essay on youth and technology

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Youth and technology: 5 ways we're changing the world

August 10, 2018.

Scarlet Clemente

Intern, Digital and Online team, UNDP

As a user of digital platforms and a professional in the communications field, I see how quickly and effectively technology has opened doors, connected people from remote communities with the same interests, and provided new opportunities to women, vulnerable groups and especially to young people.

Technology has helped immensely to boost access to large amounts of information and has supported changes that have transformed our lives forever. The innovative potential of young people, combined with the power of technology, is already proving to be a powerful force on the road to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals.

Today, youth actively contribute to the creation of new jobs, economic empowerment of vulnerable groups, the promotion of better health systems and access to inclusive and quality education.

Here are five stories where avant-garde technology, creative ideas and young and passionate visionaries intertwine to give life to development initiatives that are changing the world.

1. Green thinking

RecLeb - Recycle the Smart Way is a project developed by Khalil, a 23-year-old electrical and computer engineer, aiming to the high levels of pollution in Lebanon resulting from improper waste management.

RecLeb will help residents classify their solid waste through a mobile web platform, promoting "green thinking" among the community and healthy environments for young people .

2. Enterprising solutions

Hayfa Sdiri is a 19-year-old Tunisian social activist, blogger and founder of Entr@crush . This is an online platform designed for young entrepreneurs, where people with similar ideas and interests converge: young entrepreneurs, investors and sponsors.

This non-profit initiative, initially developed by five members and with almost no seed capital, promotes entrepreneurship and innovation and Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 8, which promotes inclusive and sustainable economic growth and decent work for all.

The platform has brought together young entrepreneurs willing to provide their knowledge for free, teaching virtual learning courses on a variety of topics that serve future entrepreneurs. For women who live in remote areas, this platform is a way to gain new skills and set up businesses, without the need to travel to the cities.  

3. Preventing violence

Putting an end to physical and verbal violence and sexual harassment in commercial establishments in Brazil, together with reducing the gender gap in information technology, was the goal of the creators of the application Não me calo (I will not shut up, in English).

This app classifies commercial premises according to the number of incidents reported by users and identifies those areas of higher risk for being harassed or assaulted.

At the same time, Não me calo encourages diners to make complaints and request the owner of the premises and government representatives to take measures to improve security in the place.

4. Robot-assisted participation

Badia is a messaging robot designed to shorten the communication gap between government authorities and citizens. It was developed by Montassar, a 25 year-old architect and university professor in Tunisia.

This entrepreneur has devised an innovative solution to address the lack of citizen participation in his hometown of Sidi Bouzid. The chatbot answers questions from residents on issues related to the local budget, promoting the flow of information and citizen participation.

5. Multi-dimensional thinking

Supporting the entry of youth who have suffered some disability during migratory processes or as a result of violence in the labour market was the vision of the young doctors, engineers and industrial designers in Honduras who gave life to an orthopaedic prosthesis model produced with 3D printing technology.

The prototype, which has been developed using only the printer, a laser cutter and a computer with design software, offers a better quality of life of people with disabilities and a big step towards achieving the SDGs.

These are just a few of the millions of young people who are helping to bring about change around the world. Promoting the wellbeing of the most vulnerable people and communities is a challenge that young people have taken on with passion and commitment. They just need support and opportunities from governments, civil society and the private sector, and the involvement of their own communities. Providing access to education and financing, boosting their creativity and innovation and simply believing in their ideas will help them make their projects and visions a reality. With this kind of support, youth can play a huge role in bringing about the world we want by 2030 – a world of peace, prosperity and inclusion, leaving no one behind.  

The Technology Influence on Youth Essay

Today, the importance of technology makes many people prefer to scroll through the timeline rather than get a few hours of sleep. Teenagers who are deprived of controlling their free time or filtering information coming from social networks are especially susceptible to this. Absorbing all the information that the Internet introduces, teenagers tend to stop evaluating the acquired knowledge sensibly. This leads to a deterioration of mental state physical health and increases the risk of falling into the hands of fraudsters. Since the spread of the Internet provides easier access to extensive knowledge and carries hidden harm, research has been conducted to analyze the impact of the Internet on adolescents. These studies were aimed at identifying the dangers that teenagers face on the Internet, finding their causes and measures that can help overcome them. This paper examines some of the main effects of new technologies on adolescents and young people, including deterioration of the physical and mental condition, increased risk of becoming a victim of a fraudster, and the gradual loss of moral values in an entire generation.

The interest of young people in social networks has specific consequences in the form of mental and physical health problems. For example, sitting in a constantly uncomfortable posture while checking social networks leads to the deterioration of the neck and back, provoking chronic pain in these areas. Moreover, bright light contributes to the damage of vision and sleep disorders, such as lack of sleep or even insomnia. Online interactions affect a teen’s emotional state, which can never be restored when it comes to mental health. Adolescents have learned to interact with people while staying behind the curve, which disrupts communication abilities (Bibi et al. 480). This proves that when technology is used incorrectly, it harms comprehensively.

The use of social networks by young people also weakens the institution of moral education and disregard for moral values. Uncontrolled publications on the social network Instagram with a demonstration of tobacco or the smoking process lead to the popularization of smoking among teenagers. Another problem is the distribution of images with alcohol consumption in the same social network, which erases the boundaries of what is permissible for minors. In addition, the lack of filtering of images of aggression and cruelty also leads to an increase in the risks of immoral behavior among adolescents whose personality has not yet been fully formed (Krylova 498). Having a negative impact on teenagers’ vision of tobacco and alcohol, technologies, where not all information is filtered and suitable for children and adolescents, also harm moral values.

The growing popularity of technology among young people has also led to an increase in their involvement in the sex industry, leading to a rise in crime and the experience of traumatic experiences by adolescents. Viewing prohibited materials causes the appearance of curiosity, which means the risk of harmful sexual contact even with the right person is becoming possible. New technologies and poor awareness of teenagers have also led to an increased risk of sharing an intimate photo on the Internet with an unfamiliar person. The possibility of involving children in the porn industry is also greatly simplified, which sometimes happens by the voluntary consent of a teenager due to the influence of the availability of sexual content (Senadjki et al. 63). As a result, the number of sexual crimes, where the victims are teenagers, is increasing because of the lack of filtering information in social networks.

From all of the above, it follows that the Internet has a huge negative impact of unverified information on the still unformed personalities of teenagers. All this leads to the understanding that the quantity and quality of resources viewed by teenagers must be controlled. Moreover, it is worth raising awareness among young people about the dangers and risks that await them with excessive use of technology.

Works Cited

Bibi, Arifa, et al. “Effect of Latest Technology and Social Media on Interpersonal Communication on Youth of Balochistan.” Journal of Managerial Sciences , vol. 11, n. 3, 2018, pp. 475-490.

Krylova, Palageya. “The Impact of the Social Networks Having Name Instagram on Values of Youth.” Culture and Education: Social Transformations and Multicultural Communication, 2019, pp. 494-501

Senadjki, Abdelhak, et al. “The Influence of Technology on Youth Sexual Prevalence: Evidences from Malaysia.” Malaysian Journal of Youth Studies, 2017, pp. 38-68.

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Essay on Impact Of Technology On Youth

Students are often asked to write an essay on Impact Of Technology On Youth in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Impact Of Technology On Youth

Learning and education.

Technology has changed how young people learn. Now, with a computer or tablet, students can find information quickly and watch educational videos. This makes learning fun and easy. But, sometimes they might get distracted by games or social media.

Communication and Relationships

Young people use technology to chat with friends and make new ones online. This is great for staying in touch, but it’s important to also spend time with friends and family in person to build strong relationships.

Health and Well-being

Too much screen time can hurt young people’s eyes and make them less active. It’s important to balance time spent on devices with outdoor activities and exercise for a healthy lifestyle.

Creativity and Entertainment

Technology offers many ways to be creative, like making videos or music. It also provides lots of entertainment options. But it’s good to also enjoy hobbies that don’t involve screens, like reading or sports.

Safety and Privacy

The internet can be risky for young people. They need to be careful about sharing personal information and know how to stay safe online. Parents and teachers can help by teaching them about online privacy and safety.

250 Words Essay on Impact Of Technology On Youth

Technology shapes learning.

Technology has changed the way young people learn. In schools, smartboards have replaced chalkboards, and students use tablets instead of heavy books. This makes learning more interactive and fun. They can access a world of information with just a click, making it easier to do homework and projects.

Young people today use social media and messaging apps to talk to friends and family. This means they can keep in touch with people far away, but it also means they might spend less time talking face to face. Some say this makes relationships weaker, while others think it helps them stay connected more easily.

Health and Lifestyle

Because of technology, many kids spend a lot of time sitting with their phones or playing video games. This can lead to less exercise and, sometimes, health issues. On the bright side, there are apps and games that encourage staying active and eating healthy, showing that technology can also help with good habits.

The internet can be risky for young people. They might see things that are not suitable for their age or share personal information without knowing the dangers. Parents and teachers try to teach them how to use the internet safely to protect their privacy.

In conclusion, technology has a big effect on young people. It helps them learn and stay in touch but also brings challenges like staying active and safe online. It’s important for kids to use technology in a balanced way and for adults to guide them.

500 Words Essay on Impact Of Technology On Youth

The role of technology in learning.

Technology has changed the way young people learn today. In the past, students had to rely on books and teachers to find information. Now, with a few clicks on a computer or taps on a phone, they can get answers to their questions instantly. This can make learning faster and more fun. For example, when a student is curious about the stars, they can watch videos, play educational games, or use apps that show the night sky in detail.

Before technology became widespread, young people would spend time together by meeting face-to-face. These days, smartphones and social media let them chat, share photos, and stay connected with friends and family even when far apart. This can be great for keeping in touch, but it also means that some kids might spend less time playing outside or talking in person. It’s important for them to balance their screen time with real-world interactions.

Health and Wellbeing

Technology can affect young people’s health in different ways. On the positive side, there are many apps and devices that help them stay active and track their health. For example, a fitness tracker can encourage a kid to move more and reach daily step goals. On the flip side, too much screen time can lead to less sleep, eye strain, and sometimes less physical activity. It’s good for youth to find a balance between tech use and physical health.

Entertainment and Creativity

For entertainment, technology offers a lot of choices to young people. They can watch movies, listen to music, or play games anytime they want. This can be a good way to relax and have fun. Also, with tools like drawing apps and music software, kids can make their own art and music, which helps them be creative and express themselves.

While technology brings many benefits, it also comes with risks. Young people might not always know how to stay safe online. They might share personal information without realizing it could be dangerous. Teaching kids about online safety and privacy is very important. They should learn to create strong passwords, think before they post, and know who to talk to if they feel uncomfortable about something online.

In conclusion, technology has a big impact on young people’s lives. It helps them learn, stay in touch with others, and have fun. At the same time, it’s important for them to use technology in a healthy and safe way. By understanding both the good and the not-so-good sides of technology, young people can make smart choices and use technology to help them grow and succeed. Parents and teachers can support them by guiding them on how to use technology wisely and responsibly.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

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Young people hold the key to creating a better future

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Stay up to date:, youth perspectives.

Listen to the article

• Young people are the most affected by the crises facing our world.
• They are also the ones with the most innovative ideas and energy to build a better society for tomorrow.
• Read the report "Davos Labs: Youth Recovery Plan" here .

Have you read?

Youth recovery plan.

Young people today are coming to age in a world beset by crises. Even before the COVID-19 pandemic devastated lives and livelihoods around the world, the socio-economic systems of the past had put the liveability of the planet at risk and eroded the pathway to healthy, happy, fulfilled lives for too many.

The same prosperity that enabled global progress and democracy after the Second World War is now creating the inequality, social discord and climate change we see today — along with a widening generational wealth gap and youth debt burden, too. For Millennials, the 2008 financial crisis and the Great Recession resulted in significant unemployment, huge student debt and a lack of meaningful jobs. Now, for Generation Z, COVID-19 has caused school shutdowns, worsening unemployment, and mass protests.

Young people are right to be deeply concerned and angry, seeing these challenges as a betrayal of their future.

But we can’t let these converging crises stifle us. We must remain optimistic – and we must act.

The next generation are the most important and most affected stakeholders when talking about our global future – and we owe them more than this. The year 2021 is the time to start thinking and acting long-term to make intergenerational parity the norm and to design a society, economy and international community that cares for all people.

Young people are also the best placed to lead this transformation. In the past 10 years of working with the World Economic Forum’s Global Shapers Community, a network of people between the ages of 20 and 30 working to address problems in more than 450 cities around the world, I’ve seen first-hand that they are the ones with the most innovative ideas and energy to build a better society for tomorrow.

Over the past year, Global Shapers organized dialogues on the most pressing issues facing society, government and business in 146 cities, reaching an audience of more than 2 million. The result of this global, multistakeholder effort, “ Davos Labs: Youth Recovery Plan ,” presents both a stark reminder of our urgent need to act and compelling insights for creating a more resilient, sustainable, inclusive world.

One of the unifying themes of the discussions was the lack of trust young people have for existing political, economic and social systems. They are fed up with ongoing concerns of corruption and stale political leadership, as well as the constant threat to physical safety caused by surveillance and militarized policing against activists and people of colour. In fact, more young people hold faith in governance by system of artificial intelligence than by a fellow human being.

Facing a fragile labour market and almost bankrupt social security system, almost half of those surveyed said they felt they had inadequate skills for the current and future workforce, and almost a quarter said they would risk falling into debt if faced with an unexpected medical expense. The fact that half of the global population remains without internet access presents additional hurdles. Waves of lockdowns and the stresses of finding work or returning to workplaces have exacerbated the existential and often silent mental health crisis.

So, what would Millennials and Generation Z do differently?

Most immediately, they are calling for the international community to safeguard vaccine equity to respond to COVID-19 and prevent future health crises.

Young people are rallying behind a global wealth tax to help finance more resilient safety nets and to manage the alarming surge in wealth inequality. They are calling to direct greater investments to programmes that help young progressive voices join government and become policymakers.

I am inspired by the countless examples of young people pursuing collective action by bringing together diverse voices to care for their communities.

To limit global warming, young people are demanding a halt to coal, oil and gas exploration, development, and financing, as well as asking firms to replace any corporate board directors who are unwilling to transition to cleaner energy sources.

They are championing an open internet and a $2 trillion digital access plan to bring the world online and prevent internet shutdowns, and they are presenting new ways to minimize the spread of misinformation and combat dangerous extremist views. At the same time, they’re speaking up about mental health and calling for investment to prevent and tackle the stigma associated with it.

The Global Shapers Community is a network of young people under the age of 30 who are working together to drive dialogue, action and change to address local, regional and global challenges.

The community spans more than 8,000 young people in 165 countries and territories.

Teams of Shapers form hubs in cities where they self-organize to create projects that address the needs of their community. The focus of the projects are wide-ranging, from responding to disasters and combating poverty, to fighting climate change and building inclusive communities.

Examples of projects include Water for Life, a effort by the Cartagena Hub that provides families with water filters that remove biological toxins from the water supply and combat preventable diseases in the region, and Creativity Lab from the Yerevan Hub, which features activities for children ages 7 to 9 to boost creative thinking.

Each Shaper also commits personally and professionally to take action to preserve our planet.

Join or support a hub near you .

Transparency, accountability, trust and a focus on stakeholder capitalism will be key to meeting this generation’s ambitions and expectations. We must also entrust in them the power to take the lead to create meaningful change.

I am inspired by the countless examples of young people pursuing collective action by bringing together diverse voices to care for their communities. From providing humanitarian assistance to refugees to helping those most affected by the pandemic to driving local climate action, their examples provide the blueprints we need to build the more resilient, inclusive, and sustainable society and economy we need in the post-COVID-19 world.

We are living together in a global village, and it’s only by interactive dialogue, understanding each another and having respect for one another that we can create the necessary climate for a peaceful and sustainable world.

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License and Republishing

World Economic Forum articles may be republished in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International Public License, and in accordance with our Terms of Use.

The views expressed in this article are those of the author alone and not the World Economic Forum.

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Chapter 5: Technology Use and Impacts in Children, Youth and Young Adults

5.1 Technology Use and Impacts in Children, Youth and Young Adults

Passion rebuilds the world for the youth. It makes all things alive and significant.

― Ralph Waldo Emerson

Chapter Insights

• Normative development is both universal in developmental tasks from birth through young adulthood in children, yet unique to the individual.
• Information and communications technology may have a positive or negative influence on physical, socio-emotional, psychological, and cognitive/learning domains of development in each age group.
• Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological framework is updated by Navarro and Tudge to address technology’s influence across the micro-, meso-, exo-, and macrosystems and as represented through processes by the person in context over time.
• ICT’s impact can manifest through exposure, interaction, and displacement.
• Technology is increasingly integrated into education and learning, which has a direct bearing on the development of children, particularly during their experiences in school settings. At the same time, there is concern that technology use may have a negative impact on brain development and activity, and on learning.
• Recommendations for children’s safe and effective use of technology are promoted by groups such as the American Academy of Pediatrics. These recommendations vary for young children ages 0–5 and for children and teens. A major study identified ICT impact differences in teens who were “family-engaged” and those who are “high risk.” It too offers recommendations for healthy teen use.
• The age at which most children possess smartphones is younger than the age most parents believe a child is ready. There are factors that parents can look to that indicate a child’s readiness for smartphone use.
• Children’s privacy may be compromised by their use of technology, and may impact their development. Across the ecology of children’s lives, individuals and society are responsible for ensuring that children’s data is safe, their identities are protected, and their accounts and time online are secure.
• After reading this chapter, identify what you feel inspired by, the questions that remain for you, and the steps you can take for your own technology use to be more intentional.

