essay on media studies

Media Technologies : Essays on Communication, Materiality, and Society

Tarleton Gillespie is Associate Professor in the Department of Communication at Cornell University and the author of Wired Shut: Copyright and the Shape of Digital Culture (MIT Press).

Pablo J. Boczkowski is Hamad Bin Khalifa Al-Thani Professor in the Department of Communication Studies at Northwestern University.

Kirsten A. Foot is Associate Professor in the Department of Communication at the University of Washington, and lead author of Web Campaigning (MIT Press).

Scholars from communication and media studies join those from science and technology studies to examine media technologies as complex, sociomaterial phenomena.

In recent years, scholarship around media technologies has finally shed the assumption that these technologies are separate from and powerfully determining of social life, looking at them instead as produced by and embedded in distinct social, cultural, and political practices. Communication and media scholars have increasingly taken theoretical perspectives originating in science and technology studies (STS), while some STS scholars interested in information technologies have linked their research to media studies inquiries into the symbolic dimensions of these tools. In this volume, scholars from both fields come together to advance this view of media technologies as complex sociomaterial phenomena.

The contributors first address the relationship between materiality and mediation, considering such topics as the lived realities of network infrastructure. The contributors then highlight media technologies as always in motion, held together through the minute, unobserved work of many, including efforts to keep these technologies alive.

Contributors

Pablo J. Boczkowski, Geoffrey C. Bowker, Finn Brunton, Gabriella Coleman, Gregory J. Downey, Kirsten A. Foot, Tarleton Gillespie, Steven J. Jackson, Christopher M. Kelty, Leah A. Lievrouw, Sonia Livingstone, Ignacio Siles, Jonathan Sterne, Lucy Suchman, Fred Turner

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Media Technologies : Essays on Communication, Materiality, and Society Edited by: Tarleton Gillespie, Pablo J. Boczkowski, Kirsten A. Foot https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9780262525374.001.0001 ISBN (electronic): 9780262319461 Publisher: The MIT Press Published: 2014

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Table of Contents

• [ Front Matter ] Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9780262525374.003.0021 Open the PDF Link PDF for [ Front Matter ] in another window
• About the Contributors Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9042.003.0001 Open the PDF Link PDF for About the Contributors in another window
• Editors' Acknowledgments Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9042.003.0002 Open the PDF Link PDF for Editors' Acknowledgments in another window
• 1: Introduction By Tarleton Gillespie , Tarleton Gillespie Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Pablo J. Boczkowski , Pablo J. Boczkowski Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Kirsten A. Foot Kirsten A. Foot Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9042.003.0003 Open the PDF Link PDF for 1: Introduction in another window
• 2: Materiality and Media in Communication and Technology Studies: An Unfinished Project By Leah A. Lievrouw Leah A. Lievrouw Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9042.003.0005 Open the PDF Link PDF for 2: Materiality and Media in Communication and Technology Studies: An Unfinished Project in another window
• 3: Steps Toward Cosmopolitanism in the Study of Media Technologies: Integrating Scholarship on Production, Consumption, Materiality, and Content By Pablo J. Boczkowski , Pablo J. Boczkowski Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Ignacio Siles Ignacio Siles Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9042.003.0006 Open the PDF Link PDF for 3: Steps Toward Cosmopolitanism in the Study of Media Technologies: Integrating Scholarship on Production, Consumption, Materiality, and Content in another window
• 4: Closer to the Metal By Finn Brunton , Finn Brunton Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Gabriella Coleman Gabriella Coleman Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9042.003.0007 Open the PDF Link PDF for 4: Closer to the Metal in another window
• 5: Emerging Configurations of Knowledge Expression By Geoffrey C. Bowker Geoffrey C. Bowker Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9042.003.0008 Open the PDF Link PDF for 5: Emerging Configurations of Knowledge Expression in another window
• 6: "What Do We Want?" "Materiality!" "When Do We Want It?" "Now!" By Jonathan Sterne Jonathan Sterne Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9042.003.0009 Open the PDF Link PDF for 6: "What Do We Want?" "Materiality!" "When Do We Want It?" "Now!" in another window
• 7: Mediations and Their Others By Lucy Suchman Lucy Suchman Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9042.003.0010 Open the PDF Link PDF for 7: Mediations and Their Others in another window
• 8: Making Media Work: Time, Space, Identity, and Labor in the Analysis of Information and Communication Infrastructures By Gregory J. Downey Gregory J. Downey Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9042.003.0012 Open the PDF Link PDF for 8: Making Media Work: Time, Space, Identity, and Labor in the Analysis of Information and Communication Infrastructures in another window
• 9: The Relevance of Algorithms By Tarleton Gillespie Tarleton Gillespie Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9042.003.0013 Open the PDF Link PDF for 9: The Relevance of Algorithms in another window
• 10: The Fog of Freedom By Christopher M. Kelty Christopher M. Kelty Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9042.003.0014 Open the PDF Link PDF for 10: The Fog of Freedom in another window
• 11: Rethinking Repair By Steven J. Jackson Steven J. Jackson Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9042.003.0015 Open the PDF Link PDF for 11: Rethinking Repair in another window
• 12: Identifying the Interests of Digital Users as Audiences, Consumers, Workers, and Publics By Sonia Livingstone Sonia Livingstone Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9042.003.0016 Open the PDF Link PDF for 12: Identifying the Interests of Digital Users as Audiences, Consumers, Workers, and Publics in another window
• 13: The World Outside and the Pictures in Our Networks By Fred Turner Fred Turner Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9042.003.0017 Open the PDF Link PDF for 13: The World Outside and the Pictures in Our Networks in another window
• References Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9042.003.0018 Open the PDF Link PDF for References in another window
• Author Index Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9042.003.0019 Open the PDF Link PDF for Author Index in another window
• Subject Index Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9042.003.0020 Open the PDF Link PDF for Subject Index in another window
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Media Technologies: Essays on Communication, Materiality, and Society

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In recent years, scholarship around media technologies has finally shed the assumption that they are separate from and powerfully determining of social life, to look at them rather as the product of and embedded in distinct social, cultural and political practices. To better examine them in this light, communication and media scholars have increasingly taken theoretical perspectives originating in science and technology studies (STS), while at the same time some STS scholars interested in information technologies have linked their research to media studies questions about their symbolic dimensions. In this volume, scholars from both fields come together to advance this view of media technologies as complex socio-material phenomena. The first four contributors address the relationship between materiality and mediation, highlighting the linkages between the symbolic and the artifactual by considering such topics as the lived realities of network infrastructure and the informational embodiment of networked knowledge. A second set of four contributors highlight media technologies as always in motion, held together through the minute, unobserved work of many. This includes examining how the meanings of media technologies came to be and the work involved to keep them alive. After each of the two sets of essays, comments by senior scholars respond to the essays and articulate overarching themes. The volume intends to initiate conversations about the state of current scholarship around media technologies, as well as identify directions for future research.

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Articles on Media studies

Displaying 1 - 20 of 45 articles.

Three trailblazing women in media who’ve been forgotten – until now

Elena D. Hristova , Bangor University and Aimee-Marie Dorsten

Searching for the right angle – students in this course shoot pool to learn about journalism

Jamaal Abdul-Alim , University of Maryland

‘I wanted a professor like me’ – a hip-hop artist explains his turn to academia

Jabari M. Evans , University of South Carolina

Forceful vaccine messages backfire with holdouts – how can it be done better?

S. Shyam Sundar , Penn State

In an age of digital disinformation, dropping level 1 media studies in NZ high schools is a big mistake

Wayne Hope , Auckland University of Technology

How to read coronavirus news and learn what you actually need to know about staying safe in the pandemic

Thomas J. Hrach , University of Memphis

What exactly do journalists like John Humphrys have against Media Studies?

Stuart Price , De Montfort University

According to TV, heart attack victims are rich, white men who clutch their hearts and collapse. Here’s why that’s a worry

Deborah Lupton , UNSW Sydney

What your ability to engage with stories says about your real-life relationships

Nathan Silver , The Ohio State University and Michael Slater , The Ohio State University

The missing stories from Montara oil spill media coverage

Thor Kerr , Curtin University and Theo Kartawijaya , Curtin University

Grey’s Anatomy is unrealistic, but it might make junior doctors more compassionate

Deborah Lupton , University of Canberra

How Bill McKibben’s radical idea of fossil-fuel divestment transformed the climate debate

Todd Schifeling , Temple University and Andrew J. Hoffman , University of Michigan

Why America’s public media can’t do its job

Christopher Chávez , University of Oregon

The state of South African journalism: There’s good news and there’s bad news

Alan Finlay , University of the Witwatersrand

What’s behind TV bingeing’s bad rap?

Elizabeth Cohen , West Virginia University

The key to writing a Pulitzer Prize-winning story? Get emotional

Karin Wahl-Jorgensen , Cardiff University

Techniques of 19th-century fake news reporter teach us why we fall for it today

Petra S. McGillen , Dartmouth College

FactCheck Q&A: Has confidence in the media in Australia dropped lower than in the United States?

Alexandra Wake , RMIT University

Why America needs Marvel superhero Kamala Khan now more than ever

Katie M. Logan , Virginia Commonwealth University

How Donald Trump used the media and the ‘industry of outrage’ to win the US presidency

Denis Muller , The University of Melbourne

Related Topics

• Donald Trump
• Media ethics

Top contributors

SHARP Professor, Vitalities Lab, Centre for Social Research in Health and Social Policy Centre, and the ARC Centre of Excellence for Automated Decision-Making and Society, UNSW Sydney

Associate Professor of Communications, University of Oregon

C. Edwin Baker Professor of Media Policy and Political Economy, University of Pennsylvania

Program Manager, Journalism, RMIT University

Professor of Film and Television, Goldsmiths, University of London

Assistant Professor in Digital and Creative Media at the University of Nottingham Ningbo China, University of Nottingham

Professor of Management & Organizations; Professor of Environment & Sustainability; Professor of Sustainable Enterprise at the Ross School of Business and School of Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan

Professor, School of Journalism, Media and Culture; University Dean of Research Environment and Culture, Cardiff University

PhD Candidate on Media and Communication, University of Westminster

Senior Lecturer in the School of Media, Creative Arts and Social Inquiry, Curtin University

Professor of Political Science, University of Connecticut

Professor of International Affairs and Comparative Literature, Penn State

Professor in Technological Culture & Aesthetics, University of Southampton

Associate Professor of Journalism, Indiana University

Professor of Communication, Public Policy & Urban Affairs, Northeastern University, Northeastern University

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100 Best Media Topics For Research Writing

We know you need the best media topics for your next papers. Otherwise, why would you be reading this blog post? The good news is that you have picked the best place to look for topics. Our experienced writers have put together a list of the best media topics for high school and college students. Furthermore, we work hard to keep the list fresh. This means that these ideas will be most likely original. They will work great in 2023 because the list of media essay topics is updated periodically.

