contribution to a given academic or professional field; it is the literary equivalent of wearing a tailored suit to a job interview. Second, it shows that you respect other people’s work enough to give them proper credit for it. Finally, it helps your reader find additional materials if he or she wishes to learn more about your topic.

Furthermore, producing a letter-perfect APA-style paper need not be burdensome. Yes, it requires careful attention to detail. However, you can simplify the process if you keep these broad guidelines in mind:

• Work ahead whenever you can. Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” includes tips for keeping track of your sources early in the research process, which will save time later on.
• Get it right the first time. Apply APA guidelines as you write, so you will not have much to correct during the editing stage. Again, putting in a little extra time early on can save time later.
• Use the resources available to you. In addition to the guidelines provided in this chapter, you may wish to consult the APA website at http://www.apa.org or the Purdue University Online Writing lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu , which regularly updates its online style guidelines.

General Formatting Guidelines

This chapter provides detailed guidelines for using the citation and formatting conventions developed by the American Psychological Association, or APA. Writers in disciplines as diverse as astrophysics, biology, psychology, and education follow APA style. The major components of a paper written in APA style are listed in the following box.

These are the major components of an APA-style paper:

Body, which includes the following:

• Headings and, if necessary, subheadings to organize the content
• In-text citations of research sources
• References page

All these components must be saved in one document, not as separate documents.

The title page of your paper includes the following information:

• Title of the paper
• Author’s name
• Name of the institution with which the author is affiliated
• Header at the top of the page with the paper title (in capital letters) and the page number (If the title is lengthy, you may use a shortened form of it in the header.)

List the first three elements in the order given in the previous list, centered about one third of the way down from the top of the page. Use the headers and footers tool of your word-processing program to add the header, with the title text at the left and the page number in the upper-right corner. Your title page should look like the following example.

The next page of your paper provides an abstract , or brief summary of your findings. An abstract does not need to be provided in every paper, but an abstract should be used in papers that include a hypothesis. A good abstract is concise—about one hundred fifty to two hundred fifty words—and is written in an objective, impersonal style. Your writing voice will not be as apparent here as in the body of your paper. When writing the abstract, take a just-the-facts approach, and summarize your research question and your findings in a few sentences.

In Chapter 12 “Writing a Research Paper” , you read a paper written by a student named Jorge, who researched the effectiveness of low-carbohydrate diets. Read Jorge’s abstract. Note how it sums up the major ideas in his paper without going into excessive detail.

Write an abstract summarizing your paper. Briefly introduce the topic, state your findings, and sum up what conclusions you can draw from your research. Use the word count feature of your word-processing program to make sure your abstract does not exceed one hundred fifty words.

Depending on your field of study, you may sometimes write research papers that present extensive primary research, such as your own experiment or survey. In your abstract, summarize your research question and your findings, and briefly indicate how your study relates to prior research in the field.

Margins, Pagination, and Headings

APA style requirements also address specific formatting concerns, such as margins, pagination, and heading styles, within the body of the paper. Review the following APA guidelines.

Use these general guidelines to format the paper:

• Set the top, bottom, and side margins of your paper at 1 inch.
• Use double-spaced text throughout your paper.
• Use a standard font, such as Times New Roman or Arial, in a legible size (10- to 12-point).
• Use continuous pagination throughout the paper, including the title page and the references section. Page numbers appear flush right within your header.
• Section headings and subsection headings within the body of your paper use different types of formatting depending on the level of information you are presenting. Additional details from Jorge’s paper are provided.

Begin formatting the final draft of your paper according to APA guidelines. You may work with an existing document or set up a new document if you choose. Include the following:

• Your title page
• The abstract you created in Note 13.8 “Exercise 1”
• Correct headers and page numbers for your title page and abstract

APA style uses section headings to organize information, making it easy for the reader to follow the writer’s train of thought and to know immediately what major topics are covered. Depending on the length and complexity of the paper, its major sections may also be divided into subsections, sub-subsections, and so on. These smaller sections, in turn, use different heading styles to indicate different levels of information. In essence, you are using headings to create a hierarchy of information.

The following heading styles used in APA formatting are listed in order of greatest to least importance:

• Section headings use centered, boldface type. Headings use title case, with important words in the heading capitalized.
• Subsection headings use left-aligned, boldface type. Headings use title case.
• The third level uses left-aligned, indented, boldface type. Headings use a capital letter only for the first word, and they end in a period.
• The fourth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are boldfaced and italicized.
• The fifth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are italicized and not boldfaced.

Visually, the hierarchy of information is organized as indicated in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” .

Table 13.1 Section Headings

A college research paper may not use all the heading levels shown in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” , but you are likely to encounter them in academic journal articles that use APA style. For a brief paper, you may find that level 1 headings suffice. Longer or more complex papers may need level 2 headings or other lower-level headings to organize information clearly. Use your outline to craft your major section headings and determine whether any subtopics are substantial enough to require additional levels of headings.

Working with the document you developed in Note 13.11 “Exercise 2” , begin setting up the heading structure of the final draft of your research paper according to APA guidelines. Include your title and at least two to three major section headings, and follow the formatting guidelines provided above. If your major sections should be broken into subsections, add those headings as well. Use your outline to help you.

Because Jorge used only level 1 headings, his Exercise 3 would look like the following:

Citation Guidelines

In-text citations.

Throughout the body of your paper, include a citation whenever you quote or paraphrase material from your research sources. As you learned in Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , the purpose of citations is twofold: to give credit to others for their ideas and to allow your reader to follow up and learn more about the topic if desired. Your in-text citations provide basic information about your source; each source you cite will have a longer entry in the references section that provides more detailed information.

In-text citations must provide the name of the author or authors and the year the source was published. (When a given source does not list an individual author, you may provide the source title or the name of the organization that published the material instead.) When directly quoting a source, it is also required that you include the page number where the quote appears in your citation.

This information may be included within the sentence or in a parenthetical reference at the end of the sentence, as in these examples.

Epstein (2010) points out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Here, the writer names the source author when introducing the quote and provides the publication date in parentheses after the author’s name. The page number appears in parentheses after the closing quotation marks and before the period that ends the sentence.

Addiction researchers caution that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (Epstein, 2010, p. 137).

Here, the writer provides a parenthetical citation at the end of the sentence that includes the author’s name, the year of publication, and the page number separated by commas. Again, the parenthetical citation is placed after the closing quotation marks and before the period at the end of the sentence.

As noted in the book Junk Food, Junk Science (Epstein, 2010, p. 137), “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive.”

Here, the writer chose to mention the source title in the sentence (an optional piece of information to include) and followed the title with a parenthetical citation. Note that the parenthetical citation is placed before the comma that signals the end of the introductory phrase.

David Epstein’s book Junk Food, Junk Science (2010) pointed out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Another variation is to introduce the author and the source title in your sentence and include the publication date and page number in parentheses within the sentence or at the end of the sentence. As long as you have included the essential information, you can choose the option that works best for that particular sentence and source.

Citing a book with a single author is usually a straightforward task. Of course, your research may require that you cite many other types of sources, such as books or articles with more than one author or sources with no individual author listed. You may also need to cite sources available in both print and online and nonprint sources, such as websites and personal interviews. Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.2 “Citing and Referencing Techniques” and Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provide extensive guidelines for citing a variety of source types.

Writing at Work

APA is just one of several different styles with its own guidelines for documentation, formatting, and language usage. Depending on your field of interest, you may be exposed to additional styles, such as the following:

• MLA style. Determined by the Modern Languages Association and used for papers in literature, languages, and other disciplines in the humanities.
• Chicago style. Outlined in the Chicago Manual of Style and sometimes used for papers in the humanities and the sciences; many professional organizations use this style for publications as well.
• Associated Press (AP) style. Used by professional journalists.

References List

The brief citations included in the body of your paper correspond to the more detailed citations provided at the end of the paper in the references section. In-text citations provide basic information—the author’s name, the publication date, and the page number if necessary—while the references section provides more extensive bibliographical information. Again, this information allows your reader to follow up on the sources you cited and do additional reading about the topic if desired.

The specific format of entries in the list of references varies slightly for different source types, but the entries generally include the following information:

• The name(s) of the author(s) or institution that wrote the source
• The year of publication and, where applicable, the exact date of publication
• The full title of the source
• For books, the city of publication
• For articles or essays, the name of the periodical or book in which the article or essay appears
• For magazine and journal articles, the volume number, issue number, and pages where the article appears
• For sources on the web, the URL where the source is located

The references page is double spaced and lists entries in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. If an entry continues for more than one line, the second line and each subsequent line are indented five spaces. Review the following example. ( Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provides extensive guidelines for formatting reference entries for different types of sources.)

In APA style, book and article titles are formatted in sentence case, not title case. Sentence case means that only the first word is capitalized, along with any proper nouns.

Key Takeaways

• Following proper citation and formatting guidelines helps writers ensure that their work will be taken seriously, give proper credit to other authors for their work, and provide valuable information to readers.
• Working ahead and taking care to cite sources correctly the first time are ways writers can save time during the editing stage of writing a research paper.
• APA papers usually include an abstract that concisely summarizes the paper.
• APA papers use a specific headings structure to provide a clear hierarchy of information.
• In APA papers, in-text citations usually include the name(s) of the author(s) and the year of publication.
• In-text citations correspond to entries in the references section, which provide detailed bibliographical information about a source.

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Picture a simple scenario: a worm, in its modest way, traces a trail of paint as it moves across a sheet of paper. Now shift your imagination to a more complex scene, where a chimpanzee paints on another sheet of paper. A simple question arises: Do you perceive an identical creative process in these two animals? Can both of these animals be designated as authors of their creation? If only one, which one? This paper delves into the complexities of authorship, consciousness, and agency, unpacking the nuanced distinctions between such scenarios and exploring the underlying principles that define creative authorship across different forms of life. It becomes evident that attributing authorship to an animal hinges on its intention to create, an aspect intertwined with its agency and awareness of the creative act. These concepts are far from straightforward, as they traverse the complex landscapes of animal ethics and law. But our exploration does not stop there. Now imagine a robot, endowed with artificial intelligence, producing music. This prompts us to question how we should evaluate and perceive such creations. Is the creative process of a machine fundamentally different from that of an animal or a human? As we venture further into this realm of human-made intelligence, we confront an array of ethical, philosophical, and legal quandaries. This paper provides a platform for a reflective discussion: ethologists, neuroscientists, philosophers, and bioinformaticians converge in a multidisciplinary dialogue. Their insights provide valuable perspectives for establishing a foundation upon which to discuss the intricate concepts of authorship and appropriation concerning artistic works generated by non-human entities.

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In titling this article, we utilised the AI capabilities of ChatGPT, drawing upon our summary for guidance. This decision prompts a consideration of whether this AI ought to be acknowledged as one of the authors. Artistic authorship involves the recognition of an entity as the originator of a work that possesses aesthetic, cultural, or intellectual value. This concept is deeply rooted in philosophical debates about expression, identity, and the nature of art itself, while also engaging in legal discussions about copyright and ownership. The issues addressed in this context are poised to spark extensive debate in the future, bridging both artistic and scientific communities. This paper focuses on our research into the artistic output of non-human animals and machines, examining the extent to which their creations–ranging from pictures and paintings to music–are not acknowledged as their own work. Despite the evident capacity of these entities to produce what can be described as art, authorship is often not attributed to them. Instead, their creations are appropriated and monetised by humans, raising significant questions about the recognition of authorship and ownership in the context of non-human and artificial creators. For instance, in 2016, in Indonesia, a wild-crested macaque (later named Naruto) took a selfie with the camera of a professional photographer. This ‘selfie’ went viral worldwide and was quickly seen as a financial opportunity by the camera owner, who claimed the copyright. PETA (People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals) filed a lawsuit and initiated legal proceedings against the camera owner, seeking recognition of the sole monkey as the author of the photograph and demanding that copyright royalties be paid to Naruto if the image were to be used for commercial purposes. However, the legal vacuum surrounding non-human copyright and the fact that Naruto was not recognised as a legal person led the judge to reject PETA’s request (Guadamuz, 2016 ; Rosati, 2017 ).

This paper is the collaborative effort of a diverse team of researchers, including two ethologists, a neuroscientist, a philosopher, and a computer scientist. Our interdisciplinary approach is deliberate, reflecting our belief that the complex questions surrounding non-human authorship and rights in the context of animals, robots, and AI necessitate insights from multiple disciplines. Each author brings a unique perspective to the discussion, from the nuanced behaviours and cognitive abilities of animals to the ethical implications of emerging technologies and the philosophical underpinnings of creativity Footnote 1 and intelligence. Our collective expertise enables a comprehensive exploration of the subject matter, though it also means that our discussion flows through a wide range of arguments and disciplines. Recognising the importance of situatedness and positionality in scholarly work, we aim to locate our argumentation within the intersections of our respective fields, thereby providing a multifaceted view that enriches the debate on non-human entities’ potential for creativity and authorship. By clarifying our backgrounds and the intentional breadth of our perspectives, we hope to make explicit the relevance and intention behind our scholarly argumentation, ensuring our readers understand the foundation upon which our analysis is built.