Introduction

Interest in children’s use of technology and its effect on their well-being and development has captured our collective interest perhaps more than any other topic on technology and the family. According to UNICEF (2017), children and adolescents under the age of 18 make up about one-third of internet users worldwide. Yet, as we’ve discussed, use is not a uniform concept, nor is technology a stable phenomenon. As a relatively new phenomenon, interests vary. Populations born in the 1990s and later are growing up with ICT; they know no other life and are digital natives. Older millennials and earlier generations (including the author’s baby boomer generation), in contrast, saw the internet and personal and mobile digital media come into our lives; we are, as Marc Prensky put it, digital immigrants. Technology is a marvel and a mystery we view within an ever-shrinking sense of the “before times,” our lives before the internet. We know how we went to school, met our partners, navigated our way in a new city, and looked up the definition of a word without personal computers and the internet. We see the ease at which younger millennials and genZ-ers adopt (and depend on?) devices, use the internet, succumb to the pleasures and trappings of social media, and are advantaged in their learning by new educational technologies (for those so privileged).  And we wonder…

• about children staring at screens and the effect the exposure to blue light has on their brains and sleep.
• about preteens absorbed in social media apps on their phones at all hours of the day, and about the interactions with others who might influence their self-esteem and self-confidence and possibly contribute to depression. Their exposure to graphic images and pornography might be confusing and may be an early influence for later high-risk behavior, and misinformation may frustrate eager learners.
• about teenagers inside on gaming devices for hour after hour, and wonder if it is displacing the joy and understanding of nature. Their social media use exposes them to shared images of celebrities that contribute to self-comparison and body consciousness.
• about young adults using Venmo to instantly send money and ApplePay to cover the cost of coffee and wonder if these efficiencies are displacing learning skills for financial management.

In short, excessive time spent on screens, exposure to specific content, and interactions with those who threaten safety raise concerns about technology’s influence on development, life skills, and achievement, as documented by groups like the American Academy of Pediatrics . excessive time spent on screens, exposure to specific content, and interactions with those who threaten safety raise concerns. Yet to approach children’s use of technology wondering only about its harm is to seek half the story. Yet to approach children’s use of technology wondering only about its harm is to seek half the story. Might these efficiencies and opportunities stimulate creativity and identity expression in ways earlier generations never experienced? Imagine the empowerment of the teens affected by the 2018 mass shooting at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland, Florida, who used their voices through social media and internet presence to speak out against gun violence. Might the current generation indeed be better off because it has access to a boundless world of information, a universe complementary to a place-based world for interaction and learning, and limitless information sharing? And as with all questions aimed at large groups, for whom might the benefits be greater? Or smaller? And what conditions encourage those effects?

The chapter addresses ICT use and developmental impacts for children from birth through 18, the age defined by the UN Convention of Rights of the Child (UNICEF, nd), and through emerging adulthood (19–25 years). [1] Including young adulthood not only contributes a unique period of development to the discussion (Arnett, 2007), but represents continuity in the parenting experience for many families.

The chapter focuses on the breadth of human development in multiple domains [2] , technology use by age, and impacts on the child’s developmental well-being. In most cases, use and impacts derive from research and reports on the specific age group (e.g., middle childhood, adolescence), though they may pull from cross-age data (e.g., the EU Kids Online study includes ages 9–16). Following the ecological focus of this book, the chapter applies this approach to human development, and to implications for families, practitioners who work with children and families, and the wider community, society, and institutions.

As scholars have observed, this digital ecology in which children use and are impacted by technology is not linear; interactions have transactional and dynamic effects. Conceptual frameworks that lay out the ecological, transactional nature of technology’s use and impact on children encourage readers to formulate questions about influences on use and on outcomes that the text may in fact answer. If they don’t, these are likely excellent research questions that individual readers may want to pursue through discussion, a literature search, or a project.

The family-perspective focus of this book encourages us to emphasize the benefits and challenges that reflect parenting interests (Auxier, et al., 2020; Livingstone & Blum-Ross, 2020) and parenting influence (CommonsenseMedia, 2016; Coyne, et al. 2017; Livingstone & Blum-Ross, 2020; Wartella, et al., 2013). This includes the wider ecology of children’s lives and the internet as part of those lives — and of their families — as a critical component of focus. As Sonia Livingstone and co-authors observed (2015)

As the internet has become a routine part of children’s lives, embedded into their lifeworld in a host of increasingly taken-for-granted ways, research is called to examine children’s engagement with the world not only on but more importantly through the internet. Arguably, the question is no longer just that of children’s relationship with the internet as a medium, but also with their relationship with the world as mediated by the internet in particular and changing ways. (p. 9)

An overview of impacts on development

This video from the New York Times nicely conveys concerns about children’s access to the internet and to social media when their development hasn’t prepared them to understand what they are exposed to.

Despite age warnings and guidelines, children find ways to view inappropriate social media and YouTube channels. And even when they are on sites tailored to their age group, they can see advertisements that are inappropriate. In part, this results from technology companies mining data from children’s technology use, and interpreting it in ways that promote age-inappropriate messages. From a macro or industry perspective, the video also highlights that tech companies do know how to program software to keep children safe.

In 2017, the UNICEF report Children in a Digital World summarized technology’s impacts (pp. 4–5):

• Digital technology has already changed the world, and as more and more children go online around the world, it is increasingly changing the experience of childhood.
• Connectivity can be a game changer for some of the world’s most marginalized children, helping them fulfill their potential and break intergenerational cycles of poverty.
• Digital access is becoming the new dividing line, as millions of children who could benefit from digital technology are missing out.
• Digital technology can also make children more susceptible to harm both online and off. Already vulnerable children may be at greater risk of harm, including loss of privacy.
• The potential impact of ICT on children’s mental health and happiness is a matter of growing public concern, and an area ripe for further research and data.
• The private sector — especially the technology and telecommunication industries — has a special responsibility and a unique ability to shape the impact of digital technology on children.

These observations reflect technology’s potential impacts on all domains of child development: physical growth, cognition, learning, and psychological, social, and emotional development. They align with the ages and stages of development: early childhood (birth to age 5), middle childhood (5–12), adolescence (13–18), and emerging adulthood (19–25), which supports a lifecourse perspective (Casimiro & Nico, 2018; Lim, 2016). They reflect differentiated effects depending on the child (e.g., age, gender, susceptibility, personality, health status), the context of use, type of device or application, degree of exposure, and the quality of interaction, and may reveal possible displacement effects (i.e., what the child is not doing while using technology). They commit the technology industry to action that promotes children’s development in design, dissemination, and data gathering. And they reflect the realities of research in the area, which is prolific yet incomplete (Gottschalk, 2019).

The figure below presents the dominant interest in children’s development as the basis for observation and exploration in research, and for the application of findings in practice and policy.

Perspectives on Human Development

To set the stage for the chapter, and for our understanding of human development in context and the influence of technology at multiple levels, we review Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological perspective of human development with an updated perspective specific to children’s technological realities. This review both contemporizes standing theory and lends itself to identifying frameworks for research, policy, and industry action.

General overview of human development

Individual perspectives on human development refer to the domains of cognition and learning, physical change, socio-emotional growth, and psychological functioning. Each domain operates as a whole, and trajectories of growth in each follow universal dimensions (i.e., those normative aspects expected of all human beings) expressed in unique ways depending on the DNA of the individual and the contexts that facilitate that expression. During puberty, for example, the expression of secondary sexual characteristics such as breasts and body hair due to increasing levels of gonadal steroids is normative in individuals who were assigned to be female at birth (AFAB). Yet the the timing of when breasts and body hair develop, and the expression of breast size and hair thickness, are unique to the genetic material of the individual. So while we regard developmental expectations across ages of children that are somewhat predictable, we also respect that there is variation and great individual difference.

An ecological focus

Studies of individual development through interaction with technology can focus on a physiological level and one quite unique to the developing organism. For example, a researcher might study eye gaze, visual scanning, and face recognition on video images in very young infants (e.g., 6 months, Smith et al., 2021). Or sleep quality and duration might be examined in children related to blue screen exposure and the suppression of melatonin (Hale et al., 2019). Because children do not grow up in a laboratory under constant conditions, research on human development also tries to control for and understand the influence of context (e.g., nurture vs. nature). The child’s context encourages questions about conditions that influence these outcomes. In the case of blue screens and sleep, might the timing or the content of the media (as influenced by actors in the child’s setting) play a role? Individual difference theories propose that sleep disturbances may drive technology use: isn’t it possible that children with poor sleep (due to context influences such as stress) turn to their computers, which exacerbates sleep challenges?

When talking about interpreting quantitative data on the impact of educational technologies and children’s learning, Scott McLeod (2022) stated in a discussion forum of ISTE (International Society for Technology in Education):

One of the challenges of education is that everything is always so contextual. Kids vary, families vary, institutional climate and history vary, our educators vary… everything varies — quite significantly — across schools, culture, geography, time, and context. In other words, what works for one school may not for another, simply because of context or timing (and vice versa). Teasing this out is incredibly challenging but “why did it work (or not)?” is a much more important question than “did it work (or not)?”

With clear respect to the ongoing research on technology’s impact on the biological and physiological processes of the developing organism, our focus on developmental outcomes places focus on contextual influences.

Neo-ecological perspective: “Technologizing Bronfenbrenner”

A critical contribution to the study of human development and the role of technology was offered in 2022 by Navarro and Tudge. By “technologizing Bronfenbrenner,” the authors make two important enhancements to the traditional model that nests systems of interactions as processes that occur over time. As noted in previous chapters, Bronfenbrenner’s model features contexts of interactions, most proximal to the developing individual (microsystem), including the mesosystem (two or more microsystem interactions), exosystem (interactions that influence development yet one of which does not directly contain the individual), and microsystem (wider forces such as culture or public policies) that have an indirect yet potent influence on development. For their first adaptation, Navarro and Tudge identify two parallel and interacting microsystems.

The internet is added as an environment for personal interaction alongside the physical . Their proposed virtual setting is defined as

A virtual microsystem is a pattern of activities, social roles, and interpersonal relations experienced by the developing person on a given digital platform with particular relational and symbolic features that invite, permit, or inhibit, engagement in proximal processes within that environment. (p. 4)

Unique characteristics of the virtual microsystem include synchronous and asynchronous interactions, which affect the individual’s availability and presence; interactions that operate publicly and are persistent due to the ability of platforms to store data that can be retrieved; and interactions that occur with limited interpersonal cues. They observe that the individual can exist in virtual and physical microsystems at the same time, and that interactions in which the individual engages define the opening and closing of virtual microsystems.

Then, after accepting Bronfenbrenner’s definitions of the mesosystem and ecosystem as inclusive of the digital world, they adapt the macrosystem with an integration of Tudge’s (2008) definition of culture:

A group of people who share a set of values, beliefs, and practices; who have access to the same institutions, resources, and technologies; who have a sense of identity of themselves as constituting a group; and who attempt to communicate those values, beliefs, and practices to the following generation. (pp. 3–4)

The adapted macrosystem effects indicate how “the rapid adoption of digital technology likely differentially impacts the development of adolescents depending upon the values and beliefs, resources, and social structure of their society” (Navarro & Tudge, 2022, p. 8). They offer the example of lower-income teens from Ghana using the internet for health information — a finding contrary to most research supporting the behavior in higher-income children — as a response to a more sexually repressive culture. Ghanian teens seek out the internet for information that is not otherwise available to them. Government censorship of the internet, as in China, is another culturally specific influence from the macrosystem. And certainly a key marcrosystem force is the digital divides created by differentials in access to the internet and to devices.

The second contribution from Navarro and Tudge’s technologic adaptation of Bronfenbrenner’s framework focuses on the person-process-context-time construct Bronfenbrenner used to explain how development occurs across influences from proximal and distal systems. In so doing, they integrate examples of personal characteristics that influence systems interactions, and also serve as outcomes, sub-labeled as force, resource, and demand. Time characteristics include micro time, meso time, and macro time, and then proximal processes, or “the conduit for synergistic interrelations between the characteristics of the person and their environments across time” (p. 11). They assert that proximal processes can take three forms: symbolic, relational, and complex , and observe that

development is the result of the multidirectional interrelations, or synergy, between these constituent elements. Person characteristics, context, and time are interdependent; all three forces synergistically shape “the form, power, content, and direction of the proximal process” (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006, p. 798), which in turn influence elements of the person, context, and time. As such, operationalizing neo-ecological theory requires scholars to embrace longitudinal designs and to gather data not only about people and their environments but also about the interactions and activities going on within them. (p. 13). [3]

EU Kids Online Framework

The research framework adopted by a set of researchers in the European Union conveys a related notion of contextual influence on children’s technology use as an interaction across multiple settings. The framework model is provided in the figure below.

A primary interest of the EU Kids online study is children’s well-being related to the risks they encounter through online interactions. Risks can be aggressive, sexual, value-related, and commercial, and with each the child can be a receiver, a participant, and an actor. In their framework, children’s online practices, skills, opportunities, and risks can be viewed as virtual microsystem interactions. Those interactions may include one or more in their social setting (e.g, parent, peer), and may be both virtual and physical, which would identify them as mesosystem interactions in Navarro and Tudge’s framework. Interactions by others in the exosystem can influence the child’s online practices and skills — through, for example, actions taken in the child’s community to make computers available at a public library, thus enhancing children’s digital ecology. The country level in the EU Kids framework offers multiple macrosystem actors: technology provision and regulation, culture, media and values, and societal inclusion. With the direction of influence from settings as synergistic, the researchers promote the interdependent nature of the settings, processes, and individuals.

With these ecological, dynamic, and technologically focused frameworks establishing the multi-context influences on children’s development, and with the child’s own behavior as a focus, we explore each age and stage of development and the current knowledge of technology use, influences on use, and impacts on child well-being.

Young Children and Technology

Development overview

The period of development from birth [4] through age 5 is one of the most dynamic of a human’s life. The rate of the body’s physical development body is rapid, and early development of large and fine motor skills occurs, though as with body length and weight, further development occurs at later ages. [5]

Most exciting is the development of the brain. Very early neural connections establish pathways for lifelong learning that affect both brain functioning and brain size. Children’s environment is critical to the development of these neural pathways, as environmental stimuli encourage initial and deeper connections. Children’s neural connections develop paths for future learning during a critical time period of plasticity (Gottschalk, 2019). With brain development, young children gain abilities with executive functioning (sense of organization of information, retrieval, memory), language and literacy, and a sense of self. These are aided by their abilities to move about and use their hands, mouth, and ears to explore and gather information.

Yet comfort with and attachment to their caregiver are key to children’s natural exploration for learning. Through social interaction early in life that conveys a sense of consistency and trust, children develop a connectedness that encourages their confidence. As they explore and have opportunities to interact with others, children gain an interest in being social and move from “parallel” play (playing alongside) to “cooperative” play (playing with others), and to understanding social rules. Through this exploration, the brain continues to develop, and develop stronger neural connections. These early years also prompt an early sense of oneself. A child’s identity begins to form and they roughly understand themselves as unique individuals in the world, and apart from their caregivers. Positive interactions with others in their world reinforce the sense of belonging and self-worth, encouraging exploration and growth.

Overview of developmental achievements in early childhood

• Physical : Rapid brain and body development. Early neural connections establish pathways for lifelong learning. Early development of large and small motor skills.
• Cognitive : Early learning with brain development. Gaining abilities in executive function, memory, language, and literacy. Exploration and curiosity can mean adult perception of misbehavior.
• Social/Emotional : Establish early nurturing connectedness (attachment) with a primary caregiver which offers a sense of confidence and trust for exploration and growth. Early socialization develops through interactions with others, including peers.
• Psychological : Early development of a sense of self, self esteem, and self-concept.

Young children’s technology use

Country government agencies recommend no screen exposure for children under 2 (see table below). Guidelines for very young children center more on limiting exposure rather than recommending use, up to 60 minutes for children 3–4 years, providing that there is adult interaction during use. (Gottschalk, 2019; WHO, 2019). Nevertheless, young children’s time with screens is reported to be just under one hour for children to age 2 (.47), and 2 hours 39 minutes for children 3–5 years, with the majority of time on TV (Commonsense Media, 2017). Young children’s exposure to digital technologies may begin months after birth (WHO, 2019). Auxier et al. (2020) report that nearly half (48%) of children under 5 have used a tablet and 55% have used a smartphone. Of parents who stated that their child 12 years or younger has used a smartphone, 6 in 10 reported the child began engagement with a smartphone before the age of 5, and roughly 1 in 3 reporting their child began before age 2 (Auxier et al., 2020). YouTube is popular with very young children, with up to 80% having watched it, and 25% watching it several times a day. Black and Hispanic parents reported higher rates of YouTube viewing several times a day. These parents are also more likely to report concerns that their young children are exposed to potentially negative images and messages, such as sex, violence and drug use, and gender and racial stereotypes. (Commonsense Media 2017). U.S. parents also report that approximately 5% of children under 5 use social media (especially TikTok and Snapchat), and 29% say their young child interacts with a voice assistant (e.g. Alexa, Siri), primarily to play music (reported by 79%). Throughout this chapter and in later chapters (e.g., cCapter 7 on parent-child relationships and technology), we explore parent and family contexts that influence young children’s technology consumption.

Technology use in early childhood education and child care settings

While much of the research on young children’s technology use is gathered from parents, many children attend child care and/or early childhood education and are exposed to digital devices and the internet by teachers directly or indirectly (e.g., from teachers’ personal use around children). many children attend child care and/or early childhood education and are exposed to digital devices and the internet by teachers directly or indirectly (e.g., from teachers’ personal use around children). According to the National Center for Educational Statistics , in 2019 parents reported that 59% of children 5 years or younger and not enrolled in kindergarten were in some type of nonparental care. Of these, the majority (62%, or 37% of the total) were attending a day are center, preschool, or prekindergarten (center-based care). Smaller numbers were cared for by a relative (38% of those in care) or in a private home by someone not related to them (20%).

A recent review of the literature by Undheim (2022) categorized technology in early childhood center settings as screen-based, not screen-based (e.g., 3D printers), Internet of Toys (IoT), and exploratory technology (e.g., digital telescopes). The studies focused on either the children’s perspective or the teachers’, and were primarily concerned with the pedagogical value or use of the technologies. They also observed discussion of access differentials between home and school, and teachers’ knowledge, skills, and beliefs. Both areas are considered disconnects in children’s valuable use of digital technology (e.g., teachers who have open attitudes and skills are more likely to provide meaningful interactions and sustained learning). The author observes that the majority of the studies lean toward a more positive view of children’s learning and play with technology, and rarely lend a critical eye to use. Some of the effects of children’s technology use in early childhood settings identified from research are discussed in the next section. [6] Discussion of teacher competence and skill with technology is discussed in Chapter 11.