The Importance of Great Media Topics

You are probably wondering why we are putting so much emphasis on getting you the best media topics to write about. There are several reasons for it, but we will only tell you about 3 of them:

• Your professor will greatly appreciate your willingness to dedicate the time and effort to finding excellent topics . Trust us, professors know how to make the difference between students based solely on the topics they choose for their papers.
• It is much easier to write essays if you choose good media essays topics . A topic you know something about is the best choice. Also, a good topic enables you to quickly find plenty of information on the Internet. Following this advice you’ll easily write your literature review and the following components of your paper.
• By choosing a great topic, your essay will immediately stand out from all the rest . Your professor is surely bored of reading papers written about the same things over and over again. An interesting idea will entice him to award you at least some bonus points.

Mass Media Topics

Mass media is something of great importance in modern times, so why not write your papers on some mass media topics? Here are some great examples:

• The effect of mass media on psychological health
• Mass media and emotional health
• Mass media addiction in the US
• The role of mass media in politics
• The First Amendment in mass media
• Promoting sexuality in mass media

Media Research Topics

Did your professor ask of you to write a research paper? No problem, we have some excellent media research topics in our list. Check them out below:

• Discuss children media
• Violence in mass media in the US
• Video games in the media
• Controversial topics in the media in Europe
• Discuss post-truth in the media
• Media regulations in China

Media Analysis Essay Topics for Presentation

Would you like to write a media analysis paper for a presentation? It’s not difficult to do, if you pick the right media analysis essay topics for presentation. Here are some excellent ideas:

• Is the media creating events or reacting to them?
• Media and public relations links
• Discuss 3 major types of media
• The use of media in education (one of the most interesting mass media research paper topics)
• Influence of virtual reality on the media (one of the best media analysis essay topics)
• Discuss journalism ethics

Media Research Paper Topics for High School

Are you a high school student looking for some awesome topic for his next research paper on media? Here are some excellent examples of media research paper topics for high school:

• Major innovations in 21st century media
• Compare mainstream media in India and China
• What makes an outlet a reliable source?
• Advertisements in media
• Benefits of mass media for society
• Compare traditional media with mass media

Mass Media Research Topics

If you need to write a research paper and want to talk about something in mass media, we have some very nice ideas right here. Check out our mass media research topics:

• The right of expression in mass media
• Journalism in mass media
• Compare TV, film and radio
• Mass media in democracy
• The war against terror in mass media
• Discuss the rise of mobile media

Media Research Topics for College Students

College students who are looking to research topics about media should choose something that can bring them a top grade. Here are our best media research topics for college students:

• Influences of technology on media
• Latest innovations in media
• Discuss media censorship in China (a recommended media related topic)
• What is media propaganda?
• Mass media and its preemptive effects

Complex Media Related Research Topics

Do you want to try your hand at some difficult topics? If you want to impress your professor, we advise you to select one of these complex media related research topics:

• Mass media violating civil rights
• Does media benefit the economy of the US?
• Define media addition and discuss its effects
• Perform a qualitative analysis of 3 media outlets
• Media’s scare strategies: a case study
• Media influencing a rise in violence in the UK

Controversial Media Topics

Why should you be frightened by controversial topics? You are free to write about them, of course. Here are our best and most controversial media topics:

• Exercising the First Amendment in media in the US
• Promoting gun violence in mass media
• Mass media effects on terrorism
• Digital media is destroying traditional media
• Artificial intelligence in mass media
• Media effects on the death penalty in China

Digital Media Topics

Discussing digital media is a very good way to impress your professor. Let’s face it; the digital realm is extremely popular these days. Here are some brand new digital media topics:

• Define and discuss digital media
• Climate change in digital media
• What is mobile media?
• The fate of journalism in the 21st century (one of the best digital media research topics)
• Effects of digital media on politics

Media Analysis Topics

Writing a media analysis essay can be a very difficult task, especially if you don’t have much academic writing experience. Here are some media analysis topics that should make things easier:

• How Trump lost the media war
• Biden’s coverage in mass media in the United States
• Advertising revenue in media outlets
• Analyze screen time
• What are deepfakes and how to spot one?
• The crisis of journalism in the 21st century

Easy Media Related Topics

The perfect choice for times when you simply cannot afford to spend too much time writing your essay, our list easy media related topics is right here:

• Define mass media in the United Kingdom
• Should children watch the news?
• Promoting violence in mass media
• Spreading awareness via media
• Are newspapers still relevant today?
• The very first occurrence of mass media

Research Topics in Media and Communication

Would you like to talk about media and communication? It is not an easy subject to write about, but we can make things easier. Here are the easiest research topics in media and communication:

• Discuss body image in media
• Analyze children’s advertising tactics
• Freedom of speech in the media
• Copyright law in the media
• Define symmetrical dialogue in the media

Media Debate Topics

Are you interested in a media debate? Getting the best topics for 2023 should be your primary concern in this case. We have some very interesting media debate topics right here:

• The impact of public relations on communities
• Location-based advertising in modern media
• Analyze the concept of yellow journalism
• Good news vs bad news in the media
• Discuss the concept of proportionality in media

Brand New Media Topics

Just like you, our writers are interested in writing about the latest topics. Why don’t you pick one of our brand new media topics?

• Is radio still an important part of media?
• Newspapers going bankrupt in 2023
• Sexual content on TV shows
• Politicians’ love for the media
• Is the backing of the media important for a president?

Media Ethics Topics

Discussing ethics in relation to media is a very interesting choice. It can also get you an A+ on your next paper. Here are some exceptional media ethics topics:

• Including graphic images in media
• Depicting terrorism on TV
• Regulating newspapers in Europe
• Celebrity gossip in the media
• The influence of large media corporations

Media Law Topics

Yes, there is such a thing as media law. Would you like to write an essay about it? Here are some great ideas for media law topics:

• Discuss the First Amendment and media
• The responsibilities of journalists
• Journalists in war zones
• Fake news in the media
• Showing unsuitable content to children

Research Topics in Communication and Media Studies

Writing about communication and media studies has the potential to help you get a top grade. Here are our best research topics in communication and media studies:

• Analyze media bias in the United States
• Is digital media addictive?
• Influence of media on religion

Interesting Media Topics

We know, you want the most interesting media topics to write about. Pick one of these and write a paper that will impress your professor:

• State-controlled media in China
• Effects of media coverage on criminal trials
• The power of mass media in 2023

Trending Media Topics

You may not know which topics are trending when it comes to media, but our writers do. Here are the latest trending media topics:

• The war in Afghanistan
• Joe Biden’s rise to power
• The fall of Donald Trump
• Climate change problems
• Global warming in the media

But what if you need more topics or professional help with thesis ? What if you didn’t find the media research topic you were looking for in the list above? While this is highly unlikely, we are prepared to help you. Would you like to talk about media literacy? In case you do, our ENL writers can create a list of the most interesting (and new) media literacy topics you can find. For anything you need, just get in touch with us.

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Special Issue: Propaganda

This essay was published as part of the Special Issue “Propaganda Analysis Revisited”, guest-edited by Dr. A. J. Bauer (Assistant Professor, Department of Journalism and Creative Media, University of Alabama) and Dr. Anthony Nadler (Associate Professor, Department of Communication and Media Studies, Ursinus College).

Propaganda Analysis Revisited

This special issue is designed to place our contemporary post-truth impasse in historical perspective. Drawing comparisons to the Propaganda Analysis research paradigm of the Interwar years, this essay and issue call attention to historical similarities between patterns in mass communication research then and now. The hope is that contemporary misinformation studies scholars can learn from and avoid the pitfalls that have historically faced propaganda researchers. Placing research on propaganda in historical context offers one way of counterbalancing the depoliticizing tendencies that can be found in contemporary misinformation studies. It provides a wider field of vision, and calls attention to the contingency of the very concepts that social scientists use to frame their surveys and interviews, code their content, and ground their analysis.

Department of Journalism and Creative Media, University of Alabama, USA

Department of Communication and Media Studies, Ursinus College, USA

The long post-truth impasse

In 2016, the U.S. presidential and U.K. Brexit elections shook global confidence in a universally shared sense of objective reality and its capacity to serve as a basic standard of political judgment. Trump’s surprise victory, in particular, sparked panic among journalists, some of whom openly worried whether the press had been “mortally wounded” (Pilkington, 2016). That year, Oxford Dictionaries declared ‘post-truth’ — an adjective defined as “relating to or denoting circumstances in which objective facts are less influential in shaping public opinion than appeals to emotion and personal belief” — as its word of the year (Oxford Languages, 2016). 

While Oxford traces the term’s etymology back only to 1992, the conditions that ‘post-truth’ denotes have been a source of scholarly inquiry, media activism, and political struggle throughout the Twentieth Century and now well into the Twenty-First. Concerns over propaganda, and the public’s susceptibility to it, have been omnipresent in the U.S. and Europe since at least the Interwar Period and have played a crucial role in structuring the United States’ central ideological and partisan binary ever since (Gary, 1999; Bauer, 2017). They also played a foundational role in establishing the academic discipline of mass communication studies. 

As historian J. Michael Sproule has shown, the propaganda anxieties that emerged in the aftermath of the First World War produced a fledgling scholarly paradigm known as Propaganda Analysis (Sproule, 1997). Between 1919 and 1937, an interdisciplinary array of humanists, educators, and social scientists produced countless studies focused on how to identify, understand, and defuse propaganda messages. This scholarly trend was bolstered by countless funders, and even supported by the then newly formed Social Science Research Council. It was also, Sproule contends, a fundamentally progressive endeavor — non-partisan, but driven by a “reform-minded probing into social institutions and persuasive campaigns to find whose interests were being advanced, how, and with what effect for society” (Sproule, 1987).

Propaganda Analysis faltered during the run-up to the Second World War. By the dawn of the Cold War, it had been eclipsed by a new communication research paradigm, typified by Paul Lazarsfeld’s more “limited” theory of media effects (Lazarsfeld et al., 1944). This new paradigm was focused less on the imperatives of social progress than on methodological sophistication and practical utility to government agencies and commercial interests. Propaganda Analysis lingered in the right anti-communist fringe, and among a tight-knit cadre of anti-capitalist activist scholars, but it became a marginal concern within the social sciences.

Like the Interwar years, our “post-truth era” has been a boon for scholars of propaganda, misinformation, and right-wing media around the globe, as funders and publishers rushed to fill perceived gaps in the scholarly literature. This has yielded a bumper crop of astute studies of our present political communication conjuncture. Research institutes such as Harvard’s Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society, Columbia’s Tow Center for Digital Journalism, and the Data & Society Research Institute, have led the way in producing cutting-edge, solutions-driven scholarship with an eye toward practical applicability and public engagement. 

