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A Review of Geothermal Energy for Future Power Generation

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A review on geothermal energy resources in India: past and the present

• Review Article
• Published: 06 August 2022
• Volume 29 , pages 67675–67684, ( 2022 )

Cite this article

• Mitul Prajapati 1 ,
• Manan Shah   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8665-5010 2 &
• Bhavna Soni 3  

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By 2040, India hopes to have completed its energy supply to fulfill the country’s rising energy demands. Renewable and conventional sources must be used in an environmentally acceptable manner to achieve sustainable growth. India must enhance its use of renewable and clean energy sources, including geothermal, wind, and solar, to satisfy its growing demand. While solar and wind energy output has increased significantly, geothermal energy has yet to be fully harnessed. Among the many forms of geothermal energy found on the surface are volcanoes, fumaroles, erupting geysers, steaming fields, and hot springs. A total of about 340 geothermal springs may be found in India, spread throughout both orogenic (in the Himalayas) and non-orogenic (in the Peninsula). There were 31 places extensively evaluated, and deep drilling was performed in sixteen of them. Average temperatures range from 35.0°C to the boiling point of water in these springs. Medium (100.0–200.0°C) and low (100°C) enthalpy geothermal energy resources/systems are found in India, with the latter being the most abundant. The essential component of a geothermal system is understanding the heat source and harnessing it. Studies so far have indicated that some geothermal areas have sufficient geothermal potential for direct heat usage and power generation. If the Puga (J&K) field is explored to a depth of at least 500 m, reservoir simulation studies have shown that it might produce more than 3 MW of power. India’s diverse geothermal sites and the current status of exploration for future research are discussed in the paper.

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Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to Gujarat Technological University (GTU) and Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Technology, Pandit Deendayal Energy University for the permission to publish this research.

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Mitul Prajapati

Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Technology, Pandit Deendayal Energy University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India

Department of Chemical Engineering, SAL College of Engineering, Gujarat Technological University (GTU), Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India

Bhavna Soni

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All the authors make a substantial contribution to this manuscript. MP, MS, and BS participated in drafting the manuscript. MP and MS wrote the main manuscript. All the authors discussed the results and implication on the manuscript at all stages.

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Prajapati, M., Shah, M. & Soni, B. A review on geothermal energy resources in India: past and the present. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29 , 67675–67684 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-22419-9

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• Published: 23 November 2017

Analysis of geothermal energy as an alternative source for electricity in Colombia

• Samuel S. Salazar 1 ,
• Yecid Muñoz 1 &
• Adalberto Ospino   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1466-0424 2  

Geothermal Energy volume  5 , Article number:  27 ( 2017 ) Cite this article

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Geothermal energy is the energy that is stored inside the earth and which may be used by man either directly (with no transformation) or to generate electricity by means of a geothermal power plant. This article estimates the participation of geothermal energy in Colombia’s electricity market by the year 2025, based on a review of current installed capacity in the country; potential sources of geothermal energy for electric power generation; the existing regulatory framework for projects involving renewable sources, and the geothermal projects currently under development in the national territory. Demand for electricity in Colombia will continue to increase, which implies that new electric power generation projects must be undertaken in order to meet the country’s demand. The conclusion is that geothermal energy is a good alternative to help achieve this objective. By 2025, geothermal sources are expected to generate at least 1400 GWh of electric power per year, equivalent to 1.65% of total electricity estimate demand in Colombia. If the full potential that has been assessed were exploited, generation capacity could reach up to 17,400 GWh/year (equivalent to close to 20% of the country’s demand) by 2025.

Heat is a form of energy, and geothermal energy is the heat that is stored inside the earth, which when transferred to the surface can be used by humans. Uses for geothermal energy range from its direct use with no transformation, to the generation of electricity using geothermal power plants. Even though a huge amount of thermal energy is stored inside the earth, only a fraction of it is usable for mankind (Marzolf 2014 ; Dickson and Fanelli 2013 ). Given that geothermal energy is a renewable resource, it may be considered a solution for the environmental and energy shortage issues the world currently faces (Muñoz et al. 2014 ).