Interests in young children’s development related to technology

Brain development and its related functions of language and problem solving, exposure to content that may be challenging for children to understand, the quality of sleep ,and body weight are all key interests in research on technology use by children from birth to age 5. For preschool-age children (2 ½ to 5 years), there is some demonstrated benefit of well-constructed media in acquiring alphabet recognition and learning sounds, and in greater emotion recognition, empathy, and self-efficacy. Young children are creators with technology, producing stories with rich narratives, characters, and representations of their social understanding (Undheim, 2022). A key to these benefits is the interaction and presence of an adult.

Research also indicates that excessive TV watching reduces language, cognition, and socioemotional development, largely due to reduced parent-child interaction. There is concern that early behavior with TV watching will establish a habit in children. The quality and content of TV is another consideration, particularly when children are exposed to content that is not prosocial. Children who form a habit of passive TV or screen viewing also are at risk of early obesity. Not only is passive viewing a sedentary activity, but it exposes children to commercial content that promotes lack of exercise and high-calorie eating. And sleep issues have been observed in young children who have media in their rooms. Diminished sleep is observed when infants are exposed to blue light from screens, which suppresses endogenous melatonin. The content of what is viewed can also create an elevated heart rate, making it hard for young children to sleep. A focus on screens can negatively affect babies’ need for reciprocal interaction for learning language, a sense of self, and executive functioning (Ernest et al., 2014; Gottschalk, 2019).

Recommendations to date

The table below lists guidelines for young children (and older groups) as stated by professional agencies in the U.S., Canada, and selected countries. No screen time is recommended for infants and toddlers (under the age of 18 months), except for occasional video chat (per the AAP). As noted, any programming should be intentionally selected for quality, and interactivity with an adult is key. If we consider the multiple advantages of a caregiver reading a book with a child, the value of using technology with a young child is evident. When reading with a caregiver, children better understand language and the context of language and literacy, they can be scaffolded to apply content from existing text and their questions can be answered, and the emotional connection when reading and responding with another reinforces neural pathways. With screens, having a peer or parent is especially important to help cognition. Research indicates that it’s not the medium (video screens) that is a barrier to learning, but the lack of a partner to help children make sense of what they are seeing and interacting with (Lytle et al., 2018).

Screen time recommendations (from Gottshalk, 2019)

German Federal Ministry of Health (Rütten and Pfeifer, 2016)

A shorthand version of recommendations for young children by the American Academy of Pediatrics states:

• No screens under age 2.
• Limit to 1 hour a day (2–5 yrs).
• Use technology along with children.
• Limit their exposure.
• Observe what it’s displacing.
• Limit when they use (not close to bedtime).
• Limit where they use.

Experts agree that children must be prepared for technology use in their future (Ernest et al., 2014). To do so, we must view the internet and mobile, digital devices and applications realistically in terms of both their benefits and ways they can be detrimental. This requires ongoing synergy between research, practice, and policy, so that information and action from one sphere inform the others. The report also observed that caregivers and educators can help children recognize how their identities, knowledge, skills, and values are shaped by forces around them (social, cultural, and political), by how they are represented in the media, and by their online interactions.

The Erikson Center for Technology and Early Childhood offers guidelines for media literacy in young children. These may serve as goals or indicators of success:

Erikson Center Media Literacy Guidelines for Young Children [7]

• Children will learn to intentionally access, select, and manipulate media.
• Children will learn to engage and explore with media in a way that is supportive of their overall development and learning.
• Children will learn to comprehend media messages and practices.
• Children will learn to critically inquire about media and their use of media.
• Children will learn to evaluate the content and impact of media in a developmentally appropriate way.
• Children will learn to create and express ideas using media.

To encourage these skills in children’s worlds, Erikson CML also provides recommendations for caregivers and practitioners . These are general reflections on understanding oneself as a learner and teacher, and underscore the AAP’s recommendations. Additional information for both of these groups is provided in Chapters 6 and 7 (for parents) and 11 (for practitioners).

With regard to research priorities, the EU Kids online framework (2015) includes the following areas:

• Factors relating to children’s identity and resources, beyond demographic variables.
• New modes of access to the internet, as this becomes more mobile, personalized, and pervasive.
• A multidimensional analysis of digital skills and literacies and their significance for well-being.
• A rethinking of the “ladder of opportunities” to identify whether and when children undertake more ambitious creative or civic online activities.
• New kinds of online risks, including risks to personal data, privacy issues, and online reputation management.
• The interplay between children’s digital practices and proprietary policies and mechanisms.
• Children’s desire to experiment and transgress boundaries, to grasp children’s agency online.
• Extending the analysis of how parents mediate their children’s internet use to the potential importance of other socializing agents.
• Extending research on use of digital media from 9-to 16-year-olds to much younger children.
• Research on socio-technological innovations in smart/wearable/ubiquitous everyday devices.
• The implications of digital engagement as it may reconfigure (undermine or enhance, alter or diversify) children’s well-being in the long term.
• Connecting the research agenda on children’s online access, risks, and opportunities to the broader agenda of children’s rights — provision, participation, and protection — in the digital age.

Middle Childhood and Technology

Middle childhood [8] , ages 6–12, has been called a “latency” period of human development. Compared with the dynamic rate of growth in the early years, and the rapid changes that occur during early, middle, and late adolescence, skeletal and muscular growth and dexterity happen at a slower rate. Cognitively, learning moves to the operational stage, with abilities to organize and use logic to solve problems. Many children at this age enjoy playing games with rules, collecting, and developing a type of expertise. They are also often eager to explore and learn new things. Socially, exposure to peers is significant during middle childhood, as the majority of children begin formal schooling. They also have opportunities for afterschool programs, clubs, sports, and other activities with peers. As children are learning to cooperate with others, they may be subject to bullying and other expressions of power. Psychologically, children in middle childhood are continuing to develop an identity of themselves, as a part of the family, yet also as unique individuals.

Overview of developmental achievements in middle childhood

• Physical development: Slower body rate of growth; fine and large motor skills continue to be refined. Puberty at the end of this stage.
• Cognitive/brain/learning: Thinking becomes more logical and ordered; able to use if-then perspective; expertise, moral development, and ethical behavior.
• Social/emotional development: Peer socialization; exposure to bullying from the assertion of power in peer groups.
• Psychological: Strengthening a sense of gender identity, self as separate from family.

Technology use

Interest in activities, stronger peer relationships and time spent in school/on school subjects encourage children 6-12 years old to use a variety of devices and explore a range of applications. School-age children are prevalent media users, with 80% using a tablet and 63% using a smartphone (Auxier et al., 2020). Even so, only 22% of parents feel it’s OK for children under 12 to own a smartphone. They are more tolerant of children having a tablet, with 65% reporting that a tablet is acceptable for children under 12. As indicated in the chart below, over half of school-age children age 5–8 and 9–11 have used all five types of devices listed. Larger use differences between school-age and younger children exist for computers and gaming devices.

A 2021 report from Commonsense Media indicates that average screen time use by tweens (ages 8–12) increased 17% from 2015 to 2021, from 4 ½ hours to 5 hours 33 minutes. As observed with teens (and discussed later in the chapter) screen time is greater among boys, children who are Latino, and those in families with less income. YouTube is popular with children, with 89% of parents reporting that their 5–11-year-old watches videos on YouTube (Pew). Just over half (53%) report that their child watches YouTube at least once a day. Commonsense Media reports that “tweens watch an hour of online videos per day.”

Social media is popular with children ages 9–11, with parents reporting 30% on TikTok, 22% on Snapchat, and 11% on Instagram. Commonsense Media (2021) reports that 11% of 8–12-year-olds are on Snapchat and 10% on Instagram (their data was drawn from children, not adults). That said, small portions of children 5–8 years (i.e., 3–11%) are also reported to visit these sites, despite age warnings on the applications (Schaeffer, 2021). Parental acceptance of screens also changes during this age: 67% are tolerant of children under 12 having a tablet, though the majority of parents (73%) believe that 12 or older is the age at which it is acceptable for children to have their own phone (Auxier et al., 2020). And with regard to voice-activated devices, just over one-third (36%) of parents with a child 11 or younger reported that their child had engaged with a voice-activated assistant such as Siri or Alexa. Functions of these devices for children include playing music (82%), providing information (66%), and hearing a joke or playing games (47%).

Technology offers a number of potential benefits for children ages 6–12:

• Exposure to new ideas, increased awareness of events and issues, information that reinforces interests.
• Access to information about health and body changes as puberty approaches.
• Enhanced communication with family and friends, especially those geographically separated; enhanced access to support networks through social media.
• Aiding in learning in school and beyond: tablets, media devices for content creation, digital stories, blogs, etc. (digital ecology).
• The expression of identity through interest exploration, creative pursuits, and expression.

For children gaining enhanced access to technology during middle childhood, “connected learning ” promotes the value of interactive, mobile, creative technologies and children’s learning (Ito et al., 2020) and encourages the pursuit of interests across the “learning ecology” (Barron, 2006) through opportunities and relationships. In contrast to learning that takes place in a formal classroom, connected learning builds on learner interests through relationships (with those who will promote deeper understanding) and opportunities (to explore additional ways of understanding and deeper content).

As observed by the Connected Learning Research Network (Ito et al., 2020), connected learning takes root when:

• organizations sponsor and legitimize the interests and identities of diverse youth,
• learners are engaged in shared practices such as creative production, research, or friendly competition,
• these practices are guided by shared purpose such as contributions to communities, social change, or solving real problems, and
• learning is connected across settings through brokering, coordination, and openly networked platforms (p. 5).

In Chapter 8 we discuss a family podcast in which a father and his two children talk about Star Wars. [9] Because of the relationships and opportunities afforded through both children’s interests that integrate technology (one in music, the other in video production), the family’s experiences enable the children to “connect” their learning across multiple spheres — including application in traditional schooling. Readers interested in learning more about connected learning may want to visit the Connected Learning Alliance . The boom in learning technologies used in the classroom — and teacher competencies to ensure pedagogical value — speak to the promise of digital engagement throughout the school years. Technologies used for learning in elementary and secondary schools are discussed later in this section.

Online and videogames are very popular with children in middle childhood. Jessica Navarro, the technology and human development researcher mentioned previously, writes of her son’s experience with playing the online game Fortnite (2021). She admits feeling leery about his play when the hype pointed to the exposure to first-person shooter activity and violence. Yet observing him play with friends, including new friends met online, showed her the value of the game for developing collaboration skills (social) and problem-solving (cognitive), checking two of the developmental domain boxes. An interest in games with rules, and the development of eye-hand coordination during this age, can make participation in online interactive games a positive experience. And very recent research by the National Institutes for Drug Abuse (NIDA) identified a relationship between playing videogames for 3 hours by 9 and 10 year olds and benefits to cognitive tasks involving impulse control and working memory (NIDA, 2022). That said, and as Navarro observes, the online chat features of these games can also expose vulnerable children to bullying and contact with adults (McInroy & Mishna, 2017) and to violence, which can influence the acceptance of oppression and lack of empathy (Ernest et al., 2014). Parental controls can help moderate what children are exposed to, and by monitoring children’s play and, especially, their response to the play, parents can be aware of the value or possible consequences these games afford.

Impacts — Exposure to screens

A primary developmental concern at this age is an over-reliance on screens that leaves children exposed to threats they may not have the cognitive abilities to reason through or social maturity to handle (Gottschalk, 2019). Long hours on computers also contribute to physical health concerns about childhood obesity, blue screen exposure and sleep deprivation, and weak posture. DeMoor et al. (2008) lists three primary areas of concern in internet exposure as content, contact, and commercial. Passive viewing and exposure to influencers on social media (contact) are linked with childhood depression, stress, and anxiety. Concerns have been lodged about children’s lack of privacy and the potential for commercial applications and, as discussed in the next section, even school software to track children’s use, user patterns, and user preferences.

With regard to content, a 2021 report from Commonsense Media looked at representation in the media that children consume, important given that the majority (70%) of parents surveyed wanted their children to be exposed to more diverse images (with higher percentages among parents of color). Parents also wanted media content to expand and be inclusive of other kinds of diversity (individuals with physical, neurological, or learning disabilities, those with diverse body types, and those from different socioeconomic levels). Parents’ media concerns stemmed from the way they felt people were represented in programming to their children. Many parents perceived White people as more likely to be portrayed in a positive light compared to the portrayal of Black, Hispanic/Latino, and LGBTQIA+ individuals.

Learning and Technology

Schools have long integrated multimedia and interactive media to encourage collaboration, creativity, and exploration, and to connect with students at a distance. Greater attention to educational technology has occurred in the last 30 years as computers and the internet, then laptops, then Chromebooks, and now tablets, SMART boards, and smartphones are used in the classroom, and as teaching through virtual environments complements and sometimes replaces face-to-face instruction. Reviews of the research indicate that, when used appropriately, instructional technology can enhance feedback and communication with students, and motivate peer collaboration, individual creativity, and self-expression (Hamilton & Hattie, 2021). UNICEF’s 2022 What Makes Me? report identifies learning technology as a successful modality for children’s active and multisensory work that promotes core capacities.  Students are likely to continue interactions outside of school, and parents can feel more engaged and involved.

“From the plethora of media comparison research conducted over the past 60 years, we have learned that it’s…the instructional methods that cause learning. When instructional methods remain essentially the same, so does the learning, no matter which medium is used to deliver instruction” (Clark & Meyer, 2011, p. 14; as cited in McKnight et al., 2016, p. 195).

Research also indicates that devices and applications are merely tools; the quality of the teaching with these applications is key to effective learning. Research reviews about instructional technology and learning report that the motivation to learn is key. Instructors are critical to this motivation — in the ways in which they adapt technology through learner-centered approaches, emphasize how people learn, differentiate and individualize instruction, and use technology to facilitate learning processes (p .195, McKnight et al., 2016). In addition, teachers who use instructional technology find their work to be more efficient — particularly in student communication and grading homework — giving them more time to focus on instruction. How well teachers implement instructional technology is greatly dependent on their ability, training, and resources (discussed further in Chapter 11, and in Hamilton & Hattie, 2021).

The wider infrastructure of schools can create a culture that integrates technology as a pedagogical tool and embraces teaching strategies with technology. Associations like ISTE (International Society of Technology in Education, iste.org) offer tremendous resources, learning opportunities, and community forums for teachers to identify materials and strategies for effective instruction. Standards for teaching training and licensing and for school integration provide guidance for the entire field of formal pre-K-12 education in the U.S. and globally.

Possible pitfalls of educational technology

As with most issues, however, learning technologies in education are not always the ideal solution. A significant challenge is that of access . Individual households, schools, and school districts vary by geography and income in their ability to ensure children’s access to devices and the internet (Hamilton & Hattie, 2021). The ability of parents and educators to support children’s learning with new technology also varies greatly. An example of this is the software Prodigy™, with English and math games for children. While it provides a fun and immersive experience, families and schools may be unable to upgrade children’s free accounts to a premium (cost) version, marketed to users. Using a premium version entitles children to exclusive rewards, leaving those unable to upgrade to feel like they are missing out. Groups like Commonsense Media recommend that schools jointly create community strategies with families to make decisions that benefit children while being balanced with cost considerations.

Privacy and data sharing are other issues with learning technologies used by schools (Lieberman, 2020). When selecting software for children’s learning, schools vet quality, cost, usability, and security. They are obligated to let parents know how student data is being used, regardless of where teaching occurs. Laws such as the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) and the Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA) offer guidance when selecting software. Yet the rush to putting lessons online during COVID-19 and as schools provide more distance learning options on tight budgets can mean using free programs that are less transparent in their practices. In 2020, Education Week reported that “Most U.S. states earned a ‘C’ or lower grade from a 2019 survey of student data privacy protections by Kiesecker’s organization and the Network for Public Education.” As discussed in Chapter 12, school districts take children’s privacy and data use from education software seriously and offer policies on their websites, in school community handbooks, and in teacher training. It is essential that education technology companies be consistent and clear in their policies, and adhere with legal tenets of privacy laws.

Access to learning technologies

Issues of children’s access and the digital (or knowledge) gap are of worldwide concern. Inequities in device and internet access challenge children’s learning and achievement (Katz, 2017; Katz et al., 2018; Perez, 2021; Resta, 2020; Resta et al., 2018; Zhang & Livingstone, 2019). Differences in access affect children’s participation in learning and at school, the creation of valuable social connections, and the forging of a unique identity. Lack of access also adds a disadvantage to children with special needs, who already struggle to find technologies with necessary accommodations. Schools may distribute devices, routers, and wifi hubs, provide additional technology coaching, and train teachers to be sensitive to equity and access needs when integrating technology in coursework (Perez, 2021). And a new bill (Emergency Broadband Benefit) from the U.S. Congress offers short-term assistance to pay for internet access for families and students (US FCC, 2021). On the public awareness side, children’s media scholars Livingstone and Blum-Ross (2020) advocate that a step toward equity is to move our collective concern away from screen time quantity and more strongly embrace quality dimensions of technology use for active learning, socialization, and development. This can shift attention to the need for all children to have access to beneficial technology.

Children with Special Needs

Technologies can aid reading for children with vision challenges, and vocabulary and problem-solving skills for children with developmental delays (Livingstone & Blum-Ross, 2020). Adding Wii games for children on the Autism spectrum benefits physical development, learning social cues, and developing social skills (Ernest et al., 2014). Commonsense Media reports that videogames can be tailored to specific needs, and games produced for general populations can aid children in acquiring communication skills, providing them ways to challenge themselves and learn how to ask for help.

Beyens et al. (2018) summarized a review of four decades of research on technology’s impact on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) to indicate only a marginal relationship, calling it more “theoretically than empirically grounded” (p. 9878). They called for continued research into individual differences that affect susceptibility (e.g., sex, temperament, age) and especially into context and condition variables that may play a role in technology selection, content exposure, and use, including parent variables. “Research has shown that parents factors, such as parental ADHD, parental temperament, parenting stress, family conflict, unresponsive parenting, and chaotic parenting are negatively linked to ADHD behaviors, and responsive parenting can suppress ADHD-related behaviors” (p. 9879).