Yet, some of the depoliticizing tendencies of the “communication research” paradigm linger. As Yochai Benkler and his colleagues noted in their pathbreaking study  Network Propaganda , explanations for our current post-truth era have tended to foreground foreign subversion or technological determinist narratives — blaming Russian operatives, or Macedonian teenagers, or algorithms, or filter bubbles, or echo chambers (Benkler et al., 2018). When these phenomena are used to provide “nonpartisan explanations” for a surge in the spread of misinformation and the causes of the legitimacy crisis facing established news institutions, it obscures the political stakes of our present political communication impasse. Too much focus on technical fixes or on thwarting a narrowly defined set of “bad actors” blunts the imperative for civic engagement in crafting media policies and building media institutions to serve democratic needs (Pickard 2019; Crain & Nadler, 2019). 

Historicizing propaganda research

Placing research on propaganda in historical context offers one way of counterbalancing the depoliticizing tendencies that can be found in contemporary misinformation studies. It provides a wider field of vision, and calls attention to the contingency of the very concepts that social scientists use to frame their interviews, code their content, and ground their analysis. Raymond Williams once lamented the tendency in social science to reduce systems to “fixed forms.” He astutely noted that social structures and processes only appear fixed artificially or in hindsight — social experiences are in fact lived “in solution” (Williams, 1977, p. 133).

Historical analysis can provide context that demonstrates how apparently coherent social processes — which are sometimes fixed in concepts like “propaganda,” “misinformation,” “echo chambers,” “the news ecosystem,” or even “journalism” — are dynamic, shaped in dialogue with broader political common sense and its path determined by established understandings of prior historical phenomena (Bauer, 2018; Nadler, 2019). Historical analysis, as applied to misinformation studies, need not be reduced to any one method — it may rely upon archival research, but it need not be confined to it. Comparative historical analysis invites a reflexive dialogue between how a phenomenon has been characterized in past iterations (based upon comparable prior examples) and how it is experienced in a given historical conjuncture. 

This raises the question: How do misinformation studies of today relate to the propaganda studies of the Interwar era and of the latter Twentieth Century? The authors in this issue make a case for the history of propaganda research as something more than an antiquarian curiosity. History cannot provide easy answers to present questions or solve our contemporary dilemmas. But it can illuminate some of the particularity of present assumptions and might help to recover ideas and frameworks that could prove productive today. For instance, in the years following the Second World War, researchers including Löwenthal and Guterman (1949) and Adorno (1951) articulated a framework for propaganda research that connected the potential power of propaganda within a historical moment to the emotional longings cultivated by prevailing social conditions. Reexamining this approach might push current misinformation scholars to consider a broader array of models for explaining the “pull” factors in the popular uptake of misinformation. Instead of only looking at supposedly universal cognitive tendencies like confirmation bias, which have been at the forefront of contemporary research, revisiting thinkers like Löwenthal, Gutman, and Adorno could inspire more investigation of socially conditioned dispositions that might shape the demand-side of propaganda. 

Just as important as rediscovering productive concepts that have been forgotten, rigorous historical examination forces us to scrutinize familiar tales about the past that are folded into contemporary self-understandings. Some fields burnish a flattering image of past contributions to cast a positive light on present-day inheritors. This is not the dominant trend in the field of misinformation studies, which has largely distanced itself from the history of propaganda research rather than claiming it as a legacy. Certainly, there are some compelling reasons for the field’s name change, including a sense that “misinformation” covers a wider object of analysis than does “propaganda.” But misinformation studies scholars will do themselves no favors if they remember only a caricature of propaganda research so as to inflate the new field’s confidence in overcoming the narrow-minded blunders of its predecessors. For example, that earlier propaganda researchers tended to rely on their own sensibilities to intuitively identify their objects of analysis (Bauer, 2017, 2018; Anderson, this issue) might be recognized as not only a cautionary tale, but as an ongoing tension in contemporary research.

One distorted memory of propaganda research that has been especially influential in the field of communication — and remains prevalent today, despite repeated debunking — is that such research figured ordinary people as gullible dupes and presented media influence as a “magic bullet.” This rendering served as a straw figure, designed to promote a more positivistic approach to studying media influence and which raised fewer ethical questions that could nettle the institutions that helped fund the ascendant communication research paradigm (Sproule 1989; Lubken 2008). Writing off earlier propaganda research as misguided by a fundamental error — one betraying elitist prejudice — diminished scholarly engagement with the complicated questions this earlier discourse raised. 

As several of the contributors in this issue argue (see especially works by Jeffrey Pooley and Victor Pickard), communication research turned away from squarely facing the normative questions this research started to raise, especially regarding the structural — and political — underpinnings of media systems that created conditions ripe for propaganda. Reconsidering the history of this research in light of our contemporary post-truth impasse can bring new life to the normative questions and debates that had been kept shuttered away from institutionally funded media research. 

Our point of departure, Interwar Propaganda Analysis in the United States and Europe, offers but one vantage into the long and variegated history of propaganda research — a limiting one, at that. It foregrounds the experiences and concerns of the Global North. While these contexts played an outsized role in the development of mass communication studies around the world, they have often failed to address or adequately explain propaganda in the Global South, as issue contributor Aman Abhishek deftly illustrates. U.S.-based Propaganda Analysis also tends to de-emphasize state-oriented solutions to dis- and misinformation (like those explored in this issue by Sonia Robles) — a relic not only of general U.S. anti-statism, but of the field’s roots in opposition to the abuses of the Woodrow Wilson administration’s Committee on Public Information during the First World War. 

The history of propaganda research, like that of propaganda itself, is vexed, non-linear, and over-determined. For this issue, we’ve selected case studies designed to illuminate research trajectories and counter-propaganda methods that resonate with challenges faced in our contemporary situation of post-truth impasse/global pandemic. Most of these studies offer visions of paths untaken or foreclosed, of approaches marginalized or diminished. Our hope is that scholars of contemporary dis- and misinformation will consider their work in relation to this long tradition of propaganda scholarship, to recognize it as a site of struggle with lessons for the present. 

• / Propaganda

Cite this Essay

Bauer, A. J., & Nadler, A. M. (2021). Propaganda Analysis Revisited. Harvard Kennedy School (HKS) Misinformation Review .

Bibliography

Adorno, T. W. (1951). Freudian theory and the pattern of Fascist propaganda. In J. M. Bernstein (Ed.). The culture industry: Selected essays on mass culture (2nd ed., 2001). Routledge.

Bauer, A. J. (2017). Before ‘fair and balanced’: Conservative media activism and the rise of the New Right [Unpublished dissertation]. New York University.

Bauer, A. J. (2018). Journalism History and Conservative Erasure. American Journalism 35 (1), 2-26. https://doi.org/10.1080/08821127.2017.1419750

Benkler, Y., Faris, R., & Roberts, H. (2018). Network propaganda: Manipulation, disinformation, and radicalization in American politics . Oxford University Press.

Crain, M., & Nadler, A. (2019). Political manipulation and internet advertising infrastructure. Journal of Information Policy, 9,  370–410. https://doi.org/10.5325/jinfopoli.9.2019.0370

Gary, B. (1999). The nervous liberals: Propaganda anxieties from World War I to the Cold War . Columbia University Press.

Lazarsfeld, P. F., Berelson, B., & Gaudet, H. (1944). The people’s choice: How the voter makes up his mind in a Presidential campaign . Columbia University Press.

Löwenthal, L., & Guterman, N. (1949). Prophets of deceit: A study of the techniques of the American agitator . Harper & Brothers.

Lubken, D. (2008). Remembering the straw man: The travels and adventures of hypodermic. In D. W. Park & J. Pooley (Eds.), The history of media and communication research: Contested memories . Peter Lang.

Nadler, A. M. (2019). Nature’s economy and news ecology. Journalism Studies, 20 (6), 823–839. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2018.1427000

Oxford Languages. (2016). Word of the year 2016 . Oxford University Press. https://languages.oup.com/word-of-the-year/2016/

Pickard, V. W. (2019). Democracy without journalism? Confronting the misinformation society . Oxford University Press.

Pilkington, E. (2016). Did Trump’s scorched-earth tactics mortally wound the media? Columbia Journalism Review . https://www.cjr.org/special_report/trumps_tactics_wound_the_media.php

Sproule, J. M. (1987) Propaganda studies in American social science: The rise and fall of the critical paradigm. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 73 , 60–78, 67. https://doi.org/10.1080/00335638709383794

Sproule, J. M. (1989). Progressive propaganda critics and the magic bullet myth. Critical Studies in Media Communication , 6 (3), 225–246. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295038909366750

Sproule, J. M. (1997).  Propaganda and democracy: The American experience of media and mass persuasion . Cambridge University Press.

Williams, R. (1977). Structures of feeling. In Marxism and literature (pp. 128–135). Oxford University Press.

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Essay On Media

Keeping up with the most recent developments is critical in today's society. People can get the most recent and important news through the media. The media is the most commonly used medium for receiving information from north to south or east to west. Here are a few sample essays on the topic ‘Media’.

100 Words Essay On Media

200 word essay on media, 500 word essay on media.

The media has an impact on the reputation of a political party, organisation, or individual. Media keeps people informed about current happenings in politics, culture, art, academia, communication, and commerce. Different forms of media help modern civilization in remaining in touch with the world in the shortest amount of time.

The media is all around us; we are immersed in it even when we are not aware of it. It is seen in newspapers, television, and technological gadgets such as cell phones. We perceive it as a tool for speeding time or distancing ourselves from what is going on in other people's lives.

Social media is a tool that has become immensely popular among all ages due to its user-friendly interface. The youth are the most prevalent social media user demographics, which is both remarkable and concerning.

Imagery from the media abounds in today's culture. We know this since we may see posters advertising well-known brands and the latest products almost anywhere we go, such as while driving on the highway. When we are drawn to advertisements, we may begin to imagine or visualise ourselves using them.

The media can tell us about a product, service, or message. Today, media influence is so powerful that it may easily influence public opinion both positively and negatively. We also live in a society that is heavily reliant on the media for entertainment and information. Indeed, pictures in the media have an effect on both people and society, especially women, men, teenagers, and young children.

Simultaneously, media such as television, broadens our perspective by providing us with access to facts from all around the world. Television may also provide us with a wide range of news and current happenings. It can also be a useful learning tool, guiding future generations in the proper direction.