There are certain regions that are attractive for the generation of geothermal electricity; these are generally thermally active areas in the crust of the earth, near the boundaries of the tectonic plates. Colombia is located on the Pacific Ring of Fire, which is a substantial advantage in terms of its potential for developing geothermal energy power plants, because in this area the natural gradient of temperature of the subsoil near the surface of the earth is abnormally high, due to the volcanic activity. Such conditions are considered favorable for the use of geothermal energy (Marzolf 2014 ; Mejía and Rayo 2014 ).

The implementation of geothermal power plants has become more widespread with many projects to be carried out, especially in countries such as Argentina, Austria, Australia, Bolivia, Canada, Costa Rica, Chile, China, Ecuador, Ethiopia, El Salvador, France, Guatemala, Italy, Indonesia, Japan, Kenya, Mexico, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand, and The United States; Fig.  1 shows the geothermal installed capacity in the world (Bertani 2016 ).

(Reproduced with permission from Bertani 2016 ; ThinGeoEnergy 2016 )

Geothermal installed capacity (MW)—2016

In Colombia, there is no geothermal development yet. Geological studies are being carried out by the Colombian Geological Survey in the Nevado del Ruiz, Tufiño-Chiles-Cerro Negro, Azufral, Paipa, and San Diego areas. The use of geothermal energy for the production of electricity has faced a number of obstacles, such as limited technical and scientific capabilities for the exploration and development of these resources, the large investments and high risks involved in exploration, and non-application of regulatory frameworks on the development and use of such resources by the entities responsible for promoting and managing such projects. These factors have led to very slow progress in the performance of pre-feasibility studies for the use of these resources (Bertani 2015 ; Marzolf 2014 ).

This article discusses the potential of geothermal energy as an alternative for electric power generation in Colombia, including a review of planned geothermal power plants in the Colombian territory, and an assessment of the prospective future participation of geothermal power in the country’s electricity supply.

Electric power generation in Colombia

The bulk of electric power in Colombia is generated by hydro-electric plants. Table  1 shows the participation of each technology in the Colombian electric power market, indicating that hydro-electric power is predominant, with 69.97% of the total, followed by thermo-electric power (gas and coal), which combined account for 18.05% of the total.

According to the monthly report on generation variables and the electricity market published by UPME, in December of 2015 the Colombian electric power system had installed capacity of 16,436 MW; electric power generation in Colombia in December, 2015 totaled 5703.88 GWh, a 3.13% increase compared to the same month the previous year, and the forecast for 2025 is 86,752 GWh/year (UPME 2015 , 2016 ).

Geothermal potential in Colombia

Colombia is an attractive country for the development of geothermal electric power plants because it is located on the Pacific Ring of Fire, and consequently there is volcanic activity along its Western and Central mountain ranges, as well as latent igneous activity in certain areas of the Eastern mountain range. The region has close to 15 active volcanoes and dozens of inactive ones. Figure  2 displays existing volcanoes worldwide, showing the existence of several of these in the Colombian territory (Corpoema 2010 ; IDEAM 2014 ).

Map of volcanoes in the world

Figure  3 shows the map of geothermal potential in Colombia in terms of the ranges of available temperatures at a depth of 3 km (Vargas et al. 2009 ). It shows that the most promising regions in terms of energy use are in the Andean region, where thermal anomalies are found with geothermal gradient values of up to 127 °C/km. In these regions, hot fluids may be found at depths of between 500 and 1000 m that are capable of producing enough thermal energy for small-scale generation projects (Corpoema 2010 ).

(Reproduced with permission from Vargas et al. 2009 )

Geothermal potential map [temperature in °C (at depth of 3 km)]

In 1981 and 1982, a study was carried out by Latin American Energy Organization (OLADE) in agreement with ICEL (the Colombian Electric Power Institute) to survey geothermal resources in the Republic of Colombia. The objective of the project was to carry out a final selection of the most important areas of geothermal interest in the country. The study covered close to 100,000 km 2 and included the central and western mountain ranges, which feature recent volcanic activity and the presence of high-temperature thermal springs on the surface, and the eastern mountain range with volcanic activity that is not as recent and the presence of high-temperature thermal springs. These studies showed that Colombia has areas of geothermal interest for installation of generation capacity of up to 1000 MW (Corpoema 2010 ; Porras and Gutierrez 2013 ).

