critical thinking in law enforcement

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Critical Thinking: A Core Task of Public Safety Employees

Posted By: publisher October 18, 2022

John G. Peters, Jr., Ph.D.

Critical thinking skills enable law enforcement personnel to analyze information and process it wisely in order to help determine the value of that information and make a decision.

There are too many documented instances of a suspect telling an officer, “I can’t breathe,” only to hear the officer say, “If you’re talking, you’re breathing.” Another example is a handcuffed suspect who tells an officer, “These handcuffs are too tight,” only to be told by the officer, “They weren’t made for comfort,” or “As you wear them, they will soften.” Because these are not isolated examples, you, too, can probably think of similar phrases you have heard from colleagues. One possible explanation for these types of responses is a lack of training in critical thinking .

College Web sites promise critical thinking will be taught to learners, yet few undergraduate programs include it. Professors claim to teach it, but few evaluate their students on it. Public safety academy and in-service instructors support its teaching, but few can give examples of where to find it in curricula or how it can be evaluated. Yet, in frustration, many administrators and/or colleagues will ask, “What was the officer thinking? Why didn’t (s)he do something? These officers can’t think today. Why won’t officers make better decisions?”

Public safety personnel are expected by the public, by their administrators and by others to engage in critical thinking when confronted with a situation. This presumption, which some people argue is indispensable for public safety personnel, reinforces it as a core task within the job description of public safety personnel. The Supreme Court of the United States (SCOTUS) held in City of Canton, Ohio v. Harris , 489 U.S. 378 (1989) that municipalities have an affirmative duty to train employees in core tasks . Municipalities and/or policymakers which fail to conduct such training may be found to be “deliberately indifferent” when it can be shown that there was an obvious need for more or different training, and the failure to train was likely to result in the violation of a person’s constitutional rights. In short, it is vital to include education and training about critical thinking in recruit and in-service training programs.

Critical Thinking Defined

There are many critical thinking definitions, all focusing on the process of evaluating spoken or written statements. Critical thinking involves active listening, reading, evaluation of behavioral cues and signs, looking for hidden agendas, and thinking through the consequences of a person’s or a document’s claim(s). In other words, officers must carefully and deliberately determine if a person’s claim(s) should be accepted, rejected or if suspension of judgment is in order before deciding a person’s claim is true or false. Officers must also identify and consider the potential outcomes and consequences of ignoring such claims. For this article, the focus is limited to an individual’s claim.

Claims Which Require Critical Thinking

Almost every day, public safety personnel engage people who may make claims about what the officer or others are doing, have done and so forth. Examples include saying, “I can’t breathe,” “I didn’t take no drugs,” “I didn’t do anything,” “I didn’t hit him,” and “Stop using excessive force.” Of course, the last claim may come in the form of a written “Citizen Complaint” which requires interviewing the officer(s) involved and performing an investigation. Internal Investigators and administrators must then use their critical thinking skills to judge if the claims are true, but that discussion is for another article.

Critical Thinking Steps

Regardless of the critical thinking definition adopted and used, there are three basic steps involved in critical thinking:

1. Evaluating the information available and/or received from the individual or others and then assessing it (e.g., “I’m having difficulty breathing”). The officer must analyze and weigh the arguments and/or evidence presented. The officer must try to separate fact from opinion.

2. Determining if the claim appears to be true (err on the side of the claim) and

3. Forming a conclusion which, based on the officer’s reasoning, most likely, the person’s claim is true or false or, if there is not enough information, suspending judgment until more information has been obtained. Officers must also be aware of any conscious and/or unconscious bias creeping into their decision-making process.

Obviously, education, training, experience, and organizational culture may impact an officer’s ability to think critically about a claim made by individuals or others. Ask yourself, “Have I been trained to think critically?” Even more legally focused, has your employer trained you to use and apply the three critical thinking steps and also evaluate you on your conclusion when given situational-based scenarios? If “no,” your employer may have failed to train you and other employees on how to objectively evaluate a claim made by an individual and then reach a conclusion about it, in addition to creating a potential failure to train liability argument.

Asking officers how they used the three critical thinking steps to evaluate claims at the end of a scenario-based training exercise is important for the trainer to fully understand how officers arrived at their conclusions. If one or more conclusions are faulty and cannot be substantiated, remedial review and instruction can be immediately given to those officers before immersing them in another situational-based scenario.

Public safety instructors must include critical thinking concepts, steps and skills in their educating and training of recruits and experienced colleagues. Incorporate into written lesson plans critical thinking definitions, concepts, evaluation steps, applications, possible consequences, and competency-based testing before instructing officers about critical thinking. Doing so will help to make recruits and officers better problem solvers, decision makers and also help to defeat plaintiff claims of failing to train officers in the core task of critical thinking.

Instruction in critical thinking must be viewed as a continuing process and not as a project . Simply providing a single lecture on the subject is not enough. Critical thinking must be reinforced daily through roll call training, by field training officers and by supervisors. Debriefing of incidents involving suspects or other claims which were evaluated and decided by officers is another excellent way to review critical thinking steps and how officers made judgments about those claims.

Experience

An officer’s experience may enhance or hinder his/her ability to think critically in a variety of situations. Officers with more life experience or with critical thinking training may develop better critically thinking skill sets and thus better decision-making than those officers with limited experience. Experience may include education and training. But, don’t be fooled by a colleague who boasts 20 years of “on the job” experience because, for some people, it is nothing more than one year of experience duplicated for 19 more years. Life experiences are often subjective, limited in scope and may not be good indicators of critical thinking skills. Many people can think of family members or colleagues who will not make decisions because they are afraid of making a mistake; do not want to be held accountable; or who simply cannot critically think about and evaluate the information given to them, thus prohibiting them from deciding. One must remember, however, that the failure to make a decision is a decision to not make one!

Organizational Culture

The organizational culture where officers work or are assigned may impact their critical thinking skills. Wheelen and Hunger (2006) defined organizational culture as “the collection of beliefs, expectations and values learned and shared by the [organization’s] members and transmitted from one generation of employees to another . . . and generally reflects the [leaders] and the mission of the [organization].” The organizational culture also includes the subcultures throughout the organization.

Have you ever worked for a strict, by the book supervisor, only to be promoted or transferred to another unit where the supervisor was disinterested or worse, telling everyone that, whatever you do, the supervisor will have your back? Some workshop lawyers and supervisors tell attendees or subordinates not to worry about using force because, with a consult, they can help with writing a report justifying it. Aside from being unethical, this attitude helps develop an unhealthy organizational subculture which can eliminate or dilute the importance of developing and using critical thinking skills.

Organizational subculture can be defined as the set attitudes and values which shape employee behavior. The subculture commands our attention because it is generally seen as a major obstacle to reform and, thus, a powerful force working to erode any reforms which are in fact achieved, such as education and training in critical thinking. Often within an organizational subculture, there are unwritten ground rules which produce the “actual” culture of the organization, unit and/or shift (e.g., in this unit, we do not follow policy). As previously mentioned, if officers know their supervisor will support them regardless of what they do, they may not practice critical thinking because event outcomes will not be viewed as negative by the supervisor.

Critical Thinking in Today’s Law Enforcement Environment

Every week, there are stories claiming public safety officers did not act when they should have acted (think Uvalde, Texas); acted when they should not have acted (think George Floyd); or did not critically think about their actions (think TASER ® deployment on a person drenched in gasoline). Increasingly, public safety officers are being criminally charged and civilly sued. It also appears that more officers are losing their criminal cases and being sent to jail (think Minneapolis officers who did not intervene and stop their supervisor’s force).

A growing number of states and municipalities are passing legislation which implicitly demands public safety officers critically think before acting or they may face criminal charges given a negative outcome (think death or serious injury). For example, in 2022, California Government Code Section 7286.5 changed regarding positional asphyxia. The law now requires law enforcement officers to reasonably monitor a person for signs of asphyxia. The law also prohibits agencies using or authorizing prisoner transport methods which involve a substantial risk of positional asphyxia. Obviously, training on positional asphyxia, asphyxia, asphyxiation, critical thinking, and the law must now be incorporated into the academy and in-service educational and training curricula.

Monitoring requirements for a restrained person involve an officer’s use of critical thinking skills. Should the restrained person claim breathing difficulty, the officer must decide if the claim is valid or if it is a trick to get the officer closer to them in order to attack. Similarly, officers must now critically think about how to position a prisoner for transport prior to the transport. Two Boulder County (CO) Sheriff’s Deputies were criminally convicted and are serving their jail sentences after a Boulder City officer asked them to transport a young male who was severely intoxicated. During the transport to an alcohol treatment center in a police van, the young man died.