The media has a large influence on our lives. We educate ourselves on a regular basis by staying up with the latest events. The news serves a crucial role in keeping us informed about current affairs and global happenings. For example, because of globalization, you can read about current happenings in the United States of America even if you live in India.

The media is the most significant communication tool. It aids in the delivery or dissemination of news. Although the media is also associated with spreading fake news, it also plays an important role in informing us about reality. We cannot deny that this world is filled with so many social problems that we require the media to spotlight these concerns so that the government or other individuals can take action to resolve these social issues.

Role Of Media

When it comes to the media, it is regarded as the fourth element of democracy. It's the most comprehensive repository of information on the globe. Everyone hope and expects the media to provide us with the most complete and accurate news in any situation. As a result, the media plays an important role in balancing all areas of our society.

It is crucial for teaching and informing global citizens about what is happening around the world. As a result, supplying readers with truthful and authentic news is vital for societal growth. The case of Aayushi Talvaar is a good illustration of how the media works.

Advantages Of Media

Education | The media educates the public. The mob learns about health issues, environmental preservation, and a variety of other relevant topics through television or radio programming.

Keeps Us Informed | People obtain the most recent news in a timely manner. Distance is not a barrier to providing knowledge to people from anywhere on the planet. People receive the daily latest news from media sites, which keep them current on the latest trends and happenings throughout the world.

Knowledge | The media can help you learn more about a variety of topics.

Amusement | It is a great source of entertainment. People are amused by music and television shows.

Disadvantages Of Media

Individualism | People spend far too much time watching or binge-watching stuff on the internet. As a result, their relationships with friends, family, and neighbours may suffer as a result.

Fraud and Cybercrime | The Internet is lurking with imposters, fraudsters, hackers, and other predators with the opportunity to commit criminal acts without the victims' knowledge.

Addiction | For most children and adults, some television shows and internet media can be quite addictive, resulting in a decrease in productivity.

Health Issues | Prolonged television viewing or internet bingeing can cause visual difficulties, and prolonged exposure to loud noises via headphones or earphones can cause hearing impairments.

Malware and Fake Profiles | Anyone can set up an anonymous account and pretend to be someone else. Anyone with access to such profiles might use them for malevolent purposes, such as spreading misinformation, which can harm the image of any targeted people or company.

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Geotechnical engineer

The role of geotechnical engineer starts with reviewing the projects needed to define the required material properties. The work responsibilities are followed by a site investigation of rock, soil, fault distribution and bedrock properties on and below an area of interest. The investigation is aimed to improve the ground engineering design and determine their engineering properties that include how they will interact with, on or in a proposed construction. 

The role of geotechnical engineer in mining includes designing and determining the type of foundations, earthworks, and or pavement subgrades required for the intended man-made structures to be made. Geotechnical engineering jobs are involved in earthen and concrete dam construction projects, working under a range of normal and extreme loading conditions. 

Cartographer

How fascinating it is to represent the whole world on just a piece of paper or a sphere. With the help of maps, we are able to represent the real world on a much smaller scale. Individuals who opt for a career as a cartographer are those who make maps. But, cartography is not just limited to maps, it is about a mixture of art , science , and technology. As a cartographer, not only you will create maps but use various geodetic surveys and remote sensing systems to measure, analyse, and create different maps for political, cultural or educational purposes.

Budget Analyst

Budget analysis, in a nutshell, entails thoroughly analyzing the details of a financial budget. The budget analysis aims to better understand and manage revenue. Budget analysts assist in the achievement of financial targets, the preservation of profitability, and the pursuit of long-term growth for a business. Budget analysts generally have a bachelor's degree in accounting, finance, economics, or a closely related field. Knowledge of Financial Management is of prime importance in this career.

Product Manager

A Product Manager is a professional responsible for product planning and marketing. He or she manages the product throughout the Product Life Cycle, gathering and prioritising the product. A product manager job description includes defining the product vision and working closely with team members of other departments to deliver winning products.  

Underwriter

An underwriter is a person who assesses and evaluates the risk of insurance in his or her field like mortgage, loan, health policy, investment, and so on and so forth. The underwriter career path does involve risks as analysing the risks means finding out if there is a way for the insurance underwriter jobs to recover the money from its clients. If the risk turns out to be too much for the company then in the future it is an underwriter who will be held accountable for it. Therefore, one must carry out his or her job with a lot of attention and diligence.

Finance Executive

Operations manager.

Individuals in the operations manager jobs are responsible for ensuring the efficiency of each department to acquire its optimal goal. They plan the use of resources and distribution of materials. The operations manager's job description includes managing budgets, negotiating contracts, and performing administrative tasks.

Bank Probationary Officer (PO)

Investment director.

An investment director is a person who helps corporations and individuals manage their finances. They can help them develop a strategy to achieve their goals, including paying off debts and investing in the future. In addition, he or she can help individuals make informed decisions.

Welding Engineer

Welding Engineer Job Description: A Welding Engineer work involves managing welding projects and supervising welding teams. He or she is responsible for reviewing welding procedures, processes and documentation. A career as Welding Engineer involves conducting failure analyses and causes on welding issues. 

Transportation Planner

A career as Transportation Planner requires technical application of science and technology in engineering, particularly the concepts, equipment and technologies involved in the production of products and services. In fields like land use, infrastructure review, ecological standards and street design, he or she considers issues of health, environment and performance. A Transportation Planner assigns resources for implementing and designing programmes. He or she is responsible for assessing needs, preparing plans and forecasts and compliance with regulations.

An expert in plumbing is aware of building regulations and safety standards and works to make sure these standards are upheld. Testing pipes for leakage using air pressure and other gauges, and also the ability to construct new pipe systems by cutting, fitting, measuring and threading pipes are some of the other more involved aspects of plumbing. Individuals in the plumber career path are self-employed or work for a small business employing less than ten people, though some might find working for larger entities or the government more desirable.

Construction Manager

Individuals who opt for a career as construction managers have a senior-level management role offered in construction firms. Responsibilities in the construction management career path are assigning tasks to workers, inspecting their work, and coordinating with other professionals including architects, subcontractors, and building services engineers.

Urban Planner

Urban Planning careers revolve around the idea of developing a plan to use the land optimally, without affecting the environment. Urban planning jobs are offered to those candidates who are skilled in making the right use of land to distribute the growing population, to create various communities. 

Urban planning careers come with the opportunity to make changes to the existing cities and towns. They identify various community needs and make short and long-term plans accordingly.

Highway Engineer

Highway Engineer Job Description:  A Highway Engineer is a civil engineer who specialises in planning and building thousands of miles of roads that support connectivity and allow transportation across the country. He or she ensures that traffic management schemes are effectively planned concerning economic sustainability and successful implementation.

Environmental Engineer

Individuals who opt for a career as an environmental engineer are construction professionals who utilise the skills and knowledge of biology, soil science, chemistry and the concept of engineering to design and develop projects that serve as solutions to various environmental problems. 

Naval Architect

A Naval Architect is a professional who designs, produces and repairs safe and sea-worthy surfaces or underwater structures. A Naval Architect stays involved in creating and designing ships, ferries, submarines and yachts with implementation of various principles such as gravity, ideal hull form, buoyancy and stability. 

Orthotist and Prosthetist

Orthotists and Prosthetists are professionals who provide aid to patients with disabilities. They fix them to artificial limbs (prosthetics) and help them to regain stability. There are times when people lose their limbs in an accident. In some other occasions, they are born without a limb or orthopaedic impairment. Orthotists and prosthetists play a crucial role in their lives with fixing them to assistive devices and provide mobility.

Veterinary Doctor

Pathologist.

A career in pathology in India is filled with several responsibilities as it is a medical branch and affects human lives. The demand for pathologists has been increasing over the past few years as people are getting more aware of different diseases. Not only that, but an increase in population and lifestyle changes have also contributed to the increase in a pathologist’s demand. The pathology careers provide an extremely huge number of opportunities and if you want to be a part of the medical field you can consider being a pathologist. If you want to know more about a career in pathology in India then continue reading this article.

Speech Therapist

Gynaecologist.

Gynaecology can be defined as the study of the female body. The job outlook for gynaecology is excellent since there is evergreen demand for one because of their responsibility of dealing with not only women’s health but also fertility and pregnancy issues. Although most women prefer to have a women obstetrician gynaecologist as their doctor, men also explore a career as a gynaecologist and there are ample amounts of male doctors in the field who are gynaecologists and aid women during delivery and childbirth. 

An oncologist is a specialised doctor responsible for providing medical care to patients diagnosed with cancer. He or she uses several therapies to control the cancer and its effect on the human body such as chemotherapy, immunotherapy, radiation therapy and biopsy. An oncologist designs a treatment plan based on a pathology report after diagnosing the type of cancer and where it is spreading inside the body.

Audiologist

The audiologist career involves audiology professionals who are responsible to treat hearing loss and proactively preventing the relevant damage. Individuals who opt for a career as an audiologist use various testing strategies with the aim to determine if someone has a normal sensitivity to sounds or not. After the identification of hearing loss, a hearing doctor is required to determine which sections of the hearing are affected, to what extent they are affected, and where the wound causing the hearing loss is found. As soon as the hearing loss is identified, the patients are provided with recommendations for interventions and rehabilitation such as hearing aids, cochlear implants, and appropriate medical referrals. While audiology is a branch of science that studies and researches hearing, balance, and related disorders.

Hospital Administrator

The hospital Administrator is in charge of organising and supervising the daily operations of medical services and facilities. This organising includes managing of organisation’s staff and its members in service, budgets, service reports, departmental reporting and taking reminders of patient care and services.

For an individual who opts for a career as an actor, the primary responsibility is to completely speak to the character he or she is playing and to persuade the crowd that the character is genuine by connecting with them and bringing them into the story. This applies to significant roles and littler parts, as all roles join to make an effective creation. Here in this article, we will discuss how to become an actor in India, actor exams, actor salary in India, and actor jobs. 

Individuals who opt for a career as acrobats create and direct original routines for themselves, in addition to developing interpretations of existing routines. The work of circus acrobats can be seen in a variety of performance settings, including circus, reality shows, sports events like the Olympics, movies and commercials. Individuals who opt for a career as acrobats must be prepared to face rejections and intermittent periods of work. The creativity of acrobats may extend to other aspects of the performance. For example, acrobats in the circus may work with gym trainers, celebrities or collaborate with other professionals to enhance such performance elements as costume and or maybe at the teaching end of the career.

Video Game Designer

Career as a video game designer is filled with excitement as well as responsibilities. A video game designer is someone who is involved in the process of creating a game from day one. He or she is responsible for fulfilling duties like designing the character of the game, the several levels involved, plot, art and similar other elements. Individuals who opt for a career as a video game designer may also write the codes for the game using different programming languages.