Colombia’s geothermal potential was also estimated in 1999 by Liz Battocletti, at 2210 MW, which may be used to generate electric power; the study covered sites such as Santa Rosa de Cabal, the Ruiz Complex, Paipa, Azufral Volcano, Chiles, Cumbal, Cerro Negro, and Tufiño (Battocletti 1999 ).

Regulations on the use of geothermal resources in Colombia

A regulatory framework exists in Colombia on the use and exploration of geothermal resources, which covers aspects related to surveying, pre-feasibility and feasibility studies, and the field and plant development stage (construction and operation). This section will discuss some legal aspects regarding the use of geothermal resources in the country.

The objective of law 1715 of 2014 is to promote the development and use of non-conventional renewable energy (NCRE) sources and to incorporate them into the national electric energy system. Its aim is to establish the legal framework and instruments for the promotion and use of NCRE sources, and to promote investment, research and development of clean technologies, including by means of investment incentives. Geothermal energy is considered a non-conventional renewable energy source. Law 1715 designated CREG (Energy and Gas Assignment of Regulation) as the entity responsible for the technical regulation of this resource, the national government as the promoter of subsoil exploration and research to survey existing geothermal resources, and the Ministry of Mines and Energy as the body responsible for establishing the conditions for the participation of geothermal energy in the Colombian energy market, as well as the technical and quality requirements for the facilities that use such resources to generate electricity (UPME 2014 ).

Geothermal energy is considered a renewable natural resource that is owned and managed by the State, given that according to Decree-Law 2811 of 1974 all natural renewable resources belong to the nation. Management of such resources is assigned to a governmental entity (the Ministry of the Environment). In order to use and exploit geothermal resources, it is necessary to obtain legal permits, concessions, and environmental licenses (Marzolf 2014 ; Hurtado 1974 ).

The surveying, pre-feasibility, and feasibility studies that are required prior to building and operating a plant require some degree of legal security in terms of use of the resource, because they involve substantial capital investments and high levels of risk. It is therefore important to obtain the required permits before undertaking geothermal exploration. Decree 2811 of 1974 (the national code on natural and renewable resources and environmental protection) defines the permits that are required to begin exploration of natural resources with the objective of exploiting them. However, the duration of such permits is only 2 years, which is generally considered insufficient for geothermal exploration, which could take up to 5 years to cover all aspects (including pre-feasibility and feasibility studies). According to Law 2811 of 1974, a concession must be obtained in order to use and exploit geothermal sources: any individual, legal entity or partnership, public or private, that wishes to generate hydraulic, kinetic or electric energy must request a concession, and the concession for the use of water as a geothermal source is to be granted along with the concession for use of the geothermal resources. The environmental parameters the projects must fulfill are issued by the national government through the Ministry of the Environment and Sustainable Development (UPME 2014 ; Hurtado 1974 ).

Even though geothermal energy is considered a clean, renewable, and environmentally viable technology for the production of electricity, it clearly has particularities that require designing and implementing environmental management measures in all stages of the process. For this reason, Colombian legislation establishes that obtaining an environmental permit is a mandatory requirement for the use of geothermal resources. Such permit would implicitly cover all other permits, authorizations and/or concessions required for the use, exploitation and/or effects on the renewable resources that would be required over the useful life of the project (Marzolf 2014 ; Hurtado 1974 ).

The Law on the Rational Use of Energy (Law 697 of 2001) promotes the rational and efficient use of energy and the use of alternative energy sources, among other provisions. Article 2 of said law establishes that the state has the duty of establishing the regulations required to make the use of renewable energy sources viable (Marzolf 2014 ).

Geothermal electricity generation projects in Colombia

In order to review the status of geothermal electricity generation projects in Colombia, first we must point out the stages of development for the commercial operation of a geothermal power plant. Figure  4 displays the phases and estimated times required to build a geothermal project. The process begins with a survey to recognize, identify, and select potential areas, including an analysis of environmental restrictions. It is followed by a pre-feasibility stage, which includes a series of studies (geological, geochemical, and geophysical), establishment of the thermal gradient, and development of the geothermal model. The pre-feasibility stage lasts approximately 2.5 years.