Introduction

Just as toolmaking, sense of humour, or mathematics have been considered uniquely human activities, art has long been regarded as a distinctly human endeavour. However, without claiming to be Picasso or Mozart, some animals exhibit graphic or musical behaviours that we might classify as artistic (Watanabe, 2012 ). In Oceania, male bowerbirds build intricate structures from branches to attract females and secure opportunities for mating (Diamond, 1986 ). Pebbles, seeds, or leaves, often coloured, are placed by the birds at the entrance of the bower to master its symmetry, aesthetics, and perspective. Birds even adhere to a gradation of these different elements, from larger to smaller or from darker to lighter, to refine their decor. Also, in an effort to court females, male pufferfish sculpt rosettes in the sand with their mouths (Kawase et al., 2013 ). These sandy structures are likened to the lines and geoglyphs of Nazca, located in southern Peru and associated with the pre-Inca Nazca culture (Mujica, 2000 ). Another example of complex graphic compositions in animals that we could appreciate as art is undoubtedly the structure of spider webs (Krink and Vollrath, 1997 ). On the musical side, it would be difficult not to mention the complexity of the songs of the animals around us. In many bird species, males use their most beautiful songs to attract females for reproduction. Others have mastered the art of imitation, such as the lyrebird (Menura sp.) (Dalziell and Magrath, 2012 ). Among primates, the communication of gibbons (Hylobates sp.) is entirely based on their vocalisations which even allow them to recognise each other individually (Terleph et al., 2015 ; Oyakawa et al., 2007 ; Geissmann, 2000 ). The same is true for cetaceans like whales and dolphins (Janik, 2014 ). The creation of these complex graphic or vocal compositions involves both elaborate learning processes and simple rules that enhance the desired effectiveness of the produced structure. Like with computational algorithms, natural selection and sexual selection have shaped the processes behind these animal creations, which sometimes emotionally touch us and move us. The creative aspect of these examples lies in the animals’ ability to produce and modify sounds in ways that serve both functional and expressive purposes. The complexity of the songs, the individual recognition through vocalisation, and their structured, evolving nature, all point to a process that involves learning, innovation, and even cultural transmission among these animals. Such behaviours mirror the human capacity for creating, involving not just the application of simple rules but also the expression of complex emotions, social connections, and cultural identities. This complexity and depth of animal vocalisations underscore their value as creative productions, inviting us to broaden our understanding of creativity beyond human artistic endeavours. Eventually, it is not uncommon for some of these animal productions to become sources of artistic inspiration for humans. The French Olivier Messiaen, for example, was one of the first contemporary music composers to incorporate bird songs into his works. Our focus on music and paintings stems from their prominence in both human and non-human artistic expression, as well as their significant development within machine and AI-generated art. These art forms are not only the most extensively studied in animal behaviour research but also represent the forefront of technological advancements in creative AI applications. By concentrating on music and paintings, we aim to explore the complexities of authorship in areas where the intersection of biological and technological creativity is most evident and advanced. This deliberate choice allows us to delve deeply into the implications of authorship across these two major domains of artistic expression, providing insights that are directly relevant to ongoing discussions in both animal studies and AI research.

The definition of art frequently hinges on the concept of the creator’s intentionality, such as the formation of a goal to be realised (Beardsley, 1970 ; Levinson, 1979 ; Bloom, 1996 ). A simple question then arises: do the above animal creations fall within the realm of art? Do these animal-creators become authors of their creations or even artists? The definition of art is often introduced by the notion of intentionality of its creator, e.g., the conception of a goal to be achieved. We can thus question the levels of intentionality and consciousness of action in these animals. This reflection can also extend to machines and artificial intelligences (AIs Footnote 2 ) (Mikalonytė and Kneer, 2022 ) whose creations, sometimes indistinguishable from human ones, now fetch several hundred thousand euros (Doherty, 2019 ). In 2005, a captive chimpanzee named Barney was observed playing percussion on a plastic barrel (Dufour et al., 2015 ). An in-depth analysis of the recorded sound demonstrated rhythmicity, decontextualisation, and control of the gesture by this chimpanzee (Dufour et al., 2015 ). Prior to Barney, the bonobo Kanzi, trained in sign language, had also been observed playing percussion rhythmically (Kugler and Savage-Rumbaugh, 2002 ). Unfortunately, observations of such behaviours are extremely rare, and data are lacking.

Simultaneously, other primates and great apes draw and paint when given the opportunity (Fig. 1A ; for a review among non-human primates, see Martinet and Pelé, 2021 ). Their creations, often compared to children’s scribbles (Fig. 1B ), are exhibited, sold, or printed on accessories (Applegate and Grupper, 2013 ; Matsuzawa, 2017 ) without questioning their authorship as given to artists (Fig. 1C ). Ownership of a scarf adorned with patterns by the female chimpanzee Ai, or a painting by the male chimpanzee Congo from the 1960s, introduces a dilemma regarding authorship. If a chimpanzee can be acknowledged as the creator of its work, the question extends to why a young child’s scribbles, a worm’s paint trail, or a machine’s programmed drawing (Fig. 1D ) should not receive similar recognition. This prompts a broader enquiry into how creation is defined across early, non-human, or even non-biological contexts. It also brings the concept of intelligence into the discussion, ranging from the cognitive capabilities necessary for the intention behind creation to those required for recognising a creation as such. From this concept of ‘creative’ intelligence, arise other ethical and legal concepts, notably at the origin of the question of legal personality. This paper will address these different notions in order to discuss authorship, considered as the act of characterising a full-fledged author and recognising them as such, and the appropriation of creation, whether it is auditory or graphic, created by an animal or a machine.

This figure presents a diverse array of drawings originating from varied sources: A an adult chimpanzee, illustrating non-human animal creativity that challenges traditional notions of artistic authorship (drawing previously collected by Cédric Sueur in 2019 and extracted from Martinet et al. ( 2023 ) dataset, with the courtesy of Tetsuro Matsuzawa); B a 2-year-old human toddler, representing the nascent stages of human creativity and expression (drawing anonymously and previously collected by Marie Pelé in 2018 and extracted from Martinet et al. ( 2021 ) dataset); C an adult human professional artist (drawing anonymously and previously collected by Cédric Sueur in 2018 and extracted from Martinet et al. ( 2021 ) dataset); and D a visualisation generated by a simple random walk (Sueur, 2011 ) algorithm developed in NetLogo (Tissue and Wilensky, 2004 ), demonstrating how artificial intelligence can create patterns that mimic certain aspects of artistic creativity. Netlogo model available on Netlogo Community platform © Cédric Sueur.

Of the intention to create…

Picture an earthworm traversing a sheet of paper, trailing paint in its wake, contrasted with a chimpanzee applying paint to paper with a brush. This juxtaposition raises the issue of whether the creative processes of these two animals are comparable and if both can be deemed authors of their creations. Furthermore, it questions whether they should be regarded as equals in terms of authorship and what is behind this term. In the context of art and creativity, indexicality refers to the way in which a piece of art can act as a direct indicator or physical trace of its creator’s actions or intentions. This concept is deeply intertwined with intentionality, especially when considering the creative outputs of animals like chimpanzees and the products of artificial intelligence (AI). In animal drawings, for example, the indexicality of a chimpanzee’s artwork can be seen in the brush strokes, patterns, and choices of colour that directly relate to the animal’s physical movements and decision-making processes at the moment of creation (Martinet et al., 2021 , 2023 ). Similarly, in the realm of AI-generated art, indexicality manifests in the output of algorithms designed to create visual or auditory artworks. The ethics of virtue discussed by Aristotle or Kant (Betzler, 2008 ) focuses on the character and motivations of the individual, known as the agent, while consequentialism focuses on the consequences of the actions taken, without regard for the means employed and potential intentionality. Thus, virtue ethics allows us to consider art as the only intentional process, regardless of the final outcome. In contrast, consequentialism views art as a finished product, without considering the process of creation. Therefore, the intentionality of an animal artist or musician emerges as a key point in defining whether they are truly the author of their graphic production or musical composition. For some authors, intentionality even characterises art and the artist (Beardsley, 1970 ; Levinson, 1979 ; Bloom, 1996 ). For others, intentionality is defined by five elements: (i) a desire for a result, (ii) a belief about the action leading to that result, (iii) an intention to carry out the action, (iv) awareness of the accomplishment of the intention while executing the action, and (v) the ability to execute the action (Malle and Knobe, 1997 ).

In cognitive ethology, studies have shown that individuals of animal species such as pigeons, rats, or non-human primates are capable of anticipating their actions (Le Neindre et al., 2018 ). Individuals of most of these species are also aware of their decision-making and the consequences of these decisions. These degrees of action anticipation correspond to elements (i) and (ii) as defined by Malle and Knobe ( 1997 ), while the level of consciousness in these animals relates to elements (iii) and (iv) that define intentionality, again according to Malle and Knobe ( 1997 ). By applying these two capacities (anticipation and consciousness) to behaviours such as drawing, for example, consequentialism would qualify both the ape and the earthworm as authors of their drawings, while virtue ethics would consider the ape as the sole author, conscious of its actions. Consciousness is conceptualised as the awareness of oneself and one’s surroundings, a state that encompasses the ability to experience sensations, thoughts, and emotions. From a neuroscientific perspective, consciousness is associated with specific patterns of brain activity and connectivity that denote an awareness of internal and external states. Ethological studies further validate these concepts by demonstrating instances of self-awareness and environmental responsiveness in non-human animals, indicating levels of consciousness that challenge the boundaries traditionally reserved for humans. Philosophically, this definition is accepted as it resonates with discussions on the nature of mind, self, and agency, bridging empirical observations with theoretical inquiries into the essence of sentient life.

Nevertheless, it is necessary to determine whether these capacities are genuinely underlying animal drawing. Some researchers argue that animal drawings are induced by experimenters who invite them to draw or even encourage them to do so (see Tomasello and Call, 2004 for cognitive tasks in general). For example, in Thailand, Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus ) create shapes that closely resemble self-portraits or bouquets of flowers, but the conditioning and latent mistreatment behind such productions lead researchers to doubt the pachyderm’s understanding of its drawing (OneGreenPlanet, 2020 ). Moreover, in the wild, no spontaneous drawing behaviour has been reported to date in elephants or great apes. However, it is common for captive hominids to manipulate pencils and brushes on sheets of paper or even draw with their fingers on touchscreens (Martinet and Pelé, 2021 ). Thus, some chimpanzees maintain their graphic activity without any food reinforcement, indicating their interest in the action (Boysen et al., 1987 ). Beyond the sensation directly related to locomotor movement, visual feedback would also serve as reinforcement. Indeed, the drawing behaviour on a touchscreen decreases when the chimpanzee’s trace becomes invisible (Tanaka et al., 2003 ). The various studies on chimpanzees, therefore, support the argument that the act of drawing itself has a reinforcing property for these animals. While drawings are not spontaneous in chimpanzees, the simple act of drawing and the properties of the drawing modify the subjects’ future actions. However, if the earthworm leaves no trace behind, this absence of a trace will not impact its movements on the paper, unlike the hominid. Schiller ( 1951 ) went further and presented a young female chimpanzee named Alpha with blank sheets featuring geometric figures. She marked the sheets differently based on the stimuli presented, thus raising the question of intentionality behind these seemingly ‘simplistic’ ‘scribbles’ by animals. However, despite numerous studies on great apes, especially chimpanzees, no representative drawings have ever been observed, and researchers generally compare their productions to those of young human children (Martinet and Pelé, 2021 ). Using fractal mathematical indices to assess the representativeness of a drawing, Martinet et al. ( 2021 ) demonstrated that chimpanzee drawings, while not as proficient as those of children, are not random either. The most common way to determine if a drawing is representative or not is to ask its author about its meaning. The question was posed to another sign-language-proficient female chimpanzee, and her response was ‘bird’ (Gardner and Gardner, 1978 ). However, this response does not prove the presence of intentionality in this individual; it could have been a random response, influenced by experimenters, or the sign may have been misinterpreted. All of these elements suggest that some individuals of certain species, especially great apes, appear to interact with their production (graphic or auditory) in the sense that what is created influences what will be. The concept of agency (McFarland and Hediger, 2009 ; Blattner et al., 2020 ; Sueur et al., 2023 ) can thus be attributed to these animals from a psychological perspective, for example, as actors in the world affecting their environment. It can also be attributed to a philosophical and ethological perspective if we consider great apes as capable of recognising themselves as individuals and having a certain sense of morality if these capacities define the very essence of personhood. Legal personhood refers to the recognition by the legal system of an entity as a subject that can bear rights and duties. Traditionally reserved for human beings, the concept’s boundaries are being tested by advancements in AI and growing awareness of animal cognition and social complexity. This general definition of agency is accepted by biologists, psychologists as researchers in law and philosophers. In contemporary fields of art history, theory, and creative practices, the term ‘agency’ is employed to denote the capacity of individuals or entities to act autonomously and make independent choices within the creative process. Agency emphasises the role of the creator not just as a passive conduit for external influences but as an active participant with the power to shape the creative outcome. This perspective acknowledges the complexity of creative acts, recognising them as the result of deliberate choices, influences, and interactions between the creator’s intentions and the medium’s possibilities. A cross-disciplinary approach to agency enriches our understanding of art and creativity by challenging anthropocentric views and expanding the notion of who or what can be considered a creator. It encourages a re-evaluation of the criteria for authorship and creativity, pushing us to consider the ethical, philosophical, and practical implications of recognising agency in a broader spectrum of creative entities.

… to author recognition

Mylène Ferrand Lointier’s doctoral thesis ( 2022 ) in Arts ‘Le Tournant animal dans l’art contemporain (de 1960 à nos jours), approche écoféministe,’ [The Animal Turn in Contemporary Art (from 1960 to today), an Ecofeminist Approach] delves into the increasingly significant role of the animal question in contemporary discourse, driven by evolving anthro-zoological relationships. Highlighting a shift in the portrayal of animals in art from mere objects or symbols to subjects with intrinsic value, this research examines a diverse international corpus of artworks and artists deeply engaged with animal issues from the 1960s to the present: lEija-Liisa Ahtila, Julie Andreyev, Banksy, Joseph Beuys, Sue Coe, Minerva Cuevas, Terike Haapoja, Jonathan Horowitz, Joan Jonas, Jenny Kendler, EvaMarie Lindahl, Isabella & Tiziana Pers, Araya Rasdjarmrearnsook, Rachel Rosenthal, Saeborg, Lin May Saeed, Sin Kabeza Productions, Bryndís Snæbjörnsdóttir & Mark Wilson, Diana Thater, and Robert Zhao Renhui. Through an ecofeminist lens, incorporating ethics of care and intersectionality, Ferrand explores an ecocritical territory intertwining art, emotion, animal ethics, and posthumanism. This thesis aims to chart a new eco- and zoo-poetic/political path towards an era termed the ‘Ecocene’, advocating for a revaluation of human–animal relations within art as with The Compassion Manifesto: An Ethics for Art + Design and Animals (Andreyev, 2016 ).