Depending on the video game designer job description and experience they may also have to lead a team and do the early testing of the game in order to suggest changes and find loopholes.

Radio Jockey

Radio Jockey is an exciting, promising career and a great challenge for music lovers. If you are really interested in a career as radio jockey, then it is very important for an RJ to have an automatic, fun, and friendly personality. If you want to get a job done in this field, a strong command of the language and a good voice are always good things. Apart from this, in order to be a good radio jockey, you will also listen to good radio jockeys so that you can understand their style and later make your own by practicing.

A career as radio jockey has a lot to offer to deserving candidates. If you want to know more about a career as radio jockey, and how to become a radio jockey then continue reading the article.

Choreographer

The word “choreography" actually comes from Greek words that mean “dance writing." Individuals who opt for a career as a choreographer create and direct original dances, in addition to developing interpretations of existing dances. A Choreographer dances and utilises his or her creativity in other aspects of dance performance. For example, he or she may work with the music director to select music or collaborate with other famous choreographers to enhance such performance elements as lighting, costume and set design.

Videographer

Multimedia specialist.

A multimedia specialist is a media professional who creates, audio, videos, graphic image files, computer animations for multimedia applications. He or she is responsible for planning, producing, and maintaining websites and applications. 

Social Media Manager

A career as social media manager involves implementing the company’s or brand’s marketing plan across all social media channels. Social media managers help in building or improving a brand’s or a company’s website traffic, build brand awareness, create and implement marketing and brand strategy. Social media managers are key to important social communication as well.

Copy Writer

In a career as a copywriter, one has to consult with the client and understand the brief well. A career as a copywriter has a lot to offer to deserving candidates. Several new mediums of advertising are opening therefore making it a lucrative career choice. Students can pursue various copywriter courses such as Journalism , Advertising , Marketing Management . Here, we have discussed how to become a freelance copywriter, copywriter career path, how to become a copywriter in India, and copywriting career outlook. 

Careers in journalism are filled with excitement as well as responsibilities. One cannot afford to miss out on the details. As it is the small details that provide insights into a story. Depending on those insights a journalist goes about writing a news article. A journalism career can be stressful at times but if you are someone who is passionate about it then it is the right choice for you. If you want to know more about the media field and journalist career then continue reading this article.

For publishing books, newspapers, magazines and digital material, editorial and commercial strategies are set by publishers. Individuals in publishing career paths make choices about the markets their businesses will reach and the type of content that their audience will be served. Individuals in book publisher careers collaborate with editorial staff, designers, authors, and freelance contributors who develop and manage the creation of content.

In a career as a vlogger, one generally works for himself or herself. However, once an individual has gained viewership there are several brands and companies that approach them for paid collaboration. It is one of those fields where an individual can earn well while following his or her passion. 

Ever since internet costs got reduced the viewership for these types of content has increased on a large scale. Therefore, a career as a vlogger has a lot to offer. If you want to know more about the Vlogger eligibility, roles and responsibilities then continue reading the article. 

Individuals in the editor career path is an unsung hero of the news industry who polishes the language of the news stories provided by stringers, reporters, copywriters and content writers and also news agencies. Individuals who opt for a career as an editor make it more persuasive, concise and clear for readers. In this article, we will discuss the details of the editor's career path such as how to become an editor in India, editor salary in India and editor skills and qualities.

Linguistic meaning is related to language or Linguistics which is the study of languages. A career as a linguistic meaning, a profession that is based on the scientific study of language, and it's a very broad field with many specialities. Famous linguists work in academia, researching and teaching different areas of language, such as phonetics (sounds), syntax (word order) and semantics (meaning). 

Other researchers focus on specialities like computational linguistics, which seeks to better match human and computer language capacities, or applied linguistics, which is concerned with improving language education. Still, others work as language experts for the government, advertising companies, dictionary publishers and various other private enterprises. Some might work from home as freelance linguists. Philologist, phonologist, and dialectician are some of Linguist synonym. Linguists can study French , German , Italian . 

Public Relation Executive

Travel journalist.

The career of a travel journalist is full of passion, excitement and responsibility. Journalism as a career could be challenging at times, but if you're someone who has been genuinely enthusiastic about all this, then it is the best decision for you. Travel journalism jobs are all about insightful, artfully written, informative narratives designed to cover the travel industry. Travel Journalist is someone who explores, gathers and presents information as a news article.

Quality Controller

A quality controller plays a crucial role in an organisation. He or she is responsible for performing quality checks on manufactured products. He or she identifies the defects in a product and rejects the product. 

A quality controller records detailed information about products with defects and sends it to the supervisor or plant manager to take necessary actions to improve the production process.

Production Manager

Merchandiser.

A QA Lead is in charge of the QA Team. The role of QA Lead comes with the responsibility of assessing services and products in order to determine that he or she meets the quality standards. He or she develops, implements and manages test plans. 

Metallurgical Engineer

A metallurgical engineer is a professional who studies and produces materials that bring power to our world. He or she extracts metals from ores and rocks and transforms them into alloys, high-purity metals and other materials used in developing infrastructure, transportation and healthcare equipment. 

Azure Administrator

An Azure Administrator is a professional responsible for implementing, monitoring, and maintaining Azure Solutions. He or she manages cloud infrastructure service instances and various cloud servers as well as sets up public and private cloud systems. 

AWS Solution Architect

An AWS Solution Architect is someone who specializes in developing and implementing cloud computing systems. He or she has a good understanding of the various aspects of cloud computing and can confidently deploy and manage their systems. He or she troubleshoots the issues and evaluates the risk from the third party. 

Computer Programmer

Careers in computer programming primarily refer to the systematic act of writing code and moreover include wider computer science areas. The word 'programmer' or 'coder' has entered into practice with the growing number of newly self-taught tech enthusiasts. Computer programming careers involve the use of designs created by software developers and engineers and transforming them into commands that can be implemented by computers. These commands result in regular usage of social media sites, word-processing applications and browsers.

ITSM Manager

Information security manager.

Individuals in the information security manager career path involves in overseeing and controlling all aspects of computer security. The IT security manager job description includes planning and carrying out security measures to protect the business data and information from corruption, theft, unauthorised access, and deliberate attack 

Business Intelligence Developer

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This essay may be found on page 123 of the printed volume.

How to Write a Media Studies Essay

For several media related course pupil, it is important for you to to positioned together a finely  written and argued paper. When you learn how to write a media studies essay , you need to also comprehend that broadcasting is about the various types of interconnecting an insight or a group of concepts & a paper is just an alternative technique of communiqué. The pupil must showcase the clasp of the idea of the essay writing as a worthy type of written communication by making sure that whatever they will render to the professor is a high quality paper. To come up with a worthy customary paper few strategy must be observed to help you learn how to write a media studies essay if you wish to those simple keys can help and you must come up with a nice type of work.

Focus on what is being asked of you

The primary thing that you need to check out for is to find out how to write a media studies essay is to keep your attention. The topic will you compose about,  is the subject really interesting for you, and the possibilities that you will appreciate composing it, but frequently your options are a bit obstructive. If you know what you need to do, will be easier for you to make a thorough research and the question will be answered throughout the paper. You have to keep in mind that the essay question and it must be able to restrict you from going astray away from the key points of the paper.

Collect a wide body of research

As soon as you are determined that you comprehend the question of the essay, you can start seeking for the answers through research. Gather the form of the study that is close and related to help you in addressing the subject of the essay. The broader the body of the research is, the better your paper will be equipped, since you can show off some arguments and you can deliberate on your comprehension about the subject matter. As soon as you have taken out the research, you need to fix the evidence you a required to gather in a rational manner. Part of the comprehending is how to write a media studies essay, look for the associates in every fact and dispute and then use them to be your writing controller.

Structure your ideas and the arguments you have researched

The construction of the paper is essential if the indicator will give you a point of view of anything you wrote and conform to the argument. Normally, you will initiate an introductory page wherein you will show off the contextual with the topic and the reason behind its importance. This group of is sectioned for the topic you will discuss and strengthens the hypothetical and conceptual worth of the study. After the introduction, you have to start in addressing the question of the paper by showing whatever you have discovered from the study conducted.

Analyze what you have read to show that you understand the argument

As per tackled, the discoveries of the research you must discuss in a detailed manner to present that you don’t just look for information; nonetheless if you have comprehended it and you have drawn the assumptions after it too. When you learn how to write a media studies essay , you must also know how to understand every argument to present the generated concepts and insights about the writings that is in existence in the area.

Spend time on your conclusion

The closing is your chance to link the entire studies and sum up the entire texts formerly showing the entire assessment. This is where you need to showcase your understanding about the opinions and make your personal assumptions regarding them. This part of the paper is the thing that you will dispense on the paper and so the attention must be assumed & you need to comprehend appropriately around the way to compose it.

Don’t waffle and avoid repetition

Once you have discovered how to compose a media studies essay, keep in mind the word total of the paper. You need to limit the word count and you must be conscious of it all the time. Be sure you come up with precise viewpoints without waffling or redundancy. If you will recurrent some points, then you can tell your professor about not having enough ideas anymore to compose & that you cannot carry on anymore with the research. Make sure that you have enough evidence beforehand, you start composing the paper to prevent this problem from taking place. This problem must only be aiming to keep the essay precise more than running out of words, leaving the essay worthless.

Reference appropriately and when relevant

Assumed that the paper is an educational paper and you are mandated to source the evidence & make a reference concerning the research. When you have learned the important keys in composing a media studies essay and be sure you keep in mind that the referencing might be in the method of an in-text quotation or it may also be a direct quote. Be sure you inspect which system your school uses and use it. Referencing guidelines can also be seen here. Just be cautious about using your foundations to keep them related to your arguments. Use an in-text citation when you are showing an opinion taken from another paper or direct quotes. If they will be suited for the opinion you have, then you can use them with proper citations. If they are not useful you will just be lost along with the writing.

Preventing plagiarism and adhering to your referencing style

Notwithstanding in what way you pick to refer the paper you have studied you need to be certain that you will conform to the style asked of you or required by the professor. The smartness of the referencing must be followed thoroughly the bibliography and list of references.

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Essay On Mass Media

500 words essay on mass media.

All kinds of different tools which come in use to help in distributing and circulating information and entertainment to the public come under the term of mass media. In other words, everything including radio, newspapers , cable, television and theatre are parts of mass media. These tools include exchanging opinions and public involvement. Through essay on mass media, we will go through it in detail.

Introduction to Mass Media

In today’s world, mass media embraces internet , cell phones, electronic mail, computers, pagers and satellites. All these new additions function as transmitting information from a single source to multiple receivers.