(Reproduced with permission from ISAGEN 2012 )

Idealized scheme of the geothermal plant development stages

Afterwards, during the feasibility stage, exploratory drilling is performed, usually by means of wells at depths of 2–3 km; during this stage the deposit is evaluated; technical and economic viability studies are prepared, and a plant design is developed. During the development stage, the production and re-injection wells are drilled and the pipelines and generation plant are installed, to finally reach commercial operation, as indicated in Fig.  4 (ISAGEN 2012 ). As mentioned in the section above, it is of utmost importance to secure the necessary permits for development in a timely way. Failure to do so could cause substantial delays in the development process.

To date, there are no geothermal power plants in operation in Colombia. Geological studies are being performed by the Colombian Geological Service at Nevado del Ruiz, Tufiño-Chiles-Cerro Negro, Azufral, Paipa, and the area of San Diego to establish the viability of developing projects in these areas (Alfaro 2015 ).

Figure  5 displays the areas with geothermal potential in Colombia, where the green dots represent areas where exploration is currently being carried out by companies to generate electricity; the orange areas are in the pre-feasibility stage and are under study by government entities; the dark red areas have geothermal development potential and the yellow areas are those with substantial geothermal anomalies.

(Reproduced with permission from Mejía and Rayo 2014 )

Areas with geothermal potential in Colombia

The geothermal projects in Colombia are displayed in Table  2 , which indicates that the projects in the most advanced stage of development are the ones at Nevado del Ruiz and the bi-national project Chiles-Tufiño-Cerro Negro.

The first to come to operation, which will become the first geothermal plant in the country, is being developed jointly by ISAGEN S.A. E.S.P., Toshiba Corporation, West Japan Engineering Consultants, Inc. (West JEC) and Schlumberger. This power plant will be in the municipality of Villa María, department of Caldas, with an installed capacity of 50 MW, and it is scheduled to begin commercial operation in 2020 (ISAGEN 2015 ).

The second is a bi-national project between Ecuador and Colombia, located on the border of both countries; its installed capacity will be 330 MW, of which 138 MW will be on the Colombian side (Mejía and Rayo 2014 ; CELEC.EP. 2014 ), and according to the geothermal plant development stages, this power plant will begin commercial operation before 2025. Figure  6 shows the location of both power generation projects.

(Reproduced with permission from SENCAR 2015 ; IG-EPN 2015 ; Vargas et al. 2009 )

Aerial view of Chiles Volcano and Nevado del Ruiz Volcanic Mountain

Prospective view of geothermal energy in Colombia

Table  3 displays a forecast of demand for electricity in the country for 2017–2030 prepared by the Mining & Energy Planning Unit (UPME by its acronym in Spanish). Based on the forecast figure for 2025, an estimate was calculated on the participation of geothermal energy as a contributor to electricity supply in the country.

It is important to keep in mind that in addition to the areas where pre-feasibility studies for the use of this resource for generation of electricity are currently under way, as mentioned earlier, there are other areas that are suitable for electric power generation and where it might be worthwhile to promote geothermal projects to benefit the regions and diversify electricity supplies in Colombia.

By 2025, the Colombian electric power generation system will be producing 86,752 GWh/year (UPME 2016 ). Taking into consideration the main geothermal projects in Colombia, and assuming that the geothermal plant at the Nevado del Ruiz Volcanic Mountain will come to operation in 2020, and assuming, based on normal development times for a geothermal power plant, that the bi-national project with Ecuador will be in operation by 2025, the combined capacity of both plants would be 185 MW by 2025, which adjusted by a generation factor of 0.9, given that geothermal plants can operate with very few interruptions, these two plants would be generating 1400 GWh/year. This would imply that geothermal energy would account for 1.6% of the total generation of the country’s electric system by 2025, as indicated in Fig.  7 .

Share of geothermal electricity in total electricity generation in Colombia by 2025

Pre-feasibility-stages studies are beginning for the geothermal areas of Paipa, Azufral Volcano, and San Diego maar. Preliminary conceptual models have been developed for the geothermal resources in these volcanic zones, leading to the characterization of the areas as being of great interest for geothermal power generation, presented to the World Geothermal Congress 2015.