There is currently no research on the abilities of great apes to claim ownership of their creations, whether they are graphic or musical. Nevertheless, it becomes evident that consciousness and morality emerge as pivotal concepts in the realm of authorship. Morality is understood as a set of principles or guidelines that govern the behaviour of individuals within a social context, reflecting notions of right and wrong, justice, empathy, and welfare. Ethologically, the roots of moral behaviour are observed in the social interactions of non-human animals (e.g., great apes, elephants or even rats), where acts of altruism, cooperation, and fairness are not uncommon and serve to maintain social cohesion and mutual benefit (De Waal, 2016 ). Such behaviours suggest a biological underpinning for moral conduct, further supported by neuroscience, which identifies neural circuits and processes involved in empathetic responses, decision-making, and the evaluation of fairness and harm. Philosophically, these empirical findings are incorporated into broader discussions about the nature of morality as well as consciousness, their origin, and their applicability across different forms of life. By acknowledging the evidence of moral-like behaviours and consciousness in non-human animals, philosophy expands its enquiry into the moral agency, questioning the exclusivity of moral consideration and rights to humans and opening the door to a more inclusive understanding of moral subjects. These concepts enable individuals to achieve the status of a ‘person’, nothing more and nothing less, and subsequently, to acquire legal rights through their recognised personhood. Historically, this term ‘person’ has been exclusively applied to humans and is defined as ‘an intelligent, thinking being, capable of reason and reflection, who can recognise themselves as the same thinking entity across different times and places’ (Locke and Perry, 1975 ). Self-awareness and moral cognition thus play a significant role in the authorisation and appropriation of creative works, attributes currently ascribed solely to humans, who are deemed to possess ‘a soul and consciousness’ (Schrecker, 1938 ; Engels, 2009 ).

It is indeed in the field of metaphysics that are often grounded the basis for the attribution of rights for living beings, and more precisely in the question of the difference between humans and animals. Pivotal moments in philosophy engage in a significant debate regarding the anthropological question and the specific traits that distinguish humans from animals. A crucial argument for this discussion revolves around whether the differentiation is grounded in ontological terms, suggesting a fundamental disparity in nature or condition between humans and animals, or if it hinges on ontic qualities, indicating inherent, distinct characteristics between the two. Through the lens of an ontological distinction, numerous philosophers have constructed a recognised hierarchy within the spectrum of living beings, often based on universals (such as soul, conscience or reason). As an example, Aristotle considers that the human soul is the only one to demonstrate the dianoetic faculty, which means the ‘power of thinking’ (Aristotle, 1987 , Book II, Chapter I, 412a) or the ability to exercise and apply reason. Descartes, by qualifying human beings as the only ones that possess the cogitatio , discloses a theory where animals are constituted as mere biological machines (Descartes, 1637/ 1937 , p. 164), providing a landing mark for later theories on the mechanism and animal environment (Loeb, 1918 ). Malebranche ( 1997 , book VI, part 2, chapter vii) argues that ‘in animals, there is neither intelligence nor souls as ordinary meant’. And later, Marx ( 2022 /1845, MEGA I, 5, p. 10; CW 5, p. 31) elaborates that ‘men can be distinguished from animals by consciousness, by religion or anything else you like’.

By those few examples, we highlight that major authors in the philosophical tradition have influenced current interdisciplinary discussions on animal rights, and the ethical and political treatment of non-human entities. Ontological attributes such as consciousness, morality, reason, intelligence and self-recognition have traditionally been used as a way to distinguish human beings from animals. The anthropological distinction between humans and animals ensues the possibility to acknowledge ontic differences and to ground them in a metaphysical perspective, giving them an axiological weight that easily leads to a hierarchy of living beings. Even though we will not tackle this issue in our article, this metaphysical debate is still widely discussed today and of major importance. But one of its many consequences is noteworthy: it impacted our ability to ground animal agency over a robust ontological status, which led to the denial of several categories of rights for animals, including the right to be acknowledged as authors (since, by definition, authorship has been attributed to individuals and people).

Even if ontological hierarchies have often been used as the groundwork on which are based distinct rights for human beings and animals, several contemporary debates explore the possibility that the possession of specific ontic, cognitive, or emotional attributes might entail the entitlement to certain rights, regardless of the inherent nature, status or condition of the subject. In short, the question of animal rights could be distinguished from the ontological question of the essence of animality, and more empirical ethological, bio-semiotical or zoological studies could lead to a better understanding of animal cognition, sociality and behaviour, leading to the establishment of grounded animal rights. From then on, numerous researchers, including Charles Darwin, who ascribed consciousness to individuals within social species, have probed the presence of intellect, self-awareness or autonomy in animals. Donald Griffin ( 2013 ) proposes that it is through the realms of communication, encompassing dialogues and negotiations, that we should investigate intentional behaviours and processes governed by consciousness. Research on great apes capable of using sign language or symbols has shown that they can speak about others and themselves as distinct and autonomous entities. Autobiographical self-awareness (Le Neindre et al., 2018 ) has also been found in many animal species (primates, cetaceans, birds) through the mirror test, demonstrating that subjects can identify and recognise themselves in it (Gallup et al., 2002 ). Likewise, metacognition, the ability by which an individual acquires knowledge of their own mental processes, or their ability to evaluate the state of what they know, has been verified in several animal species through tests assessing certainty or confidence (Le Neindre et al., 2018 ). Additionally, some social animals also display theory of mind, i.e., the capacity to impute a mental self to conspecifics or to understand what they are looking at, what they intend to do, or even to know their beliefs (Tomasello and Call, 1997 ). Finally, observations of chimpanzees and elephants, as well as experiments with rats, have shown that these animals possess a certain degree of empathy and morality (De Waal, 2006 ). From these new findings, the qualification of ‘person’ could be attributed to animals capable of self-recognition and demonstrating morality. By assigning legal personality, they could be granted ownership of their creations and recognised as genuine authors.

Legal personality

Therefore, some rights could be attributed to animals who possess capacities or qualities similar to those of human beings, beyond the ontological question of their essence, nature or condition. As highlighted by the example of marginal cases by Peter Singer and discussed by DeGrazia ( 1990 ), several categories of individuals—such as infants, adults with severe mental disabilities, or those in a coma—do not possess the cognitive, locomotor, or emotional faculties usually attributed to an ideal type of human being. Nevertheless, these individuals do have legal personality. According to Peter Singer, if these individuals have legal personality, it could also be attributed to animals who have equal or sometimes more developed capabilities than these individuals. The young child or disabled adult who scribbles or drums has rights and will be recognised as the author of the drawing or sound they produce, regardless of the levels of intentionality and consciousness they put in their creation (in the process and towards its finality). By considering the complex philosophical question of the nature of the subject as a separate discussion from the legal rules that apply to them, animals could be granted legal personality based on certain faculties they possess, allowing them to hold rights and duties. This question entails difficult debates, and several actions that aim to grant rights to animals have already been initiated by animal protection associations. In particular, in the United States of America, the Non-Human Rights Project led by Steven Wise (Wise, 2010 ) relies on the legal concept of Habeas corpus, which states the fundamental freedom not to be imprisoned without trial, and aims to free several wild animals that are held captive despite possessing enough cognitive abilities to be aware of their deplorable living conditions.

As shown with the macaque Naruto (Guadamuz, 2016 ; Rosati, 2017 ), recognising animals with consciousness as legal persons appears to be a prerequisite for them to be truly and fully recognised as authors of their creations. In 2019, the Toulon Declaration reiterated the Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness ( 2012 ), stating that most animals with neurological substrates of consciousness should have legal personality (Regad and Riot, 2019 ). The theory of animal rights is increasingly discussed and formalised, allowing animals, depending on their species, agency, and interactions with humans, to have recognised rights (Donaldson and Kymlicka, 2011 ). The authorisation of animal artistic creations fits seamlessly into this theory.

What about artificial intelligence (AI)?

When highlighting the argument of authorship for non-human beings, an important discussion arises from the question of non-living or non-organic beings, such as machines, robots and AI. The philosophical considerations surrounding the attribution of rights to animals and machines or AI overlap in significant ways. By examining these questions in parallel, we gain insights into the principles that currently guide our interactions with non-human entities, whether biological or artificial. It helps us to reconsider our relationship with non-human entities and to reassess the values and norms that underpin our social and legal systems.

As such, our demonstration will mostly focus on the question regarding AI. Indeed, a proposition would be to consider that there could be a major distinction for authorship between machines themselves because the embodiment of a robot Footnote 3 would have a huge impact on its perceived authorship compared to a non-embodied AI system. As such, a robot would be perceived as more susceptible to have rights than a non-embodied AI. In this case, embodiment itself would have a significant impact on whether or not something possesses rights and whether or not people believe that those rights are acceptable Footnote 4 . However, this thought experiment would be confronted with the fact that, currently, authorship is not attributed depending on their embodiment to living beings such as animals (which are by definition embodied). When determining authorship, embodiment appears to matter less than the legal personality we usually ascribe a being, and their status—be it human, animal, or machine, but also depending on if it is an adult or a child, or the degree of agency we ascribe to the animal in question. Therefore, we chose to mostly focus this line of questioning on IA algorithms that could or could not be embodied.

In 2018, an AI-created painting was auctioned for $432,500, signed with a mathematical formula, developed by the Obvious research collective (Doherty, 2019 ; Vernier et al., 2020a , 2020b ). This event raises the question of whether artificial intelligence could be acknowledged as the creator of its works and entitled to copyright rights. Additionally, platforms like Playform by Artrendex Inc. offer algorithms that replicate the style of renowned painters on any image. This situation poses a dilemma regarding the true authorship of the resulting artwork: Is it the AI (Davies, 2011 ; Abbott, 2016 ; Christie, 2018 ), the developers of the algorithm, or the original artists whose styles were emulated (Bridy, 2012 ; Hristov, 2016 ; McCormack et al., 2019 ), or another entity? The methodologies and debates surrounding animal intelligence and authorship could similarly be extended to the realm of artificial intelligence (Nguyen, 2019 ). In the case of the Obvious creation, the produced algorithm is not intelligent in the sense described above. It should be noted that the model used to create this painting was trained on existing paintings, which can be likened to the learning process present in humans. Capable of producing a specific act, this model is not, however, able to solve any problem, has no intentional acts, and is not self-aware. However, more complex robots capable of recognising themselves in a mirror could well be self-aware (Hart and Scassellati, 2012 ; Schneider et al., 2014 ; Meyer et al., 2020 ). New fields of research are thus created and developed to better understand the behaviour of machines and their emerging capabilities (Rahwan et al., 2019 ; Dorigo et al., 2020 ). Specific tests such as the Turing Test (Copeland, 2000 ) exist to precisely determine the capabilities of machines, especially in relation to artistic creation (Bishop and Boden, 2010 ). However, these tests are often criticised. On the one hand, because many humans do not pass them, and on the other hand, because they are conceptualised by humans with all the anthropomorphic biases that this presupposes (Sueur and Pelé, 2017 ; Sueur et al., 2020 ). However, even if some do not wish to recognise machines as artists, it is important to note the difficulty for a human to distinguish computer-generated creations from human creations (Mikalonytė and Kneer, 2022 ).

Consequently, the question of authorship and AI plays a key role in better understanding the issues of authorship and agency themselves. As regarding animals, this very specific issue depends on many factors such as the nature of the agents involved (weak AI or strong AI Footnote 5 ), the degree of intentionality of the creation (intentional or accidental), and the content or nature of the graphical creation itself (abstract or representational) (Mikalonytė and Kneer, 2022 ). However, as the attribution of agency and personhood are a crucial issue both for AI and animals, the question of authorship for machines often ends with a much clearer conclusion than that of animal authorship. Indeed, as a machine is created by humans, it is usually considered devoid of all rights in favour of its creator or user. For instance, the authorship of an AI-generated artwork is commonly attributed to the human artist behind the machine (when there is no copyrights issues…), whereas it is much more complicated to consider that the human who gave a pencil to an animal is the author of the resulting canvas. Therefore, by considering through an experiment of thought that authorship for a machine or AI is a real issue, and as it may indeed soon become a crucial one, we may better uncover what is usually the basis for authorship in a broader sense.

Photons be free

To tackle this complicated issue, we decided to incorporate and decipher a science fictional case study in our analysis. It serves as a valuable methodological tool allowing us to explore the potential futures shaped by current technological advancements and ethical considerations. Science fiction, often regarded as a form of speculative methodology, enables us to envision the societal, legal, and ethical implications of technology before they fully manifest in reality. This approach is particularly relevant when discussing the rights and authorship of non-human entities, as it provides a narrative framework to examine complex issues that might not yet be fully realised or understood within our current legal and ethical systems. To further ground our use of sci-fi examples, we draw upon the concept of technological imaginaries (Sartori and Bocca, 2023 ; Jasanoff and Kim, 2015 ), which is extensively used to describe modern societies in which technology plays a key role in shaping both our understanding of them and our way to envision their evolution. This critical theoretical framework investigates how collective visions of technological futures influence current technological development and societal norms. Technological imaginaries help us understand how our expectations, fears, and hopes for technology shape the way we interact with and conceptualise emerging technologies. By examining these imaginaries, we aim to unpack the cultural and social underpinnings of our assumptions about non-human authorship and the rights of artificial entities, offering insights that are accessible to readers from a broad range of disciplinary backgrounds. In the scope of this article, engaging with fictional narratives urges us to envision new possibilities and challenge conventional thinking about the role of machines in creative processes and intellectual endeavours, and the evolving concept of authorship in the digital age.

In this context, a specific example issued from science fiction helps us better understand this evolving aspect of our technological imaginaries and the various dimensions of authorisation that can apply to artificial or non-human entities. The episode ‘Author, Author’ ( 2001 , Season 7, Episode 20) of the series Star Trek: Voyager questions the situation of the Doctor, a hologram (with a strong AI 5 ) that has exceeded its initial programming’s limits over the years, and developed behavioural and emotional characteristics usually seen only in living beings. The Doctor is confronted with the controversial question of his own copyright when he writes a holoprogram and sells the rights to a publishing house. The editor published it without his consent while he still had major modifications to make. The stakes that this episode highlights mirror the famous debate about the rights of the android Data in the well-known episode ‘Measure of a Man’ (1989, Season 2, Episode 9) of Star Trek: The Next Generation . In both episodes, the question aims to determine to what extent Data and the Doctor are individuals because a certain number of rights will depend on their identity, status, and the legal personality that will be granted to them. If Data is not a person, then he is the property of Starfleet, much like any toaster or computer. If the Doctor is not a person, then he cannot be considered an artist and has as many rights over his holoprogram as a coffee machine has over the coffee it produces.