In other words, they are interactive and work on the person to person formula. Thus, it revolves around the masses i.e. the people. It is true that radio, television, press and cinema are in the spotlight when we talk about mass media.

Nonetheless, the role of pamphlets, books, magazines, posters, billboards, and more also have equal importance if not less. Moreover, the reach of these tools extends to a huge amount of masses living all over the country.

Television, cinema, radio and press are comparatively expensive forms of media which private financial institutions or the Government runs. These tools centre on the idea of mass production and mass distribution.

Therefore, newspapers, television and radio cater to the needs of the mass audience and accommodates their taste. As a result, it will not always be refined or sophisticated. In other words, it displays popular culture.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

The Function of Mass Media

The main function of mass media is to reach out to the masses and provide them with information. In addition to that, it also operates to analyze and observe our surroundings and provide information in the form of news accordingly.

As a result, the masses get constantly updated about not just their own surroundings but also around the world. This way mass media spreads and interprets information. For instance, weather forecasts equip people and farmers to plan ahead.

Similarly, fishermen get updates about the tidal activities from the news. In addition to this, mass media also strives to keep the fabric of our social heritage intact which showcasing our customs, myths and civilization.

Another major product of mass media is advertising. This way people learn about the goods and services in the market. It also spreads social awareness. For instance, anti-smoking campaign, women empowerment, green earth clean earth and more.

Most importantly, with the numerous mediums available in multiple languages, the masses get entertainment in their own language easily. Millions of people get to access a cheap source of relaxation and pass their time. In fact, it also helps to transport momentarily from our ordinary lives to a dream world. Thus, it remains the undisputed leader in reaching out to the masses.

Conclusion of Essay on Mass Media

All in all, while it is an effective tool, we must also keep a check on its consumption. In other words, it has the power to create and destroy. Nonetheless, it is a medium which can bring about a change in the masses. Thus, everyone must utilize and consume it properly.

FAQ on Essay on Mass Media

Question 1: Why is mass media important?

Answer 1: Mass media is essential as it informs, educates and entertains the public. Moreover, it also influences the way we look at the world. In other words, it helps in organizing public opinion.

Question 2: How does mass media affect our lives?

Answer 2: Mass media affects many aspects of human life, which range from the way we vote to our individual views and beliefs. Most importantly, it also helps in debunking false information.

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Social Media Use and Body Image Disorders: Association between Frequency of Comparing One’s Own Physical Appearance to That of People Being Followed on Social Media and Body Dissatisfaction and Drive for Thinness

Barbara jiotsa.

1 Addictology and Liaison Psychiatry Department, Nantes University Hospital, 44000 Nantes, France; [email protected] (B.J.); [email protected] (B.N.); [email protected] (B.R.)

Benjamin Naccache

Mélanie duval.

2 Public Health Department, Nantes University Hospital, 44000 Nantes, France; [email protected]

Bruno Rocher

Marie grall-bronnec.

3 Inserm UMR 1246, Nantes and Tours Universities, 44200 Nantes, France

Associated Data

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

(1) Summary: Many studies have evaluated the association between traditional media exposure and the presence of body dissatisfaction and body image disorders. The last decade has borne witness to the rise of social media, predominantly used by teenagers and young adults. This study’s main objective was to investigate the association between how often one compares their physical appearance to that of the people they follow on social media, and one’s body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness. (2) Method: A sample composed of 1331 subjects aged 15 to 35 (mean age = 24.2), including 1138 subjects recruited from the general population and 193 patients suffering from eating disorders, completed an online questionnaire assessing social media use (followed accounts, selfies posted, image comparison frequency). This questionnaire incorporated two items originating from the Eating Disorder Inventory Scale (Body Dissatisfaction: EDI-BD and Drive for Thinness: EDI-DT). (3) Results: We found an association between the frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media and body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness. Interestingly, the level of education was a confounding factor in this relationship, while BMI was not. (4) Discussion: The widespread use of social media in teenagers and young adults could increase body dissatisfaction as well as their drive for thinness, therefore rendering them more vulnerable to eating disorders. We should consequently take this social evolution into account, including it in general population prevention programs and in patients’ specific treatment plans.

1. Introduction

Body image is defined as one’s perception, thoughts, and emotions revolving around one’s own body. It is the depiction of one’s body representation, including their mirror reflection, and it reflects social constructs, which depend on a society’s culture and norms. This conception is created using body ideals, substantially communicated via media, family, and peers.

For the last 30 years, media have been over-exposing people to thinness ideals, starting from a young age [ 1 ], turning this ideal into a new reference standard [ 2 ]. Young women, who are most sensitive to thinness ideals, tend to liken them to beauty and success [ 3 ]. Thus, etiologic models incorporating environmental factors consider social pressure about physical appearance to be a determining factor in developing eating disorders (EDs) [ 4 , 5 ].

However, even though this social pressure is indisputable, not all people are vulnerable to it. It is the degree with which they will relate to these thinness standards, namely how they internalize this ideal, that will help to predict the risk of developing an ED [ 6 ]. Indeed, internalizing thinness standards can lead to an alteration in body image, resulting in body dissatisfaction and exaggerated concerns about body and weight [ 4 ]. Body dissatisfaction is characterized by an inconsistency between one’s real body and the idealized body. It is one of the most studied psychological constructs in body image disorders literature [ 4 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]. According to the literature, it is often linked to psychological distress [ 10 , 11 ] and is a proven risk factor for developing an ED [ 12 , 13 ], through, in particular, the implementation of food restriction that can lead to anorexia nervosa (AN) [ 14 , 15 ] or to the onset of binge eating episodes (with or without compensatory behaviors to prevent weight gain). According to several authors, body dissatisfaction found in AN patients differs from that of control subjects by a greater feeling of inconsistency between their actual body and the desired body [ 16 ]. Indeed, in addition to overestimating the size of their actual shape, AN patients seek to resemble an ideal significantly thinner than subjects without EDs do. People with AN and bulimia nervosa share the same body image obsession, with the pervasive fear of gaining weight [ 4 ]. Finally, subjects with binge eating disorders tend to be overweight, or even obese, which can reinforce body dissatisfaction [ 17 ].

Social comparison, combined with the internalization of ideals, is one of the main mechanisms participating in one’s body image perception. These two mechanisms are instrumental in developing body dissatisfaction [ 1 , 18 , 19 ]. Several studies have shown that individuals who compare their physical appearance to that of others they considered to be more attractive than them, such as models or celebrities, had a higher chance of being dissatisfied with their body image and developing an ED [ 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 ].

Although historically speaking, body norms have been mainly conveyed through traditional media (TV, radio, newspaper, magazines), the last few years have borne witness to the rise and expansion of social media use. The term “social media” refers to every website and online mobile app with user-generated content. They enable their users to participate in online exchanges, broadcast self-made content, and join virtual communities. They are mostly used by teenagers and young adults, and the most common ones are Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat, and Twitter. Several studies have suggested that social media exposure could foster body dissatisfaction and result in risky eating behaviors by broadcasting thinness ideals individuals thus long for [ 18 , 24 , 25 ]. Among the identified mechanisms that explain this outcome, the most common ones are social comparison based on physical appearance and thinness ideals’ internalization through daily exposure to idealized bodies. Indeed, physical appearance holds a central place in social media today [ 26 ].

There is, to this day, a lack of scientific data, and in particular French data, about the association between the use of social media and risky eating behaviors [ 27 ]. In this context, this study’s main objective was to study the association between, on one hand, daily exposure to idealized bodies through social media and, on the other hand, the presence of two dimensions fostering body image disorders: body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness. A secondary objective was to compare two populations, one with a risk of suffering from ED, and the other one free of that risk, using different variables. The hypothesis was that at-risk participants were more dissatisfied with their physical appearance, had a higher drive for thinness, and compared themselves more often to social-media-conveyed images.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. study design and ethics statements.

This is a transversal observational study. Participants had to answer a questionnaire available online. Since it was an investigation involving the health field, but with an objective that did not involve the developing of biological or medical knowledge, it not fit in the French Jardé legal framework (and thus, approval from an ethics committee was not required). Data collection was made anonymously, was digitalized, and was realized outside of a care setting. Answering the questionnaire was interpreted as consent for data use, as it displayed that the results would be used in a survey, but that the participation would be anonymous, and that there were no data that would lead them to be recognized should they decide to participate.

2.2. Participants Recruitment

The study’s general population participants were enlisted via a social media publication (Facebook, Instagram, Twitter) and via posters in gyms. These posters were also sent to health workers with a practice in Nantes and in different French cities (psychiatrists, GPs, psychologists, etc.), who were tasked with informing their ED patients about this study. The Fédération Française Anorexie Boulimie (FFAB, French Federation for Anorexia and Bulimia), which is an association regrouping professionals working in the ED field, helped to broadcast the questionnaire using mailing lists, social media, and websites. Recruitment occurred between September 2019 and December 2019.

The inclusion criteria were as follows: using their Facebook and/or Instagram account daily and being 15 to 35 years old. This age range was chosen in light of the current literature, which shows that use of social media and body image concerns involved mainly teenagers and young people [ 28 , 29 ]. Moreover, participants recruited via a health professional had to register their ED diagnosis for which they were treated.

2.3. Evaluation

2.3.1. general data.

The questionnaire’s first part was designed to register sex, age, degrees, and current height and weight to measure body mass index (BMI).

2.3.2. Social Media Use

The questionnaire’s second part interrogated the participants about their use of social media: platform, frequency (number of uses per day), time spent (hours per day), frequency of comparing one’s physical appearance to that of people followed on social media, and the frequency of posting “selfies” (a photograph that you take of yourself).

2.3.3. Body Image

The questionnaire’s third part evaluated body image perception, using the Eating Disorder Inventory-2 (EDI-2) scale, translated and adapted in French [ 30 , 31 ]. It is a self-rated questionnaire evaluating psychological characteristics and symptoms associated with ED, using 11 subscales. We used the “Drive for Thinness” subscale (EDI-DT), composed of 7 questions (score of 0 to 21), and “Body Dissatisfaction” subscale (EDI-BD), composed of 9 questions (score of 0 to 27). The subscales are presented in Table 1 .

Drive for Thinness and Body Dissatisfaction subscales of Eating Disorder Inventory-2.

2.3.4. ED Screening

The questionnaire’s last part aimed at screening ED, using the Sick-Control-One Stone-Fat-Food (SCOFF) self-questionnaire. It is a simple survey of 5 questions used to screen eating disorders in general population [ 32 ]. The French validation depicted this questionnaire to be as efficient and relatable as the original, with a great sensitivity and specificity in diagnosing ED when a patient has a score of 2 or over [ 33 ]. It enabled us to sort the population sample into two groups depending on their risk of having an ED: when their score was ≥2, they were sorted in the “SCOFF positive” group, and when their score was <2, in the “SCOFF negative” group. The SCOFF questionnaire is presented in Table 2 .