Conclusions

By 2025, with the projects at Nevado del Ruiz and Cerro Negro-Chiles-Tufiño on line, geothermal energy will account for 1.65% of electric power generation in the country, which although small compared to the percentages of other sources such as hydro-electric or thermo-electric plants, is nonetheless a contribution to the national grid.

Colombia is an attractive country in terms of geothermal energy because it has close to 15 active and numerous inactive volcanoes, and its location on the Pacific Fire Ring is an advantage in terms of making use of geothermal resources, because the thermal gradients are above normal. If the full potential that has been assessed were used, generation capacity could reach up to 17,400 GWh/year, equivalent to close to 20% of the country’s demand by 2025. Greater development of the country’s geothermal resource base may be promoted by modifying the regulatory framework, adding incentives such as tax deductions and facilitating financing mechanisms, financial support or risk coverage. Developing the technical and scientific training of personnel in geothermal resources will also help in accelerating development.

The foreseen growth in demand in Colombia indicates that it is necessary to undertake new electricity generation projects to cover such demand, and geothermal energy is likely to play an important role, because in addition to being a renewable source of energy, it would help diversify the energy sources of the country’s electric grid. With the support of legislation, incentives, and future projects (Azufral, Paipa, San Diego), geothermal electric power generation will increase its share of the country’s generation system, which would also increase the reliability of the country’s power grid.

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Authors’ contributions

The authors contributed to the discussions according to their respective areas of experience and knowledge for the interpretation of the data and the development of the basic concepts. SSS contributes to the revision of regulations for the use of geothermal energy in Colombia, electric power generation in Colombia and drafting of the manuscript. YM contributes to the potential and geothermal generation projects in Colombia and the drafting of the manuscript. AO contributes to the development of the perspective of geothermal energy in Colombia, makes a review of more relevant projects in geothermal generation around the world and drafting the manuscript with extensive contributions. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Salazar, S.S., Muñoz, Y. & Ospino, A. Analysis of geothermal energy as an alternative source for electricity in Colombia. Geotherm Energy 5 , 27 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40517-017-0084-x

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Two-year study to determine S’pore’s geothermal potential to start later in 2024

SINGAPORE – A two-year $16 million nationwide study to determine Singapore’s geothermal potential for power generation will likely begin in the second half of 2024, the Energy Market Authority (EMA) told The Straits Times.

This comes as the Republic is considering all options to “green” its energy mix , with previous studies already indicating that places like Sembawang and Pulau Tekong could have some geothermal potential.

One of these studies was conducted in July 2023 by the Nanyang Technological University (NTU), urban and infrastructural consultancy Surbana Jurong, and Tumcreate, the Technical University of Munich’s multidisciplinary research platform located in Singapore.

The study found that a site close to the Sembawang hot spring could have temperatures of up to 200 deg C – the temperature needed for power generation at depths of 4km to 5km.

In September 2023, EMA called for proposals to conduct an islandwide, non-invasive study to assess the Republic’s geothermal potential at depths of up to 10km. The proposed regions to be surveyed would potentially include mainland Singapore, territorial waters and offshore islands.

The tender was awarded earlier in April to Surbana Jurong for $16 million.

When asked by ST for details on how the study will be conducted, the areas the company intends to survey, and whether collaborations with NTU will continue, Surbana Jurong declined to respond.

However, EMA said that the company’s proposed survey areas mainly encompass mainland Singapore, and that it is estimated to commence in the second half of the year, subject to approvals from the relevant authorities.

Professor Alessandro Romagnoli from NTU’s School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, who led the 2023 geothermal study in Sembawang, said that other regions worth studying include Pulau Tekong, western Singapore such as the Tuas area, and eastern Singapore.

Pulau Tekong is of interest as there is a known hot spring in its Unum region, the northern part of the island; whereas the western side of mainland Singapore has thick sedimentary layers that can act as a heat trap for heat from deep sources underground.

“Our near-surface temperature distribution map indicates elevated temperature zones in the western part of Singapore,” he added.