Recommendations for middle childhood and adolescence

The American Academy of Pediatrics offers these recommendations for parents of children and adolescents (which includes children in middle childhood):

• Monitor access to devices and use, on balance with physically healthy practices for brain and body.
• Treat media as other environments: set limits, monitor for safety and well-being.
• Be a good role model.
• Promote the value of face-to-face communication.
• Provide warnings for safety (privacy, predators); keep lines of communication open if children/teens experience concerns.
• Focus on appropriateness and quality of engagement.
• Make and communicate media plans with all family members.
• Understand limits and potential harms. Do your homework on apps and games children and teens use.

During this age period, many children will seek and/or acquire a smartphone. Is there an appropriate age for children to have a smartphone? Or is a determination based on knowing the risks and rewards and on a child’s display of the ability to responsibly handle one? Children’s smartphone ownership is discussed later in the chapter . And parent engagement through consistent and attuned communication with children in middle childhood and late, is key to their healthy use. As noted, children ages 6–12 will be exposed to messages and images and information that they don’t understand. It is essential that they have at least one adult they feel safe to go to for questions and conversation about technology.

Adolescents and Technology

The developmental changes that occur during adolescence are so dynamic and pronounced that development scholars divide the period into approximate age ranges: early adolescence (11–14), middle adolescence (14–17), and late adolescence (17–20). [10] The significant activity of puberty can affect the expression of primary and secondary sex characteristics, hormonal expression leading to an interest in having sex, body changes, skeletal growth, and continuation of brain development (though it’s not complete until later into early adulthood; see figure below).

Adolescents’ contexts are, primarily, in middle and secondary school, exercising their cognitive abilities and continuing peer associations. Expression of identity is key and can encourage the joining of “cliques” and crowds as a way to fit in and understand oneself. The growing sense of confidence in oneself can also unleash under-confidence, expressed as power through bullying others.

Overview of developmental achievements in adolescence

• Physical : Brain development continues (still not complete), body changes in puberty affects hormonal reactions, and interest in sex; opportunities for high-risk behaviors; skeletal and muscle growth is completed.
• Cognitive: T hinking becomes more reasoned and abstract; hormonal response can generate high-risk behavior.
• Socio-emotional: Peer associations, romantic associations; looking ahead; taking on added responsibility in jobs;, anticipating life post-secondary school (military, college, employment, etc).
• Psychological: Identity development (as separate from family); hormonal responses affecting mood; awareness of mental health challenges.

Phones and computers are nearly ubiquitous in the lives of teens, who use them extensively for connections to friends and family, for schoolwork and jobs, and for daily life tasks. Most (95%) have smartphones, and 80% have a gaming console. A 2022 report from Pew indicates that these percentages have increased since 2015 (Vogels et al., 2022). Most teens (95%) have smartphones, and 80% have a gaming console. While the majority of teens in the U.S. report having a computer (90%), those whose parents have less education or income are more likely not to have a computer (Anderson et al., 2022)…Among 13–18-year-olds, the average total screen time is 8 hours and 39 minutes. This is an increase of 1 hour per day between 2019 and 2021.  As noted in Chapter 3, these socioeconomic disparities in technology access had negative implications for children and teens’ academic participation during COVID. And use varies by gender and ethnicity. Commonsense Media reports that boys spend more time than girls online, as do teens who report non-white ethnicities. Among 13–18-year-olds, the average total screen time is 8 hours and 39 minutes. Light users are on screens for approximately 2.5 hours/day; heavy users for 13.3 hours/day (Commonsense Media, 2021). And use has increased in recent years. In 2019, teen screen time averaged 7 hours 22 minutes. Commonsense Media reports that the rate of increase is greater in the last two years than in previous years.

Teens use a range of social media, with a preference for YouTube, TikTok, Instagram, and Snapchat (Vogels et al., 2022). In just seven years, teen interest in Facebook dropped from 71% to 32% according to the 2022 study from Pew. Boys report more interest in Reddit, Twitch, and YouTube; girls prefer Instagram, Snapchat, and TikTok. While 62% reporting using social media daily, daily entertainment is also sought through streaming videos (77%) and watching television (49%) (Commonsense Media, 2021). Yet even though teens report spending nearly an hour and a half each day on social media, a minority indicate that they like doing so “a lot” (34%). Listening to podcasts as a regular activity is reported by about one-fifth of teens. And gaming is popular with 59% of teens, with active players spending three hours a day on average, and teens in general reporting 1 hour, 46 minutes. The Pew study reports that a majority of teens say their social media use is about right (55%); 36% say it’s too much.

Global data on teen technology use is available from the EU Kids Online study and the Global Kids Online study , which track children’s use in Europe, South America, countries in Africa, and the Philippines. The EU Kids study follows 9- to 16-year-olds (approximately the middle of the two age groups surveyed by Commonsense Media), and the 2016 report from the Global Kids study featured data from 9–17-year-old children from the Philippines, Serbia, and South Africa, and internet-using children age 13–17 from Argentina. These data offer a more universal understanding of technology use by children and teens, with differences to what is observed in the U.S. based on socioeconomic, cultural, and governmental factors.

For example, in a study of Nigerian teens age 13–18 years old in rural and urban areas, most reported access to a shared or personal mobile phone, which was the dominant form of internet access (Uzuegbunam, 2019). A minority purchased their own phones (23%); the remainder reported purchases by their families. However, the researcher determined that use was fairly gendered. Technology for personal development and for self-learning was mainly by privileged male youth in urban cities. The teens also reported the use of social media as positive yet, as with other teens, indicated technology’s power to distract, expose them to bad messages, and encourage cheating on tests. While some parents do monitor teens’ technology use, the research indicated that many parents and teachers lack the skills and literacy to support children’s evolving digital practices.

Texting and using social media for peer communication and for connections with romantic partners are significant for teens. Sexting, or sharing sexual images and language, is fairly common. Madigan et al.’s (2019) research review representing data from the 22 studies in the U.S., Canada, Europe, Australia, South Korea, and South Africa indicated that 8.4% forward a sext without consent, 12% receive a sext without consent, 15% send a sext, and 27% receive a sext. Flirting this way via smartphone (the device used in most cases of sexting) is obviously not common, yet its occurrence is usually consensual. However, sexting laws prohibit sharing personal images of individuals who are minors. Fines and laws can be harsh for those who send sexually explicit or nude photos electronically, whether though text, email, or social media. Some states have specific laws regarding sexting between minors, which are less harsh than those — like Minnesota — whose laws around sexting and minors are related to child pornography. This page provides more information about the statute in Minnesota laws. Writing for Pediatrics (from the American Academy of Pediatrics), Strasberger et al. (2019) cite the data and implications of sexting in teens, and argue for the differentiation of behavior between consenting adolescents and behavior that is clearly in the realm of child pornography and abuse.

Despite legitimate concerns on behavioral trends observed with teens and technology, as ICT has become ubiquitous in their lives, the majority of teens do not report negative outcomes (Commonsense Media, 2021). [11] Interaction through dating apps, texting, and social media are commonplace and now expected environments for intimate relationships — a healthy part of teens’ socialization. James et al. (2017) report that, for 13–17 year olds with a social network profile, the applications used intersect interests across their lives, and contribute significantly to adolescents’ identity formation, sense of agency and autonomy, and academic achievement. For adolescents and young adults worldwide, proficiency with technology also means preparation for jobs of the future that will rely on automation (Anderson et al., 2022; Blum-Ross. et al., 2018).

Teens’ use of social media is a good example of research findings that are “variable” in being positive, yet qualified. James et al.’s 2017 review of the research identified positive impacts on well-being through self-confidence, self-esteem, being outgoing, feeling less shy, and reporting less depression. This is often due to social media’s ability to help teens maintain friendships and meet new potential friends with shared interests. With regard to empathy and narcissism, in general teens display more emotionally empathic communication online than adults, yet they are also more likely to think of their activities online from a self-focused perspective. And during COVID-19, teens who found support online, despite the number of hours they used screens, reported positive mental health, based on a study of 700 11–17 year olds in Peru (Magiss-Weinberg et al., 2021).

As with children in middle childhood, concerns for teens’s technology use rest with psychological effects due to social comparison, anxiety, low self-esteem, and being the subject of bullying (UNICEF, 2017). These effects also are more prevalent for teens who are vulnerable. concerns for teens’s technology use rest with psychological effects due to social comparison, anxiety, low self-esteem, and being the subject of bullying (UNICEF, 2017). These effects also are more prevalent for teens who are vulnerable. Variability occurs depending on the content of what is being shared, the quality and quantity of content, and responses from others. For example, when a social media user seeking support is ignored, the user afeels worse. Research by Commonsense Media (2018) revealed that adolescents age 13–17 who scored lowest on the socioemotional wellbeing scale ( SEWs ) reported the importance of social media in their lives higher than did other teens; they were also more likely to report being bullied or feeling bad and left out. Recently , a young teen’s suicide was attributed by a London coroner to her consumption of self-harm-related social media. Problematic behavior with technology (e.g., feeling addicted to one’s phone) can have negative consequences with relationships. And devices such as mobile phones, with the ability to text and access social media at will, can inhibit intimacy and present challenges through the perception of 24/7 connectedness.

Analyses of literature on videogame violence supports a relationship with players’ longitudinal demonstration of violent behavior, even after controlling for previous demonstration of aggression (Prescott et al., 2018). And researchers found a racial component: a strong relationship for White children, a weak relationship for Asian children, and an unpredictable relationship for Latino children. They echo other scholars calling for continued research on factors or individual differences that relate to the results.

researchers encourage widening the scope rather than narrowly targeting technology as the sole culprit in investigations of effects Additional researchers encourage widening the scope rather than narrowly targeting technology as the sole culprit in investigations of effects. Adolescents face a range of influences on their health and mental health. Writing for Nature, researcher Candice Odgers (2018) reports how teens are faring in the “digital age” by offering a broader view than data linked specifically to phone use. She reports on broad indicators like high school graduation rates and academic achievement, and on downward trends in pregnancy, violence, alcohol abuse, and smoking. As noted in Chapter 1, it’s crucial to consider how technology fits into children’s and families’ lives as a whole. Odgers addresses the debate around benefits and consequences of technology use by teens, and returns to a biological truth: developing organisms will respond in unique ways to their environments, and measured impacts in one ecological domain are likely influenced by influences from another. Indeed, and as noted above, some teens will demonstrate negative impacts from exposure to social media, videogames, time online, and use of their smartphones. Yet Odgers’ read of the data is that this reflects “a new kind of digital divide, in which differences in online experiences are amplifying risks among already-vulnerable adolescents.” Her recommendations are that we fret less about technology use and teens as the issue, and focus more on the wider societal influences on their lives that encourage the mental health and academic and behavioral conditions they bring to their online experiences.

Aiding this viewpoint, a recent study with 4,000 teens age 13–18 and their parents (Moreno et al., 2022) identified two “classes” of risk for teen technology use and impact. Family-engaged adolescents reported better well-being, sleep, and physical activity. For these teens there was a tighter family connection in ownership and family communication, and parent technology use (specifically social media) was low. “At-risk” adolescents were those reporting higher levels of depression, anxiety, and poor body image; they were more independent in their technology access and parents’ social media use was high. As decades of research on families has observed, sociocontextual stress from living with poverty, unemployment, discrimination, and more creates conditions that pull parents away from their ability to fully attend to children’s needs.

Reports such as this help focus on the characteristics of teens for whom technology may be an added vulnerability, while the research into specific effects (for whom, which type of technology, under which conditions) continues.

Expanding our understanding of effects of technology and adolescent development

Groups like the American Academy of Pediatrics in the U.S. bundle recommendations for healthy adolescent technology use with those for children. These recommendations lean heavily on responsible use, use that is developmentally appropriate, and strong and constructive influence from educators and caregivers. An AAP article specific to medical connectivity with teens recommends applications that are user-centered in their design, address disparities in internet and device access, and are created with an awareness of challenges to data ownership, confidentiality, and data privacy. Their comments close by saying “Pediatricians should neither shun new technologies nor accept them wholeheartedly without review but always advocate for and consider the best interests of adolescents by carefully balancing the risks and benefits of using and recommending these technologies to optimize health outcomes, including physical, emotional, and social well-being, in this vulnerable population.”

The findings of the SMAHRT and Center for Scholars and Storytellers study described above underscore the heavy contributions by family in shaping teen’s technology use and outcomes. It recommends that devices are family-owned rather than individually owned, that households maintain patterns of communication about technology use, that parents are aware of their own use as they serve as models of behavior, and that a family focus on technology begins early in a child’s life.

James et al. (2017) and Hamilton et al. (2021) make the following research recommendations to better understand use of technology in general and applications like social media specifically:

• Example research question: How does social media affect teens and communities differently on the basis of the intersection of different identities (e.g., race, gender) and context (e.g., home, peers, school, nation)?
• Example research question: How do patterns of social media use fluctuate across individuals? Are teens using social media more at different times?
• How, where, when, and for whom does digital media use support positive well-being outcomes, social connectedness, and empathy?
• Example research question: What specific social media experiences are teens having since COVID-19?
• What kinds of digital technologies promote patterns of use that support positive well-being, social connectedness, and empathy?
• Sample methods of interest: objective measures for social media; longitudinal, experimental, and intensive monitoring study designs
• Moving beyond correlational and self-report studies to gain more accurate insights into youth’s uses of digital media and their outcomes
• How can parenting, educational supports, and policy further support known positive well-being and social connection outcomes?

Young Adults and Technology

The post-adolescence period is a dynamic one, perhaps best characterized as “launching.” After 18 years under direct care and supervision in the family home, most young adults transition to living separately and independently, fulfilling the expectations that they can accomplish the responsibilities and decision-making of adulthood and gain financial independence. The Urban Dictionary might boil this down to “adulting .” For many, this means post-secondary education for job training or a college degree, military service, taking a “gap” year to explore the world, moving directly into employment, and/or starting a family. Yet events can conspire to challenge individual plans. Consider the draft to military service in Vietnam in the late 1960s (this affected many young men, including the author’s brothers and cousins) or, more recently, economic shifts and COVID-19. At no time since the Great Depression have young adults lived at home in the U.S. in such high numbers (Arundel & Ronald, 2015; Fry, et al., 2020).

Arnett has characterized young adulthood as a unique period of human development. It overlaps with adolescence and adulthood, and is finely indicative of developmental transitions in identity, role responsibility, and cognitive and physical change post-childhood as they overlap from adolescence through to late adulthood (Arnett, 2007). In fact, the technological revolution has motivated a deeper understanding of this age period as unique from adolescence and full adulthood. Successful launching can result in a healthy sense of oneself as separate and unique, or “individuated.” In completing this process, the individual understands and forges relationships (especially with parents) that respect the sense of separateness, yet maintain the sense of belonging and connections.

To a large extent, young adults age 18–29 continue technology use patterns established in their earlier years (Mollborn et al., 2021). So given teens’ interest in social media, gaming, and communication, it’s not surprising that young adults are more likely than their older adult counterparts to be active and comfortable with use in daily life, including schooling and for work (Vaterlaus et al., 2019). The majority of young adults (71%) use Instagram, which is significantly more popular than with older age groups. YouTube is popular with nearly all (95%) young adults, though high percentages of nearly all adult age groups appear to view YouTube (Pew, 2021; Schaeffer, 2021).

Among young adults, technology use varies when used for academic and non-academic purposes (Swanson & Walker, 2015). And variation occurs depending on who the young adult is talking to. A recent study by Lee and Dworkin (2022) identified four communication group types among digital media users connecting with mothers, fathers, and friends. Those with the friend-oriented pattern were associated with psychological well-being, and the multimedia group associated with stronger social well-being. Chapter 7 further discusses technologically facilitated relational dynamics in families with young adult members.

Young adults are a well-studied population when it comes to their technology use, given that many technology scholars are in higher education and have easy access to 18–24-year-olds who attend college and can be research participants. In part, this challenges our full understanding of the age group, as it skews towards a portion of young adults. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, 40% of those age 18–24 enroll in college ( NCES, 2022 ). From a family perspective, studying young adults in college is beneficial to understand the role technology plays in family connectedness during a time of formation of a separate identity (e.g., Lee et al.’s 2009’s discussion of the “electronic umbilical cord”). Going to college represents a normative shift in context and in responsibilities that may encourage changes in technology use.

Mollborn et al. (2021) argue for a lifecourse perspective when exploring technology use in this age group, beyond assuming the continuation of behavioral patterns from adolescence. They determined that prior patterns of parenting had a significant influence on young adults’ technology use. Rather than having a discrete influence on frequency of technology use at a particular age (e.g., parent presence encouraging young adults to use technology more frequently for parent-child communication), parents’ greater impact came through from the ways their prior parenting messaging helped shape young adults’ emotional response to the use of technology. Indeed, the researchers found that context and demographic factors were quite malleable when examining predictors of use in young adulthood.

Research generally supports technology’s role in aiding the relationship between young adults and their parents, grandparents, and siblings, and that multiple types of devices may be used in maintaining relationships (validating media multiplexity theory) (Hessel & Dworkin, 2018). Young adults appear to support their individuation by the strategic use of applications and devices that are both more and less familiar to parents to maintain family and other connections, respectively. Male and female college students with problematic mobile phone use show weaker relationships with their parents and their peers (Lepp et al., 2016). Still, Molvin et al. (2021) observe that methodologies used to understand technology’s actual impacts in this age group may need to be modified to allow for more individualized perspectives. They note, “As traditional role-based markers of adulthood have become more variable and difficult to attain, [methods may need to capture] self-focused understandings to achieve an internal sense of becoming adult.”

Challenges with cyber-victimization continue into young adulthood. Holmgren et al. (2020) examined experiences with cyber-victimization (i.e., being the recipient or victim of hurtful or mean online messages) in a sample of college and non-college young adults. One-fifth reported experiences with cyber-victimization, and within that group, significant relationships between cyber-victimization and lower levels of social and emotional wellbeing, and higher levels of externalizing and internalizing behavior. This suggests that when these experiences occur through online behavior, they can disrupt the young adult’s ability to form social capital.

Unlike with other age groups, recommendations from researchers and scholars for safe and healthy technology use among young adults are skewed to a set of the population. The dominant focus on young adults in college indicates the need to widen the scope to be more fully representative of technology use and impacts across young adulthood. Similarly, setting-specific recommendations for young adults usually focus on college/post-secondary education (e.g., Educause, 2018 ).