Call to Action

Trainers, educators and administrators of public safety employees must educate and train learners, recruits and in-service personnel in the core task of critical thinking, including the steps involved in arriving at appropriate decisions, using a variety of topics with associated claims. Leadership and management must also continuously review these steps with subordinates so they remember and apply them. Examples may include using actual or hypothetical case studies, reviewing examples of poor judgment when facing claims, and so forth. Education and training on critical thinking must be an ongoing process . Employees need to be educated and trained about critical thinking concepts, and then be given the opportunity to apply the steps of critical thinking to evaluate a claim and to develop a conclusion, erring on the side of the claim, regardless of the organizational culture or subculture. Case studies and/or scenario-based training are two safe environments to evaluate critical thinking skills. Holding employees accountable without first educating and training them is unethical, unfair and morale depleting. In today’s changing society, employers, educators, trainers, leaders, and managers can no longer ignore the need for education and training about critical thinking and its application to hypothetical and to real claims, including assessing employee critical thinking skill sets, judgment and decision making.

John G. Peters, Jr., Ph.D. is a frequent contributor to Police and Security News . He serves as president of the internationally recognized training firm, Institute for the Prevention of In-Custody Deaths, Inc., and as Executive Director of The Americans for Effective Law Enforcement. An instructional designer, John has developed online programs for several universities, including a course on critical thinking. He has taught leadership, management, critical thinking, research methods, and statistics at the undergraduate and graduate levels. A judicially qualified expert witness, he has testified in international (Hong Kong), federal and state courts about use of force, arrest-related deaths, training, and policies.

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Decision-making skills that encompass a critical thinking orientation for law enforcement professionals

2009, International Journal of Police Science & Management

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Critical Thinking Training for Law Enforcement Recruits, Officers, & Leaders

It is time to incorporate robust critical thinking into your law enforcement agency at this revolutionary time in our history, in which a more humane approach to law enforcement will be increasingly required. We are aware of the various discussions focused on de-escalating violent situations involving law enforcement interactions. However, revolutionizing how law enforcement agencies operate is not simple, since changing the way law enforcement officers think is not simple. It is only by incorporating mandatory fairminded critical thinking courses/programs into law enforcement training across the board that we can bring about the long-term permanent change needed to deal with the crisis at hand, and to move into a more compassionate and charitable future. Our fellows and facilitators can lead onsite workshops for your law enforcement agency, and we are happy to put together a proposal for online short courses on critical thinking for your police officers and leaders (based on your circumstances and setting). Your law enforcement agency, using training in explicit fairminded critical thinking, can become a model for law enforcement agencies and police academies across the nation.

Recruits, Officers, and Leaders in Our Online Courses and On-Site Training Programs Will:

Critical Thinking: Using Social and Emotional Intelligence in Public Safety

December 23, 2022 | Rex Scism

I started working in law enforcement during the late 1980s. At that time, the agencies I worked for were located in busy jurisdictions where we ran from one call to the next. Like many organizations, we were shorthanded. Communication in the field was short and sweet. We took care of business and moved on to the next call for service without giving much thought to human relationships. Community policing was a relatively new term. We knew the importance of forging positive relationships. But time was the primary focus.

Fast-forward several decades and time is still an important factor when juggling the myriad responsibilities found in public safety. The relationship factor is equally important and effective communication is essential to accomplishing the mission. Early in my career, I was extremely task-oriented while handling calls and dealing with the public. As time went on, I realized there was much more to a call than a “ just the facts, ma’am ” approach. People want to be heard. But communication is complicated .

During the past decade we’ve heard more about social and emotional intelligence in public safety and how these competencies contribute to enhancing critical thinking, while helping us establish positive relationships. Now, public safety professionals are even required to attend training that focuses on developing these skills. But what are emotional and social intelligence really about and why are they necessary in today’s climate? To answer that question, we need to explore how these competencies directly relate to public safety.

Emotional Intelligence

Spiritual master Dr. Amit Ray is often quoted as saying, “Emotional intelligence is the foundation of leadership. It balances flexibility with toughness, vision with passion, compassion with justice.” Psychology Today defines emotional intelligence (EI) as “… the ability to identify and manage one’s own emotions, as well as the emotions of others.” Professor Gregory Saville stresses that becoming emotionally mature and confident are necessary prerequisites to influencing other people’s emotions.

It’s easy to get caught up in the minutia of a busy day while failing to consider the human dynamic that can make or break a situation.

It’s no mystery that today’s public safety professionals need to have well-developed human skills and be able to communicate effectively, while managing both inter- and intradepartmental relationships. Dr. David Black notes how “emotional intelligence isn’t something we’re born with; it’s a tactical skill set we must develop.” Dr. Michael Pittaro from American Military University takes it a step further and identifies four critical skills for developing social and emotional intelligence in public safety:

1. Self-Awareness : Requires knowing our own strengths, weaknesses, emotions and circumstances that impact how we feel in certain situations. 2. Self-Management: Involves controlling our emotions, especially in situations where we might spontaneously respond in a disruptive manner. It also includes self-monitoring and knowing when it’s appropriate to act. 3. Social Awareness : Requires empathy for the feelings, needs and concerns of others. This is a big factor in building rapport since it involves understanding a person’s mood or behavior in a way that improves the relationship. 4. Relationship Management : This expands on social awareness by developing bonds and making people feel supported and understood.

In public safety, social competencies such as conflict management , empathy and leadership are also important. These skill sets are required on nearly every call for service. There is a strong relationship between emotional intelligence and building trust in the communities we serve. And to make the most of this valuable competency, it’s also necessary to clearly understand complex social relationships—which in turn requires an understanding of social intelligence.

Social Intelligence

Bnidhu and Snigh’s research identified social intelligence (SI) as “the ability to understand the feelings, thoughts, and behaviors of persons, including oneself … and to act appropriately upon that understanding.” Simply put, SI refers to our ability to read other people and understand their intentions and motivations—making strong human connections. When human beings make these connections, they are better equipped to adjust to new situations or adopt alternative courses of action based on a variety of situationally dependent variables.

Savvy public safety professionals use this important competency on a daily basis without even thinking. But it’s important to note SI is another learned competency. We develop this skillset through experiences and interactions with people. As Dr. Ronald Riggio points out, we learn “from the successes and failures in social settings.” Some key elements of SI include:

Verbal fluency and conversational skills : This largely involves being tactful and appropriate—working or reading the room, as they say.
Knowing social roles, rules, and scripts : Also known as “playing the game,” this social intelligence element involves conforming to the unwritten rules or norms that govern how humans interact with one another in social or group settings.
Effective listening skills : Being a good listener goes without saying in this industry, but human beings are hardwired to care more about our own thoughts, opinions and feelings. In other words, we are selfish and must work to set aside our own basic needs to connect with others, especially in situations where emotions are at play.
Impression management : Those working in public safety are keenly aware of the importance of making a good impression. There is obviously a delicate balance between managing the image you portray and how it comes across to others. How you wear the uniform , your level of self-confidence, and skill competencies all play a role in how you professionally interact with both your peers and the public while on the job.

In public safety, we must be able to quickly adjust to new situations and adopt effective courses of action that allow us to connect with the people we serve. How do emotional intelligence and social intelligence competencies relate to critical thinking in public safety ?

The Relationship to Critical Thinking

Effective critical thinking requires us to overcome individual biases and false assumptions. How many times have you responded to a call for service and immediately drew conclusions about what occurred or hastily decided upon a necessary course of action, only to significantly change direction after hearing all the facts? We’ve all been there. Our experience and training largely contribute to our success, but it can also inhibit our ability to rationalize when we’re faced with new challenges in unfamiliar territory.

In public safety, social competencies such as conflict management, empathy and leadership are required on nearly every call for service.

As Phillips and Burrell point out, “critical thinking and effective problem-solving is an optimal process to reach well-thought-out decisions.” This level of analysis is paramount if we wish to actually solve a problem without settling on some mediocre alternative. And it requires us to have a strong understanding of our own capabilities relative to both social and emotional intelligence. Critical thinking allows us to:

Develop paths to reasoned judgment when variables in a situation change or evolve.
Understand how to build group consensus around complex issues (or at least engage in conversation directed toward problem resolution).
Learn to encourage and ensure consideration of breakthrough or “outside the box” ideas or thinking.

The key centers on enhancing our ability to solve problems constructively after careful consideration of rational alternatives. This also requires some level of analytical assessment as we determine which course of action is necessary for a given situation.

If we consider critical thinking from a social and emotional intelligence standpoint, we also need to deal with some internal noise. Factor in your own egocentrism and be realistic about the impact of individual emotions on decision making. We also need to be aware of group influences in our lives. Public safety professionals have a lot in common and it’s not unusual to develop behaviors that are encouraged within that group. This may or may not be beneficial when dealing with certain members of the public. Awareness is the key. As India yoga guru Sadhguru said, “When your mind is full of assumptions, conclusions, and beliefs, it has no penetration, it just repeats past impressions.”

Making Your Job Easier

Critical thinking often requires us to overcome what we think we know about a given situation and approach it with an open mind. This means not only managing our emotions and understanding the emotions of others, but also placing those emotions and feelings in the proper context. As with anything, it’s crucial we are self-aware of our own biases, our capacity to understand others, and the limitations to effective communication.

Although it’s tempting to rush through that next call for service in the interest of time, take a moment to slow down, regroup, and consider critical social and emotional competencies that I promise will make your job easier. Most of this is grounded in common sense, but it’s easy to get caught up in the minutia of a busy day while failing to consider the human dynamic that can make or break a situation.