Eastern Singapore features a thin sedimentary layer over a potentially hot granitic basement, although confirming that a geothermal resource exists will require further exploration efforts.

Prof Romagnoli and his team have drilled around 1.7km at the site in Sembawang, collecting rock samples and measuring the temperature at various depths, which can help contribute various data points to the creation of an underground heat map for that area.

The team hopes to continue collaborations with Surbana Jurong.

In the meantime, the NTU team will continue drilling deeper at its Sembawang site, while extracting data that can be used to further validate the non-invasive geophysical survey that the company will be conducting.

“We also want to explore the options to demonstrate geothermal heat extraction and utilisation,” Prof Romagnoli added.

In October 2021, EMA said that it was exploring the viability of employing geothermal systems in Singapore, following the development of new technologies.

One example includes the use of closed-loop heat extraction systems, which would require a far smaller surface area per unit of power produced, compared with other types of power plants, Prof Romagnoli previously told ST.

This works by having pipes installed underground in a loop, which would then transport fluids that transfer heat from the hot granite layers to the surface, where the heat could be used to generate electricity in the power plant.

Asked how a study on Singapore’s geothermal potential could be done in a non-invasive way, Prof Romagnoli said that surveys can be done to acquire gravity and magnetic data over a large region, which could help to delineate regions of interest.

This can then be complemented with seismic surveys, for instance, which use sound waves to capture images of the underground rock structures.

A total of nine companies submitted bids for EMA’s tender, six of which offered prices at below $10 million. Asked why Surbana Jurong was chosen, EMA said that the company’s proposal was deemed to offer “the best value for money” among the submissions received which had met all the tender’s requirements.

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A new way to detect radiation involving cheap ceramics

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The radiation detectors used today for applications like inspecting cargo ships for smuggled nuclear materials are expensive and cannot operate in harsh environments, among other disadvantages. Now, in work funded largely by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security with early support from the U.S. Department of Energy, MIT engineers have demonstrated a fundamentally new way to detect radiation that could allow much cheaper detectors and a plethora of new applications.

They are working with Radiation Monitoring Devices , a company in Watertown, Massachusetts, to transfer the research as quickly as possible into detector products.

In a 2022 paper in Nature Materials , many of the same engineers reported for the first time how ultraviolet light can significantly improve the performance of fuel cells and other devices based on the movement of charged atoms, rather than those atoms’ constituent electrons.

In the current work, published recently in Advanced Materials , the team shows that the same concept can be extended to a new application: the detection of gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of nuclear materials.

“Our approach involves materials and mechanisms very different than those in presently used detectors, with potentially enormous benefits in terms of reduced cost, ability to operate under harsh conditions, and simplified processing,” says Harry L. Tuller, the R.P. Simmons Professor of Ceramics and Electronic Materials in MIT’s Department of Materials Science and Engineering (DMSE).

Tuller leads the work with key collaborators Jennifer L. M. Rupp, a former associate professor of materials science and engineering at MIT who is now a professor of electrochemical materials at Technical University Munich in Germany, and Ju Li, the Battelle Energy Alliance Professor in Nuclear Engineering and a professor of materials science and engineering. All are also affiliated with MIT’s Materials Research Laboratory

“After learning the Nature Materials work, I realized the same underlying principle should work for gamma-ray detection — in fact, may work even better than [UV] light because gamma rays are more penetrating — and proposed some experiments to Harry and Jennifer,” says Li.

Says Rupp, “Employing shorter-range gamma rays enable [us] to extend the opto-ionic to a radio-ionic effect by modulating ionic carriers and defects at material interfaces by photogenerated electronic ones.”

Other authors of the Advanced Materials paper are first author Thomas Defferriere, a DMSE postdoc, and Ahmed Sami Helal, a postdoc in MIT’s Department of Nuclear Science and Engineering.

Modifying barriers

Charge can be carried through a material in different ways. We are most familiar with the charge that is carried by the electrons that help make up an atom. Common applications include solar cells. But there are many devices — like fuel cells and lithium batteries — that depend on the motion of the charged atoms, or ions, themselves rather than just their electrons.