In the undergraduate course that inspired this text, young adults (students in the course) offered a list of recommendations on healthy technology use for their age group. While they are in college, they also represent a wide range of life experiences, cultures, expectations for their futures, and socioeconomic backgrounds. In their recommendations, they encouraged young adults to consider:

• the life challenges and benchmarks of adulthood that they seek (e.g., financial independence, employment after college),
• the relationships they want to sustain (e.g., family) or acquire (e.g., a committed partner), and
• the general meaning of technology in their personal lives and the ways it operates to support physical, cognitive, psychological, and socioemotional growth (or not).

As you can see from this summary of group contributions , it can be hard to condense recommendations for self (personal), self (social),and self (professional/student) into a cohesive list.

Special considerations for children and teen technology use

The covid-19 pandemic.

In the spring of 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic closed schools and universities worldwide, requiring that children and teens, like many of their parents, continue work and “do school: online and usually from home. Pandemic conditions continued through the 2020–2021 school year, easing up to some extent with a slow return to “normal” face-to-face or hybridized operations during the 2021–2022 school year.

What the pandemic conditions meant to children’s development and learning during the quarantine and long after is a question that researchers will be exploring for decades to come. Specifically, those interested in children’s technology use are answering questions about their use, shifts in behavior, effects on school participation and learning, effects on development across all domains, impacts on social relationships (including family relationships), and much more. Already there is evidence based on access to technology and on economic differences.

Technology use during COVID-19

Parents reported that children’s screen time increased during COVID-19, and some reported that their monitoring and moderating of that time decreased (McClain et al., 2021). Among parents with children in kindergarten through 12th grade, 72% reported their children spending more time on screens during the pandemic. Outside of the time children spent with technology for schools, when parents considered the other time their children were online, 39% said that their enacting rules decreased. For the majority of the sample (43%), the rules didn’t change.

Only about one in five adults ages 18–29 say they feel closer to friends they know well compared with before the pandemic. This share is twice as high as that among adults 50 and older. Adults under 30 are also more likely than any other age group to say social media sites have helped a lot in staying connected with family and friends (30% say so), and about four in ten of those ages 18–29 say this about video calls. Screen time affected some negatively, however. About six in ten adults under 30 (57%) who ever made video calls during the pandemic say they at least sometimes feel worn out or fatigued from spending time on these calls, and about half (49%) of young adults say they have tried to cut back on time spent on the internet or their smartphone.

School participation and learning technology

More evocatively, Hillman (2020) asserts that families’ experiences and children’s learning from school involvement during COVID-19 can help us reimagine education and move away from traditional classroom and teacher-led systems to the kind of connected learning (or learning webs) that address individual needs and interests:

Ultimately, we must re-position the role of school as a place that not only makes but also lets learning happen. We need to re-think children’s learning goals and expectations. We need to reimagine the kind of curriculum that they need, to not only the current circumstances but also unimagined futures shaped by new norms of socializing, working and learning that we have yet to design and get used to.

Commonsense Media offers guidelines to families to support children’s learning and the overall amount of screen time when their school is partly or fully online.

Mental health impacts

Reports of children and teens’ mental health during COVID-19 indicated that, for many, quarantine conditions exacerbated depression, anxiety, feelings of isolation and loneliness, and more. Not surprisingly, many turned to social media for social connectivity and entertainment, which may have only exacerbated issues, particularly when users were exposed to hate speech and bullying. A report by Commonsense Media, Hopelab, and the California Health Care Foundation investigated this issue, finding a higher prevalence of depression among LGBTQ+ youth, and reporting that those with mental health challenges were more likely to use social media (Rideout et al., 2021). Yet they also reported the constructive ways in which teens used the internet and social media to find information to support their mental health, to use telehealth options, and as an outlet for personal expression.

Getting a smartphone

A decision facing many households is when to get a child a smartphone. Most parents (73%) believe that it’s acceptable for children 12 and older to have a phone (Auxier et al., 2020). Nearly the same number (71%) perceive that widespread use of smartphones could cause more harm than benefit for children (Auxier et al., 2020). Yet the prevalence of children with phones at earlier ages is high. Families who get phones for children before age 13 do so largely so that they can get in touch with their child, and their child can easily get in touch with them (Auxier et al., 2020). Most parents also want to track the whereabouts of their child for safety. In families where parents are separated, phones can be ways to coordinate with children between households. About 25% do it for the child’s entertainment (Auxier et al., 2020), and a very small minority (6%) give into peer pressure from other families giving their children phones or from peers who encourage a child to have a phone.

Should there be an age policy regarding when children can possess a smartphone? Age policies are set for children’s interaction online (e.g, COPPA), in movie ratings, for when teens can drive, vote, and purchase alcohol, and in any number of policies and laws for their and society’s well-being. Children under 12 primarily use phones to text, and about half download apps, play pre-installed games, access websites on the internet, and do live video calling (Neilson, 2017). Yet there are warnings about children being exposed to sexting and pornography at early ages (Chen, 2016), and about exposure to screens in ways that interrupt sleep (Commonsense Media 2020). If we are to believe Twenge’s research, exposure to smartphones will encourage children’s depression, weaken academic performance, and delay interest in normative tasks of adolescence like learning to drive. Unlike family technologies like televisions and computers that can be located in common areas, smartphones are mobile and can be used anytime, anywhere.

Yet as reported earlier, Odgers (2018) questions whether negative effects reported for teens’ use of technology are not actually indicative of exacerbated consequences of teens’ wider social and societal experiences. And studies that observe family or cultural factors in establishing screen use by children and teens call to question not only the level of impact (on the individual), but the source of influence (e.g., individual behavior, family, school). A number of experts assert that a specific age is not a primary factor in considering when to give child smartphone, but rather how parents and families use technology, set boundaries and rules, and tailor to the unique needs and interests of the child (Anderson & Jiang, 2018; Chen, 2016; McInerny, 2017). Or might it be that smartphone ownership can be similar to setting a policy “sliding scale” based on child age for staying home alone. For example, a Dakota county (MN) law concerns the ages at which children can be left alone as a gradation of time (e.g., children 7 and younger not alone for any period; children 10-13 alone for fewer than 12 hours).

The recommendations listed below are paraphrased from a post by the Harvard School of Education Usable Knowledge site ( When to Give Your Child a Smartphone ). They have been arranged to address sensitivity to the individual child, the family context, and wider social influences.

• Cater the rules to each child, and allow the rules to evolve as your children age . Each child is unique in their developmental abilities and interests. Some are interested in connecting with others using a smartphone; others are not. Some may be demonstrate responsibility for the care of an item like a smartphone, including what it exposes the child to, and others may not. Knowing your individual child will be an excellent guide to their ability, interests, and need for a phone.
• Talk about technology with children. Build awareness and help children learn how to regulate their relationships with devices . Smart phones are only one device; there are many available to children. The conversation about how children see technology being used in their school, home, and friend environments can start early. Introducing responsible and ethical device use is also an opportunity for education. This will give them a voice in setting rules and being accountable.
• Start young. As conversations about other dimensions of safety and responsibility start early and develop with the child, so too can the safe and responsible use of technology. This helps put children in the mindset of wanting to learn more and to share their knowledge with others.

Family level

• Family values . Phone use in and out of the house by all members, and child phone ownership, should reflect the family’s values. Family members can jointly establish rules that reflect the interests of all.
• Understand options . Knowledge of different types of technologies available to children and families can aid parents in knowing how to control access and keep children safe. Having options available during the conversation about phone use enables parents and children to find more tailored solutions. Commonsense Media offers a guide to setting up the child’s phone .
• Modeling behaviors. Children learn through observation and parental modeling of phone use, so parents should model appropriate technology usage. This includes digital ethics, use of devices at home, and use while in the presence of others. Samual (2017) observes that parallel to the data linking phone introduction to negative consequences among children is data showing the uptake in phone use by parents. They ask if the negative consequences seen in children may relate to their parents being distracted.
• Texting your child. Parent behavior around texting can do more than model patterns to emulate; it also can directly impact the child’s space and be a distraction or impinge on their sense of agency if it exceeds what children are comfortable with. Relatedly, divorced and separated parents can be conscientious about phone use by the child as being private, and not as a tool for indirect communication to the other parent.

Community level

• Understand child’s needs in school and the community. Smartphones are used for many functions by children and teens besides texting and social media alone. Computers, applications, and other media devices also figure into children’s learning and social ecology. Having an awareness of the range of ways that technology is used in the child’s evolving life is essential for families to have open discussions about shared use, use in the household, and ownership.
• Participate in policy and advocacy on smartphone practices. An added recommendation is for parents and children to be involved in the settings that affect their use, and the impacts of that use. This can mean school, institution, or organization policies, and addressing governmental and industrial actions that establish and maintain laws regarding technology safety for children.

Cyberbullying

According to the Cyberbullying Research Center, cyberbullying is the “willful and repeated harm inflicted through the use of computers, cell phones, and other electronic devices” (from Bullying Beyond the Schoolyard: Preventing and Responding to Cyberbullying ). Elements of cyberbullying include the following:

• Willful: The behavior has to be deliberate, not accidental .
• Repeated: Bullying reflects a pattern of behavior, not just one isolated incident.
• Harm: The target must perceive that harm was inflicted.
• Use of computers, cell phones, and other electronic devices: This, of course, is what differentiates cyberbullying from traditional bullying.

And a child may be a victim of cyberbullying if they:

• unexpectedly stop using the computer,
• appear nervous or jumpy when an instant message, text message, or email appears,
• appear uneasy about going to school or outside in general,
• appear to be angry, depressed, or frustrated after using the computer,
• avoid discussions about what they are doing on the computer, or
• become abnormally withdrawn from usual friends and family members.

A review of research over the period of 2015 to 2019 identified an increase in the prevalence of cyberbullying victimization (Zhu et al., 2021). A review of research over the period of 2015 to 2019 identified an increase in the prevalence of cyberbullying victimization (Zhu et al., 2021). The researchers examined studies representing countries and regions including the U.S., Europe, and East Asia. Victimization reports ranged from 14 to 58%, with verbal violence as the most common type of cyberbullying. Other types of violence included group bullying, impersonation, account theft, and visual bullying (sharing images of others). Lynott (2020) reported that, during COVID-19, two-thirds of teens in Ireland were bullied through private chat apps like WhatsApp. Risk factors related to cyberbullying victimization or perpetration included demographic characteristics such as age (older adolescents as bullies), gender (girls are more likely to be victim and bully), and past experience (those who were bullied are more likely to bully). Other factors offer mixed results. While some studies, for example, report that non-white students are less likely to engage in cyberbullying, others don’t find this trend. Other risk or protective factors studied include geographic location (e.g., living in urban environments), technology behavior (e.g., time online) and mental health status. Parenting and the parent-child relationship appears key to both behavior and risk, with children who have strong communication with parents and a secure parent-child relationship less likely to bully and experience consequences of being a victim.

The researchers caution about the correlational nature of the existing research and the need for more causal mechanisms to be determined. They also identify systemic approaches to address cyberbullying. Individual action starts with ​​addressing adolescent emotional management capabilities, and with parents, schools and institutions support the development tools tailored to the digital environment and digital capabilities. Organizations such as Commonsense Media and the Cyberbullying Research Center offer guidance for the prevention of cyberbullying and constructive practices to address it.

At a macro or policy level, violence that occurs in virtual environments has encouraged new understanding of and reframing old laws. This lawsuit against a school district, brought by the parents of a young woman who committed suicide after being cyberbullied, is indicative of situations calling for attention to cyberviolence. This map of the U.S. provided by the Cyberbullying Research Center (updated in 2017) indicates laws related to criminal sanction (e.g., assault statutes), school sanction (e.g., allowing the school to discipline), school policy (e.g., allowing the school to have bullying policies), and off-campus activities (allows the school to intervene in cases of bullying off campus that contribute to classroom disruption). Yet as indicated by this article about Chicago schools ’ attempt to protect students from violence by monitoring social media, question of privacy, the internet, and children’s safety are topics of debate.

Privacy (including ‘sexting’)

Privacy and online safety are major issues facing everyone who uses the internet. Use of online technologies enables telecommunication companies’ access to personal data — data that can be collected, tracked, shared, and sold to market products to individuals, leave users open to security threats, and create a digital footprint that individuals have little control over. These issues are particularly critical for children, whose level of development and ability to reason through online threats and seek out protections can leave them vulnerable. They also impact parents and educators who are responsible for children’s safety online and who must authorize consent, either directly or indirectly (giving children permission). Commonsense Media reports that online safety is relevant not only to children’s use of personal devices and apps, but in schools and from school-issued devices as cybersecurity breaches also occur (2021). The market for children’s digital advertising was $1.2 billion in 2019. The majority (60%) of connected devices don’t provide necessary information about how they collect or use personal information. And nearly the same percentage of early teens ages 12–15 believe it’s easy to delete their information online.

Although there has been incremental improvement, Commonsense Media reports that “ the state of kids’ privacy is far below parents’ expectations, and products used by children are not nearly as privacy-protecting as they should be” (p. 2). This is largely due to weak privacy-protecting practices by many companies, despite legal requirements. Companies’ practices as a whole are inconsistent, unclear, don’t define safeguards talent to protect children, or lack a privacy policy. This can lead to distrust by educators, parents ,and school districts. Commonsense Media offers a privacy/safety rating on software, and their report anticipates that ratings will shift depending on companies’ compliance with policy changes. They conclude their 2021 report by saying

Unfortunately, there is still far too little attention paid to the privacy and security practices of technology platforms that affect tens of millions of children on a daily basis. It is vital that educators, parents, and policymakers engage in an open dialogue with companies to build solutions that strengthen our children’s privacy and security protections. (p. 4)

Public policies concerning childhood privacy

The Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act [COPPA, US] and the General Data Protection Regulation [EU] dictate that social networking sites be accessed only by children 13 and older (Blum-Ross et al., 2018). In January 2020, the California Children’s Privacy Act went into effect. This provides more stringent protections than COPPA related to notice and consent, children’s rights, enforcement, and other items, making it closer to the protections offered by the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). Recently developed, the 5 Rights Foundation advances protections for children’s well-being, particularly as article 25 of the UN’s Convention on the Rights of the Child extends children’s rights to online environments. Privacy principles for children recommend that children not be tracked or profiled online, nor subject to ads based on their online activity; that children be able to easily modify the personal information they choose to share ; that families educate themselves on privacy options and agree not to share children’s information without their consent (Commonsense Media, 2021).

Internet Gaming Disorder

Legitimate concerns have been raised about videogames fostering addiction, seen in approximately 1–3% of those who play videogames. Signs of internet gaming addiction (Petry et al., 2015) may begin to surface in those children vulnerable particularly to the gamification and competitions embedded in the software.

As listed in the DSM-V, the proposed symptoms of internet gaming disorder include:

• Preoccupation with gaming
• Withdrawal symptoms when gaming is taken away or not possible (sadness, anxiety, irritability)
• Tolerance, the need to spend more time gaming to satisfy the urge
• Inability to reduce playing, unsuccessful attempts to quit gaming
• Giving up other activities, loss of interest in previously enjoyed activities due to gaming
• Continuing to game despite problems
• Deceiving family members or others about the amount of time spent on gaming
• The use of gaming to relive negative moods, such as guilt or hopelessness
• Risk, having jeopardized or lost a job or relationship due to gaming

Under the proposed criteria, a diagnosis of internet gaming disorder would require experiencing five or more of these symptoms within a year.

With this significant overview of child and youth development related to ICT use, we now explore the ways in which technology is used by parents and in support of their parenting.

• It is beyond the scope of this chapter to provide an exhaustive look at existing research on technology’s effects on children, adolescents, and young adults. Reports from UNICEF (2017), the ICT Coalition for Children Online (Blum-Ross et al., 2018), WHO (2019), the European Commission (Chaudron, et al., 2017), OECD (Gottschalk, 2019), Pew Research, Commonsense Media, the TEC Center at the Erikson Institute, Ernest et al. (2014), and more produced every year, offer summaries from U.S., international and global studies. ↵
• Because each section offers only the briefest review of human development, links to detailed pages of developmental information by stage are provided. Readers are also encouraged to refer to open-source textbooks on human development, such as https://open.maricopa.edu/devpsych/ . ↵
• Readers are encouraged to review Navarro and Tudge’s original article and consider how their own research questions on technology’s influence situate in this neo-ecological framework. ↵
• Naturally, development begins before birth. This review will not consider influences from technology during the prenatal period on children’s development, though the idea is fascinating, isn’t it? ↵
• For an excellent review of young childhood development through the lens of media literacy, see Child Development 101 from the Erikson Institute Technology in Early Childhood Center. For this and other sections, "developmental overview” also links to a page from the Centers for Disease Control. ↵
• Readers may also follow early learning technology research centers such as the Erikson Technology in Early Childhood for ongoing research. ↵
• For the entire document please see https://www.erikson.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/TEC-MediaLiteracy-Framework.pdf ↵
• A useful overview of development during middle childhood can be read at https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002017.htm. ↵
• Children of the Force: childrenoftheforce.com ↵
• See the American Academy of Pediatrics’ division of the stages, with developmental information here: https://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/teen/Pages/Stages-of-Adolescence.aspx ↵
• This doesn't include awareness of the dangers of texting while driving. While statistics support distracted driving with phones as an issue for adults as well , teens are less likely to wear a seat belt , and vehicle accidents are a leading cause of death for teens.  ↵

Critical Perspectives on Technology and the Family Copyright © 2022 by Susan K. Walker is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Youth on Tech: Technology’s impact on education and jobs

For the remainder of 2019 stay tuned to Research World for monthly articles that share the insights from a global survey with over 2,000 youths aged 11-18 years old. This series will explore:

• How youths currently use technology, such as voice and social media. For example, did you know that 47% of youths have more than one social media account on at least one social media platform?
• How youths think emerging technologies will impact their education, working life and healthcare.

Welcome back to Youth on Tech. Until now, we’ve been exploring youth’s usage and feelings towards current technologies (e.g. voice and social media). This article, the fifth in the series, now looks to the future, exploring how youths think emerging technologies will impact them and the generation that succeeds them, focussing on education and employment.

Technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Blockchain are revolutionising entire industries such as advertising and banking respectively. Given that technology’s development is unlikely to slow down anytime soon, we wanted to understand how youths feel about emerging technologies.