Psychology Today . (nd). Emotional Intelligence. Accessed 11/19/22 from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/emotional-intelligence
Saville G. (2015) Emotional Intelligence in Policing. The Police Chief . Accessed 11/19/22 from https://tmctraining.net/wp-content/uploads/Article_PoliceChief-EI-in-Policing-Saville-2015.pdf.
Black D. (2022) The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Public Safety. Cordico . Accessed 11/19/22 from https://www.cordico.com/2022/05/04/role-of-emotional-intelligence-in-public-safety/ .
Pittaro M. (2017) How emotional intelligence benefits correctional officers. Corrections1 . Accessed 11/19/22 from https://www.corrections1.com/products/training-products/articles/how-emotional-intelligence-benefits-correctional-officers-6ZmCe3nVhX1CLFIF/ .
Bnidhu J. and Snigh P. (2022). The Structure and Cultivation of Social Intelligence. Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities . 4(3):58.
Riggioi R. (2014) What is Social Intelligence? Why Does it Matter? Psychology Today . Accessed 11/19/22 from https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/cutting-edge-leadership/201407/what-is-social-intelligence-why-does-it-matter .
Phillips W and Burrell D. (2008) Decision-making skills that encompass a critical thinking orientation for law enforcement professionals. International Journal of Police Science and Management. 11(2).

CAPTAIN REX M. SCISM (Ret.) is a 32-year law enforcement veteran and former director of research and development for the Missouri State Highway Patrol. He also had a successful military career, retiring from the Missouri Army National Guard after 20 years of service. Mr. Scism served as a public safety and private sector consultant and instructor for over 20 years. He formerly served as an adjunct faculty member in the Department of Criminal Justice for both Columbia College and the University of Central Missouri, and is a frequent contributor to multiple sources about various public safety topics. Mr. Scism is a graduate of the FBI National Academy’s 249th Session and currently serves as a content developer for Lexipol.

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Today’s tip from gordon graham:, don’t rush to clear the call, stepping up as a supervisor: what the data tells us, related posts.

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Improvements in Policing: It’s Not Only What We Train, but How We Train

Teresina g. robbins university of new haven.

Though concerns about police use of force did not begin with the death of Michael Brown in Ferguson, this event seems to have been the catalyst for 6 years of increasing calls for justice for the deaths of unarmed men, particularly Black men, at the hands of police. Advocates of the Black community have called for defunding or abolition of the police establishment. Others have argued that there is a need for a dramatic overhaul of police training – particularly with regard to racial bias and the use of force. The House of Representatives addressed the call for changes in policing training and passed H.R. 1280. The bill aims to reduce religious and racial profiling through various means, including police training. This policy brief reviews the research on these issues and offers several policy suggestions. I argue that moving from a paramilitary structure to a more conducive learning environment and applying a learner-centered approach to aspects of law enforcement training is a justified starting point for re-establishing police legitimacy and a reduction in misuse of force. This brief is intended for those in charge of decision-making for law enforcement training.

On April 20, 2021, a jury convicted former police officer Derek Chauvin in the murder of George Floyd. While arresting Floyd for an allegedly fraudulent twenty-dollar bill, Chauvin put Floyd in a prone position on the ground, and then put his knee on Floyd’s neck for over nine minutes. Chief Arradondo said Chauvin “should have stopped” as soon as Floyd stopped resisting, and “certainly when he was in distress…” (Griffith, 2021). The verdict culminated a historic series of Black Lives Matter protests across the country. These protests were not just for Floyd, but for what supporters argue is embedded racism in law enforcement and a lack of accountability. George Floyd was not the first unarmed Black person to die at the hands of the police. Still, his death and Chauvin’s conviction seem to have opened the floodgates for open acknowledgment of the problems plaguing policing in the United States.

Calls for change range from improved training to abolishing police altogether, with the defunding movement falling somewhere in the middle. In an Op-ed for Cosmopolitan , American Civil Liberties Union Policing Policy Advisor Paige Fernandez (2021) argued that government officials should divert funding from law enforcement budgets and invest in programs like job training and violence reduction. On the other hand, abolitionists say these are merely steps to dismantle and rebuild what society thinks is policing, in part because simple reform allows for appeasement without demonstrable change in underlying issues (McDowell & Fernandez, 2018). Expectedly, however, there is a great deal of pushback on these critical stances. Nationally, Congressional bill 1280, also known as the “George Floyd Justice in Policing Act 2020,” focuses on reform through transparency and accountability, and requires de-escalation and implicit bias training. This paper focuses on just one section of H.R. 1280, Title III: Improving Police Training and Policies, cited as the “End Racial and Religious Profiling Act 2021 (ERRPA)”.

The plans outlined in the bill are well-intentioned, though vague and superficial. The suggestions to train law enforcement personnel on data collection, racial profiling issues, and profiling prevention do have merit, but also feel like political theater. At best, progressive agencies will continue to use evidence-informed best practices, and at worst, agencies will do nothing. Therefore, this brief intends to aid police departments in making a meaningful bridge between policy and practice. I do this first by addressing the current state of police training. Specifically, I will discuss the current state of law enforcement training in the United States. Second, I summarize the research on three types of training: implicit bias, procedural justice, and de-escalation. The summary is followed by a discussion of the different approaches to teaching recruits. I then provide three policy options addressing the advantages and disadvantages for each. Empirical research is used to support recommendations for law enforcement agencies.

Current State of Police Training

There has been a great deal of recent discussion about what we should train cops, but little on how we should prepare them. This section begins with an overview of current police training in the United States. Then I summarize the research on three types of training: implicit bias, procedural justice, and de-escalation. Finally, I discuss the theory of andragogy and its focus on a learner-centered approach, before introducing policy options.

Police Training Today

In this section, I focus on the models under which recruits learn and the time spent on use of force training. About 81% of police recruits train under a stress model embedded in the curriculum (Reaves, 2016). Stress models are similar to military training, where the focus is on performing under periods of stress, including strict rules, exercise as punishment, and insults (Chappell & Lanza-Kaduce, 2010). When it comes to the use of force, recruits spent about 71 hours on firearms training, but 21 hours on the use of force. It is essential to point out that those 21 hours may include policies, de-escalation tactics, and crisis intervention strategies.

What We Know: Training

Recently, the Council on Criminal Justice’s (CCJ) Task Force on Policing (2021a; 2021b; 2021c) compiled a set of reports analyzing the most critical and rigorous research on training commonly cited as necessary to decreasing use of force and racial biases in police officers and departments. The following sections summarize the findings and policy implications of implicit bias, procedural justice, and de-escalation training based on the CCJ reports and other research.

Implicit Bias

Implicit bias affects how someone acts or makes decisions, often based on stereotypes, and is different from blatant racism in that it is an unconscious reaction. Given the topic of this brief, it is useful to illustrate an example with race. Implicit bias affects how an officer reacts to a Black male and a White male in the same situation. The goal of implicit bias training is to help officers slow down and acknowledge these potential biases before acting. However, researchers question the efficacy of implicit bias training (Spencer et al., 2016), particularly for long-term gains (Lai et al., 2014, 2016). Others argue that it can do more harm than good (Bagenstos, 2018). Ultimately, the CCJ suggests that procedural justice and de-escalation training might be a more effective way to reduce force, given the minimal evidence of the effectiveness of implicit bias training (CCJ: Task Force on Policing, 2021b)

Procedural Justice

Procedural justice involves fairness, transparency, impartiality, and room for individuals to have a voice (COPS Office, n.d.), a reasonable request for police-community interactions. In general, the goal of procedural justice is for anyone with contact with police, from victims to suspects, to feel that police treated them fairly and provided the opportunity to explain their side of the story. Equity in treatment is significant given the current issues with police legitimacy in Black and Brown communities.

There is little evidence that procedural justice improves problems with racial disparity, but there is growing evidence that it increases trust, thereby increasing police legitimacy (CCJ, 2021c). The CCJ further argues that agencies should combine external procedural justice with internal procedural justice to be effective and partnered with increased de-escalation training to see improvements in misuse of force.

De-escalation

In an earlier policy brief, Geyer (2020) recommended three solutions for officer-involved shootings, with her research supporting a recommendation that agencies significantly increase de-escalation training. The CCJ (2021a) review supports Geyer’s (2020) arguments and suggests combining training with department policy reinforces the importance of reducing use of force incidents – both in number and severity. However, in a recent systematic review of de-escalation training evaluations, Engel and colleagues (2020) argue that most available research suffers from a lack of quality. Therefore, they are cautious in saying that de-escalation training works. They call for academics, practitioners, and funders to prioritize rigorously designed de-escalation studies and other training that can affect the use of force.

Summary of Training Types

Overall, procedural justice and de-escalation training are the most promising avenues for future police training and legitimacy improvements. What stands out when considering why implicit bias training has not been shown to be effective, while procedural justice and de-escalation training are more promising, are their delivery methods. Implicit bias training was primarily handled in a classroom setting, while procedural justice and de-escalation training involved more hands-on practical training (CCJ: Task Force on Policing, 2021a, 2021c, 2021b). These student-centered methods are more akin to the adult learning theory of andragogy.