For the Doctor, as Data before, this debate unfolds in the legal framework of a trial whose decision will be a legal action: ‘A Federation Arbitrator has been assigned to determine whether the Doctor has the right to control his artistic creation.’ (‘Author, Author’, 00:32:13). The first session aims to outline the scope of the debate and raises the question of the Doctor’s personhood, rather than his rights as an artist. Indeed, Starfleet defines an artist as ‘a person who creates an original artistic work.’ (‘Author, Author’, 00:34:36). While the Doctor has indeed created an original artistic work, he is not considered a full person and, therefore, cannot claim authorship of his work of art.

This episode delves into a crucial aspect of our discussion: the notion that an individual must belong to a specific category to access certain rights, such as those allowing humans exclusively to be recognised as authors or artists. It proposes an alternative perspective where rights could be allocated with respect to the subject’s category, enabling entities–whether human, non-human, animal, or artificial–to be acknowledged as authors or artists. This perspective raises the possibility of recognising an animal or an AI as an artist without necessarily classifying them as persons. However, it also suggests that affirming an entity’s status as an artist might require expanding the definition of personhood. Legal decisions and efforts to establish precedents are currently addressing these considerations, bringing theoretical debates into the realm of practical applications. Last year, the United States Copyright Office (USPTO) reversed its decision to grant copyright protection to a comic book whose images were generated by AI (Ostrow and Dengel, 2022 ). The fundamental element in this latter case is that the USPTO’s revocation is based on the ‘Human Authorship Requirement’, Footnote 6 which means the necessity for the author of a work to be … a human being. Here, we find thirty years later the stake that was raised by Star Trek about the relevance of encompassing authorship in a category: be it a strictly human definition for the USPTO’s Human Authorship Requirement or, more broadly, the status of personhood or individual, in Star Trek series.

By trying to avoid the strict question of copyright and to focus on the legal personality of the Doctor, the episode ‘Author, Author’ explicitly reminds us that the question still exists today for other individuals within the human species. For example, the tendency to invisibilize female authors in artistic fields is still a contemporary issue (Rollet, 2007 ; Nochlin, 1971 / 2021 ), which questions the way we structure our understanding of creation by highlighting mechanisms that delegitimise certain individuals based on their gender or origin. This example illustrates the painstaking evolution of authorisation norms even within the human species. In this regard, the question of the right to be called an ‘author’ still arises from identity premises (the subject’s status—male or female, human or non-human, etc.) rather than from the artistic production itself. If an animal cannot be an artist, it is not because it has not created a work of art, but because it is not considered as an operating subject. And it is not the work of the non-human artificial entity that is judged, but the AI’s status within humanity, as demonstrated by the USPTO, when it first recognised the artistic value of an AI work before retracting its decision.

In the series episode ‘Author, Author’, as it is the question of personhood that is at stake through the issue of authorisation, the trial’s witnesses emphasise the importance of the Doctor’s experiences, by highlighting his ability to evolve beyond his programming, to think for himself, and even, to disobey orders. However, when he returns with his decision, the Arbitrator instructs a judgement similar to the one that granted the android Data free will in ‘Measure of a Man’, but without changing his status. The Arbitrator is not willing to declare the Doctor a ‘person’ per se. However, the legal definition of the term ‘artist’ can and will be expanded to include his creations. Therefore, the Doctor holds the copyright on his artwork and can intervene in the distribution of his holoprogram. This conclusion underlines that the status of an artist is generally deemed more flexible than the definition of personhood; and that expanding the sphere of authorship and its associated rights raises fewer challenges than to extend the concept of personhood. As such, it is easier to imagine that the USPTO could remove the Human Authorship Requirement to include non-human individuals like AI or animals in copyright protection, rather than to extend the human status to animals or AI. In other words, the legal personality is more flexible and plastic than the natural personality, understood as the nature or condition of the subject (human, non-human).

That being said, Star Trek highlights the important point that the definition of what constitutes a person itself has continued to evolve. The episode presents the important issue that conceding certain rights to certain entities (such as copyright and artistic authorship to an AI or an animal) implies, in fact, an evolution of their natural status. Moreover, these legal changes could lead to changes in ethical frameworks. In essence, granting copyright to the Doctor, then other rights to other holograms, and so on, brings closer to a legal decision in which a hologram’s personhood could no longer be questioned. To consider that personhood alone grants access to certain rights may imply that gaining these rights is the first step towards the modification of a non-human entity’s status. Star Trek offers us the following alternative: perhaps the access to certain rights should not depend on the subject’s status. Perhaps human imaginaries must reconcile with emerging realities, driven by the evolution of our technological landscapes, and acknowledge the necessity of granting rights and protections to non-human entities. In fact, it is no coincidence that the Doctor’s holoprogram, duly entitled ‘Photons Be Free’, revolves around the struggle for equality of hologram populations.

What about digital tools in musical creations?

Science fiction is often considered as a literature of ideas that allows for thought experiments in hypothetical or speculative scenarios that may not yet have real-world manifestations, but will or could have important implications for our societies. Consequently, it is now of major importance to apply the questioning that arose from this example to a more grounded debate regarding AI-generated artworks and the use of machines and algorithms in artistic practices.

Nowadays, with technological advancements and the rise of digital equipment, the issue of authorship is increasingly relevant in live performances, particularly in music (see seminal works of Reeves et al., 2005 ; Berthaut, 2015 ; Capra et al., 2020 ). The intense experience of creation ‘in the making’ can be disrupted by the presence of machines if the audience begins to believe that the machines, rather than the artists, are producing the artistic work. Unless the contributions are shared? For the artists themselves, there may be a challenge in distinguishing what is produced by their exclusive actions from what is produced by the accompanying machines (Rimoldi and Manzolli, 2016 ). Here, the question is no longer about determining whether the artist is an author or not, but to what extent, and from which perspective, that of the author or the audience.

In music, the sophistication and apparent autonomy of digital instruments raise questions that are nearly absent in the case of analogue instruments such as the violin or drums. When a machine is capable of playing autonomously—whether in a rudimentary manner, as with an MP3 player, or more adaptively, through generative algorithms and artificial intelligence–the role of the artist-author in music production no longer appears as evident, at least not exclusively. From a cognitive perspective, this dilution of the artist’s contribution due to digital assistance is partly explained by the close connection between movement and perception (Rizzolatti et al., 1996 ; Jeannerod, 2001 ). In traditional music performances where instruments have almost no autonomy, the perception of the link between the musicians’ gestures and the produced sounds is clear (these are referred to as ‘transparent instruments’ Fels et al., 2002 ). The brain’s constant simulation of perceived gestures to predict their consequences is the basis for integrating this link (Zatorre et al., 2007 ; Salimpour et al., 2015 ). From this simulation emerges the sense of understanding what is happening, perceiving what the artist controls, their intention, and virtuosity, all of which are components of authorship.

In electronic music, a single gesture can generate a multitude of different sounds depending on machine settings. AI and digital technology blur the traditional link between a musician’s actions and the resulting sounds, raising questions about authorship. The causal link between gesture and sound can thus disappear, leading to a loss of interest for the audience and doubt regarding the artist’s involvement (Schloss, 2003 ; Stuart, 2003; Huron, 2008 ). Indeed, the audience may struggle to attribute authorship due to the obscured causal relationship between gesture and sound. As AI plays a significant role in generating music, it necessitates re-evaluating how we define and recognise the creative contributions of human artists and the extent to which AI systems can be considered co-creators in the artistic process.

Towards shared authorship: from human–machine interaction to human–animal–machine collaboration?

Recent studies (Capra et al., 2020 ) have shown that the audience’s sense of understanding a digital music interaction leads them to consider the artist as more contributory than the machine in performances with digital instruments or computers. These findings not only emphasise the crucial role of the sense of understanding in the judgement of authorship but also highlight the gradual nature of this judgement. Furthermore, the ‘evidence’ of a machine’s involvement in the artistic process is not always obvious; computers can be hidden backstage, and artists can pretend to play live while everything is pre-recorded. One might have images of musicians with their hands in the air, clapping while the music continues, or, conversely, focused on their instruments without it is possible to see what they are doing or even distinguish which sound they are working on. This perceptual deficiency and its consequences on the audience’s experience have led the Human–Computer Interaction (HCI) community to propose new evaluation criteria for digital devices (Berthaut et al., 2013 ; Berthaut et al., 2015 ; Bin 2018 ; see an extended review in Capra, 2020 ), including the Association (Capra et al., 2020 ), which designates the capacity of a device to expose to the audience the respective contributions of artists and machines in electronic performances. This human–machine collaboration in artistic creation can also occur in other disciplines, such as cinema, again in various and graduated forms. In the film Attack the Sun by Gwendal Sartre and Fabien Zocco ( 2019 ), the dialogues are generated by processing content from social networks and communicated to the actors by an artificial intelligence. The artists remain in control of the overall framework and many production elements, but by letting an AI drive something as structurally significant as the dialogues, are we witnessing a strictly human production or a human–machine collaboration with a shared degree of authorship?

Thus, authorship in digital creation can be refined with more gradual notions of the level of control by the artist and the varying degree of their contribution to artistic production compared to that of machines. Additionally, as we have seen, authorship can be understood here from a dual perspective: that of the artist and their agency, and that attributed to them by the audience, referred to as attributed agency (Berthaut, 2015 ; Capra, 2020 ). This dual consideration highlights technology not only as a medium for creation but also for its mediation to make digital interactions perceptible and to reveal them (Berthaut et al., 2013 ), thus allowing authors to assert their desired level of authorship.

Delving deeper into the realm of human–animal–machine collaboration, we explore an innovative paradigm of authorship that transcends traditional species boundaries. This interdisciplinary nexus is exemplified by initiatives such as the Interspecies Internet (Dolgin, 2019 ; Jones, 2019 ) and the use of environmental sensing technologies (Gabrys and Pritchard, 2018 ), which are pioneering the way for a new form of artistic expression and communication across species and technologies. This blending of human creativity, animal behaviour, and technological intervention serves as a powerful testament to the potential of collective intelligence and creativity (Bonnet et al., 2019 ; Wang et al., 2023 ). It suggests that authorship can extend beyond the confines of human endeavour, encompassing the contributions of non-human participants whose interactions with technology provide a unique perspective to transcend creativity. The exchange of learning and behaviours between humans and animals (Sueur and Huffman, 2024 ), becomes a fundamental element of this co-creative process. This mutual adaptation and shared understanding facilitate a form of artistic creation that is truly collaborative, allowing for the emergence of novel expressions.

The outcomes of such partnerships—be it in the form of music that incorporates animal sounds interpreted through AI algorithms, or visual art that visualises the migratory patterns of birds captured via satellite technology, shapes of ants or termite colonies to co-create sculptures—enrich our artistic vocabulary.

In a mesmerising fusion of human movement and natural spectacle, choreographer Sadeck Berrabah’s Murmuration Footnote 7 stands as a profound example of interspecies inspiration in contemporary art. Drawing from the breathtaking phenomenon of murmuration—where thousands of birds, typically starlings, move in unison through the sky, creating fluid, dynamic shapes–Sadeck Berrabah captures the essence of this natural wonder through human bodies in motion. This performance blurs the lines between human and animal realms, redefining artistic authorship as a shared, interspecies endeavour.

Björk, through her innovative use of technology and nature in music, exemplifies shared authorship by integrating animal sounds and digital manipulation, blurring the lines between human, non-human, and technological creativity. Her project Biophilia Footnote 8 showcases this symbiosis, treating natural sounds not merely as inspirations but as co-creators, challenging traditional notions of creative agency. Björk’s approach, where machines serve as bridges between human creativity and the natural world, contributes to redefining authorship as a collective effort that transcends species boundaries. This perspective enriches discussions on the creative participation of non-human entities, urging a broader recognition of diverse contributions within the creative process.

Chris Jordan, Oliver Beer and Richard Mankin each uniquely engage with the natural world through their art, exploring the interplay between human activity, wildlife, and the environment. Jordan’s digital photography, especially in Midway: Message from the Gyre Footnote 9 , reveals the dire effects of plastic pollution on seabirds, offering a stark visual commentary on environmental degradation. Beer merges art with ecology, using animal sounds in installations to examine space’s acoustic qualities, connecting architectural and natural harmonies. Mankin, blending entomology with artistry, transforms insect acoustics into music, highlighting their ecological significance and challenging our perceptions of natural soundscapes. Together, these artists contribute to a broader dialogue on environmental awareness and interspecies relationships through innovative artistic practices.

In conclusion

We acknowledge the complexity inherent in discussing authorship across a spectrum of entities, ranging from animals to various forms of technology such as machines, robots, computers, and artificial intelligence (AI). We recognise that each of these entities possesses distinct levels of consciousness, intentionality, and embodiment, which significantly impact their perceived and potential authorship. To clarify, our argument is rooted in the notion that authorship should not be considered a binary attribute but rather as existing on a continuum that reflects the degree of consciousness and intentionality of the creator, whether animal or artificial. This approach allows us to critically examine the prevailing norms of personhood and human-centric authorship, while also addressing the significant impact of embodiment on the perception of authorship. Specifically, the physical presence or absence of a robot, as opposed to the disembodied nature of an AI system, influences how authorship is ascribed and perceived. We have to embrace a nuanced understanding of these differences and propose a framework for degrees of authorship, based on the capacities of both biological and technological entities. This stance not only enriches the dialogue around the intersection of ethics, law, and technology but also ensures that our discussion remains relevant and adaptable to the evolving landscape of intelligent and creative beings.

The concepts related to authorship and ownership of creation are those that define a person: a conscious entity with rights. The scientific approach to applying copyright involves various steps to assess the intentionality of an act and its awareness of it. Therefore, machines cannot currently be recognised as authors of their creations. However, if one considers that an artist is less of an author when accompanied by a machine whose contribution to the work is evident, or even superior, this illustrates the gradual nature of authorship. From the artist’s perspective, in a context where they are both the public performer and the programmer of the software used to create, they have a legitimate claim to authorship to a higher degree than if they were using prebuilt algorithms. This is a higher level of authorship than that perceived by a novice audience incapable of distinguishing the artist-computer scientist’s contribution from the presence of machines. It results in a subjective notion, nonetheless linked to objective technical knowledge of the attributed agency. In the context of collaboration between human artists and machines, and from the perspective of spectators, the notion of authorship would not necessarily imply the existence of consciousness.