Most Youths Think Future Technology Will Be Positive for Them

Generally, youths are optimistic and upbeat about the impact technology will have on their lives. Emotions such as happiness and excitement are felt by most youths when asked to think about the role technology will play in their lives in the next 10 years.

However, some youths aged 16-18 years old temper this optimism with apprehension. Approximately ¼ state they are concerned (27%) when thinking about future technology and that it makes them nervous (19%) and scared (17%).

The Future Curriculum May Include AI and Robotics

What will children 20 years from now be taught in school to prepare them for a vastly different workplace? When posed this question, youths prioritise STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) subjects and emerging fields such as Computer Science and Robotics. Of the non-STEM subjects, youths think that languages are the most likely to still be taught in schools in 20 years’ time. This is despite services such as Google Translate and instant translation devices such as Ili .

STEM subjects also dominate when youths choose the single subject they think will be the most important to study in 20 years’ time. However, this focus on the most important subject brings Computer Science and AI to the top of the list. This shows a slight shift in what youths think will be taught (existing STEM subjects) and what they think will be the most important to teach (emerging technologies).

Who Better to Teach Robotics in School Than Robots?

Future changes to schools aren’t limited to the curriculum. Robotics may in fact be taught by robots. 73% of youths think robots will eventually teach in schools. Furthermore, 46% believe this will occur in the next 20 years. Robotic teaching may allow for more personalised learning and provide a solution to the growing classroom sizes in secondary schools in the UK . Students learn at different paces and the ability to tailor a lesson to each pupil’s learning speed could be powerful.

Despite this, 80% of youths also think that the teaching profession isn’t under threat from technology. This suggests youths see robotic teachers as supplementary as opposed to replacements for human teachers. Stand down John Connor.

So, if education needs to change to accommodate a new job market, what does this job market look like?

Cleaners and Taxi Drivers Will Be the Most Effected by Technology

AI and automation can potentially disrupt the job market more than previous technology. 57% of today’s jobs are vulnerable to automation . Even creative jobs aren’t safe from AI – algorithms have already written musical pieces and contributed to creative filmmaking decisions .

Youths planning their future careers may need to take into account the effect automation is going to have on the job market. For governments, it is important to consider which jobs are at most risk of automation so that support can be provided for those most in need. Youths believe those jobs to be cleaners and taxi drivers followed by those in customer service. Vocations least effected by automation according to youths will be athletes, entrepreneurs/inventors and courtroom judges and lawyers. The latter two involving human judgement to impact another human’s life.

Youths are Divided on Whether Humans Working Less Is Good or Bad

Much like the apprehension shown by youths aged 16-18 with regards to future technology in general, 62% of that age group also consider humans working less a bad thing compared to only 41% of 11-12 year olds. Being older, they’re likely more aware of the social, financial and political ramifications of such a colossal change in the job market.

Next month is a bumper edition of Youth on Tech with two articles:

1) Future technology’s impact on health

2) How insights from this research were shared with the technology industry

Matthew Hellon

Junior Research Executive, Northstar Research Partners, UK

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“What do adults not know about my generation and technology?” MIT Technology Review posed this question in an essay contest open to anyone 18 or younger. We received 376 submissions from young people in 28 different countries. Many were angry; some were despondent. We think the winning essay, by Taylor Fang, presents a nuanced and moving view of how technology can be harnessed in the service of a richly realized life. We hope you agree.

Screen. To conceal, protect, shelter. The word signifies invisibility. I hid behind the screen. No one could see through the screen. The screen conceals itself: sensors and sheet glass and a faint glow at the edges; light, bluer than a summer day.

The screen also conceals those who use it. Our phones are like extensions of our bodies, always tempting us. Algorithms spoon-feed us pictures. We tap. We scroll. We click. We ingest. We follow. We update. We gather at traditional community hangouts only to sit at the margins, browsing Instagram. We can’t enjoy a sunset without posting the view on Snapchat. Don’t even mention no-phone policies at dinner.

Generation Z is entitled, depressed, aimless, addicted, and apathetic. Or at least that’s what adults say about us.

But teens don’t use social media just for the social connections and networks. It goes deeper. Social-media platforms are among our only chances to create and shape our sense of self. Social media makes us feel seen. In our Instagram “biographies,” we curate a line of emojis that feature our passions: skiing, art, debate, racing. We post our greatest achievements and celebrations. We create fake “finsta” accounts to share our daily moments and vulnerabilities with close friends. We find our niche communities of YouTubers.

It’s true that social media’s constant stream of idealized images takes its toll: on our mental health, our self-image, and our social lives. After all, our relationships to technology are multidimensional—they validate us just as much as they make us feel insecure.

But if adults are worried about social media, they should start by including teenagers in conversations about technology. They should listen to teenagers’ ideas and visions for positive changes in the digital space. They should point to alternative ways for teenagers to express their voices.

I’ve seen this from my own experience. When I got my first social-media account in middle school, about a year later than many of my classmates, I was primarily looking to fit in. Yet I soon discovered the sugar rush of likes and comments on my pictures. My life mattered! My captions mattered! My filters! My stories! My followers! I was looking not only for validation, but also for a way to represent myself. Who do I want to be seen as? On the internet I wasn’t screaming into the void—for the first time, I felt acutely visible.

Yet by high school, this cycle of presenting polished versions of myself grew tiring. I was tired of feeling like I was missing out. I was tired of adhering to hypervisible social codes and tokens. By 10th grade, I was using social media only sporadically. Many of my friends were going through the same shifts and changes in their ideas about social media.

For me, the largest reason was that I had found another path of self-representation: creative writing. I began writing poetry, following poets on Twitter (with poems replacing pictures and news in my feed), and spending the majority of my free time scribbling in a journal outdoors. I didn’t feel I needed Facebook as much. If I did use social media, it was more for entertaining memes.

This isn’t to say that every teenager should begin creating art. Or that art would solve all of social media’s problems. But approaching technology through a creative lens is more effective than merely “raising awareness.” Rather than reducing teenagers to statistics, we should make sure teenagers have the chance to tell their own experiences in creative ways.

Take the example of “selfies.” Selfies, as many adults see them, are nothing more than narcissistic pictures to be broadcast to the world at large. But even the selfie representing a mere “I was here” has an element of truth. Just as Frida Kahlo painted self-portraits, our selfies construct a small part of who we are. Our selfies, even as they are one-­dimensional, are important to us.

At this critical moment in teenagers’ and children’s lives, we all need to feel less alone and to feel as if we matter. Teenagers are disparaged for not being “present.” Yet we find visibility in technology. Our selfies aren’t just pictures; they represent our ideas of self. Only through “reimagining” the selfie as a meaningful mode of self-representation can adults understand how and why teenagers use social media. To “reimagine” is the first step toward beginning to listen to teenagers’ voices.

Our selfies aren't just pictures; they represent our ideas of self.

Meaning—scary as it sounds—we have to start actually listening to the scruffy video-game-­hoarding teenage boys stuck in their basements. Because our search for creative self isn’t so different from previous generations’. To grow up with technology, as my generation has, is to constantly question the self, to split into multiplicities, to try to contain our own contradictions. In “Song of Myself,” Walt Whitman famously said that he contradicted himself. The self, he said, is large, and contains multitudes. But what is contemporary technology if not a mechanism for the containment of multitudes?

So don’t tell us technology has ruined our inner lives. Tell us to write a poem. Or make a sketch. Or sew fabric together. Or talk about how social media helps us make sense of the world and those around us. Perhaps social-media selfies aren’t the fullest representations of ourselves. But we’re trying to create an integrated identity. We’re striving not only to be seen, but to see with our own eyes.

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Home / Blog

Children and Technology: Positive and Negative Effects

January 18, 2022 

Tables of Contents

Evolution of Children’s Use of Technology

Positive and negative effects of technology on children, technology and children statistics, technology and social interaction in children, ensuring safe and nurturing digital environments for children.

Imagine spending a year or more of your childhood almost entirely at home: no time in a classroom, no chance to join friends on the playground, and very few opportunities to enjoy favorite pastimes and experience new places, people, and activities.

The worldwide lockdowns that helped limit the spread of the coronavirus created a kind of twilight zone for children that put much of their environment off-limits and kept them separated from everyone but their immediate families. However, not all was lost. What vestiges of their pre-COVID life children were able to maintain were made possible by a range of technologies that kept them learning, interacting with friends, and entertained.

The growing presence of technology in children’s lives, from their first year through their teens, is a double-edged sword. While technologies are neutral, how they are applied and how children are exposed to them can be either positive or negative.

The impact of children and technology becomes increasingly difficult to gauge as the pace of technological innovation speeds up. This guide presents a snapshot of the many roles that technology products and services play in the lives of children. It balances the pluses and minuses of the effects of technology use by children on their development, social interactions, and prospects for the future.

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From the earliest electric model trains in the early 20th century through the first home video game systems and remote-controlled toys, children’s introduction to technology has been through their toys. What were marvels of technology three, two, or even one generation ago seem almost quaint by today’s standards. However, the progress from Pong to Oculus virtual reality games occurred in a relatively brief period of time.

Early Examples of Children and Technology

Children have been interacting with digital technology since the earliest days of the PC revolution . One of the first electronic educational toys was Texas Instruments’ Speak & Spell, which was released in the late 1970s. This relatively simple device was a precursor to the first PCs designed for children in the 1980s. It also presaged the growth of computer-assisted instruction hardware and software in the pre-World Wide Web era.

• The first Speak & Spell toys debuted in 1978 to teach children ages 7 and older how to pronounce and spell 200 commonly misspelled words. It relied on electronic speech synthesis and bubble memory (a precursor to RAM) and was the first such product to use solid-state circuitry to replace all moving parts.
• While Magnavox’s Odyssey was the first gaming console upon its release in 1972, the device was soon eclipsed by the home version of Atari’s Pong arcade video game, which began shipping in 1975. This was followed by the Atari 2600 game console in 1977 and similar devices from Nintendo, Mattel, and Coleco, among other vendors. Sega and Nintendo came to dominate the home video market through the 1980s, along with Commodore, Atari, and Sony’s PlayStation, which was released in 1994.

Evolution of Technology Designed to Educate and Entertain Children

The arrival of the World Wide Web in the mid-1990s changed that nature of tech toys and education hardware and software. Smart Toy Lab , an Intel and Mattel joint venture launched in 1998, developed the first web-connected interactive toys, or “smart toys.” Among the first toys the lab developed were the QX3 Microscope, which featured a built-in video camera that sent images to a PC via a USB link, and the Me2Cam, which let children play interactive games using gestures to move “objects” on the screen.

Some early internet-connected toys and educational devices were criticized for violating children’s privacy by collecting personal information without parental consent. For example, Hello Barbie was released in 2015 and featured a built-in microphone and voice recognition software, as well as a Wi-Fi connection. The doll’s call-and-response function was a precursor to Amazon’s Alexa/Echo and Apple’s Siri voice assistants. However, hackers soon figured out how to break into the toy’s system and access users’ private information.

Today many children — from toddlers to teenagers — regularly use tablets, smartphones, and virtual environments for entertainment and educational purposes. Pandemic-related restrictions have increased children’s reliance on these and other technologies to connect with the outside world. With increased use of these products comes heightened prospects of damage and abuse:

• A recent study published in Children and Youth Services Review identified problematic smartphone use (present in 16.4% of high school students surveyed), daytime sleepiness (20.2%), and symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (6.9%) as spiking during pandemic lockdowns.
• A study published in the Italian Journal of Pediatrics found that 66.3% of the children and adolescents surveyed used their smartphone for more than four hours a day during the pandemic, compared with 16.3% who did so before the pandemic. In addition, 56% of the children and adolescents surveyed used their smartphone after midnight at least three times each week, compared with 30.4% before the pandemic.

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The shutdown of schools during the COVID-19 pandemic brought the damaging effect of the digital divide between rich and poor families into sharp focus. Pew Research Center data shows that the “homework gap” created by remote learning affected low-income families more than middle- and upper-income families. K-12 students who ever had to do schoolwork on a cellphone: lower income: 37%; middle income: 24%; upper income: 16%. K-12 students who ever lacked access to a home computer to complete schoolwork: lower income: 25%; middle income: 15%; upper income: 2%. K-12 students who ever relied on public Wi-Fi to complete schoolwork: lower income: 23%; middle income: 11%; upper income: 4%.

Children can benefit from technology by gaining new learning opportunities; it’s especially important for children who are physically or developmentally challenged. However, technology use has also been found to contribute to poor self-esteem and isolation in some children. As digital technologies become more ubiquitous, parents struggle to find the optimum amount of technology for their children’s lives.

Positive Effects of Technology on Children

All the “rules” about children’s access to computers and the internet were rewritten by the COVID-19 pandemic , according to parenting expert Anya Kamenetz. Technology provides children with easy access to information and boosts their creativity. Tech hardware and software helps children develop social skills and introduces them to various arts and sciences.

These are among the less obvious positive effects of technology on children:

• Technology allows children to connect with their family, friends, and others in ways that enrich their relationships, especially when using video chat and other real-time interactions.
• Parents and caregivers are learning to slow down and tone down the applications, games, and other content children use to avoid overloading their senses. This teaches children how to moderate their own use of technology.
• Rather than trying to eliminate all risk to children when using technology, the goal should be reducing the risk and adapting when problems arise, such as preventing children from accessing devices at specific times of the day.

Many parents hesitate to allow their preschool-age children to use technology products and services due to concerns about how it’ll impact their well-being and development. However, the children are surrounded by technology, much of which offers them significant benefits , as BSD Education explains:

• Technology helps children become independent learners more quickly. Once they learn how to access digital information sources safely, they’re able to explore the topics that interest them on their own.
• Children learn the importance of building communities and how to interact with people in social situations. When circumstances prevent children from establishing physical bonds with family members, friends, and others, they’re able to use technology to create “virtual bonds.”
• Early access to technology teaches the digital literacy skills that children will need for their future success in school and as adults.
• Many technology products promote hand-eye coordination in young children, while others focus on developing their language and problem-solving skills.

Negative Effects of Technology on Children

Children are especially susceptible to technology overuse. The American Psychological Association (APA) recommends limiting the use of technology to one hour per day of high-quality programming for children ages 2 to 5. For children ages 6 and up, it’s most important to set consistent limits on various types of media, such as gaming devices and smartphones.

APA suggests that parents focus on the content on children’s screens and how the children are interacting with it. A survey of research on the possible negative effects of technology on children establishes a connection between the level of a child’s use of technology and various developmental and behavior problems.

• Lack of attention, aggressive behaviors, obesity, physical inactivity, sleep problems
• Musculoskeletal problems related to a sedentary lifestyle
• Greater risk of lifetime obesity and cardiovascular disease
• Sleep disturbances and poor-quality sleep for children who overuse social media or keep mobile devices in their bedroom

These are among the negative effects of technology on children:

• Exposure to harmful online content and sexual exploitation: A study by Irish researchers found that children of all ages are able to bypass the age verification systems of social media apps, such as Snapchat, TikTok, Instagram, and Facebook. This can bring children into direct contact with potential predators and other dangers.
• Cyber bullying: The Cyberbullying Research Center reports that incidents of cyber bullying are most prevalent at ages 12 to 15. A recent survey by the center of 13- to 17-year-olds found that 23.7% of girls, 21.9% of boys, and 35.4% of transgender teens had experienced being bullied.
• Low self-esteem and increased anxiety: CNN reports that teens and adolescents are using image filters on Instagram to enhance their appearance even though the result looks nothing like them. “Self-esteem addiction” can make young people feel inadequate. As children spend more time on social media, they may become withdrawn or find themselves obsessively checking their social media feeds.

Resources on Ways Children Are Affected by Technology

• The Register, “Technology Does Widen the Education Divide. But Not Always in the Way You Expect” — One educator found that upon returning from online education during lockdown, children had turned away from technology, preferring real books and nontech activities because tech is no longer seen as “fun.”
• Edutopia, “Helping Parents Feel More Comfortable with Tech” — Advice for teachers about how to convince parents to support technology in the classroom.
• UNICEF, “Harnessing the Power of Technology and Digital Innovation for Children” — A report describing the initiatives and successes of the Digital UNICEF 2020 program, which is intended to extend the reach of UNICEF’s aid efforts.

When it comes to children’s access to technology, the digital divide between rich and poor persists. The increased reliance of children on technology for remote schooling during the COVID-19 pandemic adds a new and dangerous dimension to the problem, which some analysts refer to as the “ homework gap .”

• A survey by Common Sense Media found that 49% of 8- to 18-year-olds in the U.S. had attended classes fully or partially online since the start of the pandemic.
• Hispanic/Latinx students (48%) and Black students (39%) were much more likely than their white counterparts (20%) to attend school fully online.
• Similarly, students from low-income families (42%) were more likely to rely completely on online instruction than those from middle-income and high-income families (31% and 27%, respectively).
• While 92% of white students had a computer at home, only 87% of Hispanic/Latinx students and 78% of Black students did.
• Broadband access at home was available to 90% of students from families with high incomes, compared with 80% for middle-income families and 61% for lower-income families.
• In addition, 88% of white families had broadband access at home, while 76% of Black families and 68% of Hispanic/Latinx families had broadband access at home.

Common Sense Media estimates that closing the digital divide for K-12 public school students will cost between $6 billion and $11 billion in the first year, and between $4 billion and $8 billion annually in subsequent years. An additional $1 billion will be required to upgrade the remote access technologies that teachers use.

In 2020, TikTok surpassed YouTube to become the most frequently used app by teens and preteens in the U.S., according to MMGuardian. 1. TikTok: average daily usage, 105.1 minutes; % of children who use it, 32%. 2. YouTube: average daily usage, 102.6 minutes; % of children who use it, 69.7%. 3. Roblox: average daily usage, 90 minutes; % of children who use it, 24%. 4. Amino: average daily usage, 89.5 minutes; % of children who use it, 1.18%. 5. Avakin Life: average daily usage, 86.6 minutes; % of children who use it, 1.32%. 6. YouTube Kids: average daily usage, 85.8 minutes; % of children who use it, 6.9%. 7. Wattpad: average daily usage, 80.6 minutes; % of children who use it, 2.9%. 8. Netflix: average daily usage, 80.6 minutes; % of children who use it, 27.4%. 9. IMVU: average daily usage, 72.8 minutes; % of children who use it, 1.3%. 10. Hulu: average daily usage, 71 minutes; % of children who use it, 9.2%.