Andragogy and Learner-Centered Approaches

Traditionally, instructors taught police recruits through behavioral and cognitive approaches to learning. The behavioral approach assumes that repetition is the key to understanding. The cognitive approach is akin to a lecture style where the instructor imparts their wisdom to their (hopefully) attentive students. While this may be excellent for learning the basics, it does not allow for the advancement of critical thinking and problem-solving skills (Birzer & Tannehill, 2001).

Much of the discussion on learner-centered approaches focus on community policing (Birzer & Tannehill, 2001; Chappell & Lanza-Kaduce, 2010), likely because student-centered approaches can improve critical thinking and problem-solving skills necessary for community policing (Belur et al., 2019). The concepts are still relevant outside the community policing paradigm, such as mundane encounters with community members and for use in de-escalation. The behavioral and cognitive learning approaches used in many academies are appropriate for learning mechanical tasks like conducting a traffic stop, investigation, or writing a report (Birzer, 2003). They are also perfectly valid for firearms training. However, police spend most of their time on non-violent service calls where mechanical skills are unnecessary, but communication and problem-solving important (Asher & Horwitz, 2020).

Policy Options

The section above provided an overview of the current state of law enforcement training and a summary of the research on the efficacy of various training to reduce misuse of force and improve police legitimacy. I also introduced the theory of andragogy and how it can apply to policing. Given the evidence base available on effective and promising training options, and how andragogy is applied to policing, there are three policy options. Each option includes policy options on structure, learning approach, and time spent on de-escalation and procedural justice training.

Policy Option 1

Structure : retain the paramilitary structure
Learning approach : behavioral/cognitive only
Curriculum : retain current curriculum

Policy Option 2

Learning approach : behavioral/cognitive for mechanical; student-centered for critical thinking and problem solving

Policy Option 3

Structure : Reduce paramilitary structure
Curriculum : increase time spent on procedural justice and de-escalation

Considerations

Policy option 1 .

Policy option one retains the paramilitary structure and behavioral learning approach, but with renewed curriculum, including increased procedural justice and de-escalation hours.

Policy option two retains the paramilitary structure and behavioral learning approach for mechanical tasks, but uses a student-centered approach for critical thinking and problem-solving. This option also calls for a change in the curriculum by increasing hours in procedural justice and de-escalation.

Policy option three reduces the paramilitary structure by creating an environment that is more conducive to learning, but retains a behavioral learning approach for mechanical tasks. This option also calls for a shift to a student-centered approach for critical thinking and problem solving and a change in the curriculum by increasing procedural justice and de-escalation hours.

Recommendation

The policy recommendations in this brief are merely a starting point for improving the state of police training and regaining legitimacy from the communities they serve. Tensions are high, and opinions are emotionally charged. The situation is systemic and more complex than presented in this brief. Still, there cannot be progress without forward momentum. Such improvement should be evidence-informed and planned. Therefore, after reviewing the current state of available literature and the potential for actual change, I recommend agencies adopt policy option three. Policy option three includes the following changes: (1) reduce the paramilitary and stress-based structure of police academies in favor of a more conducive learning environment, (2) embed andragogy and student-centered learning for critical thinking and problem-solving skill development, and (3) increase the time spent on procedural justice and de-escalation training.

Why Reduce the Paramilitary Model?

Overall the paramilitary model does not provide an opportunity for self-directed or empowered learning (Birzer, 2003). The use of the paramilitary model is counterintuitive given the discretion afforded to police officers who are entirely self-directed in the field. The strict obedience required in the academy is also counterintuitive to developing skills that translate to improved community relationships (Chappell & Lanza-Kaduce, 2010). Learning under such stress helps teach recruits how to perform in stressful situations, but not at the expense of developing other essential skills.

Why Balance Behavioral, Cognitive, and Student-Centered Approaches?

It is important to remember that these learning types are not dichotomous, nor is one necessarily better than the other (Dwyer & Laufersweiler-Dwyer, 2004). As mentioned in the background section, behavioral and cognitive approaches to learning are perfectly acceptable for mechanical tasks. At the same time, andragogy is better suited to developing critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Further, this may encourage recruits to take an active role in their learning (Birzer & Tannehill, 2001). Ultimately, I suggest keeping the behavioral and cognitive approach where it applies best and using student-centered learning when there is a need for critical thinking or problem-solving.

Advantages and Challenges

There will be implementation challenges. One must consider that curriculum needs to be developed, and instructors must be adequately trained (see Shipton, 2011). While the paramilitary structure is also not conducive for critical thinking, police academies have a long tradition of using this method, so resistance is expected. Finally, agencies may also be concerned with costs. Already facing economic issues coupled with calls for defunding, departments may be reluctant to invest money into making such sweeping changes.

Despite these challenges, the advantages outweigh the costs. With proper implementation of an environment that supports effective learning (Birzer, 2003), departments can expect improved critical thinking and problem-solving(Belur et al., 2019). Properly incorporating procedural justice can help improve community relationships and police legitimacy – provided agencies also embrace internal procedural justice (CCJ, 2021c). And finally, though more research is needed, de-escalation, coupled with that procedural justice, may reduce the use and misuse of force (CCJ: Task Force on Policing, 2021a; Engel et al., 2020; Geyer, 2020).

On a final note, this policy brief is not an exhaustive discussion of the changes needed to ensure successful training of police recruits, improve police legitimacy, or reduce misuse of force. This brief focused on structure, types of training, and how we train. I do not address the necessary cultural shifts and other necessary policy changes here, which are also relevant. Instead, I chose to limit focus as a starting point. There is much more work to do.

Annotated Bibliography

Asher, J., & Horwitz, B. (2020, June 19). How do the police actually spend their time? The New York Times . https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/19/upshot/unrest-police-time-violent-crime.html

The article addresses the time police spend on various calls for service. Using publicly available data, the authors found that police spend more time responding to noncriminal complaints and traffic incidents than violent crime. While the authors only used data from ten agencies, the information demonstrates the importance of considering what types of activities police spend their time on when debated the best way to handle current shortcomings.

Bagenstos, S. R. (2018). Implicit bias’s failure. Berkeley Journal of Employment and Labor Law , 39 (1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3015031

Bagenstos argues that the rise of implicit bias may have made addressing discrimination more complex from a political perspective. He further asserts that implicit bias triggers a similar defensive response as accusations of blatant racism, making it challenging to address discrimination. The article is an excellent read for anyone interested in an opposing perspective of implicit bias.

Belur, J., Agnew-Pauley, W., McGinley, B., & Tompson, L. (2019). A systematic review of police recruit training programmes. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice . https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paz022

In a systematic review of the global literature on police recruit training programs, the authors suggest that student-centered learning approaches help recruits develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills. This review is an excellent summary of the training research and is valuable for academics and practitioners alike.

Birzer, M. L. (2003). The theory of andragogy applied to police training. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management , 26 (1), 29–42. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639510310460288

The author explores the theory of andragogy applied to police training and argues that a student-centered approach is best suited for aspects of policing that require critical thinking and problem-solving skills. It is a must-read for those interested in making improvements in policing training.

Birzer, M. L., & Tannehill, R. (2001). A more effective training approach for contemporary policing. Police Quarterly , 4 (2), 233–252. https://doi.org/10.1177/109861101129197815

Birzer and Tannehill focus on what police trainers can do to improve learning outcomes for recruits. They suggest student-centered learning through andragogy fosters critical thinking and problem-solving skills by keeping officers engaged in the learning process. I highly recommend this article for policing instructors in academia and the police academy.

Council on Criminal Justice: Task Force on Policing. (2021a). De-escalation policies and training . [Policy Assessment]. Council on Criminal Justice. https://assets.foleon.com/eu-west-2/uploads-7e3kk3/41697/de-escalation_training.9f4b662e97c2.pdf

This policy assessment summarizes relevant literature on de-escalation training and evaluates its effectiveness in two areas relevant to this paper's topic: police misuse of force and strengthening community trust. The authors found that de-escalation training combined with de-escalation policies can reduce misuse of force. They further argue that a reduction in misuse in force may lead to improved community trust. The assessment is especially relevant for practitioners who do not have time to review a mountain of research or cannot access academic journals.

Council on Criminal Justice: Task Force on Policing. (2021b). Implicit bias training . [Policy Assessment]. Council on Criminal Justice. https://assets.foleon.com/eu-west-2/uploads-7e3kk3/41697/implicit_bias.9681943c82c2.pdf

The policy assessment referenced summarizes the empirical literature on implicit bias training. The authors found that there is limited evidence that implicit bias training reduces misuse of force and does not strengthen community trust on its own. However, they acknowledge that pairing implicit bias with reconciliation conversations may lead to improved community trust. The assessment is especially relevant for practitioners who do not have time to review a mountain of research or cannot access academic journals.