Sick-Control-One Stone-Fat-Food (SCOFF) questionnaire.

Yes = 1 point; score of ≥2 suggests an eating disorder.

2.4. Statistical Analysis

A descriptive statistical analysis was conducted for the entire sample. Continuous variables are described by means and standard deviations, while categorical variables are presented as numbers and percentages.

We asked all participants to complete the SCOFF questionnaire, so that they were sorted into two groups depending on their results: the “SCOFF+” group gathering all participants with a SCOFF score of 2 or over, and therefore with the risk of suffering from an ED, and the “SCOFF−” group gathering all participants with a SCOFF score under 2. These two groups were then compared based on all collected variables. We applied a Student’s t -test for quantitative variables (“age”, “EDI-BD”, “EDI-DT”, and “average BMI”), a Chi-squared test for qualitative variables (“sex”, “level of education”, “social media use frequency”, “time spent”, “body comparison”, “groups of BMI”), and Fisher exact test for multimodal qualitative variables whose theoretical headcount did not allow the use of the Chi-squared test (“posting selfies”).

Then, we looked for an association between the frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media and the scores measured using the EDI Body Dissatisfaction and Drive for Thinness subscales. We thus performed two linear regressions with adjustment for two potential confounding factors (BMI and level of education). Confounding factor status was assessed by searching for an association of the two variables with EDI subscores on the one hand and with the frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media on the other hand.

The significance threshold for all these analyses was set at p = 0.05 (α risk of 5%).

Statistical analyses were done using the SPSS software (Statistical Package for Social Science, IBM, Armonk, NY, USA).

3.1. Population Description

In total, 1407 questionnaires were completed, and 1331 were analyzed. A total of 1138 subjects were from the general population, and 193 were ED patients recruited via health workers. Seventy-six completed questionnaires (5.4%) were excluded from the analysis because they did not match the age criteria or because their ED diagnosis was not communicated (for ED patients recruited via health workers). Figure 1 represents the study’s flowchart.

Flow chart of subjects’ inclusion.

The participants’ age ranged from 15 to 35 (M = 24.2, σ = 4.2). Most were women (97.7%). They had, for the most part, a Bachelor’s degree. Mean BMI was 22.3 (σ = 4.2).

Table 3 presents the final sample’s characteristics.

Final sample characteristics and comparison between SCOFF+ and SCOFF− groups.

Note. BDI: body mass index; EDI-IC: Eating Disorder Inventory—Body Dissatisfaction; EDI-RM: Eating Disorder Inventory—Drive for Thinness. *: p < 0.05; **: p < 0.01; ***: p < 0.001. According to the International Classification of Diseases, anorexia nervosa is associated with a BMI < 17.5.

Most participants declared using Facebook (93%) and Instagram (92.8%). Other social media were less frequently used: Snapchat (68.4%), Twitter (29.1%), and Tiktok (2.5%).

In total, 57.3% of participants had a private account and 42.7% an account open to the public. Users declared that they used social media mainly to “like posts” (82.7%) and to “observe content, as ghost followers (bots or inactive accounts)” (65.4%). In total, 92.7% said that they used social media to “follow friends and acquaintances”, “follow healthy food content” (68%), “follow the news” (67%), and “follow fitness content” (61.2%).

Regarding participants recruited via health workers for whom data were analyzed (N = 193), the most frequently reported ED was anorexia nervosa restricting type (41%), followed by anorexia nervosa purging type (28%), binge eating disorder (16%), bulimia nervosa (12%), and unspecified feeding or eating disorder (9%).

3.2. Comparing Participants Based on Their ED Screening

The final sample was sorted into two groups according to the SCOFF’s results ( n = 953 in the SCOFF+ group; n = 378 in the SCOFF− group). These groups were compared using all described variables, and the results are showcased in Table 3 .

SCOFF+ group subjects had a significantly higher social media use (regarding both frequency and time spent), a significantly higher frequency of comparing their physical appearance to that of people they followed, and of posting selfies.

In addition, they declared having significantly higher EDI-BD and EDI-DT scores than SCOFF− subjects ( p < 0.001), and they more frequently had BMI both in the lower and higher ranges.

3.3. Association between the Frequency of Comparing One’s Own Physical Appearance to That of People Followed on Social Media and EDI Body Dissatisfaction and Drive for Thinness

In the search for confounding factors associated with both the frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media and EDI-BD and EDI-DT scores, we found a significant association between the level of education and the frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media ( Table 4 ). Similarly, we observed an association between the modality “Level of education ≥12” and EDI-BD: participants with a level of education ≥12 had a mean EDI-BD score 2.5 points lower compared to that of participants with a level of education <12 ( Table 5 ). We also found a similar association between the modality “Level of education ≥12” and EDI-DT: participants with a level of education ≥12 had a mean EDI-DT score 3 points lower compared to that of participants with a level of education <12 ( Table 6 ).

Association between level of education and frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media.

Note. **: p < 0.01.

One-way ANOVA results looking for a link between EDI-BD score and level of education.

Global p -value = 0.1338. Note: The modality “Less than level 12” was chosen as the reference modality for this analysis. *: p < 0.05; ***: p < 0.001.

One-way ANOVA results looking for a link between EDI-DT score and level of education.

Global p -value = 0.0016. Note: The modality “Less than level 12” was chosen as the reference modality for this analysis. ***: p < 0.001.

Furthermore, we did not find any significant association between BMI and the frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media ( Table 7 ). A significant but very weak correlation (<0.3) was found between the BMI and the two EDI subscores ( Table 8 ). In view of these results, we did not retain BMI as a confounding factor for the following analysis.

One-way ANOVA results looking for a link between BMI and frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media.

Global p -value = 0.4368. Note: The modality “Never” was chosen as the reference modality for this analysis. ***: p < 0.001.

Results of association between BMI and EDI scores.

Note. EDI-BD: Eating Disorder Inventory—Body Dissatisfaction. **: p < 0.01; ***: p < 0.001.

The results of the search for an association between the frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media and EDI Body Dissatisfaction and Drive for Thinness scores are presented in Table 9 and Table 10 . As showcased in Table 9 , the “Sometimes”, “Often”, and “Always” frequency of comparing modalities were significantly associated with the EDI-DT score. Participants who sometimes compared their own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media had a mean EDI-DT score 2.0 points higher than that of those who never compared themselves; those who often compared themselves had a mean EDI-DT score 5.3 points higher; and those who always compared themselves had a mean EDI-DT score 8.4 points higher.

Linear regression looking for a link between EDI-DT score and frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media.

Global p -value <2.2 × 10 −16 ***. Note: Modalities “Less than level 12” and “Never” were chosen as the reference modalities for this analysis. *: p < 0.05; **: p < 0.01; ***: p < 0.001.

Linear regression looking for a link between EDI-BD score and frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media.

Global p -value <2.2 × 10 −16 ***. Note: Modalities “Less than level 12” and “Never” were chosen as the reference modalities for this analysis. *: p < 0.05; ***: p < 0.001.

In addition, according to Table 10 , the “Often” and “Always” frequency of comparing modalities were significantly associated with the EDI-BD score. Participants who often compared their own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media had a mean EDI-BD score 5.6 points higher than that of those who did not, and those who always compared themselves to social media images had an average EDI-BD score 9.2 points higher than that of those who never did.

4. Discussion

4.1. discussing the main results.

Our survey aimed to study the links between social media use, body image disorders, and ED prevalence in a teenage and young adult population.

First, we found that ED or at-risk of ED subjects presented significantly different results concerning all social media use parameters. Using platforms such as Facebook and Instagram has been particularly associated with a higher body dissatisfaction and the appearance of ED symptoms [ 27 , 34 ]. As was expected, in ED or at-risk of ED patients, Body Dissatisfaction rates were higher, as was their Drive for Thinness. A common ED assumption is that ED patients develop a cognitive structure that focalizes on weight, combined with, most of the time, a mistaken perception of their own body image, especially in anorexia nervosa. These subjects tend to yearn for a thinner body ideal than the general population, thus creating a substantial inconsistency between what they think they look like and what they yearn to look like [ 35 ]. Leahey and her colleagues in 2011 [ 36 ] found that, in addition to increasing body dissatisfaction, social comparisons have an influence on negative effects, guilt, as well as diets and physical-activity-centered thoughts.

Participants in general were seldom prone to posting selfies. Ridgway and her colleagues [ 37 ] conducted in 2018 a study on Instagram and posting selfies, which showed that a higher body image satisfaction was associated with an increase in posting selfies. This could explain the low percentage of self-promoting subjects found in this study.

Second, we confirmed the existence of a significant association between, on one hand, the frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media and, on the other hand, Body Dissatisfaction and Drive for Thinness scores measured using the EDI scale. It seems that the more the subjects compared themselves to the images, the more they increased their body dissatisfaction and their drive for thinness. However, this association can work two ways. Indeed, it could be that the depth of body dissatisfaction and the drive for thinness increase the inclination to compare oneself to images. Our results are in accordance with those found in the literature, which identified a link between social media use and body image disorders [ 26 , 38 , 39 ]. It has also been found that subjects who often compared their physical appearance to that of idealized images were more dissatisfied with their body and had a higher drive for thinness than those who compared themselves less often [ 40 , 41 ]. Interestingly, the level of education was a confounding factor in this relationship, while BMI was not. Indeed, the relation between frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media on the one hand and EDI DT and BD subscores on the other hand is modified by the level of education, starting from a level corresponding to a Bachelor’s degree (>12 + 3 years).

Self-assessment is a fundamental reflexive analysis tool [ 42 ]. It plays an essential part in self-positioning among others and oneself. This self-evaluation must resort to social comparisons, which have a direct link to self-esteem. Body image’s sociocultural construct takes shape using body ideals that are broadcasted through, in particular, media, family, and peers and are thereafter internalized by individuals [ 43 ]. Reaching these body norms is usually perceived as proof of self-control and success, which leads one to stand out from the crowd in a positive way [ 44 ]. Internalizing body ideals thus creates an authentic concern for one’s physical appearance, which will be observed and judged by others [ 45 ]. This can trigger body dissatisfaction, which usually involves feeling inadequate in one’s body, estranged from the ideal one pursues [ 43 ]. Fear of gaining weight can be exacerbated when thinness is one of narcissism’s only tools. It can lead to behaviors such as food restriction, excessive physical activity, with the aim of modifying one’s appearance and thus fit into social standards. This excessive self-surveillance can bring about emotional and psychological consequences, including shame about one’s own body, self-bashing, anxiety, and depression, up to ED [ 46 ].