However, this conclusion appears different regarding conscious animals. In the case of great apes, even though only captive individuals seem to enjoy drawing, this enculturation (Tomasello and Call, 2004 ) should not prevent us from recognising their authorship and ownership of their creations, since a similar learning process is observed in humans. Drawing or playing an instrument is a skill that develops through observation and learning in Homo sapiens , similar to other hominids, including young children who undergo a lengthy process to acquire these abilities. Mozart’s composition of musical works at the age of six illustrates that age or species does not constrain creativity. Some primatologists recognise the primates they study as co-authors in their research, publications, or productions, acknowledging their contributions (Savage-Rumbaugh et al., 2007 ; Applegate and Grupper, 2013 ; Matsuzawa, 2017 ). However, granting authorship to animals raises concerns about potentially undermining their agency (McFarland and Hediger, 2009 ; Blattner et al., 2020 ). Similarly, this article’s title, derived from the AI of ChatGPT, prompts a reflection on its authorship status. These considerations are likely to spark extensive debate within both the artistic and scientific communities in the future.

Furthermore, our exploration into the realms of authorship and creativity among non-human entities prompts a consideration of the concepts of transhumanism and transanimalism, especially in relation to the use of assisted technologies and robotics within contemporary art (Burgat, 2015 ; Delfin, 2019 ; Grundmann, 2007 ; Someşan, 2022 ; Vita‐More, 2013 ). Transhumanist and metahumanist (Sorgner and Deretic, 2015 ) movements that advocate for the evolution of the human condition through advanced technologies, offer compelling lenses through which to view the integration of AI and robotics in artistic creation. These movements question the plasticity of the human condition and envision political and practical possibilities where the boundaries between human and machine, organic and artificial, are increasingly blurred, suggesting a new paradigm of creativity that is collaborative, hybrid, and expansive in its potential. Additionally, the concept of transanimalism (Cayol et al., 2024 )—extending transhumanist ideas to include non-human animals in the technological enhancement narrative—further enriches this discourse. It invites us to reimagine the creative capacities of animals when augmented by technology, thus opening up new avenues for artistic expression that transcend traditional species boundaries. By integrating these considerations into our discussion, we acknowledge the evolving landscape of contemporary art, where assisted technologies not only redefine the parameters of human creativity but also challenge us to envisage a future where diverse forms of intelligence, both human and non-human, contribute to the tapestry of artistic expression in unprecedented ways.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

From an ethological perspective, creativity may be observed in animal behaviour that solves new problems or adapts in novel ways. In AI research, creativity is often demonstrated through the ability to produce work that is indistinguishable from or surpasses human-created art, challenging our understanding of creativity’s origins and manifestations. Philosophically, creativity involves the exploration of the bounds of imagination and the capacity for conceptual expansion, inviting a re-evaluation of creative agency across different forms of consciousness.

Just as there are multiple forms and instances of intelligence across different animal species, with varied structures and supports for intelligence, the same reasoning can apply to AI. The term ‘artificial intelligences’ acknowledges the diversity and multiplicity of AI systems, frameworks, and applications. Each AI system can be designed with unique capabilities, purposes, and underlying algorithms, thus representing distinct ‘intelligences’ in the artificial realm. This pluralisation can emphasise the variety and specificity of AI entities, recognising their individual characteristics and contributions to the broader landscape of technology and society.

A robot is typically defined as a machine that is capable of carrying out complex actions automatically, especially when programmed to do so by a computer. Not all robots necessarily incorporate AI technologies and some robots may operate based on pre-programmed instructions or simple rule-based systems without the need for sophisticated AI algorithms. But many robots can be considered embodiments of AI because they incorporate AI algorithms to interact with the physical world through sensors and actuators, process sensory information and make decisions about how to act in their environment.

The question regarding agency and IA embodiment itself is an important discussion that is notably addressed by phenomenology and cognitive phenomenology (Buongiorno, 2023 ; Corti, 2022 ; Turner, 2020 ).

Strong AI, also known as Artificial General Intelligence (AGI), refers to a type of artificial intelligence that has the ability to understand, learn, and apply its intelligence to solve any problem, similarly to how a human would. It possesses the capacity for conscious thought, understanding, judgement and self-awareness, allowing it to perform tasks requiring human-like cognitive abilities and to adapt to new situations without human intervention. Strong AI aims to replicate the multifaceted intelligence of human beings but is still a theoretical object that only exists in cultural items such as movies or video games, with famous characters such as Data ( Star Trek: The Next Generation ). Weak AI, also known as Narrow AI, is designed and trained for a specific task as or a simple computer, an articulated robot or a machine. Unlike Strong AI, it operates under a limited pre-defined range or context and does not possess consciousness or self-awareness. Weak AI is focused on executing specific applications such as voice recognition, image analysis, or executing specific functions within a software environment. Examples include virtual assistants, chatbots, and recommendation systems. While it can exhibit some level of learning and adaptation within its narrow domain, it does not have the capability to generalise its intelligence to the broad spectrum of tasks that a human or Strong AI can perform.

The U.S. Copyright Office will register an original work of authorship, provided that the work was created by a human being." (U.S. Copyright, 2021 , Compendium (Third) § 306) This regulation was renewed in March 2023 in the legal text Copyright Registration Guidance: Works Containing Material Generated by Artificial Intelligence (U.S. Copyright, 2023 , Copyright Registration Guidance).

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Sueur, C., Lombard, J., Capra, O. et al. Exploration of the creative processes in animals, robots, and AI: who holds the authorship?. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 611 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03125-y

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“But Everything Else, I Learned Online”: School-Based and Internet-Based Sexual Learning Experiences of Heterosexual and LGBQ + Youth

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Building upon scholarship on sex education, our research aims to understand how youth with a range of sexual identities have experienced school-based sex education, how they have explored sexual content online, and how they see the two in relation to each other. We thus ask: (1) How do youth with varied sexual identities recall experiencing formal school-based sex education from elementary through high school offerings? (2) How do heterosexual and LGBQ + youth utilize the Internet and social media sites for sexual learning? Through in-depth interviews with college students, we find that heterosexual and LGBQ + youth report that formal sex education was both limited and heteronormative; LGBQ + youth felt particularly unprepared for sexual experiences and health hygiene, and sometimes found ways to translate the information provided for their own needs. Despite some overall similarities in online sexual explorations, experiences of online sexual learning proved quite divergent for youth of different sexual identities. Heterosexual youth were likely to search for information on sexual pleasure and entertainment; in contrast, LGBQ + youth sought information to fill in knowledge gaps about non-conforming sexualities, and often used the digital space for identity discovery, confirmation, and affirmation. For both groups, online explorations interacted with offline ones through a back-and-forth in which youth tested out in one arena what they had learned in the other. These findings highlight the dynamic interaction between formal school curriculum, informal online sexual learning, and sexual scripts, identities and practices.

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Contraceptives and stuff like that I think I learned mostly through sex ed class. But everything else, I learned online. Anal sex, learned online. Oral sex and the details about that, learned online. Self-pleasure, masturbation, learned that online. Histories of queer communities, different sexualities and gender identities, learned online. Different ways that queer communities engage in sex, learned it online. Everything except penis-penetration type of sex, I learned everything else online. Everything. – Abby (age 20, Latinx, queer, non-binary)

Our research aims to understand how youth with a range of sexual identities have experienced school-based sex education, how they have explored sexual content online and how they see the two in relation to each other. It emerges from a recognition that while the existing literature on sex education is well developed, the research on sexual learning online is less robust. In particular, we know little about how school-based and Web-based sexual learning experiences differ for youth with non-normative sexual and gender identities and those who identify as straight. We also know little about the interaction between school-based and online sexual learning.

In this study, based on in-depth interviews with 56 college students from a variety of backgrounds and identities, we ask: (1) How do youth with varied sexual identities recall experiencing formal school-based sex education from elementary through high school offerings? (2) How do heterosexually-identified and LGBQ + -identified youth utilize the Internet and social media sites for self-discovery and for acquiring information not offered in their formal sex education curriculum, and how do they assess that information?

Bridging and building upon the scholarship on LGBQ + student experiences (Beattie et al. 2021 ) and on formal and informal sex education, we find that while both heterosexual and LGBQ + youth report that formal sex education was both limited and heteronormative, their experiences of online sexual learning are quite divergent. Largely excluded from their school’s sex education curriculum, LGBQ + youth often seek online content related to their identity or imagined partners and practices—in ways that may be both affirming and confusing. This dynamic points to ways the reform of school-based sex education remains significant, despite its diminished role as an information source (Lindberg et al. 2016 ), and highlights the interaction between formal school curriculum, informal online learning, and sexual “scripts” (Simon and Gagnon 1986 ), identities and practices.

Sex Education and Online Sexual Learning

Decades of research have established three clear characteristics of formal sex education in the USA: (1) governed largely at the local and state level, it varies widely from place to place; (2) it is usually both narrow in scope and short in duration; and (3) it is almost exclusively heteronormative.

Informed by competing sex education policy frameworks—one advocating “comprehensive” sex education and the other “abstinence” education (Fields 2012 ; Fine and McClelland 2006 ; Irvine 2002 ; Luker 2006 )—the curriculum runs the gamut from conservative just-say-no to liberal here’s-how-it-works to total silence (Kramer 2019 ). Regardless of ideological bent, American sex education tends to reinforce dominant understandings of race, class, gender, and sexuality (Connell and Elliott 2009 ; Fields 2005 , 2008 ; McNeill 2013 ). In particular, sex education in the USA has been almost exclusively focused on heterosexual identities and practices (Hirst 2004 ; Irvine 2002 ; Luker 2006 ; Fine and McClelland 2006 ; Pascoe 2007 ) and at times outright hostile towards non-normative ones (McNeil 2013; Gowen and Winges-Yanez 2014 ).

Formal sex education has been one major institutional source of sexual scripts at what Simon and Gagnon ( 1986 , 105) call the “cultural scenario” level, a kind of collective “instructional guide” specifying the “appropriate objects, aims, and desirable qualities of self-other relations,” instructing the “times, places, sequences of gesture and utterance and… what the actor and his or her coparticipants (real or imagined) are assumed to be feeling,” which are then “rehearsed at the time of our initial sexual encounters.” These cultural scripts are then adapted and molded by individuals into “interpersonal scripts” that shape “the materials of relevant cultural scenarios into scripts for behavior in particular contexts,” and brought into the self as “intrapsychic scripts,” the “private world of wishes and desires that are experienced as originating in the deepest recesses of the self” (Simon and Gagnon 1986 , 99–100).

Formal sex education, of course, is not the only source of sexual information, scripts, and learning. Young people also learn about sex and sexuality outside of schools from people around them (family, peers, community, and religious leaders) and, though often passively, through the consumption of popular culture. Since the inception of popular media in the early twentieth century, generally speaking, “depictions of sexual content and imagery abound in popular film, television, and advertising”; in centralized, risk-averse, commercial cultural industries, the sexual content was typically characterized by “regressive and often objectifying portrayals of sex and sexuality,” routinely rendering non-normative sexualities invisible or stigmatizing them, if still open to “queer readings” (Grossman 2020 , 281). That is, the cultural scripts and sexual content provided by popular culture was—until more recent structural changes such as the expansion of cable and then streaming outlets—quite a thin and narrow source for sexual learning, particularly for people experiencing desires and identities outside of the sexual and gender mainstream. Digital technologies have plainly altered that, rendering new popular culture far more diverse, more individualized, and more emphemeral, not only “personal, mass, and global but also decentralized” (Grossman 2020 , 286). This is, of course, a very different cultural environment for sexual learning.

While the relevance of school-based sex ed is in decline (Lindberg et al. 2016 ), in recent years social media and online spaces, and the popular culture circulating within them, have become a crucial informal curriculum through which young people learn about sexuality (Adams-Santos 2020 ; Boyd 2015 ; Fields 2012 ; Orenstein 2016 ; Orenstein 2020 ; Simon and Daneback 2013 ) and “craft and articulate their sexualities” (Adams-Santos 2020 , 2)—what some have called “the new sex ed” (Orenstein 2020 , 52). The Internet’s “availability, acceptability, affordability, anonymity, and aloneness” make it “unique in the delivery of sexual information in the digital age” (Simon and Daneback 2013 , 315, 306). For youth with non-normative sexual desires and identities, some researchers have found, the various available online platforms hold a particular draw, interacting with offline experiences “in ways that shape their emerging identities, social lives, romantic relationships, sexual behaviors, and physical and sexual health” (DeHaan et al. 2013 ). The prevalence of “techno-sexuality” (Waskul 2014 ), which allows youth to explore and experience sexuality beyond adult control, combined with the continued heteronormative emphasis of school-based sex education, points to the questions that animate our research.

While research on online sexual learning is increasing, and has established that “online sex education plays a role in adolescents’ lives,” just what sort of role, and how, and for whom, remains more poorly understood. Scholars have suggested, for instance, that “there is little knowledge on adolescents’ use of online sexual information for sexuality education in particular” (Nikkelen et al. 2020 , 190); that “the qualitative experiences of adolescents who engage with sex information online, from their initial interest in information to the effects such information could have on their lives,” the “process of applying online information offline” and “demographic differences” all remain understudied (Simon and Daneback 2013 , 312–314). Furthermore, the dynamic relationship between formal sex education—what it does and does not provide to youth—and online sexual explorations, the decentering of traditional sexual scripts (at the cultural, interpersonal, and intrapsychic levels) and the impact of this destabilization, have received scant scholarly attention (for an exception, see DeHaan et al. 2013 ). Our research addresses these gaps.

Methods and Data

We recruited college-age students between the ages of 18 and 22 years. Given national differences in sex education, we limited our respondents to the USA and territories. We found respondents primarily through posting flyers (online due to COVID restrictions) on websites affiliated with Boston-area colleges. These colleges attracted students from varied geographic locations in the USA and Puerto Rico, types of schooling, sexual identities, race and social class backgrounds (see Table 1 ).