Council on Criminal Justice: Task Force on Policing. (2021c). Procedural justice training . [Policy Assessment]. Council on Criminal Justice. https://assets.foleon.com/eu-west-2/uploads-7e3kk3/41697/procedural_justice_training.234ca94dfcf5.pdf

In summarizing the empirical literature on procedural justice training, the authors found some support that procedural justice, coupled with de-escalation tactics, reduces misuse of force. They also note that the evidence suggests a strong association between community perceptions of police interactions. Given the goals of procedural justice, it would not be surprising to see improved relationships. However, they note perceptions go beyond individual encounters with police. The assessment is especially relevant for practitioners who do not have time to review a mountain of research or cannot access academic journals.

Chappell, A. T., & Lanza-Kaduce, L. (2010). Police academy socialization: Understanding the lessons learned in a paramilitary-bureaucratic organization. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography , 39 (2), 187–214. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891241609342230

This observational study focused on the socialization of police officers in one academy that introduced a new community policing and problem-solving curriculum. The relevant findings for this brief are that the paramilitary structure of the police academy is not conducive to critical thinking and problem-solving.

Community Oriented Policing Services, U.S. Department of Justice. (n.d.). Procedural justice, COPS Office . Retrieved April 23, 2021, from https://cops.usdoj.gov/prodceduraljustice

The procedural justice section on the COPS Office website offers resources on procedural justice and its connections to community policing and police legitimacy. The website is a good starting point for anyone with an interest in learning more about this topic.

Dwyer, R. G., & Laufersweiler-Dwyer, D. (2004). The need for change: A call for action in community oriented police training perspective. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin , 73 (11), 18–24.

The authors explore pedagogy and andragogy applied to police training - mainly community-oriented police training. They argue that an integrated model is preferable, given officers must learn mechanical and critical thinking skills. This article provides an excellent argument for integrated teaching methods in police training.

Engel, R. S., McManus, H. D., & Herold, T. D. (2020). Does de-escalation training work? Criminology & Public Policy , 19 (3), 721–759. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12467

In a systematic review of de-escalation training, Engel and colleagues found no adverse effects of de-escalation training. They note that many of the studies reviewed had low-quality designs, making it difficult to evaluate the training's effectiveness. This article is timely and brings to light the importance of rigorous research in policymaking.

Fernandez, P. (2021, April 13). Defunding the police isn’t radical. It’s logical . Cosmopolitan. https://www.cosmopolitan.com/politics/a32757152/defund-police-black-lives-matter/

This opinion editorial takes the perspective of critical criminology to argue the logic behind defunding police and reallocating the money to other public services. The author posits that such a broken institution cannot be improved but must be dismantled and rebuilt. I recommend reading this article regardless of where your opinion falls on this topic.

Geyer, P. (2020). Traveling at 1000 feet per second with unalterable consequences: How to decrease police officer-involved shootings. EBP Quarterly , 5 (2). https://www.ebpsociety.org/blog/quarterly/440-ebp-quarterly-2020-volume-5-number-2

In this policy brief, Geyer addresses potential policies to decreases office-involved shootings. She ultimately argues for a dramatic increase in de-escalation training. This piece would be most beneficial for law enforcement decision-makers interested in making changes to their training curriculum.

Griffith, J. (2021, April 13). Former officer testifies Derek Chauvin was “justified” in pinning down George Floyd . NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/prosecutors-rest-their-case-derek-chauvin-trial-n1263916

This NBC News article summarizes events from the trial of Derek Chauvin in the murder of George Floyd. It highlights the contradictory testimony between department personnel and expert witnesses. While the title is provocative, the article provided a good summary of the testimony of interest.

Lai, C. K., Marini, M., Lehr, S. A., Cerruti, C., Shin, J.-E. L., Joy-Gaba, J. A., Ho, A. K., Teachman, B. A., Wojcik, S. P., Koleva, S. P., Frazier, R. S., Heiphetz, L., Chen, E. E., Turner, R. N., Haidt, J., Kesebir, S., Hawkins, C. B., Schaefer, H. S., Rubichi, S., … Nosek, B. A. (2014). Reducing implicit racial preferences: A comparative investigation of 17 interventions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 143 (4), 1765–1785. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036260

The authors sought to determine which methods were effective in reducing implicit bias. Eight of seventeen interventions reduced implicit bias, while the remaining nine did not. Most important for this paper, however, is the remaining question of long-term gains. This article could benefit those trying to design implicit bias interventions in police training.

Lai, C. K., Skinner, A. L., Cooley, E., Murrar, S., Brauer, M., Devos, T., Calanchini, J., Xiao, Y. J., Pedram, C., Marshburn, C. K., Simon, S., Blanchar, J. C., Joy-Gaba, J. A., Conway, J., Redford, L., Klein, R. A., Roussos, G., Schellhaas, F. M. H., Burns, M., … Nosek, B. A. (2016). Reducing implicit racial preferences: II Intervention effectiveness across time. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 145 (8), 1001–1016. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000179

Researchers assessed the interventions' success at sustained reductions in bias due to earlier implicit bias intervention work. Their findings suggest there remain concerns about long-term change. As with Lai et al.'s previous work, this article would benefit those working on designing implicit bias interventions for police training.

McDowell, M. G., & Fernandez, L. A. (2018). ‘Disband, disempower, and disarm’: Amplifying the theory and practice of police abolition. Critical Criminology , 26 (3), 373–391. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10612-018-9400-4

The authors discuss the police abolitionist movement from a critical criminology perspective. McDowell and Fernandez make a powerful argument that aims directly at dismantling police as an institution allows for movement toward meaningful change. While antagonistically worded for traditional criminologists, I recommend all policing scholars read their work.

Reaves, B. A. (2016). State and local law enforcement training academies, 2013, summary . Bureau of Justice Statistics. https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/slleta13.pdf

The above is a statistical report from the Bureau of Justice Statistics that highlights various aspects of state and local law enforcement training academies. I used the information on stress versus non-stress academy models and the number of hours spent on training types to support the policy recommendations in this brief. The report is beneficial for academics, practitioners, and community members to understand the most recent snapshot of the average police training academy.

Shipton, B. (2011). Expanding police educators’ understanding of teaching, are they as learner-centered as they think? Journal of Learning Design , 4 (2), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.5204/jld.v4i2.71

In this study, the researcher sought to determine whether police educators favored learner-centered or teacher-centered approaches. Due to contradictory findings, Shipton argues that police educators need more development courses that allow them to reflect on their actual practices regarding their desire teaching approach. I recommend this piece for anyone involved in instructor development for police academies.

Spencer, K. B., Charbonneau, A. K., & Glaser, J. (2016). Implicit bias and policing. Social and Personality Psychology Compass , 10 (1), 50–63. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12210

The authors address the difficulty in reducing the effects of implicit bias. They argue that there are no known interventions with any efficacy. I suggest policing scholars read this article and reflect on the several promising avenues for future research to reduce implicit bias.

Photo by Sam Clarke on Unsplash

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Critical Thinking in Law Enforcement: Importance & Strategies

January 27, 2023

The Power of Critical Thinking in Law Enforcement

As a law enforcement officer, critical thinking is an essential skill that can make the difference between a successful mission and a potential disaster. The ability to think critically allows officers to assess situations, make informed decisions, and ultimately keep themselves and the public safe. This post, explore importance critical thinking law enforcement and insights into it honed improved.

Why Critical Thinking Matters in Law Enforcement

Law officers regularly faced complex high-pressure require thinking sound judgment. Whether to domestic dispute, a crime scene, making decisions the line duty, ability think critical paramount.

According to a study by the National Institute of Justice, critical thinking skills are directly correlated with officer effectiveness and job performance. Officers who possess strong critical thinking skills are better able to de-escalate volatile situations, gather and analyze evidence, and make informed decisions under pressure.

Developing Critical Thinking Skills

While individuals possess natural for critical thinking, skill developed honed time. Training programs and continued education opportunities can provide law enforcement officers with the tools and techniques necessary to improve their critical thinking abilities.

Case Study: The Power of Critical Thinking in Action

One compelling example of critical thinking in law enforcement is the case of Officer John Smith, who successfully de-escalated a potentially violent confrontation with an armed suspect.

Upon arriving at the scene, Officer Smith quickly assessed the situation and recognized the signs of potential mental health crisis in the suspect. Rather than approaching with force, Officer Smith engaged the suspect in conversation, using active listening and empathy to establish rapport.

Through his critical thinking skills, Officer Smith was able to peacefully resolve the situation without the use of force, demonstrating the power of critical thinking in real-world law enforcement scenarios.

Critical thinking is a fundamental skill for law enforcement officers, enabling them to make sound decisions, de-escalate volatile situations, and ultimately uphold public safety. By recognizing the importance of critical thinking and actively seeking out opportunities for development, officers can enhance their effectiveness and positively impact their communities.

Are you interested in learning more about critical thinking in law enforcement? Let us know in the comments below!