The materials behind applications based on the movement of ions, known as solid electrolytes, are ceramics. Ceramics, in turn, are composed of tiny crystallite grains that are compacted and fired at high temperatures to form a dense structure. The problem is that ions traveling through the material are often stymied at the boundaries between the grains.

In their 2022 paper, the MIT team showed that ultraviolet (UV) light shone on a solid electrolyte essentially causes electronic perturbations at the grain boundaries that ultimately lower the barrier that ions encounter at those boundaries. The result: “We were able to enhance the flow of the ions by a factor of three,” says Tuller, making for a much more efficient system.

Vast potential

At the time, the team was excited about the potential of applying what they’d found to different systems. In the 2022 work, the team used UV light, which is quickly absorbed very near the surface of a material. As a result, that specific technique is only effective in thin films of materials. (Fortunately, many applications of solid electrolytes involve thin films.)

Light can be thought of as particles — photons — with different wavelengths and energies. These range from very low-energy radio waves to the very high-energy gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of nuclear materials. Visible light — and UV light — are of intermediate energies, and fit between the two extremes.

The MIT technique reported in 2022 worked with UV light. Would it work with other wavelengths of light, potentially opening up new applications? Yes, the team found. In the current paper they show that gamma rays also modify the grain boundaries resulting in a faster flow of ions that, in turn, can be easily detected. And because the high-energy gamma rays penetrate much more deeply than UV light, “this extends the work to inexpensive bulk ceramics in addition to thin films,” says Tuller. It also allows a new application: an alternative approach to detecting nuclear materials.

Today’s state-of-the-art radiation detectors depend on a completely different mechanism than the one identified in the MIT work. They rely on signals derived from electrons and their counterparts, holes, rather than ions. But these electronic charge carriers must move comparatively great distances to the electrodes that “capture” them to create a signal. And along the way, they can be easily lost as they, for example, hit imperfections in a material. That’s why today’s detectors are made with extremely pure single crystals of material that allow an unimpeded path. They can be made with only certain materials and are difficult to process, making them expensive and hard to scale into large devices.

Using imperfections

In contrast, the new technique works because of the imperfections — grains — in the material. “The difference is that we rely on ionic currents being modulated at grain boundaries versus the state-of-the-art that relies on collecting electronic carriers from long distances,” Defferriere says.

Says Rupp, “It is remarkable that the bulk ‘grains’ of the ceramic materials tested revealed high stabilities of the chemistry and structure towards gamma rays, and solely the grain boundary regions reacted in charge redistribution of majority and minority carriers and defects.”

Comments Li, “This radiation-ionic effect is distinct from the conventional mechanisms for radiation detection where electrons or photons are collected. Here, the ionic current is being collected.”

Igor Lubomirsky, a professor in the Department of Materials and Interfaces at the Weizmann Institute of Science, Israel, who was not involved in the current work, says, “I found the approach followed by the MIT group in utilizing polycrystalline oxygen ion conductors very fruitful given the [materials’] promise for providing reliable operation under irradiation under the harsh conditions expected in nuclear reactors where such detectors often suffer from fatigue and aging. [They also] benefit from much-reduced fabrication costs.”

As a result, the MIT engineers are hopeful that their work could result in new, less expensive detectors. For example, they envision trucks loaded with cargo from container ships driving through a structure that has detectors on both sides as they leave a port. “Ideally, you’d have either an array of detectors or a very large detector, and that’s where [today’s detectors] really don’t scale very well,” Tuller says.

Another potential application involves accessing geothermal energy, or the extreme heat below our feet that is being explored as a carbon-free alternative to fossil fuels. Ceramic sensors at the ends of drill bits could detect pockets of heat — radiation — to drill toward. Ceramics can easily withstand extreme temperatures of more than 800 degrees Fahrenheit and the extreme pressures found deep below the Earth’s surface.

The team is excited about additional applications for their work. “This was a demonstration of principle with just one material,” says Tuller, “but there are thousands of other materials good at conducting ions.”

Concludes Defferriere: “It’s the start of a journey on the development of the technology, so there’s a lot to do and a lot to discover.”

This work is currently supported by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Countering Weapons of Mass Destruction Office. This support does not constitute an express or implied endorsement on the part of the government. It was also funded by the U.S. Defense Threat Reduction Agency.

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