On the flyers we indicated that we were interested in learning about sex education programs in their schools and also their use of digital spaces. We restricted the recruitment to young people enrolled in college because we wanted to understand how these youth made sense of the “sexual scripts” (Simon and Gagnon 1986 ), or social underpinnings of sexuality and sexual identity taught in high school sex ed programs and augmented or challenged by private Internet searches and social media interactions, once they were away from home. Given our particular interest in the experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual, asexual (LGBQ +) youth, we indicated on organization posts that we were particularly interested in LGBQ + youth and their experiences. In total we conducted 56 in-depth interviews with college students.

This paper compares college age youth who currently identify as heterosexual or straight (39.3%) with the experiences of those who identify as LGBQ + or queer (60.7%) youth. While we distinguish between straight and queer respondents on the basis of their current self-reported identities, many of our respondents described experiences of fluid or changing sexual practices and desires. While youth are coming out as lesbian, gay, queer, questioning, bisexual at younger ages than in the past, data indicates that most reveal their sexual identity to family and friends in college (Beattie et al. 2021 ; Dunlap 2016 ). For instance, 20% reported that in high school they either identified as heterosexual or were questioning their sexual or gender identities but currently identify as LGBQ + . In the sections that follow we capture this fluidity in their descriptions of identify shifts and discoveries, both in the context of sex education in schools and in online explorations, which we note when we introduce quotes from our respondents.

Online flyers included a link to a Google form that college students from 18 to 22 years old completed in order to volunteer. On the form we asked for contact information and background information (age, pronouns, race, sexual identity in high school and currently, gender identity, region of the country where they grew up). We re-checked this information at the time of the interview and used it for coding purposes. When we reached out to our respondents, we also sent then a consent form that included information on audio and video recording and confidentiality. Interviews lasted between 1.5 and 2 hours, were audio recorded and videotaped, and transcribed verbatim. Since Zoom allows us to record with simultaneous transcription, we destroyed the video recording within a week after checking the accuracy of the transcript. To protect our respondents’ confidentiality, we informed them that we would use pseudonyms in any publications and presentations.

The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Boards for the protection of human subjects at the University of San Francisco and Wellesley College (for Zoom interviews only because of pandemic restrictions on in-person interviewing in 2021). All interviews were conducted between March and November 2021.

We chose qualitative interviews as the most effective method to access interviewees’ opinions and recollections, within their social context, and for understanding multiple aspects of the same experience (Gerson and Damaske 2021 ). We developed a semi-structured interview guide that asked questions related to experiences of sex education both in their schools as well as in digital spaces, including what students recalled learning from elementary school through high school; what material was taught, for how long and by whom; the major messaging frameworks they encountered; how useful and inclusive they thought the curriculum was at the time and in retrospect; whether and how students sought information online, and if so what types of information; where they searched; and how they evaluated the information they found. We also asked for what they discussed with parents, other family members and their peers.

In the convention of interview data analysis, we developed a detailed coding scheme in order to discern patterns across interviews. Both inductive and deductive codes were developed. Construction of the codes was guided by the principles of grounded theory, with emerging themes identified and then reanalyzed for consistency and completeness (Charmaz 2006 ; Gerson and Damaske 2021 ; Glaser and Strauss 1967 ). We coded interviews to reveal the topics interviewees recalled learning in schools; how they were presented, where, for how long, and by whom; the frames through which the sexual information was presented; school-based learning outside of classroom settings; feelings and perceptions of inclusion in the curriculum; when they began consuming online content and what kinds of information or activities they sought; what sites they most frequently visited; whether they also created online content; with whom they discussed sex education content or online learnings; and how accurate and reliable they took sexually-related information to be both at schools and online. This allowed us to quantify the content, generating the figures and tables referred to in this paper.

In addition, we generated a related qualitative coding document in which interviewees’ quotes were gathered according to thematic content, in order to more deeply understand their accounts of their own learning and how they made sense of their experiences of school-based and online sexual learning, with particular attention to the divergent circumstances that led our interviewees to turn to the various online platforms available to them. Each interview was coded by at least two researchers to facilitate intercoder reliability. Coders met weekly to discuss their individual coding, referring back to the original interviews to reach consensus.

Since our respondents were in college at the time of the interviews the summer provided a natural break in interviewing. We used the summer to code the interviews conducted in the first round (March–June 2021). This allowed us to discuss where we had achieved “conceptual depth” (Nelson 2017 , 556) both with regard to the open-ended questions we were asking and also with regard to understanding the interplay between schools and online learning, and how they might differ for our two groups.

Our interviews were retrospective by necessity, and retrospective accounts hit up against the “limitations of chronological memory, the potential for hindsight-based rationalizations, as well as people’s tendencies to construct stories that place themselves in a favorable light” (Langley and Meziani 2020 , 373). People look back through the filters of the present, and details become fuzzy or distorted, and that was certainly the case in our research. Our investigations, however, are not so much aimed at a factual account of what took place in classrooms or online as at what stands out in participants’ memories, and the related “imagined meanings of their activities, their self-concepts, their fantasies about themselves” (Lamont and Swidler 2014 , 159); that is, how participants remember their sex education and online explorations, and how they understand those in relation to their life paths and identities.

Formal Sex Education: Experiences of a Limited and Heteronormative Curriculum

Most of our respondents recalled having some version of sex education, particularly in the latter parts of their schooling (see Table 1 ), though not a lot of it; what they did receive they report finding quite limited in scope and heterosexually focused. In elementary school, almost two thirds of the respondents (61.4%) had sex education, and most (77.1%) reported that it was for one class on puberty and hygiene. Almost three quarters recalled having sex education in middle school; of these, the majority (72%) said that the class was a module or a brief part of another course (such as health or biology). The largest portion of respondents (85.9%) reported having sex education in high school, again typically as a module of a course (60.4%), though a third (33.3%) recounted having a full sex education course for half a year.

Generally speaking, our respondents recall elementary school sex education focused on puberty and menstruation, typically in class meetings segregated by sex. Despite often having some exposure to this sort of information through parents (usually mothers), and finding the emphasis on bodily changes and hygiene “embarrassing,” many respondents recalled being excited for their first sex education class. As one respondent, Erika (21, Asian, cisgender woman, lesbian, attended public school in the Northeast) put it, “It was a really highly anticipated conversation. Everyone in the class knew the day we were going to talk about it and people were talking about it, like, ‘Wait, do you know this, this and this about [puberty]?’” Interestingly, our respondents recalled only learning information related to their sex assigned at birth.

By middle and high school, class content became more varied, in part to cover state-mandated material, and all students were in classes together. In some school districts these classes were supplemented by professionals from the community. In other schools, students could elect a human development course or a section of a biology course that presented information on reproduction. Respondents recalled putting condoms on bananas, learning about sexually transmitted infections (STIs), watching videos about birth, sometimes discussing consent and sexual assault and mostly being told not to have intercourse. Many noted that no answer to the central question “What is sex?” was provided.

Few of the respondents recalled learning much novel or in depth in school, regardless of whether they went to private or public schools. Some respondents told us that the sex education came too late: they had already learned quite a bit about sex from peers and other sources, and some were already involved in sexual activity. Others reported that they did not pay a lot of attention because the topics they were interested in, such as sexual pleasure and sexual practices, were not covered. All agreed that in addition to pleasures and practices, a vast range of sex- and sexuality-related topics were almost entirely absent from the curriculum, including cultural representations of sexuality, pornography, relationships and dating, non-cisgender and non-heterosexual identities, and abortion.

Overarching Cultural Scripts: Abstinence, Danger, Gender, and Heterosexuality

Our respondents articulated, looking back, the cultural scripting their school-based education provided, in terms of the appropriate “objects, aims, and desirable qualities,” as well as the appropriate “times, places, sequences” and emotional content, for sexual encounters (Simon and Gagnon 1986 , 105). The focus, they reported, was most often on the dangers of sex (disease, unplanned pregnancy) and ways to avert them (condoms, occasionally sexual consent tools), often with a fear or abstinence message, and often from a male perspective. (While we expected that secular private schools would be more progressive in sex education content, the evidence from our interviews suggested that this was not the case.)

For instance, John, a 21-year-old white, cisgender, straight man from rural Colorado, received minimal sex education from his private school. He recalled,

I don’t think I learned anything new. I think all I got out of it is like, “Oh that’s how you have heterosexual sex, this is what a penis looks like going into a vagina,” from a cheesy video – and I already kind of knew this… It was the biology of how it works. I wouldn’t say I remember anything about pleasure or things like that. It was mainly just the scientific aspects of it.

As Jessica, a 20-year-old, white, cisgender woman from the Northeast who came out as bisexual in her junior year of high school, put it, “teachers had to walk a fine line between informing us and not seeming like they were encouraging us to have sex.” Even so, she recalls, the focus was on male pleasure. “Male ejaculation was discussed. Why was there no discussion of oral sex or lube or that women could have an orgasm?” Elena, age 20, Latinx, non-binary, queer and asexual, who attended public school in southeast LA, echoed this view. Her elementary school sex education was brief (“a one-time, thirty-minute to an hour class”) and focused on puberty, and her middle school offered one session in seventh grade (“how to put a condom on a banana”). Recalling her “penis-heavy” 9 th grade health class, she said:

The biggest thing I remember was just abstinence. “Don't have sex. The best contraceptive is never have sex, so just don't have sex." Which is not helpful at all, because most people engage in sexual activity. I don't remember anything about other forms of sex ed, like how to have sex or different forms of pleasure or anything like that. The knowledge about how to apply a condom and what you can catch is not really helpful because then you don't even know how to engage in sex…. So then, well, I know that I can catch chlamydia, for example, but what are ways that I can prevent it? None of that. What ways can I engage in sex? Never taught. So were they ever that helpful? Not really.

As another respondent put it, “Abstinence is [presented as] the gold standard.”

The majority of our respondents, regardless of identity, understood the focus on abstinence to be tied to the primary framing of sex as risky, dangerous, and fearful; their classes focused primarily on disease and pregnancy (See Fig.  1 ). As Jocelyn (African American, cisgender, straight woman, from an urban, East Coast public school) recalled, the message was: “If you want to avoid STI, don’t have sex. If you don’t want to get pregnant, don’t have sex.” Similarly, Shenita, a 21-year-old, African American, cisgender, straight woman who attended a public school in the mid-Atlantic suburbs, recalled her teacher comparing sex to “operating heavy machinery, dangerous” and telling the class of 13-year-olds that “none of us should be having sex within the next ten years.”

Primary Framing of the Sex Ed Curriculum

We also found a general consensus—again in line with most popular and academic accounts of American sex education (Gowen and Winges-Yanez 2014 ; McNeill 2013 ) —that the sex ed curriculum youth encountered generally assumed everyone in the room was heterosexual, implicitly or explicitly equated heterosexuality with sexual normalcy, and treated non-heterosexual sexualities as rare, a side note, or nonexistent. Youth repeatedly recalled that teachers “very much emphasized that heterosexual dynamic” (Ana Luisa, 18, Latinx, cisgender woman, lesbian and educated in public school), with a “very heterosexual” take on pregnancy and an “overall emphasis on heterosexual couples” in discussions of and videos about sexually transmitted infections (Lizzie, 19, white, cisgender woman, asexual, queer, public school-educated). Nearly three-quarters of the LGBQ + youth, and more than nine-tenths of the heterosexual youth, said that only heterosexual relationships were discussed in their sex ed classes; four-fifths of the LGBQ + youth and all of their heterosexual counterparts indicated that non-cisgender identities were never discussed. LGBQ + youth rarely asked for information that might be more applicable to their lives because, some reported, they felt they would be “flagged” in school peer cultures that emphasized heteronormativity.

When non-normative sexualities were discussed, a few respondents noted, it was often in the context of HIV. For instance, Julia, a 19-year-old, Latinx/white, nonbinary, lesbian, educated in public school in rural Georgia, recalls:

I knew I was queer in middle school and I was hoping to hear something. The only time I ever heard about queer people in sex ed was when they were talking about HIV and AIDS. So that was a scary thing because I had just figured out I was queer, and then the gym teacher comes in and says, “This is a bunch of dead gay people, and you can be like them, too,” and I was like, “I could be like them too?”

The absence of information about non-heterosexual practices was, not surprisingly, less directly concerning to cisgender heterosexual respondents than their LGBQ + counterparts. Thus, their experiences diverged quite significantly. LGBQ + youth in particular recall the heteronormative bent of their school-based sex education as rendering it at best unhelpful to their understanding of sexual identities and practices. As Ana Luisa put it, at the time she already knew that heterosexual dynamics were “just not something I would have encountered,” so sex ed “was just useless to me personally.” She and her similarly positioned peers simply did not find much material from the cultural scripts offered by formal sex education with which to develop interpersonal scripts for their sexual interactions, or that affected the shape of their intrapsychic scripts of sexual desire.

Another absence is worth noting: although we did not query them about it directly, none of our respondents reported themes of love, care, and affection for others as a prominent theme in their formal sex education. Hints of such a framework in which to place sex occasionally came through in, for instance, lessons on consent, which tied sexual behavior to a kind of ethics of care for the other, and in lessons on sexual safety and health, which tied sexual behavior to a care of oneself and others. Yet, the notion that love is a necessary component of sex (or a precursor for sexual activity) appears to have been weak enough in the curriculum to not emerge organically in our respondents’ memories.

LGBQ  +  Youth and School-Based Sex Ed: Absences, Improvisations, and Memory

While all youth reported that there was limited information that was useful for first sexual encounters, LGBQ + youth felt particularly unprepared for sexual experiences and health hygiene. As Karl, who identifies as a cisgender gay man and Latinx, and went to public schools in the Northeast, put it, “They never really went over things like mouth guards or finger ones. For other people who do not practice actual intercourse, how are they going to know how to protect themselves?” Marlie, who went to private school in California and identifies as Latinx, bisexual/queer and a cisgender woman, similarly noted:

I don’t think there was any information that prepared me for my first sexual encounters, which started actually that year when I was 15 years old. In the classes, there wasn’t as much of an emphasis on the actual act of sex and what that is like and what happens. It is not that they emphasized heterosexual sex, it is that they did not talk about queer sex…. We definitely did not talk about what fingering is, what vulva on vulva sex is like, what penis on penis sex is like, any of that. My first sexual encounters were not with somebody with a penis, so I didn’t feel prepared to know about proper hygiene regarding fingering or dental dams or any of that stuff.