2019 – MCJA Mandatory: Critical Thinking in Law Enforcement

by Meaghan O'Leary | Aug 20, 2020

This training is based upon, and consistent with: MCJA 2019 Mandatory Lesson Plan: Critical Thinking in Law Enforcement

Instructional Goal

It is vitally important for law enforcement officers to be objective when dealing with any given situation. By thinking critically about the facts before them, officers can avoid making errors in judgement about the situation. Utilizing critical thinking techniques allows for decision making, not allowing previous experiences, biases, shortcuts, or rationalizing inappropriate actions to get in the way of a possible better outcome for the call for service they are handling.

Performance Objectives

1.1.1 Define critical thinking as it relates to Law Enforcement.

1.1.2 Identify three benefits of critical thinking.

1.1.3 List three influences that affect critical thinking.

1.1.4 Identify 5 obstacles to critical thinking.

1.1.5 List the 4 components of Emotional Intelligence.

1.1.6 Explain the relationship between stress and Critical Thinking ability.

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Resources to Support Campus Law Enforcement and Public Safety to Protect Against Targeted Violence

The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and the Department of Justice (DOJ), along with our partners at all levels of government, will continue to help Institutions of Higher Education, campus law enforcement, and campus public safety officials prepare for and respond to a range of public safety challenges, recognizing that DHS respects privacy, civil rights and civil liberties and will not interfere with activity protected by the First Amendment. Below are a variety of DHS resources that may be helpful to campus law enforcement and campus public safety officials when facing heightened threats of targeted violence. Other federal resources are also included.

Training and Technical Assistance

Campus law enforcement and institutions of higher education face specific challenges, and targeted training and technical assistance (TTA) are a key tool in addressing them. The resources below range from simple guides to on-demand online training videos to in-person training for situations ranging from First Amendment-protected demonstrations to targeted violence prevention.

Responding to First Amendment-Protected Events: The Role of State and Local Law Enforcement Officers . The Bureau of Justice Assistance (BJA) provides online training videos for law enforcement to assist in understanding their roles and responsibilities as they prepare for and respond to a First Amendment-protected event; protecting the privacy, civil rights, and civil liberties of persons and groups participating in a First Amendment- protected event; and reinforcing fundamental concepts learned at law enforcement training academies and during in-service programs.
21st Century Protest Response: Promoting Democracy and Advancing Community and Officer Safety (COPS) - This guide provides recommendations for state, local, tribal, territorial, and campus law enforcement agencies responding to mass demonstrations.
Crisis Management Affecting Institutions of Higher Education: A Collaborative Community Approach – This FEMA course trains campus and community members, and others involved in crisis management duties and responsibilities related to institutions of higher education on how to effectively manage a crisis with a whole community approach, effective crisis communication, and a series of well-developed plans. The course uses FEMA's five mission areas (Prevention, Protection, Mitigation, Response, and Recovery) and has specific emphasis on the unique aspects of response to crisis management involving institutions of higher education and the communities in which they are located. The course utilizes the integration principles of the National Incident Management System (NIMS), case studies, and activities are presented to aid the participants in recognizing potential gaps in their current crisis management program.
Resources for Individuals on the Threat of Doxing . Doxing refers to gathering an individual’s personally identifiable information (PII) and releasing it publicly for malicious purposes, such as public humiliation, stalking, identity theft, or targeting for harassment. This infographic outlines proactive steps individuals can take to prevent themselves from doxing. The infographic also recommends steps that can be taken to protect individuals who are victims of doxing.
Contingency Planning: Reducing Risk During Public Events
Event Marshals: Supporting Safety During Events
CRS Resources and Trainings for Safe Public Events
Leadership in a Crisis Training Program - The Federal Law Enforcement Training Centers (FLETC) offers a 3-day program for sworn officers that uses innovative technology to create an immersive environment that challenges the participants’ ability to apply leadership, interpersonal and decision-making skills in a crisis situation.
National Threat Evaluation and Reporting (NTER) Program Office. The NTER Program Office provides partners with tools and resources to identify, report, and mitigate threats of terrorism and targeted violence. NTER’s Master Trainer Program is an instructor development and certification program that prepares federal, state, local, tribal, and territorial (F/SLTT) partners to train their local communities in Behavioral Threat Assessment and Management (BTAM) techniques and best practices. This program is a key resource for law enforcement and school safety personnel to help directly train their own communities on how to recognize the warning signs and contribute to local terrorism and targeted violence prevention efforts. In addition to the MTP, NTER offers school safety personnel other free resources and training opportunities, including publicly available eLearnings, such as the Foundations of Targeted Violence Prevention, and Quarterly Webinars.
The Collaborative Reform Initiative Technical Assistance Center (CRI-TAC). The CRI- TAC program provides critical and tailored assistance resources to state, local, territorial, and Tribal law enforcement agencies on a variety of topics. It features a “by the field, for the field” approach while delivering individualized technical assistance using leading experts in public safety, crime reduction, and community policing topics. CRI-TAC is a public service and offered at no-cost to agencies. Specifically, CRI-TAC can provide tailored training and technical assistance on mass demonstrations, protests, and gatherings for a campus context.
FEMA’s National Training and Education Division (NTED) . NTED provides funding and oversight for roughly 49 partners across the nation, who provide courses for first responders, emergency managers, and others in the community. In all, the NTED catalog includes 231 courses suited for law enforcement personnel. NTED also supports the Center for Homeland Defense and Security, focusing on assisting current and emerging leaders in Homeland Defense and Security to develop the policies, strategies, programs and organizational elements needed to defeat terrorism and prepare for and respond to natural disasters and public safety threats across the United States. Courses specifically designed for Institutions of Higher Education and campus law enforcement, including “Crisis Management Affecting Institutions of Higher Education: A Collaborative Community Approach” and “Crisis Management for School-based Incidents – Partnering Rural Law enforcement, First Responders, and Local School Systems”
Physical Security : Active Shooter Preparedness, Bombing Prevention, and More. Defending our homeland begins with protecting our nation’s hometown security – our physical security. Providing comprehensive physical security requires expertise across a broad range of physical environments and threat types. From public gatherings, schools, businesses, and houses of worship, there are a vast number of physical locations that must be protected. These locations are vulnerable to active shooter, bombing, unmanned aircraft, vehicle ramming as well as insider threat attacks. There are preventative and protective strategies that can be implemented at the federal, state, local and tribal government levels, within business and organizational structures, and for each individual citizen to safeguard our nation’s physical security.
Security Assessment at First Entry (SAFE) . SAFE is a rapid physical security assessment that assists facility owners and operators in implementing effective security programs. Using SAFE, CISA Protective Security Advisors (PSA) provide a structured review of a facility’s existing security measures and delivers feedback on observed vulnerabilities and options for improving security.
Crisis Management for School-based Incidents – Partnering Rural Law enforcement, First Responders, and Local School Systems – The purpose of this course created by FEMA is to educate rural law enforcement personnel as well as school administrators and personnel on the elements that must be in place to effectively respond to an emergency at a school building or an entire school system. Schools continue to face incidents of violence as well as other crises that require coordination and collaboration within a community to ensure effective management strategies are in place. This course provides information to the individual rural responder, school representatives, and other community stakeholders that will assist them in the recognition of school-based threats and the identification of protection measures and mitigation strategies.

Community and Law Enforcement Support

There are many offices that focus on providing support to law enforcement and their partners and addressing the needs of agencies when facing heightened threats of targeted violence. These offices can provide support, resources, and subject matter expertise to assist institutions of higher learning and law enforcement in addressing the needs of their campus and community.

Office for State and Local Law Enforcement. The Office for State and Local Law Enforcement (OSLLE) provides DHS with primary coordination, liaison, and advocacy for state, local, tribal, territorial and campus law enforcement agencies. OSLLE accomplishes its mission through partnerships and relationships with SLTTC law enforcement, both through national associations and directly with the 18,000 law enforcement agencies in the United States. OSLLE’s responsibilities including cultivating partnerships with SLTTC law enforcement, both directly and through DHS senior leadership engagements; serving as an advocate and voice for SLTTC law enforcement within DHS during policy, program, and initiative development; developing and sharing pertinent and timely information and resources with stakeholders, both proactively and in response to requests, including the development of custom solutions when off the shelf resources do not exist; ensuring that law enforcement and terrorism focused grants are appropriately focused on terrorism prevention activities; and collaborating across DHS to help inform DHS law enforcement policies with SLTTC law enforcement best practices, provide DHS operational support to SLTTC law enforcement, and coordinate external affairs activities with SLTTC law enforcement.
Center for Prevention Programs and Partnerships. The Center for Prevention Programs and Partnerships (CP3) seeks a resilient America where communities are united to help end targeted violence and terrorism. To accomplish this, CP3 has Regional Prevention Coordinators (RPCs) stationed across the United States to help establish and support prevention efforts at the local level, administers the Targeted Violence and Terrorism Prevention grant program, and sponsors the Invent2Prevent program which challenges students in high schools, colleges, and universities to develop targeted violence prevention programs. Invent2Prevent provides an overview of CP3's mission, vision, and activities, including grant funding, a regional prevention map, and materials to help support communities in building out their prevention efforts.
Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency Protective Security Advisors. Protective Security Advisors (PSAs) within the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) assist critical infrastructure owners and operators, houses of worship, schools, and other organizations with conducting physical security assessments, enhancing emergency action planning, supporting incident coordination, and providing access to training and exercise resources. For more information or to contact your local PSA, please contact [email protected].
U.S. Secret Service National Threat Assessment Center (NTAC). The U.S. Secret Service NTAC provides research, guidance, case studies, training, and consultation on topics related to behavioral threat assessment and the prevention of targeted violence. NTAC’s multidisciplinary team of subject matter experts is comprised of social science researchers and regional Domestic Security Strategists (DSSs) who empower our partners in law enforcement, schools, government, and other public and private sector organizations to combat targeted violence impacting communities across the United States. For more information or to contact your regional DSS, please contact [email protected] .