Finally, although estimating ED prevalence in a young adult population was not an objective determined beforehand, we must point out that most participants had a SCOFF+ result (71%), suggesting they might suffer from an ED. This questions whether a more systematic ED screening should be done in teenage and young adult populations, which are ED’s main targets. Several studies in which teenagers were interviewed have shown that they often are dissatisfied with their bodies, feeling like they are “too fat”, and most of them have already followed a diet [ 47 , 48 , 49 ]. These diets can include ingesting smaller portions, eating healthier food, up to major food restrictions and complete removal of some types of food, which can be found in ED.

4.2. Study’s Strengths and Weaknesses

There are several limits to this study. First, it is a transversal study, which cannot prove the existence of a causal relationship between the studied variables. Therefore, longitudinal studies are necessary in finding out how this association works. Second, the online questionnaire was not designed to collect data that could be considered as indicators of individual or family vulnerabilities for ED, which did not allow for stratified analyses. Third, measuring the time spent on social media and how often participants used it was done through self-reported data, which could induce a declaration bias, thus limiting the data’s precision. Future studies could use technologies such as data tracking (virtual counter measuring connection frequency and time spent) in order to have more precise data and thus be more confident in the data’s reliability. Fourth, the participants’ recruitment induced a selection bias. Indeed, having used daily use of social media as an inclusion criterion leads to selecting a certain type of population and renders irrelevant any extrapolation to the general population. Moreover, recruiting via gyms may have led to selecting individuals with a specific concern for their body image. We can assume that these subjects, who paid specific attention to their physical appearance, might have certain demands concerning themselves, which might involve body dissatisfaction and an exaggerated drive for thinness. The daily use of social networks could also be a reflection of excessive body concerns, which could lead to more body dissatisfaction and a more pronounced drive for thinness compared to subjects who are less exposed to these kinds of media. Fifth, our participants recruited via health workers may not be representative of all ED patients for several reasons: ED diagnosis was self-reported, anorexia nervosa restricting type was overrepresented in our sample, and the most severe patients may not be psychologically available to participate in a study like this one. Finally, the SCOFF questionnaire is a screening tool and not a diagnostic one. It does not enable discriminating between anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, or binge eating disorder among participants, but we can assume that all types of ED were present in the SCOFF+ group, as the participants in this group more frequently had BMI both in the lower and higher ranges.

However, these limits are balanced by the study’s strengths. First, the sample rallied a significant number of participants, and their sorting into two groups after ED screening was quite proportionate, which ensured the statistical analyses’ power. Second, EDs were screened using a validated tool for the general population, and the Body Dissatisfaction and Drive for Thinness dimensions were evaluated using a self-questionnaire whose psychometric characteristics have been validated in clinical populations. Finally, to the extent of our knowledge, this type of study had never been conducted in France, thus bringing forth unprecedented data.

4.3. Perspectives

This study’s results open new avenues for clinicians to explore social media use and cognitive pathways in ED. Indeed, social media exposure and, in particular, exposure to edited and idealized images could contribute to inaccurate thought processes about body image, internalizing what is socially valued on social media as a personal goal. Since we know that cognitive pathways play an important part in ED development and continuation [ 50 ], it seems relevant to explore patients’ use of social media and the cognitions associated. This could contribute to increasing psychotherapy’s efficacy, enriching prevention programs using cognitive dissonance, therapies that have been proven to be effective in reducing ED symptoms’ intensity [ 51 ]. A way to implement this could be to encourage the development of the ability to question social media, encouraging patients to think of arguments that go against posting idealized photos on social media [ 27 ].

When considering the general population, when we see how important social comparison based on physical appearance is in developing body dissatisfaction, prevention programs could be useful. It seems relevant to encourage teenagers, particularly those with the tendency to compare themselves to their peers, to evaluate their body using health criteria instead of using other peoples’ bodies as a standard. Additionally, it would be interesting to intervene by deconstructing the “ideal body” myth, with the goal of diminishing the comparison to “idols”. Finally, it seems relevant to inform people that some role models’ BMI and body type are not representative of those of most of the population and that trying to reach their body type could be harmful. ED screening in this population should thus be more systematic.

5. Conclusions

To summarize, we found an association between the frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media and body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness. Interestingly, the level of education was a confounding factor in this relationship, while BMI was not. The widespread use of social media in teenagers and young adults could increase body dissatisfaction as well as their drive for thinness, therefore rendering them more vulnerable to eating disorders.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the French Federation for Anorexia and Bulimia (Fédération Française Anorexie-Boulimie (FFAB)), who allowed the broadcasting of the questionnaire to its members, ED-specialized health workers.

Author Contributions

Study concept and design: B.J., B.R., and M.G.-B. Analysis and interpretation of data: B.J., B.N., B.R., and M.G.-B. Statistical analysis: M.D. Study supervision: B.R. and M.G.-B. Investigation (data collection): B.J., B.R., and M.G.-B. Writing—original draft: B.J. and B.N. Critical revision: M.D., B.R., and M.G.-B. Writing—revised version of the manuscript: B.J., M.D., and M.G.-B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Since the study was an investigation involving the health field, but with an objective that did not involve the development of biological or medical knowledge, it not fit in the French Jardé legal framework. The approval from an ethics committee was not required according to the current French legislation.

Informed Consent Statement

Data collection was made anonymously. According to the current French legislation, answering the questionnaire was interpreted as consent for data use.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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The circulation of the Italian cinema in United States between 1945 and 1975. Distribution, reception, impact

Journal of Italian Cinema & Media Studies

Call for Papers for a Special Issue

The circulation of the Italian cinema in United States between 1945 and 1975.

Distribution, reception, impact

Guest-editors:

Federico di Chio, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore and Università degli Studi di Bologna

Marina Nicoli, Bocconi University

Immediately after the Second World War, Italian cinema experienced a surge in popularity in the United States, notably with neorealist classics like Open City (Rossellini, 1945), Obsession (Visconti, 1943), Paisan (Rossellini, 1946) and Bicycle Thieves (De Sica, 1948). After that, Italian cinema witnessed a steady increase in its distribution in American theatres, reaching its zenith in the mid-1960s, enjoying both high success with the public and appreciation from critics. The Academy awarded four Oscars to Vittorio De Sica ( Shoeshine, 1948 ; Bicycle Thieves, 1950 ; Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow, 1965 , The Garden of the Finzi Contini, 1972) and four to Federico Fellini ( La strada , 1957; The Nights of Cabiria, 1958; 8½, 1964; Amarcord, 1975). The influence and popularity of Italian films extended well beyond auteur films, with historical and mythological epics, such as the Hercules saga ( Hercules ) (Francisci, 1957); Hercules Unchained (Francisci and Bava, 1959) which achieved flattering results. Although there was a slight decline following its hight (mid-1960s), Italian cinema maintained its relevance, with directors like Luchino Visconti, Michelangelo Antonioni, Sergio Leone and emerging talents such as Bernardo Bertolucci, Pier Paolo Pasolini, Lina Wertmüller and Liliana Cavani. Furthermore, the impact of Italian cinema on American auteurs, including Sam Peckinpah, Quentin Tarantino, Woody Allen and Martin Scorsese, solidified its enduring legacy.

The fascinating history of Italian cinema in the United States has been primarily depicted in fragments through the professional biographies of key figures, such as producers (e.g., Dino De Laurentiis), distributors (e.g., Joseph E. Levine), directors (e.g., Sergio Leone) and performers (e.g., Sofia Loren). Critical reception of Italian films has been explored by some scholars, particularly focusing on neorealism films (Schoonover 2008) and subsequent auteurs, notably Antonioni, Fellini, Visconti and Leone (Garofalo 2023). Distribution strategy of Italian top-grossers has been illustrated by few contributions focused on art-house venues (Wilinski 2001, Segrave 2004, Balio 2010, McKenna 2016, Garofalo 2023). Preliminary investigations have also been conducted on the influence of these auteurs on emerging American filmmakers (McDonald Carolan 2013). However, what is lacking is an overarching framework that integrates the artistic and stylistic features with the socio-cultural and economic-industrial dimensions.

The currently available academic contributions focus on the ‘tip of the iceberg’ and lack a convincing analysis in addressing more fundamental issues, such as: How many Italian films were distributed in the United States between 1945 and 1975? Which films were distributed (genre, directors, actors)? Who were the producers and distributors involved in their distribution? Which was the distribution strategy and what were the outcomes of these distribution efforts? These inquiries are essential for a comprehensive understanding of the distribution and reception of Italian cinema in the United States during the period under investigation.

The special issue of the Journal of Italian Cinema & Media Studies aims to delve into the analysis of the circulation of Italian cinema in the United States from 1945 to 1975 with a more organic approach by covering both the economic as well as the artistic dimensions of the phenomenon. We aim to feature interdisciplinary contributions and draw upon a rich array of previously unpublished data sourced from archival materials, encompassing diplomatic, industrial, and banking records from Italy and the United States. Additionally, insights from sector-specific press in both countries will be seamlessly integrated. This comprehensive approach is designed to deliver a more professional and coherent examination of the distribution and reception of Italian cinema in the United States in the post-Second World War era.

We aim to foster interdisciplinary dialogue and collaboration among scholars, inviting them to contribute with their studies, research, and insights to enrich the discussion.

We invite you to submit proposals about the following topics (the list is not exhaustive):

• Neorealism: impact on American intellectual elites and young authors
• Italian cinema and Italian-American audiences (the 'ethnic distribution')
• Italian art films and American metropolitan audiences (the 'art-house' distribution)
• Italian adventure movies and American popular audiences (the 'commercial' distribution)
• The Italian comedy and the American audiences
• Italian films belonging to the tradition of Meridionalism/melodrama/opera and their circulation in the United States
• The Cosmopolitanism of the Italian film industry: the success of Italian actors/actresses and their personal adventures in Hollywood
• The story and the role of the independent American distributors who promoted Italian cinema in the United States
• The story and the role of Italian distributors who settled in the United States to distribute Italian cinema
• Italian cinema and American censorship (Production Code Authority, Legion of Decency and local/district censorship)
• The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences and the Italian cinema

Please submit a 350-500-word proposal in English of original and unpublished research plus a filmography and bibliography, and a biographical note of about 150 words to Prof. Federico di Chio ( [email protected] ) and Prof. Marina Nicoli ( [email protected] ) by 31 May 2024.

The outcome of the selection process will be communicated by 30 June 2024. Authors of the selected proposals will be invited to submit full-length articles by 30 November 2024. Their articles will be peer-reviewed and, if accepted, they will be published in a forthcoming special issue of the Journal of Italian Cinema & Media Studies .