Other respondents found ways to translate—or perhaps more accurately, to hack—the heterosexually-directed information they encountered. For instance, Rhonda, age 22, Native American and white, cisgender lesbian woman, reported that in her public school in Kansas teachers focused a lot on preventing STDs and “keeping safe” through condom use, but “we never learned about LGBQ sex ed at all.”

So when a lot of us started coming out, we were like, “Well, what do we do now?” We knew condoms, in heterosexual relations, could help prevent STDs, but we didn’t know how that worked if we were having sex with women or AFAB [assigned female at birth] people. One thing that was very novel to us was that you could cut open a condom and make a dental dam – because you couldn’t buy dental dams where we lived, they just weren’t available anywhere. So, we just compared what we needed to use with what we had learned from our health classes. And whenever one of our friends was going to meet someone new, we would tell them, ”Hey, don’t forget about this cool trick you can use, because you don’t want to get an STD.”

In effect, through efforts such as these condom displays, queer youth found it necessary and possible to create new “interpersonal scripts”: The “disjunctures of meaning between distinct spheres of life,” as Simon and Gagnon pointed out ( 1986 , 99, 102, 106) created moments of “ad hoc improvisation” at the interpersonal level.

While a few respondents reported seeking support from queer-friendly teachers outside of sex ed classes, still others internalized the notion that their sexual desires and curiosities were irrelevant. Emily, for example, who identifies as a white, asexual, cis-gender woman, who went to a public school in the Northeast, noted that.

just one mention of there being other sexualities than straight, gay and bi, would’ve been useful for me, just off-hand, in a context that conveys authority would have been helpful…. I just figured I was wired differently and just left it at that.

She reached the conclusion, she said, that “I was an outlier and did not count.”

Interestingly, LGBQ+ youth also were less likely than their straight counterparts to recall a framing of sex as dangerous (39% of LGBQ+ youth vs. 71% of heterosexual youth). Queer identifying youth reported more often that their sex education classes framed sex scientifically, as a heterosexual biological process (21% of LGBQ+ youth vs. 9.5% of heterosexual youth). Furthermore, while no heterosexual youth recalled receiving sex education through a moral frame, LGBQ+ youth were more likely to recall a moral frame in the curriculum, either one that treated certain kinds of sex as immoral (15%) or all sex as morally acceptable (12%) (see Fig. 1 ). Finally, heterosexual youth recalled feeling in high school that the curriculum included material relevant to them (77%), but only 30% of the LGBQ+ youth felt the same way. Those who felt included or even partly included often recalled that same sex relationships were briefly mentioned, and that this mention made them feel included. However, at the time of the interview, and now in college, regardless of sexual identity, the majority did not feel that the curriculum was inclusive of them or of their LGBQ+ friends (see Fig.  2 ).

Inclusion in the Curriculum

While at first glance these findings seem counterintuitive, we suggest that they are outcomes of a nascent or developed identity difference that shapes the reception and memory of sex education. The broader range of sex ed frames LGBQ + respondents recall may have to do with their heightened sensitivity to the cultural frames surrounding non-normative sexualities and genders (Weeks 2023 ), the “paradigmatic” scripting of sexuality (Simon and Gagnon 1986 , 102)—as morally questionable, unnatural, or scientifically explicable deviations—that have less personal resonance for heterosexual respondents. The greater inclusivity that almost a third of LGBQ + students recall may have to do with the identity needs through which they filtered the curriculum, in which any mention of non-normative sexualities, and of ways to manage heterosexual situations as an outsider to them, stood out as memorable. Their overall irrelevance and invisibility within the curriculum—and within the cultural scenario scripting more broadly—we suggest, made moments of relevance and visibility particularly memorable.

Pleasure, Identity, and Online Sexual Learning: Convergent and Divergent Experiences

Online sexual explorations started early for the youth we interviewed, and were both constant and extensive. The Internet and its myriad platforms—including not just websites but interactive social media and online communities—was robust by the time all of our interviewees entered middle school. Our oldest interviewees at age 22 were 12–14 years old in 2011–2013; while our youngest interviewees at age 18 were 12–14 years old in 2015–2017.

Internet searches for almost two-thirds of our respondents began in middle school between the ages of 12–14, with just over a quarter searching the Internet even earlier (See Table 1 ). Although parents rarely monitored their children’s Internet searches, many of our respondents told us that they would sneak down early in the morning or late at night to the family computer or iPad hoping that their parents would not discover their activities. By high school all of our respondents, who completed high school between 2017 and 2020, had their own devices (phones, iPads, computers) in their rooms. Still, they were careful to hide their Internet Web search history.

Online Explorations: Finding and Making New Sexual Scripts

Our respondents used a variety of online platforms, each facilitating different kinds of activity, to seek out information, explore identities, compare themselves to their peers, and for entertainment and fun, regardless of their sexual identity. Online space—whether social network, content, or media-sharing platforms—of course, offers significant communication changes not readily found offline, serving as “a massive expert database,” providing easy access to the kind of credentialed expertise found in formal sex education; as a “global broker, a way for individuals with special concerns to find each other,” allowing for the dissemination of alternative and sometimes counter-normative sexual expertise, as well as sexuality-based community formation; and as a “global collective memory, allowing people to contribute, store, and annotate comments” (Radin 2006 , 593), facilitating alternative sexual storytelling. Accordingly, our respondents’ explorations ranged from information on how to “do sex,” to how people think about and label themselves sexually, to how to get sexual pleasure or give it to others, to topics like consent, disease, and activism; many also reported using online explorations to assess where they stood in terms of “normal” physical and sexual development.

Unlike school-based sexual learning, online explorations were not dominated by any “master” script, but involved a youth’s transformation from “being exclusively an actor trained in his or her role(s)” to “being a partial scriptwriter or adaptor,” as Simon and Gagnon ( 1986 , 99) describe interpersonal scripting. Respondents went all over the Internet for sex- and sexuality-related content. In Fig.  3 we have grouped these sites into various categories that our respondents used for learning online. We asked our interviewees what websites they accessed and what they remembered learning online; the answers showed widely ranging exploration. They reported taking online sex quizzes on Buzzfeed (“15 Things You Need to Know About Your Sex Life”), looking at medical sites (for “information about asexuality and attraction”) and sexuality education sites (such as Scarleteen, “a one-stop shop for LGBQ youth”), consulting Wikipedia and Google (for instance, for articles on “how to make out or give a blow job,”) watching porn sites (such as PornHub); enjoying fan fiction (Wattpad) and “smut” fan fiction (“it’s just like porn but it’s words”) on user-generated story sites; watching video sites (such as You Tube videos on sex positions, “the arousal of the vulva,” and masturbation, and TED Talks about the effects of porn), spending time on social networking sites (such as Grindr), in video chat rooms, on microblogging and networking sites (such as Tumbir), and in large online forums like Yahoo and Autostraddle.

Websites Used

Julia, quoted earlier, who identified as queer in middle school, described their explorations in a way that echoed throughout our interviews: secretive, exciting, voracious, and curiosity-driven.

I would look up information in the middle of the night. I would pull a blanket over my head and I’m looking at Tumblr, which was the fountainhead for the LGBTQ people in general. That’s a lot of my childhood experiences, trying to find information and then learning it. It was exciting. Now I understand that it was me taking agency over my own conceptualization of what sex can be, what sexual identity can be, what gender can be. It was like putting little puzzle pieces together which made me feel better. But I did it in a secretive way.

These wide-ranging, relatively unfettered explorations often began with pleasure-seeking but led to unexpected places. For instance, Bryan (age 21, white, cisgender male) grew up bisexual in a Southern town and school where the message was “very much sex is taboo.” He began his online explorations at age 12, sometimes Googling particular questions, but mostly “just looking for pleasure, or pictures, or browsing material, it would pretty much be Pornhub.” Over time, he dove into sub-Reddits—also initially for arousal—where he eventually discovered that “people were also having very intelligent and mature discussions about pleasure.”

Many of our respondents, in fact, turned to other online platforms for information about sexual pleasure and practices that were missing from their formal sex education. For instance, Summer, who identifies as  Latina/white, a cisgender woman, and bisexual, spent much of her time on Wattpad, where she read “books that people write on there that are not very good,” but whose quality she overlooked when she “stumbled across a few smutty books – and by smut I mean like books with like sexual content – and that’s where I got my basic knowledge of sexual pleasure.” Similarly, Jessica (age 20, white, bisexual, cisgender woman) sought information about queer sexual practices that were unavailable in her public-school education:

I would sometimes seek out Cosmopolitan or Buzzfeed or Autostraddle articles to ease any anxiety I felt or to get ideas about what to do, and I think about both anatomy and pleasure, for sure, because I feel like that wasn’t really talked about in my middle school sex ed…. Whenever I was looking in high school, and now, whenever I have looked at Autostraddle, it’s a lot of little graphics, like little silhouette positions, with descriptions of what’s going on, like, “Oh, here’s different positions to try.”

These online sites, that is, became something of an alternative how-to manual.

Given the mix of types of expertise available on online platforms—credentialed in a traditional sense or staking a claim to be so, lay and crowd-sourced expertise—the question or what information could be relied upon was often unresolved. While the majority of our respondents presumed that the Internet provided accurate information, 30% of our respondents told us they thought the Internet was a mix of accurate and inaccurate information. Many of our respondents looked to triangulate information from the websites they frequented; others reported that they were relieved to find answers to their questions regardless of the source and accuracy. Moreover, when our interviewees were skeptical about information their teacher discussed in their sex education class they turned to the Internet for answers. During middle school in 2014, Angie, who is currently age 19, Asian, and identified as queer prior to coming to college, described how her use of the Internet hastened her growing up as she tried to figure out which source was accurate:

So Tumblr was a thing, that’s where all the cool kids learned how to be adults. We were learning about sexually transmitted diseases and infections and I was listening. But I remember thinking like, “Some of this is a little weird.” And then slowly after the fact, I started looking up more and more things on Tumblr to try and figure out like, “Was what they were telling me true? Is this actually how I would get a sexually transmitted infection? Is this actually how I would get AIDS or get HIV? Is this actually how sex works?”

While most respondents reported using the Internet as a source of “basic knowledge about sexual pleasure” and “ideas about what to do,” the explorations of straight and queer youth were quite divergent (see Fig.  4 ). Heterosexual youth tended to be primarily focused on sexual pleasure and entertainment, with sexual learning as a byproduct. In particular, straight youth—especially but not only young men—who more readily saw themselves in the sex ed curriculum, were more likely than their queer counterparts to initially turn to online platforms seeking pleasure (23.5%) and sexual practices (23.5%), usually on porn sites. Through this process, they continued to experience online sexual sites as instructional, even if that was an indirect result of their porn consumption, and even if they were skeptical—as many were or became over time—of porn’s reality and impact.

Internet Searches Over Time

As John (21, white, straight, cisgender male) described his own quite typical experience, he recalled going on his mother’s computer in elementary school to “look up ‘big boobs’ or something.” In seventh grade, entering puberty, a friend showed him porn videos. “I was thinking about it all the time,” he recalls. “‘Wow. I really want to have sex with someone.’”

Such online explorations often interacted with offline ones through a back-and-forth in which youth tested out in one arena what they had learned in the other. Particularly as they got older, youth often tried out what they saw online in their own relationships, adapting the cultural material into interpersonal sexual scripts, and then returned online with those experiences in mind. Juan (19, Latino, straight, cisgender male who grew up in Puerto Rico) described it this way:

What did I look for in porn? At first it was pretty basic stuff – well, not basic at the time, but today I’d consider it to be a little bit basic in terms of sexual experimentation. I looked at hand jobs or stuff like that. And I think as I started to experiment more... What I looked for in porn kind of was the same as what I was experimenting with. When I had my first girlfriend in 10 th grade, we started to kind of experiment, and that’s when I started to look [online] for fingering and blowjobs.

For many respondents, pornography consumption itself set in motion a process at the intrapsychic level, in which they attempted to distinguish their own fantasies and desires from those contained in the cultural scripts of porn, an “internal dialogue” in which sexual desires experienced as “originating in the deepest recesses of the self” in relation to social meanings and expectations encountered in cultural scenarios (Simon and Gagnon 1986 , 99). For instance, RJ, a 21-year-old white cisgender male who identified as straight until college, realized at a certain point not only that porn presented “very unrealistic expectations of stuff that I had to unlearn,” and unhelpful sexual models such as the fact that “there is not a lot of foreplay in porn, or any female-centric pleasure,” but also that it had taken over his sexual desires such that “I couldn’t pleasure myself without porn, And I was like, ‘This is probably bad.’” Similarly, Max, a 21-year-old white cisgender male, came to believe—through offline conversations with women friends and his mother, as well as online viewings of TED talks on the subject—that pornography was not only unhealthy due to the unrealistic view of sex it generates but also because of its impact on his sexual desires. “When I was watching a lot of porn, when I would have sex, it would be kind of harder to enjoy it or be in the moment,” he said. “I’d be thinking about something that I’d seen in a video.” Both RJ and Max moved back and forth at an intrapsychic level distinguishing between a manufactured fantasy life and the realities of interpersonal sexual relations..

Offline conversations also lead to online sexual explorations. For instance, Mila (21, Latinx/white, cisgender woman, identified as straight in high school and in college), recalled a phone call with her boyfriend, in which he suggested that she watch porn and learn to masturbate. She followed up. “That is how I watched my first porn video,” she said. “I was like, ‘Damn, that’s hot.’ I could probably still tell you who was in that video. I remember it so distinctly.” Encouraged to explore her relationship to her sexual body—her self-desire—in the context of a sexual partnership, she turns to an online platform, bridging the intrapsychic, interpersonal, and cultural levels of sexual scripts.