Information Sharing

Sharing information with federal, state, local, tribal, territorial, and campus partners across the country is key to providing the highest standard of response when faced with the threat of targeted violence. This does not include First Amendment protected activities, which require rigorous protection of civil rights and civil liberties.

Homeland Security Information Network (HSIN) . Institutions of Higher Education leaders, law enforcement, and public safety officials can use HSIN to access Homeland Security data, send requests securely between agencies, manage operations, coordinate planned event safety and security, respond to incidents, and share the information they need to fulfill their missions and help keep their communities safe. HSIN is DHS’s official system for trusted sharing of Sensitive But Unclassified (SBU) information between federal, state, local, territorial, tribal, international, and private sector partners. Sworn law enforcement partners, fusion centers, and other governmental partners with an intelligence mission can use HSIN-Intelligence to access up-to-date intelligence products from the National Network of Fusion Centers and federal partners. For both non-sworn public safety officials, sworn law enforcement partners, and other governmental and private sector partners, HSIN-Critical Instructure provides a single source where critical and timely information from DHS is shared.
Fusion Centers. State and major urban area fusion centers are owned and operated by state and local entities, and serve as primary focal points for the receipt, analysis, gathering, and sharing of threat-related information among federal, SLTTC, and campus partners. Fusion centers are uniquely situated to empower law enforcement and other front-line personnel to lawfully gather and share threat-related information, including through the Nationwide Suspicious Activity Reporting Initiative.
Suspicious Activity Reporting. The Nationwide Suspicious Activity Reporting (SAR) Initiative (NSI) is a joint collaborative effort by DHS, the FBI, and state, local, tribal, and territorial law enforcement partners. This initiative provides law enforcement with another tool to help prevent terrorism and other related criminal activity by establishing a national capacity for identifying, gathering, documenting, processing, analyzing, and sharing SAR information. The NSI provides hometown security partners with training on how to identify suspicious activity. You can find trainings for campus law enforcement and public safety partners on the Nationwide Suspicious Activity Reporting (SAR) Initiative (NSI) site.

Financial Assistance

For guidance on the eligibility of law enforcement agencies at institutions of higher education to receive both State Homeland Security Program (SHSP) and Urban Area security Initiative (UASI) funding for eligible activities, refer to the Information Bulletin 504 issued by FEMA. For information on programs that provide funding for target hardening and protection against targeted violence, see the Nonprofit Security Grant Program (NSGP), Homeland Security Grant Program (HSCP), and the Targeted Violence and Terrorism Prevention Grant Program (TVTP) below.

Nonprofit Security Grant Program (NSGP) . NSGP provides funding support for target hardening and other physical security enhancements and activities to nonprofit organizations that are at high risk of terrorist attack. The intent is to integrate nonprofit preparedness activities with broader state and local preparedness efforts. It is also designed to promote coordination and collaboration in emergency preparedness activities among public and private community representatives, as well as state and local government agencies. The application period opened on April, 16, 2024. The application deadline for nonprofit organizations is determined by your State Administrative Agency (SAA) . Contact your SAA for details on the application deadline.
Homeland Security Grant Program (HSGP) . HSGP includes a suite of risk-based grants to assist state, local, tribal, and territorial efforts in preventing, protecting against, mitigating, responding to and recovering from acts of terrorism and other threats. This grant provides grantees with the resources required for implementation of the National Preparedness System and working toward the National Preparedness Goal of a secure and resilient nation. Law enforcement agencies at institutions of higher education (e.g., public and private colleges and universities) are eligible to receive both State Homeland Security Program (SHSP) and Urban Area Security Initiative (UASI) funding, both of which are part of HSGP, for eligible activities as subrecipients. The application period opened on April 16, 2024. Completed applications must be submitted by no later than 5 p.m. ET on June 24, 2024. The application deadline for subrecipients is determined by your State Administrative Agency (SAA) . Contact your SAA for details on the application deadline.
Targeted Violence and Terrorism Prevention Grant Program (TVTP) . TVTP provides funding for state, local, tribal, and territorial governments; nonprofits; and institutions of higher education with funds to establish or enhance capabilities to prevent targeted violence and terrorism. The Center for Prevention Programs and Partnerships (CP3) and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) administer the program. It is the only federal grant program solely dedicated to helping local communities develop and strengthen their capabilities in this area. The application period opened on April 15, 2024. DHS will be accepting submissions through May 17, 2024.
Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Program. The Shepard-Byrd Hate Crimes Program provides support to state, local, and Tribal law enforcement and prosecution agencies and their partners in conducting outreach, educating practitioners and the public, enhancing victim reporting tools, and investigating and prosecuting hate crimes. In FY 2024, applications for programs that actively seek to address hate incidents on college and university campuses will be given priority consideration.

Additional Resource Guides

Law Enforcement Resource Guide . A comprehensive summary of resources for state, local, tribal, territorial, and campus law enforcement partners. This resource is available online and highlights DHS resources to all law enforcement, including training, technical assistance support, and grant opportunities to support law enforcement partners to address evolving and emerging threats.
Prevention Resource Finder. The Prevention Resource Finder provides stakeholders with information on the resources needed to help prepare for and prevent targeted violence and terrorism across our country. To find relevant resources quickly, click on "All Resources" on the landing page and then use the "Audience" filter to select “Law Enforcement”, “Education”, or the most relevant audience type for your needs.
School Safety Clearinghouse . Contains information to help schools develop comprehensive security plans and create safe and supportive learning environments.
School Safety Resources . CISA is committed to enhancing school security and student and staff safety. Educational institutions face a wide range of digital and physical threats, ranging from targeted violence to cyberattacks. CISA partners with educational institutions and other organizations throughout government, law enforcement, and communities nationwide and offers a variety of resources, programs, and tools to make our schools safer for students, staff, and parents.
Academic Engagement
Law Enforcement
Targeted Violence and Terrorism Prevention (TVTP)

12 steps to being a more decisive cop

Courage is not taking action in the absence of fear, but taking action in spite of fear.

When an officer is able to continually make good decisions under stress, he or she is a precious commodity.

Photo/Pixabay

There are moments in every cop’s career where being decisive is an absolute necessity.

Field training officers will confirm that most entry-level recruits are not born decisive, but that decisiveness must be cultivated in young officers.

Here are 12 steps for developing decisiveness:

1. Look for opportunities to critically think

There was an old night shift sergeant years ago who, whenever a new officer brought a situation to his attention and asked him how to proceed, would say, “If I wasn’t here, how would you handle it?”

There would always be a few moments of silence and then the young officer would put forward a plan of action for consideration.

The sergeant would listen and, in most cases, respond with, “Sounds good to me.”

The wise old sergeant was perfectly capable of giving each officer a course of action, but he chose instead to develop their critical thinking skills. He became their net rather than their crutch.

Soon the young coppers were flying high without a net.

2. Understand authority

Police authority is given by statutes and can be suddenly restricted by new court rulings or arbitrary directives by people in leadership.

Understanding the extent and limits of authority is crucial in decision-making.

3. Train to be prepared

High-quality training prepares officers to take action under stress that appears to be automatic. Here is a formula:

Pre-trained + pre-planned = pre-pared.

4. Give positive and timely critique

Part of becoming effectively decisive is having a team of supervisors and trainers who have the courage to give positive and timely critiques. This also means an officer has to be able to accept critique and learn from his or her mistakes.

5. Experience counts

The more often a police officer successfully navigates through a difficult call, the more prepared they are to make rapid, correct decisions in similar situations in the future. For example, a former army medic and EMT who is now a police officer will more decisively apply a tourniquet when faced with arterial bleeding than a recruit who practiced it once in the police academy six months earlier.

6. Proper tools enable officers to take action

It is easier to decisively take the correct action in a crisis when an officer has the proper tools. Of late, departments have shown great leadership in meeting modern challenges by expanding the tools available to street officers. Examples of this are the presence of tourniquets , TASERs , less lethal munitions, naloxone and AEDs .

7. Words of encouragement

Police officers find it easier to make difficult decisions when their peers, supervisors and community have a history of showing encouragement. Recognize great work you hope to see repeated. You don’t have to have stripes or bars to tell a fellow officer, “Great job!”

If a department or a community does not back their police officers when they are in the right, some officers will choose to back off.

8. Instill confidence

Following years of training, experiences and repeated successes, officers gain confidence . This confidence leads to decisiveness under stress. When a confident officer arrives on scene, the confidence is as clearly on display to all present as his or her uniform.