Statistics on Children’s Online Activities

The most common activity for children online is accessing software, audio, and video content (44% of children had done so between March 2020 and April 2021). The next most popular activities are using internet-based communications (22%); playing video games (14%); accessing online stores, banks, or payment systems (13%); and reading news media (4%).

A study by the National Institute for Early Education Research (NIEER) on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on children’s learning and development determined that children lost learning opportunities at home and in preschool programs. This resulted in “unusually high” rates of socio-emotional and mental health problems in children as reported by their parents.

• Twenty-two percent of 4- to 7-year-olds had high levels of conduct problems in the fall of 2020, compared with 11% who did so in a survey conducted before the pandemic.
• Higher levels of hyperactivity (15% vs. 10%), peer problems (17% vs. 9%), lack of prosocial behavior (20% vs. 8%), and total difficulties (15% vs. 8%) were also recorded among 4- to 7-year-olds during the pandemic.

How Children’s Screen Time Correlates to Their Mental and Physical Health

A primary concern among parents about their children’s use of technology is the amount of time children spend in front of a television, computer, smartphone, or another screen. Researchers have established a link between the amount of time adolescents spend in front of a screen , their level of moderate or vigorous physical activity (MVPA), and the amount of sleep they get.

• Screen time involves sedentary activities that detract from MVPA and delay bedtime and that interrupt sleep with digital notifications.
• The result is an increased risk of children becoming overweight or obese, as well as more sleepiness during the day and lower academic achievement.
• While most of the 13- and 14-year-olds in the study met the recommendations for total screen time (less than two hours per day) and MVPA (at least one hour per day), only half met the recommendation for sleep (8.5 hours per night). Meeting the recommendation for screen time and one of the other two factors led to better academic outcomes.

Some research into the connection between children’s screen time and their psychological well-being has been brought into question because of discrepancies between actual and reported use of digital media by children. A recent meta-analysis of research on the impact of screen time on children found either no significant impact or only a moderate impact. More indicative of potential psychological or developmental problems in children than overall screen time is the type of content that children view and interact with.

However, studies have established a link between excessive screen time and children’s levels of attention deficit symptoms; impaired emotional and social intelligence; social isolation; phantom vibration syndrome; and diagnosable mental illnesses, such as depression, anxiety, and technology addiction.

Finding the Right Amount of Time Online for Children

Many activities that benefit children can become dangerous if used too much. During the pandemic, the time that adolescents spent in front of a screen nearly doubled, according to a study published in JAMA Pediatrics . Adolescents were spending an average of 7.7 hours a day in front of a screen early in the pandemic, compared with 3.8 hours per day before the pandemic. Indications are that the elevated level of screen time will persist.

Determining the optimal amount of screen time for children has become challenging for parents because of the potential problems arising related to children’s vision, posture, and other physical development concerns. While the standard recommendation of experts remains that children under the age of 8 spend less than two hours per day in front of a screen, many factors must be considered when setting a limit for children:

• Allow more screen time for positive educational activities.
• Encourage children to take breaks from the screen that involve outdoor activities.
• Avoid using screens as “babysitters” that keep children occupied. Find other nonscreen activities, such as creative toys, coloring books, and storybooks.
• Don’t let children’s use of electronics cut into their sleep time.
• Make sure that children take short breaks from the screen every 20 minutes or so to protect their vision.
• Check the area of the screen activity to ensure that the lighting is neither too dark nor too bright.

Tech Companies’ Growing Impact on Children

After pressure from government regulators, Facebook shelved its plans to develop a version of Instagram called Instagram Kids that targeted children under the age of 13, as The New York Times reports. In 2019, YouTube paid $170 million to settle claims that it targeted children under the age of 13 in its advertising and collected personal information about them.

These are just two of the many examples of giant tech companies targeting children to meet their need for continuous growth. In the absence of federal privacy laws, companies such as Google (which owns YouTube), Facebook (now known as Meta), Amazon, and TikTok are left to self-regulate their privacy and other policies.

• The Verge reports that Facebook is exploring the use of playdates to spur children to use its Messenger Kids application.
• According to Reuters, attorneys general of several states are investigating Instagram for its attempts to attract young children in violation of consumer protection laws.
• YouTube is being sued in the U.K. over alleged violations of children’s privacy and data rights, according to Tech Monitor.
• A recent survey by Accountable Tech found that 74% of parents believe that Facebook cares more about profits than about keeping their children safe on the site.

Parents, educators, and regulators are also concerned about the safety of educational technology platforms that use machine learning and other artificial intelligence technologies to harvest massive amounts of data about children. Many fear that ubiquitous surveillance will lead to behavioral control and potentially a total loss of privacy for children. They’re calling for more accountability from such platforms, as well as legislation that guarantees children’s “right to future tense.”

Resources Providing Statistics on Children and Technology

• International Central Institute for Youth and Educational Television, International Data Youth and Media 2021 — Statistics on the types of technologies that children use in countries around the world, as well as daily use of media by children in various age groups.
• Family Online Safety Institute, “Healthy Screen Time: Mobile Technology’s Relationship with Children’s Exercise” — A study reporting a sharp decrease in the amount of time children spend playing outdoors and the growing reliance on applications that entail physical activity, such as Nintendo’s Wii console.

Half of children ages 10 to 12 and one-third ages 7 to 9 use social media, according to a recent Mott poll of parents with children ages 7 to 12. Parents identified the areas of children’s social media use that they struggle to control; for instance, one in six parents don’t use parental controls. Additionally, 39% of parents don’t have time to monitor their children’s social media use, 21% of parents can’t find information to set up monitoring, and 32% of children find ways to circumvent parental controls.

The lockdowns deprived young children of opportunities to develop social skills by interacting with other children. As a result, educators report that some children returning to school are struggling with classroom routine. However, the pandemic has disrupted the lives of many families of students and teachers.

• Some children are experiencing anxiety in the classroom that may relate to separation anxiety after spending a prolonged period with family.
• While most students readjust quickly to their school routine, those who’ve experienced trauma at home are most likely to struggle in school. This is especially true for children in kindergarten and first grade.
• Children are showing their resilience in adapting quickly to masking and social distancing requirements.

Research presented at a recent conference of the Society of Neuroscience indicates that isolation in adolescents can change the development of the brain systems related to fear, risk and reward, and social recognition. This may make it more difficult for them to distinguish friendly behavior from threatening behavior in their peers, for example.

A good way to break feelings of social isolation that developed as a result of the pandemic is to increase the amount of school time devoted to physical activities.

Child Development and Technology

Researchers are studying how the way young children play with technology compares with the way they play with real-world toys. They’ve found that all the types of play in the nondigital environment are present in the digital realm as well.

• Digital play develops a range of abilities in children, including subject knowledge and understanding; digital skills; and skills related to social, emotional, cognitive, and creative development.
• Because digital and physical play are intermixed in children’s lives, it’s more appropriate to look at play holistically.

Most research on children and technology relates to children ages 9 to 16, but interactions with technology may have a greater impact on the development of children ages 3 to 8. Digital education for young children increasingly takes the form of applications running on tablets and smartphones, language development applications, and physical coordination from manipulating game controls and videos that teach dancing and other activities.

Since the advent of Apple’s iPad in 2010, computer use by young children has skyrocketed , especially as teaching philosophies focus on play activities over traditional classes and formal teaching. Some schools now test each child’s digital skills and teach children digital competence, such as knowing when and why digital tools are used.

One approach to understanding the complexity of technology’s impact on children is the domestication theory that compares the introduction of digital tools into society to the process of taming a wild animal. The four phases of the domestication process render the tools nonthreatening and also make them useful, important, and meaningful.

• Appropriation is the reason for acquiring the digital tool.
• Objectification of the digital tool instills a personal meaning for the tool in the child using it.
• Incorporation describes how the digital tool becomes a part of the child’s life. It also explains appropriate and inappropriate uses of the tool.
• Conversion occurs when the digital tool has redefined the child’s worldview and relations with others.

Resources on the Impact of Technology on Children’s Development and Social Interactions

• Early Childhood Education Journal, “Investigating Young Children’s Interactions During Digital Play” — Research into children’s social behaviors within digital play environments found that adding a social dimension increased a child’s engagement in the activity.
• OECD iLibrary, “Children and Digital Technologies: Trends and Outcomes” — Topics include use of social robots to help treat children with chronic diseases and the impact of digital technologies on children’s physical health.

Technological advances happen so quickly that parents and educators don’t have much opportunity to consider how children’s growth and well-being may be improved or impaired by the types of technologies they interact with and the ways in which those interactions occur. However, technology continues to play a more important part of the lives of most children when they’re in school, at home, and at play. The judicious application of technology will enhance a child’s education and other aspects of life.

Infographic Sources

Associated Press, “TikTok Is Now the Most-Used App by Teens and Pre-teens in the U.S.”

Mott Poll Report, “Sharing too Soon? Children and Social Media Apps”

Pew Research Center, “The Internet and the Pandemic”

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Technology : Impact on the Youth and Society

As we become increasingly immersed in the virtual world, where humans no longer control machines but vice versa, technology is taking a toll on our human capabilities of adaptability, humor, and the need for communication. While technology is an integral part of our lives, data breaches, a lack of innovation and efficiency, and overdependence on technology have all been identified in recent years. This article investigates the negative implications of technology in terms of data storage, identity, security, the future of our hyper-connected youth, and the repercussions of data breaches, including their causes and results, as well as the overall psychological impact on individuals and society.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Technology on Youth

Technology has become an integral part of our daily lives, and its impact on the younger generation is undeniable.

While it has brought about numerous benefits, such as increased access to information and improved communication, it has also raised concerns about its potential negative effects on youth.

In this article, we will explore the advantages and disadvantages of technology for youth.

Advantages of Technology on Youth

Technology has become an integral part of our lives, and its impact on the younger generation cannot be ignored.

While some may argue that technology has negative effects on youth, there are also many advantages that cannot be overlooked.

From improved communication and social networking to access to information and new learning opportunities, technology has opened up a world of possibilities for young people.

1. Increased Opportunities for Career Development and Entrepreneurship

Technology has brought about numerous advantages for the youth, including increased opportunities for career development and entrepreneurship.

With the rise of STEM education and the growing emphasis on an entrepreneurial mindset, young people are now better equipped to identify and capitalize on opportunities, change course when needed, and view mistakes as an opportunity to learn and improve.

Moreover, technology has made it easier for young people to access education and training, regardless of their location or financial situation.

This has opened up new avenues for personal and professional growth, allowing young people to pursue rewarding careers and achieve their full potential.

As we look to the future, it is clear that entrepreneurship and innovation will play a critical role in driving economic growth and creating new job opportunities.

By investing in technology and supporting the development of young entrepreneurs, we can ensure that the next generation has the tools and resources they need to succeed in an ever-changing world

2. Greater Creative and Productive Opportunities through Technology

Technology has opened up greater creative and productive opportunities for the youth.

With the use of modern hardware and software, young people can gain a sustainable competitive advantage and achieve great things with relatively simple technologies.

Technology also empowers young people to maintain autonomy, choose the lifestyle they want, and promote dignity.

Moreover, technology can help reduce bias, diversify talent pools, and benchmark diversity and inclusion, which brings a host of benefits to businesses in terms of profitability, innovation, decision-making, and employee engagement.

By fostering unique ideas, technology encourages creativity, which is a key component of innovation.

Therefore, the advantages of technology for youth are immense, and it is essential to continue to leverage technology to create more opportunities for young people to thrive.

3. Improved Quality of Life through Technological Conveniences

Technology has improved the quality of life for the youth. With the advent of the internet and smartphones, young people can easily access information, connect with friends and family, and engage in various activities that promote their mental and physical well-being.

Technology has also made it possible for young people to learn new skills and pursue their passions through online courses and platforms.

Additionally, technology has made life easier for young people by providing them with various technological conveniences such as smart homes, wearable devices, and virtual assistants that make daily tasks more manageable.

These technological advancements have not only made life more convenient but have also contributed to the safety and protection of young people, allowing them to live longer and healthier lives.

4. Enhanced Access to Social Services and Support Networks

One of the most significant advantages of technology is enhanced access to social services and support networks.

With the help of digital technologies , vulnerable youth can receive social protection and support from governments and other organizations.

Having a social support system is crucial for overall mental health, and technology has made it easier for youth to connect with others and build supportive networks.

Young adults are more likely to mention social media as a resource for social connectedness, and technology has made it easier for them to access support networks.

With the help of technology, youth can increase their social support by connecting with others, sharing experiences, and receiving help and advice.

Overall, technology has had a positive impact on youth by enhancing their access to social services and support networks, which is crucial for their mental health and well-being.

5. Increased Awareness and Understanding of Global Issues and Challenges

Technology has increased awareness and understanding of global issues and challenges. With the spread of technology around the world, students now have access to information and resources that enable them to develop global competence.

They can learn about the effects of globalization on the environment, the importance of international collaboration, and the need for a more peaceful and just society.

Through technology, they can also stay informed about global issues such as climate change, poverty, and human rights, and take action to address them.

The United Nations continues to promote justice and international law, and technology has made it easier for young people to get involved in these efforts.

Overall, technology has opened up new opportunities for the youth to learn about and engage with the world, and this increased awareness and understanding can help them become more informed and responsible global citizens.

Disadvantages of Technology on Youth

Technology’s impact on the younger generation cannot be ignored. While it has brought about numerous benefits, such as increased connectivity and access to information, it also has its downsides.

The negative effects of technology on youth are becoming increasingly apparent, with studies linking excessive social media use to poor sleep quality, anxiety, and depression.

Furthermore, the constant use of technology can lead to a lack of focus and exposure to harmful content, such as cyberbullying and sexual exploitation.

1. Increased Dependence on Technology and Reduced Attention Span

The increased dependence on technology among youth has led to a reduction in attention span. Studies have shown that our average attention span has decreased by 4 seconds, down from 12 to 8, which is shorter than that of a goldfish.

This is due to the fact that technology has made it easier for us to access information quickly, leading to a decrease in our ability to focus for extended periods of time.

Furthermore, kids aged 5 or younger who experience two or more hours of daily screen time are nearly eight times more likely to be diagnosed with focus-related conditions including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

It is important for parents and educators to monitor the amount of time children spend on technology and encourage them to engage in activities that promote focus and attention.

2. Increased Exposure to Inappropriate and Harmful Content Online

The increased exposure to inappropriate and harmful content online is a major disadvantage of technology for youth.

With the pandemic worsened mental health stressors and social isolation for teens, millions of youth have increased their social media use, leading to a higher risk of exposure to toxic content.

Spending more time online may expose children to potentially harmful and violent content as well as a greater risk of cyberbullying.

Inappropriate content includes information or images that upset children, material that’s directed at adults, inaccurate information, or information that might lead or tempt children into unlawful or dangerous behavior.

Exposure to such content can lead to increased anxiety, depression, loneliness, and risky behaviors.

As parents and guardians, it is important to monitor children’s online activity and educate them on safe internet practices to protect them from exposure to inappropriate content.

3. The Challenge of Balancing Online and Offline Life

The rise of technology has created a challenge for young people in balancing their online and offline lives.

Spending too much time online can lead to negative effects on mental health, such as anxiety and depression.

It is important for young people to develop healthy digital habits and engage in activities that don’t involve devices, apps, or the internet.

Creating a balance between online and offline activities is crucial for maintaining a healthy lifestyle.

Encouraging students to use their internet activities as a reward for completing other meaningful and necessary tasks can help them develop a healthy balance.

As technology continues to advance, it is important for young people to be mindful of their digital habits and strive for a healthy balance between their online and offline lives.

4. The Potential for Digital Disinformation and Misinformation

The potential for digital disinformation and misinformation is a major disadvantage of technology on youth.

With the rise of social media and the ease of spreading information online, it has become increasingly challenging to address the spread of false information.

Disinformation can spread quickly and anonymously, making it difficult to identify and combat. This can have serious consequences, such as affecting public health, climate change, and democracy.

While digital literacy can help identify misinformation, it does not necessarily stop its spread of it. It is important to educate youth on the dangers of disinformation and provide them with the tools to identify and respond to it.

Emerging technologies like blockchain have the potential to address the root causes of disinformation and combat its spread.

It is crucial to address this issue to ensure that youth are equipped with the skills and knowledge to navigate the digital world safely and responsibly.

5. The Challenge of Keeping Up with Rapid Technological Advancements

The rapid advancement of technology poses a significant challenge for youth today. While technology has its advantages, it also has its disadvantages, and keeping up with the latest trends can be overwhelming.

The constant evolution of technology means that young people must continually learn new skills to remain relevant in the job market.

Additionally, the unexpected consequences of technological advancements can have a significant impact on society, and it is essential to recognize and anticipate these consequences.

Furthermore, technological change has not delivered its full potential in boosting productivity and economic growth, and it has pushed income inequality higher.

Companies also face challenges in developing technological capabilities that provide a competitive advantage.

As technology continues to change the world, it is crucial to understand its impact and adapt to the changes to ensure a better future for all.

Conclusion on Advantages and Disadvantages of Technology on Youth

In conclusion, technology has both advantages and disadvantages for the youth. On one hand, it has made education more accessible and provided new opportunities for communication and socialization.

On the other hand, it has also led to issues such as cyberbullying, addiction, and a lack of face-to-face interaction.

It is important for parents, educators, and society as a whole to recognize these potential drawbacks and work to mitigate them while still embracing the benefits of technology.

Ultimately, it is up to individuals to use technology responsibly and in moderation to ensure a healthy and balanced lifestyle.

Relevant Resources:

• Advantages and Disadvantages of Technology in Human Life
• Advantages and Disadvantages of Technology in Organizations
• Advantages and Disadvantages of Technology in Culture
• Advantages and Disadvantages of Technology in Child Development
• Advantages and Disadvantages of Science and Technology in Politics

Ahmad Ali (Author)

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Impacts of technology on children’s health: a systematic review

Impactos da tecnologia na saúde infantil: revisão sistemática, raquel cordeiro ricci.

a Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, Três Lagoas, MS, Brazil.