LGBQ+ Youth Online: Information and Identity Work

Despite some overall similarities, LGBQ + and heterosexual youth differed quite a bit in their uses of online platforms. Although all youth reported initially turning to the Internet for specific sex-educational information, queer youth were more likely to do so. The LGBQ + youth we spoke to also tended to have more varied uses than the heterosexual ones (see Fig.  3 ). The latter turned mainly to sexual entertainment sites (22.9%) or large Internet forums (31.3%); the former turned less frequently to those and accessed a wider range of types of websites from micro-blogging sites (15.8%) to user-generated sites such as Wattpad (12.3%). Over time, LGBQ + youth were likely to search for information about LGBQ + identities (28%), followed by searches for information about safe sex/contraception (14%), sexual practices (13%) and information related to their own or someone else’s pleasure (15%).

In contrast to the primarily pleasure- and entertainment-driven explorations of straight youth, queer youth took to filling in knowledge gaps about non-conforming sexualities. Most significantly, they often reported using digital platforms for what scholars refer to as “identity work” (Bernstein 1997 ; Beech et al. 2008 ). This work took several, often overlapping, forms. One form of identity work came when youth, curious about an inchoate feeling of difference, discovered a sexual identity through their online explorations that they then developed in their daily lives and interactions. Another type of identity work turned to digital spaces to firm up and further develop a sexual identity that was forming offline. Lastly, youth used online spaces for validation of a stigmatized sexual identity, seeking out others with similar experiences in a lower-risk online environment.

The theme of online discovery and exploration of identity, entirely absent among heterosexually-identified respondents, was common among queer ones. These identity explorations online were typically conditioned on both the absence of information about queerness in face-to-face settings and the safe anonymity of the Internet. For instance, Ana Luisa, a Latinx, cisgender lesbian, described being “scared of being looked at differently because I was curious about this stuff.” Online, people would “know me but they didn’t really know me. They didn’t see me in the halls every single day. They didn’t cook my dinner every day. So, I felt like the Internet was really the only place I could go.” Similarly, Ruby—African American, who identified as non-binary and bisexual in high school and currently identifies as non-binary and pansexual—went online at first primarily to absorb information, learning “gay vernacular” and exploring “freely and without barriers” topics that were taboo at home and not addressed in school. The Internet, they said, was like “an elder” they could turn to that neither protected them from information their family deemed dangerous nor judged. In effect, they were engaged in “an internal rehearsal” (Simon and Gagnon 1986 , 99) of their self-identities that could be imagined and fantasized without the intervention of others. Their intrapsychic scripting became a “significant part of the self-process” (Simon and Gagnon 1986 , 99) that they found difficult to explore offline or in conversation with peers, teachers or parents.

Once they began online explorations, identity shifts often evolved, whether born of accident or curiosity. Bryan, for example, whose explorations with heterosexual porn are recounted above, did not turn to online spaces to work through his sexual identity. He was “never into gay porn” as a young teenager—although he now considers that “part of the self-repressing”—and he considered himself “very straight” in high school despite a small inkling that he should be questioning his identity. Later, finding himself drawn to gay porn, he noticed TikToks on Instagram that indicated

a large community of people talking about, “Oh, I thought I was straight but then I had this experience.” And I would just scroll and scroll and scroll. After about 50 of those matched up with my experience, I started to think, “Okay, I need to start thinking about this a little more.”

Thus, his path to bisexual identity, which by college was fully formed, began with the online discovery of people whose experiences “matched up” with his own.

Like Bryan, Abby, age 20, who identifies as Latina and a cisgender woman, was questioning her sexual identity in high school, also began pursuing her curiosities online “before I realized my own identity as a queer person,” then became inspired by her reading of online fan fiction to think differently about her identity.

I was looking for representation, queer media. I was searching for media in some way that kind of represented what I was feeling. And so then I would search for media that would create that feeling in me again. Like, “Damn, I want to be them .” And that was always essentially men who are portrayed in a more feminine way.

Similarly, Sara, age 18, who identifies as Latinx and a cisgender woman, had begun wondering in her first year of high school in Puerto Rico whether she was lesbian. She happened on a thread on Twitter that was “like, ‘How to tell if you’re a lesbian versus just Sapphic in general,’” which led her to the “Lesbian Masterdoc,” a 30-page, 20-section document aimed at helping women consider the “am I a lesbian?” question. “That was a pretty big stepping stone in realizing that I was a lesbian,” they said, “because so much of it resonated, so much of it resembled what I was feeling, so much of it resembled my [offline] experiences.”

For others, identity was not so much discovered as developed and solidified online in relation to offline experiences. Michael’s path to queerness began with sexual explorations involving “watching porn for the sake of jacking off,” and also “learning about some different ways that sex could look or different forms sex could take.” Michael, who grew up in the Midwest and identifies as white, gay and a cisgender male, describes the impact of the Internet on his sexual identity as a process in which he first investigated a little bit to see “what it felt like to be looking at naked guys or whatnot,” but not as the place where he really discovered a queer identity. Instead, an actual crush on another guy moved him towards a queer identity: “Okay, I’m queer because I had this crush on this guy.” After he had already begun that movement toward a queer identity, he says, the Internet became more central to his identity as he began “seeking out and savoring the knowledge that I could get.”

Once I discovered that this is something that I could be, that’s when it opens up these things of exploring who I am. And after having this affirmation that I had these feelings for a guy, that’s when I have permission to be myself to be exploring what that means for me. What I find useful is just being, “Oh, there are possibilities for how I can be.” And seeing what feels good, seeing what feels good to imagine, and to hear people tell stories about things and to learn about things that I might want or that might feel good for me that I haven’t come across in my [offline] life…. Learning about my identity and what feels rich to me, what feels titillating to me, I think is still more what comes from the Internet, reading and hearing other people’s perspectives and whatnot.

Indeed, the discovery or confirmation of new possible identities was also often accompanied by the pursuit of their positive affirmation. Ruby described how “the Internet really exposed me to queerness in a way that was helpful for me to develop my own identity.” While they first turned to online sources to fill in gaps in their knowledge of sexuality, as time went on and their identity shifted, Ruby began to wonder, “What will happen if I come out as queer?” Like many respondents, Ruby turned to online platforms for possible answers, seeking out sites that affirmed that gay and lesbian life could be happy rather than tragic. Watching queer movies online, Ruby said,

there was always a bit of a tragedy to the gay romance. It’s like, all right, is this movie going to let this gay person live and be happy or are they going to die because they’ve been outed. That’s what I was looking to know: Will I perish if I come out and can I live happily ever after?

As they delved deeper, Ruby found themself gravitating to gay, non-binary, and trans YouTubers who “kind of led me through my self-discovery as like non-binary and pansexual.” Unlike the school, family, and peer spaces of their everyday life, the Internet was “a safe space to explore that for myself.” In college, these identity explorations became the basis for a crystallized identity as openly non-binary and pansexual. Like for many respondents, online sexual identity (and sometimes also gender identity) explorations—driven first by the absence of adult information sources about queerness and also often the pursuit of pleasure—took place over a long period of time, eventually becoming the basis for the claiming of a different identity in everyday life offline.

Operating at a time and place where sexuality is in many ways “post-paradigmatic,” with fewer shared meanings, the cultural scenario emerging from schooling has lost many of its “coercive powers” (Simon and Gagnon 1986 , 102–103). In the face of an endless and easily accessed world of online sexual content, along with its own significant institutional constraints, school-based sex education clearly has a greatly diminished role as a controlled source of information (Lindberg et al. 2016 ). School- based sex education, our research once again confirms, provides some students with a narrow swath of knowledge on a limited range of topics, typically related to biological reproduction, the avoidance of pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections, with very little on sex or sexual identity. For many of our respondents, this information was not just too little but also too late, as sexual activity and talk was part of the school culture, and some were already involved in sexual activity. Even those who were sexually curious but not active lacked strong memories of sex education, as they reported that most of the topics they were interested in, such as masturbation or other sexual practices, were simply not addressed. Such perceptions of deficient education existed even in “comprehensive” sex ed settings, where the emphasis was broader than abstinence and disease. Online sexual explorations, on the other hand, were wide-ranging and uncontrolled, often accessed in isolation and without adult guidance, and put to quite divergent uses by youth of different sexual identities.

Just as the experience of sexual learning itself tends to be bifurcated, existing research tends to focus on either school-based sex education or on the “intersection of sexuality and digital space” (Adams-Santos 2020 , 1; Waskul 2014 ); our research highlights the dynamic interaction between formal school curriculum, informal online sexual learning, and sexual identities and practices.

First, as its role as an information source is further diminished, sex education gains significance in a different way: The very absences of information about sexual pleasure and sexual identity further propels youth to seek information elsewhere. Our interviewees rarely talked to their parents about sexual activity, reporting that sex was a taboo topic. Similar to findings from research Elliott ( 2012 ) conducted with parents, our respondents believed that their parents did not recognize them as sexual beings; schools did not go much further. In this context, digital platforms were a place to get answers, without judgment or exposure, to pretty much any sexual question or curiosity, even when they did not know exactly what they were looking for. Online explorations felt exciting as they pieced together information not otherwise available to them, and a place in which youth experienced agency, arming themselves with information lacking in sex ed and in the home, and often countering the framings found in school and at home (abstinence, danger, heteronormativity, and the like). Nearly all the online information, they reported, was new – an indicator, again, that the vacuum left by school-based sex education is an important push towards the digital space.

Second, the push to and pull of the Internet accentuates an ambivalent relationship to the sources of sexual knowledge and how to assess their reliability, particularly as youth are simultaneously operating in at least two very different arenas of authority. Our respondents often reported having been uncertain about the accuracy and reliability of information sources, and looked for ways to triangulate and substantiate online sources; despite a certain eye-rolling skepticism about school-based sex education, they generally assumed that their teachers were reliable authorities, and rarely described a concern about substantiating school-based information. Information learned online was often shared with peers, and tested out practically in relationships. Youth were likely to share websites or make suggestions to friends from the sites they frequented, such as how to make a dental dam out of a condom, use lubricants, or locate erogenous zones even as they also often articulated concerns that the online pornography they consumed gave them a distorted view of sexual activities, bodies, and pleasures. The controlled information from school was seen as reliable but often without much value; the uncontrolled information from online spaces was seen as valuable but often suspect, sometimes even scary.

Third, we have seen a destabilization of the relatively rigid conventional cultural scripts contained in school-based sex ed curricula, displaced by the multifarious and messy cultural scripts circulating within online platforms. The former left little room for identity play and exploration, or for the elaboration of alternative sexual scripts at the interpersonal and intrapsychic levels. Our respondents, particularly those who are LGBQ + -identified, were regularly and actively engaged in identity work and interpersonal re-scripting facilitated by a decentralized, multi-platformed online environment in which no single set of sexual scripts prevails.

Finally, as one set of scholars put it simply, “Sexuality education is exclusive of young people of different sexual and gender orientations, and this exclusion can have various negative impacts” (Gowen and Winges-Yanez 2014 , 799). Much more therefore seems to be riding on self-generated online sexual learning for LGBQ + youth than for others, given the privileging of heteronormative identities in sex education and in school settings more generally, where queer students participated in what one respondent called a “code of silence” regarding queer identification or questioning. In the “post-paradigmatic” context, LGBQ + youth in particular seek not just information but new shared meanings, often improvising interpersonal scripts such that their identities can be made “congruent with desired expectations” (Simon and Gagnon 1986 , 99). One impact, though not an entirely negative one, is LGBQ + youths’ heavy reliance on the Internet for sexual knowledge, identity work, and community not supported in schools. While the classroom was not a safe environment in which students could discuss their discomfort with a heteronormative lens—and often the assumption of heterosexuality—online space was quite the opposite. For many, their digital communities, whether fleeting or more lasting, became critical support. Having found queer community online, the lack of queer community in school became even more evident. The Internet provided an unparalleled source of affirmation and identification that queer interviewees did not find in schools, homes, or local communities.

Our findings are suggestive and, given the data limitations, not nearly the end of the story. Certainly, the need “for relevant and inclusive information on sexual health” (Gowen and Winges-Yanez 2014 , 799), particularly for LGBTQ + youth, is plain; other have suggested, for instance, “directly discussing LGBTQ issues, emphasizing sexually transmitted infection (STI) prevention over pregnancy prevention, and addressing healthy relationships” (Gowen and Winges-Yanez 2014 , 788). One particular gap that future research might seek to fill is the unique sexuality education experiences of transgender and non-binary youth, which may or may not parallel those of LGBQ + youth, and their unique needs. Our research also offers a view on how sexual identity needs affect the consumption of school-based sex education, including how it is remembered—the relative invisibility and exclusion of LGBQ + youth means that the few moments of visibility and inclusion in school curricula carry outsized impact—as well as driving much of the online activity of LGBQ + youth. Future research could usefully develop this line of inquiry.

In the end, our findings shed a different kind of light on the common critiques and calls for reform that contemporary US sex education regularly and rightly receives. For all of their importance, political debates over sex education in schools (Luker 2006 ), and political fights for school board control, may be less relevant for those seeking to understand and advocate for the sexual wellbeing of youth than they appear. Given the institutional constraints on school-based sex education, its role as a driver towards online sexual exploration is likely to continue; in democratic political settings, the digital space will continue serving as a primary setting for sexual learning. Unless schools are willing and institutionally able to recognize and tap into the dynamic interaction between sex education, online sexual explorations, and offline relationships, their role as relevant sources of sexual learning is likely to continue to recede.

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Acknowledgements

We are very grateful to our research team, who substantially contributed to the design, interviewing and coding for this article, as well as providing input on drafts of the paper: Nathaly Andrade, Juliana Juarbe, Genesis Vasquez, and Ella Warburg. We also want to acknowledge Ella Warburg for assistance in creating the Figures presented in this paper. We appreciate the support of the Knapp Center at Wellesley College, which in 2020-21 provided funding for research assistance; and the College or Arts & Sciences Dean’s Office at the University of San Francisco, which supported interview transcription.

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Gamson, J., Hertz, R. “But Everything Else, I Learned Online”: School-Based and Internet-Based Sexual Learning Experiences of Heterosexual and LGBQ + Youth. Qual Sociol 46 , 461–485 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11133-023-09550-w

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