9. Maintain training

Training should not end at entry-level. Knowledge and skills need to be updated on a regular basis. When unpracticed, psychomotor skills deteriorate over time.

Knowledge not only can be forgotten, but legal decisions, technology, equipment, weapons, policies and procedures change over time. Police officers must keep abreast of changes. No piece of new equipment should be placed in a squad or hung on a duty belt without the officer being supremely proficient in its use.

To be decisive takes personal desire. It is easy to be disappointed by the blows that are delivered by this profession and decide to fly low and slow, or even hang back. With time it becomes apparent to police officers that more pay is not received for doing more. More grief is too often the reward for doing more.

Officers can blame a lack of desire on supervisors, politicians, the media, or the community, but ultimately every officer has response-ability. That is the ability to choose to respond to every call with empathy or apathy. It’s their call.

Ultimately, everyone is responsible for their own morale.

11. Courage

The most important aspect of decisiveness is courage.

Courage is not taking action in the absence of fear, but taking action in spite of fear. To engage in the proper first steps toward the successful conclusion of an emergency situation while fearing failure, or much worse, is indeed courageous.

12. The ability to decide

Being decisive requires the basic ability to make decisions.

Napoleon Bonaparte said, “Nothing is more difficult and therefore more precious than the ability to decide.”

When an officer is able to continually make good decisions under stress, he or she is a precious commodity. They become that cop who, when things are at their worst, is always at their best. They become a cop’s cop!

Over time decisiveness can be developed in every police officer. The challenge with law enforcement is that from day one the need to be decisive might be thrust upon an officer at any moment. When that moment arrives, the ability to be decisive will indeed be “precious,” as precious as life itself.

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Critical Thinking Training for Law Enforcement Recruits and Officers
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COMMENTS

Perspective: Need for Critical Thinking in Police Training
The web page argues that critical thinking is vital for law enforcement decision-making and safety, and that training programs should emphasize it from the academy to the field. It also discusses the challenges and opportunities of critical thinking in different situations, such as high-stress scenarios, media presentation, and community trust.
Real-life examples of critical thinking on police calls
5. It's a busy night and all officers are on calls. You're dispatched to an apartment building about a man with a gun. Upon arrival, the victim says a resident of the apartment building appeared intoxicated, was screaming in the pool area and was carrying a rifle. The victim told the suspect to be quiet and go inside.
The Importance of Critical Thinking in Law Enforcement ...
Learn how critical thinking skills are essential for law enforcement officers to analyse and interpret information, evaluate evidence, and make informed decisions in high-pressure situations. See examples of how officers can apply critical thinking strategies in their daily work, such as analysing a crime scene, interviewing a witness, or making decisions under pressure.
How police officers can learn to think and write critically
Skillful writing teaches them how to form good arguments and think critically about investigations and evidence. Focusing on critical thinking and writing will enable officers to form good arguments and it will make them better, more well-rounded and effective officers. Reference: 1. Jackson M. Catching our eye: The alluring fallacy of knowing ...
Critical Thinking: A Core Task of Public Safety Employees
A.R.R. Critical thinking skills enable law enforcement personnel to analyze information and process it wisely in order to help determine the value of that information and make a decision. There are too many documented instances of a suspect telling an officer, "I can't breathe," only to hear the officer say, "If you're talking, you ...
Tactical decision making: An equation for critical thinking ...
In times when there is a difference of opinion about how to proceed in a given situation, putting things in a format such as this allows for clarification of key points that make the difference. The equation is written as follows: Risk vs. Need ÷ Time + Resources Available = Decision *. This equation is simple to look at.
(PDF) Decision-Making Skills That Encompass a Critical Thinking
Critical thinking skills can prove to be necessary for law enforcement professionals in acquiring new ways of thinking more proficiently and becoming more proactive in combating traditional ...
Decision-Making Skills That Encompass a Critical Thinking Orientation
This article discusses the challenges of engaging in critical thinking skills for law enforcement professionals and the importance of making sound decisions in the wake of new emerging threats that stem from domestic to international crime. Critical thinking skills are inevitably becoming a new business function for all types of organisations.
(PDF) Decision-making skills that encompass a critical thinking
As a final thought, critical thinking skills in law enforcement and public safety should involve thinking of different scenarios and weighing probable solutions for every situation. Whether the probability of occurrence is low or high, these situations are still possible and deserve detailed discussions and countermeasure planning. ...
PDF A Problem-Based Learning Manual for Training and Evaluating Police Trainees
1 The term "police" is meant to refer to all law enforcement practitioners at municipal, county and state agencies. ... The PBL process develops critical thinking and problem solving. These processes assist the trainer and the trainee in exploring other methods of devel-oping competency. These include the use of reading
Critical Thinking Training for Law Enforcement Recruits and Officers
5. Learn the criteria by which they should make judgments in all police encounters and situations. This includes objectivity, impartiality, and fairness. 6. Learn the barriers to critical thinking all police officers face, as do all humans - namely, egocentric and sociocentric thinking. 7. Learn to think through implications and consequences ...
Social and Emotional Intelligence in Public Safety
I started working in law enforcement during the late 1980s. At that time, the agencies I worked for were located in busy jurisdictions where we ran from one call to the next. ... Phillips W and Burrell D. (2008) Decision-making skills that encompass a critical thinking orientation for law enforcement professionals. International Journal of ...
Decisionmaking Skills That Encompass a Critical Thinking Orientation
Also, critical thinking skills in law enforcement and public safety should involve thinking of different scenarios and weighing probable solutions for every situation. Critical thinking skills are inevitably becoming a new business function for all types of organizations. Traditional management methodologies of some law enforcement agencies may ...
How critical thinking improves police decision-making
Critical thinking is the process of engaging your brain to comprehend, assess, analyze and process information in such a way as to improve the quality of your actions, decisions and communications. It usually requires us to interrupt our automatic decision-making processes, challenge our assumptions and look at scenarios with fresh perspectives ...
Reenvisioning Police Training
13 Joy VerPlanck, "The Effects of Simulator Training on the Development of Creative Thinking in Law Enforcement Officers," Policing: An International Journal 44 no. 3 (2021): 455-468. 14 Joy VerPlanck and Noël Lipana, " Train as You Fight: The Need for Real Faces in Immersive Training ," FAAC Blog , April 20, 2020.
Critical Thinking Issues in Policing
FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 73(11), 18-24. The authors explore pedagogy and andragogy applied to police training - mainly community-oriented police training. They argue that an integrated model is preferable, given officers must learn mechanical and critical thinking skills.
Critical Thinking in Law Enforcement: Importance & Strategies
Through his critical thinking skills, Officer Smith was able to peacefully resolve the situation without the use of force, demonstrating the power of critical thinking in real-world law enforcement scenarios. Critical thinking is a fundamental skill for law enforcement officers, enabling them to make sound decisions, de-escalate volatile ...
Abilene Christian University Digital Commons @ ACU
education. Critical thinking is a needed skill identified by high-stress professions such as the military, nursing, and disaster management, yet there is limited study regarding critical thinking in law enforcement. The purpose of this research study was to assess the efficacy of law
Focus on Ethics: Rethinking Ethics in Law Enforcement
Law enforcement leaders must accept the possibility of pervasive unethical conduct and quickly address such incidents. Finally, law enforcement agencies should frequently discuss ethics in the workplace. 14 Like physical fitness, ethical fitness requires constant practice. Case studies provide an effective tool for this continual reinforcement ...
(PDF) Problem-Based Learning in Law Enforcement In ...
Problem-Based Learning in Law Enforcement In-Service Training: A Study of Use of Force (dissertation) May 2015; ... PBL approach as a method to engender critical thinking skills and to promote ...
How important is cop IQ and critical thinking in policing?
There are two versions of the cognitive portion, both of which have multiple choice questions in topics that draw on critical thinking. What wasn't clear to me is whether the questions are based on law enforcement scenarios, which I think is preferable. The second part of the NCJOSI is 120 personality questions.
2019
This training is based upon, and consistent with: MCJA 2019 Mandatory Lesson Plan: Critical Thinking in Law Enforcement Instructional Goal It is vitally important for law enforcement officers to be objective when dealing with any given situation. By thinking critically about the facts before them, officers can avoid making errors in judgement about the situation. Utilizing […]
Resources to Support Campus Law Enforcement and Public Safety to
The CRI- TAC program provides critical and tailored assistance resources to state, local, territorial, and Tribal law enforcement agencies on a variety of topics. It features a "by the field, for the field" approach while delivering individualized technical assistance using leading experts in public safety, crime reduction, and community ...
How police officers can learn to make better decisions
There are moments in every cop's career where being decisive is an absolute necessity. Field training officers will confirm that most entry-level recruits are not born decisive, but that decisiveness must be cultivated in young officers. Here are 12 steps for developing decisiveness: 1. Look for opportunities to critically think.
Police tactics at campus protests reveal disparities in ...
The first move for law enforcement agencies responding to universities is to establish the campus rules governing behavior and determine what activities are protected by constitutional rights ...