Aline Souza Costa de Paulo

Alisson kelvin pereira borges de freitas, isabela crispim ribeiro, leonardo siqueira aprile pires, maria eduarda leite facina, milla bitencourt cabral, natália varreira parduci, rafaela caldato spegiorin, sannye sabrina gonzález bogado, sergio chociay, junior, talita navarro carachesti, mônica mussolini larroque.

The authors declare no conflict of interests.

Authors’ contribution

To identify the consequences of technology overuse in childhood.

Data source:

A systematic review was carried out in the electronic databases PubMed (National Library of Medicine of the National Institutes of Health) and BVS (Virtual Health Library), considering articles published from 2015 to 2020, in English, Portuguese and Spanish using the terms “Internet”, “Child” and “Growth and Development”.

Data synthesis:

554 articles were found and 8 were included in the analysis. The studies’ methodological quality was assessed by the Strobe and Consort criteria, being scored from 17 to 22 points. The articles showed positive and negative factors associated with the use of technology in childhood, although most texts emphasize the harmful aspects. Excessive use of internet, games and exposure to television are associated with intellectual deficits and mental health issues, but can also enable psychosocial development.

Conclusions:

Preventing the use of the internet is a utopic measure ever since society makes use of technologies. The internet is associated with benefits as well as with harms. It is important to optimize the use of internet and reduce risks with the participation of parents and caregivers as moderators, and training of health professionals to better guide them.

Identificar as consequências do uso excessivo da tecnologia na infância.

Fontes de dados:

Foi realizada uma revisão sistemática nas bases de dados eletrônicas PubMed (National Library of Medicine — National Institutes of Health) e Biblioteca Virtual em Saúde (BVS) com artigos publicados de 2015 a 2020, em inglês, português e espanhol, utilizando os termos internet, child e growth and development .

Síntese dos dados:

Foram localizados 554 artigos, resultando em oito artigos incluídos nesta pesquisa. Os estudos foram avaliados quanto à sua qualidade metodológica pelos critérios Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (Strobe) e Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (Consort) e receberam pontuações que variaram de 17 a 22 pontos. Os artigos evidenciaram que há fatores positivos e negativos associados ao uso de tecnologias na infância, embora a maioria dos textos ressalte seu aspecto prejudicial. O uso excessivo de internet, jogos e exposição à televisão ocasionaram alterações intelectuais e da saúde mental, porém também possibilitaram o desenvolvimento psicossocial.

Conclusões:

Impedir o uso da internet é uma medida utópica, visto que a sociedade faz uso de tecnologias. Considerando que a internet pode trazer benefícios, mas também malefícios, são importantes a otimização do uso e a redução dos riscos, como a participação dos pais e responsáveis como moderadores dessa utilização, além da atualização dos profissionais da saúde para melhor orientá-los.

INTRODUCTION

Nowadays, information and communication technologies increasingly make up children’s daily routines. Data from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) state that, among Brazilian children aged 10 years and over, internet use rose from 69.8% in 2017 to 74.7% in 2018. Exchange of messages, voice and/or video calls and, finally, watching videos, such as series and movies, are the most frequent activities performed requiring internet services. 1

Studies on digital technologies have been carried out in several fields, since the contents of activities on the internet may vary, reflecting the broad range of information available online. From this perspective, much has been questioned about the impacts of information and communication technologies on children’s physical and psychosocial development. In the cognitive sphere, the influence on sleep, memory, reading ability, concentration, the ability to communicate in person are commonly cited, in addition to anxiety symptoms when children are away from their cell phones. 2 , 3

This construction of self-image by means of technological tools results in potentializing a phenomenon of modernity and the emergence of large cities: placing intimacy as the focus of spectacularization. Furthermore, intense consumption of content can cause anxiety, panic and even depression. In the case of children with previous mental health conditions and who require monitoring, these effects can be even more intense. 4

With this in mind, the World Health Organization (WHO) published a series of recommendations to parents regarding the exposure of children of different age groups to digital technologies. Children under the age of 5 should not spend more than 60 minutes a day in passive activities in front of a smartphone, computer or TV screen. Children under 12 months of age should not spend even a minute in front of electronic devices. The goal is for boys and girls up to 5 years old to change electronics for physical activities or practices that involve interactions in the real world, such as reading and listening to stories with caregivers. 5 These guidelines are part of the strategy for awareness on sedentary lifestyle and obesity by the Organization of United Nations (UN).

Thus, it is clear that this spectrum of influence can culminate or intensify various pathologies. Therefore, the aim of the study was to identify the positive and negative consequences of technology overuse in childhood.

The selection process and the development of this systematic review were based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (Prisma) protocol. 6 This review was registered with the International Prospective Registry of Systematic Reviews (Prospero), under number CRD42021248396.

The National Library of Medicine — National Institutes of Health (PubMed) and Virtual Health Library (VHL) electronic databases were searched from March to July 2020. The purpose was to systematically analyze original studies addressing information technologies and communication (Internet, social media, etc.) in child development based on a guiding question: what is the impact of information and communication technologies on childrens physical and psychosocial development?

The Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) was used to define the search term. Then, an exploratory investigation was carried out with the purpose of identifying keywords within the theme. The terms “internet”, “child” and “growth and development” were used, in English language, along with “AND”, to combine them. Additionally, the bibliographic references of articles selected were checked.

For the articles to be included, the following aspects were considered:

• Original articles.
• Studies conducted with children.
• Research regarding information and communication technologies (Internet, television, etc.) related to child development.
• Published from 2015 to 2020.
• Articles written in English, Portuguese and Spanish.

Studies carried out with adolescents, adults and the elderly, as well as theses, dissertations, monographs, duplicate studies and case studies were excluded.

The search and selection of articles took place at two different times. The articles were selected first by title and abstracts and, then, the full texts were accessed and evaluated.

Studies that met the eligibility criteria were fully analyzed by two independent researchers, whose evaluations were then compared to verify common points. In cases of uncertainty about the eligibility of the study, a third evaluator took part. Then, the data was extracted and input in predefined data tables.

The methodological quality of observational articles included was assessed according to the initiative Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (Strobe), based on various evaluation criteria for this type of studies. The maximum score is 22 points, which are distributed over several items: title and/or abstract (one item), introduction (two items), methodology (nine items), results (five items), discussion (four items), and funding (one item). 7 , 8 All observational studies were evaluated, and each item, when present, added up to 1 point; then the sum was scored according to Table 1 .

The methodological quality of the one randomized trial was based on the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (Consort) strategy, which contains a checklist with 25 items, divided into: title and abstract (one item with two sub-items); introduction (one item with two sub-items); methods (five items) and a topic with information about randomization (five items); results (seven items); discussion (three items); and other information, such as registration, protocols and funding (three items). 9 , 10 Each item, if met, equals 1 point, and they were all added up according to the analysis of the papers. The score of methodological quality of this randomized trial is shown in Table 1 .

In order to synthesize the description of characteristics as main results and descriptive approach, the following information was extracted from each selected article: name of the main author, year of publication, country where the study was performed, design, sample size, type of technology evaluated, statistical variables, main results, and limitations.

Searches on PubMed and VHL using the descriptors “internet”, “child” and “growth and development” retrieved 550 articles. After applying inclusion criteria, 221 studies were selected and, after reading the titles and abstracts, 125 were excluded. 92 articles were read in full and, per the inclusion criteria and a detailed analysis, four studies were selected. Four other articles were included after an additional search in the reference list of primarily selected articles; the studies should have the same inclusion criteria defined in the methodology. Thus, eight articles made up the sample. The flowchart is shown in Figure 1 .

Most studies were epidemiological. Almost all of them were observational (n=7), and only one was an intervention study. The observational studies included were longitudinal and/or cross-sectional (n=5), case-control (n=1) and cohort studies (n=1). Only one experimental study was included, a randomized controlled trial (n=1), as shown in Table 1 .

Their methodological quality was based on their scores ( Table 1 ). Most studies were observational (n=7) and, therefore, were evaluated according to the Strobe criteria 7 . The score ranged from 17 to 22, and most articles reached 20 points (n=4), which is good methodological quality. The quality of the randomized trial with 18 points—according to the Consort 2010 criterion, which has a maximum score of 25—was also considered good. 9

The main results about the implications of technology in childhood are detailed in Tables 2 and ​ and3 3 .

After reading and analysis, the articles were classified and distributed into two categories according to their approach: negative aspects (n=6) and positive aspects (n=2). The review results are reported below.

Negative aspects

Six of the studies linked technologies to negative aspects. The papers highlitghed intellectual complications, 3 , 11 , 12 body image dissatisfaction 13 , 14 and encouragement of unhealthy food consumption. 15 Table 2 shows the main information.

Excessive internet use is transversally associated with lower cognitive functioning and reduced volume of several areas of the brain. In longitudinal analyses, a higher frequency of internet use was associated with a decrease in verbal intelligence and a smaller increase in the regional volume of gray/white matter in several brain areas after a few years. These areas relate to language processing, attention and executive functions, emotion and reward. 3

In a study conducted with 80 British girls aged 8 and 9 years, appearance-focused games led participants to have a greater dissatisfaction with their appearance compared to control girls, who were not exposed to such games. Therefore, internet games that address appearance can be harmful to girls’ body self-image. 13

It’s not just appearance-focused games that have a negative impact on body image. TV shows, depending on the approach, can also impact negatively psychological development. In a study with Australian girls, some TV shows aimed for the age group of 6-9 years focused on sexualization were absorbed or internalized as social messages by children. The authors stated that the exposure made these girls whish to wear sexualized clothes and create negative relationship with their body image. 14

Furthermore, a study with 562 Dutch and Spanish children reported that, among Dutch children, games with advertisements (advergames) for high-calorie foods stimulated the consumption of unhealthy foods, while those who played other games with advertisements other that food-related, were less inclined to this eating habit. 15 Thus, depending on what the child is exposed to, some influences may not be beneficial.

Video games were associated with increased mean diffusivity in cortical and subcortical areas. That is, prolonged video game use was associated with negative consequences, as it can directly or indirectly interrupt the development of neural systems and cause unfavorable neurocognitive development, especially when it comes to verbal intelligence. 11

Another study on children’s exposure to television, identified a negative effect on the gray matter of the frontal area of the brain with consequences for verbal language. No changes were identified in sensorimotor areas as related to TV watching time; the effect may not be direct, since watching this media is often associated with less physical activity, which, in turn, causes changes in the volume of gray matter in sensorimotor areas. 12

Positive aspects

Only two studies brought the positive aspects of technology use, related to cognitive and psychosocial development 16 and forms of interpersonal relationships. 17 Main information is shown in Table 3 .

Associations of electronic media use with psychosocial development and the executive function among 3- and 5-year-olds, particularly related to total screen time, TV shows viewing, and application use were assessed by the authors, who concluded that cognitive and psychosocial development in children 12 months later was positive when exposure to these media lasted less than 30 minutes a day. 16

In a study conducted with 2,840 students in South Korea, children with depressed mood were more likely to use the internet to socialize, exchange ideas and talk about their concerns as a way to meet their friendship needs. The Internet can be beneficial for children, who can take advantage of online opportunities for socialization and friendships based on common interests. 17

The studies analyzed, in general, show that children currently spend a significant amount of time on the Internet or other means of information, and consider that this exposure can have positive and negative impacts on children’s cognitive development and learning skills.

As for the negative impacts of this habit in childhood, the higher frequency of internet use is associated with a significant decrease in verbal intelligence, mainly related to language skills and concentration/attention abilities. One study reported frequent internet use by children as related to decreased memory performance. 18

Another issue that must be taken into account is the number of games emerging all the time with new elements of fun and entertainment to attract children. An alert should be raised, however, about destructive websites such as the Blue Whale Challenge, which target vulnerable children and young people, threaten their physical integrity and are completely unethical, leading to the gradual destruction of society. 19

On the other hand, researchers have identified, among the most frequent purposes in allowing children access technology declared by parents, the promotion of problem-solving skills (56.7%), learning of basic mathematics (53.8%), developing hand-eye coordination (46.2%), introduction to reading (51%), language (47.1%) and science (26%), as well as entertainment (56.7%). 20

Based on the studies selected, we point out an unexpected result for parents: the problematic use of electronic devices at an early age can have children show low levels of openness to experiences, increasing the level of emotional instability, impulsive or other behaviors related to attention. Then, we must reinforce that exposure to media must be carefully pondered by parents and guardians as to avoid media dependence and misuse.

Problematic internet use (PIU) is associated with less openness and agreeableness, as children with higher levels of PIU end up with a deficit in social skills and difficulties in establishing interpersonal relationships, which can lead to being less open and visible, or less friendly externally. It was also found that these children tend to experience negative emotions and use the internet as a means of feeling better about their everyday problems or unpleasant feelings. Relationships were also between problematic video game use and behavior problems, specifically related to thoughts, attention, and aggressive behavior. 21

In order to bypass the negative effects of inappropriate use of the internet, one cannot ignore, on the one hand, the positive side of these technologies. Technology is extensively available and it is almost impossible to remove it from children’s daily lives. 22 But the negative effects mentioned during the discussion deserve the same attention, as the authors place parental control and moderation as key factors. 23 In this sense, there is a directly proportional link between parental participation and attention and a less harmful relationship between children and technologies, especially regarding social factors. 24

Currently, children spend their lives immersed in the world of digital media, and research has consistently shown the growing, early and diversified use of this media. Children exposed to electronics tend to develop a desire for continued use, creating a potentially harmful cycle. Even more worrisome are the effects of digital media on young children by disrupting parent-child interaction, which is critical to a healthy emotional and cognitive development. 25

There are potential benefits of digital technology as a tool to enhance early childhood development, creativity and social connection, but it is imperative that parents monitor what their children are consuming and help them learn from it. 26

A review of the literature about media reported an adverse association between screen-based media consumption and sleep health, mainly due to delays in bedtime and reduced total sleep duration. The underlying mechanisms of these associations include:

• Time replacement, that is, time on screens replacing sleep time and time spent other activities.
• Psychological stimulation based on media content.
• Effects of light emitted by devices on circadian timing, sleep physiology, and alertness. 27

There is, therefore, and evident need to identify the warning signs of excessive technology use in this age group and define the appropriate limit of daily screen time. Children can make a balanced use of technologies, taking advantage of them without exaggeration, favoring communication and the search for information that is relevant to learning.

It is important to emphasize that pre-judgments about technology-dependent children should be avoided, and knowing their feelings about themselves, as well as the factors that bother them, is important, as well as having a sensitive listening to form a vision of ideal approach in this condition of technology dependence by means of suggested strategies to effectively face these difficulties. 28

Although this review has important and interesting results, some limitations must be listed. First, there the number of studies identified with the criteria of our work was limited. Also, most of the studies were observational. Therefore, experimental research must be carried out as a means to understand the cause-consequence dynamics between media and their implications for child development. Further studies with larger samples and specific age groups, which would be relevant to increase statistical power, are needed.

The analysis of the articles showed positive and negative factors associated with the use of technologies by children. The main losses caused by technology use in childhood are excessive time connected to the internet, worsening of mental health, and changes in the circadian rhythm. The articles mentioned as negative factors the development of intellectual impairments, including verbal intelligence and attention, emotional instability, internet addiction, binge eating and physiological changes.

The main benefits of the use of technologies by children found were the strengthening of friendships and the possibility of greater social connection. For the preschool age group, there is evidence of improvement in cognitive and psychosocial development. Thus, in order to have technology as an ally for healthy child development, parents and guardians should limit the time of use and control the type of content seen and shared by children.

Currently, preventing internet use is an unrealistic measure, since parents and guardians also make great use of technologies. However, because of the new settings imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic, many services have moved towards digitization, including education and social interaction. Internet use nowadays is a reality for all age groups and makes this study relevant; measures aimed at optimizing its use and reducing risks must, therefore, be adopted. Once again, we emphasize the importance of parents and guardians as moderators and update training of health professionals to better guide them.

Further studies are suggested so the notion of risk-benefit of internet use and its long-term consequences for child development is kept up to date.

The study did not receive any funding.

Home / Essay Samples / Information Science and Technology / Dependence on Technology / The Youth and Technology: A Contemporary Outlook

The Youth and Technology: A Contemporary Outlook

• Category: Information Science and Technology
• Topic: Children and Technology , Dependence on Technology , Disadvantages of Technology

Pages: 5 (2171 words)

• Downloads: -->

Introduction

Research plan, background and significance .

• Provide a portrait of the methods used by adolescences and young adults.
• Support physicians distinguish between overdoing, overuse, or addictive online behavior.
• Provide a rudimentary method to clinical technicians, screen, education / advice and technical review to move towards the treatment of specific disorders. 
• Support people and organizations deal with challenging issues such as cyber bullying, sex, high-risk behavior and annoying Internet use (PIU).

Literature Review

Disadvantages .

• Technology causes distraction from work and study
• It reduces the creativity of people
• It causes the social isolation of people
• Technology causes environmental problems like air pollution, water pollution, noise
• pollution etc.
• It causes lack of interest in studying
• It causes health problem in people
• Security issues using technology

Advantages 

• It save our precious time
• Technology easy to access information
• Technology makes the study and teaching very easy for students and teachers
• Purchasing and selling become very easy due to the use of modern technology. People can buy and sell their products online through the internet easily.

Is Technology good or bad ?

Conclusion .

• Set clear expectations about digital behavior and online reputation.
• Educating about the harmful effects of cyberbullying, posting hate speech or comments, having sex and sharing nude photos of yourself or others (including potential legal issues).
• Be clear about what content can be viewed or shared.
• Identify which apps are suitable for their child's use and which are not.
• Establish rules about the time a child can spend online or on their devices.
• Model positive, respectful digital behavior on your own devices and accounts.
• WRT 102.22: Science & Society. 2020. Research Proposal: Technology And Youth. [online] 
• Unicef-irc.org. 2020. [online] 
• Naeyc.org. 2020. Technology And Young Children: Preschoolers And Kindergartners | NAEYC.
• Adil, M., 2020. Advantages And Disadvantages Of Modern Technology On Youth In Society. [online] 
• Joshi, S., Stubbe, D., Li, S. and Hilty, D., 2020. The Use Of Technology By Youth: Implications For Psychiatric Educators.
• Medium. 2020. How Technology Impacts Children’S Development. [online] 

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