how to design & evaluate research in education

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HOW TO DESIGN AND EVALUATE RESEARCH IN EDUCATION by Fraenkell-Wallen

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TEMMY TIMOTIUS

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In Part 4, we begin a more detailed discussion of some of the methodologies that educational researchers use. We concentrate here on quantitative research, with a separate chapter devoted to group-comparison experimental research, single-subject experimental research, correlational research, causal-comparative research, and survey research. In each chapter, we not only discuss the method in some detail, but we also provide examples of published studies in which the researchers used one of these methods. We conclude each chapter with an analysis of a particular study's strengths and weaknesses.

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Q ualitative researchers typically rely on four methods for gathering information: (a) participating in the setting, (b) observing directly, (c) interviewing in depth, and (d) analyzing documents and material culture. These form the core of their inquiry—the staples of the diet. Several secondary and specialized methods of data collection supplement them. This chapter provides a brief discussion of the primary and the secondary methods to be considered in designing a qualitative study. This discussion does not replace the many excellent, detailed references on data collection (we refer to several at the end of this chapter). Its purpose is to guide the proposal writer in stipulating the methods of choice for his study and in describing for the reader how the data will inform his research questions. How the researcher plans to use these methods, however, depends on several considerations. Chapter 1 presents an introductory discussion of qualitative method-ological assumptions. As the grounding for a selection of methods, we extend that discussion here, using Brantlinger's (1997) useful summary of seven categories of crucial assumptions for qualitative inquiry. The first concerns the researcher's views of the nature of the research: Is the inquiry technical and neutral, intending to conform to traditional research within her discipline, or is it controversial and critical, with an ❖ ❖ ❖

EMILIO YERO

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How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education covers each step of the research process and discusses the most widely used research methodologies. It provides a comprehensive introduction to education research. End-of-chapter worksheets, comprehensive coverage of data analysis, and research tips make the text appropriate for courses that focus on doing research and for those that stress how to understand research.

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Jack Fraenkel

Jack R. Fraenkel was Professor of Interdisciplinary Studies in Education and Director of the Research and Development Center in the College of Education at San Francisco State University. He received his Ph.D. from Stanford University and taught courses i

Norman Wallen

Norman E. Wallen is Professor Emeritus of Interdisciplinary Studies in Education at San Francisco State University, where he taught from 1966 to 1992. An experienced researcher, he received his Ph.D from Syracuse University and taught courses in research

Helen H. Hyun is currently Associate Professor of Interdisciplinary Studies in Education at San Francisco State University. She received her EdD from Harvard University and has taught courses in research design and methodology to masterâs and doctoral stu

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Original research article, learning scientific observation with worked examples in a digital learning environment.

1 Department Educational Sciences, Chair for Formal and Informal Learning, Technical University Munich School of Social Sciences and Technology, Munich, Germany
2 Aquatic Systems Biology Unit, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany

Science education often aims to increase learners’ acquisition of fundamental principles, such as learning the basic steps of scientific methods. Worked examples (WE) have proven particularly useful for supporting the development of such cognitive schemas and successive actions in order to avoid using up more cognitive resources than are necessary. Therefore, we investigated the extent to which heuristic WE are beneficial for supporting the acquisition of a basic scientific methodological skill—conducting scientific observation. The current study has a one-factorial, quasi-experimental, comparative research design and was conducted as a field experiment. Sixty two students of a German University learned about scientific observation steps during a course on applying a fluvial audit, in which several sections of a river were classified based on specific morphological characteristics. In the two experimental groups scientific observation was supported either via faded WE or via non-faded WE both presented as short videos. The control group did not receive support via WE. We assessed factual and applied knowledge acquisition regarding scientific observation, motivational aspects and cognitive load. The results suggest that WE promoted knowledge application: Learners from both experimental groups were able to perform the individual steps of scientific observation more accurately. Fading of WE did not show any additional advantage compared to the non-faded version in this regard. Furthermore, the descriptive results reveal higher motivation and reduced extraneous cognitive load within the experimental groups, but none of these differences were statistically significant. Our findings add to existing evidence that WE may be useful to establish scientific competences.

1 Introduction

Learning in science education frequently involves the acquisition of basic principles or generalities, whether of domain-specific topics (e.g., applying a mathematical multiplication rule) or of rather universal scientific methodologies (e.g., performing the steps of scientific observation) ( Lunetta et al., 2007 ). Previous research has shown that worked examples (WE) can be considered particularly useful for developing such cognitive schemata during learning to avoid using more cognitive resources than necessary for learning successive actions ( Renkl et al., 2004 ; Renkl, 2017 ). WE consist of the presentation of a problem, consecutive solution steps and the solution itself. This is especially advantageous in initial cognitive skill acquisition, i.e., for novice learners with low prior knowledge ( Kalyuga et al., 2001 ). With growing knowledge, fading WE can lead from example-based learning to independent problem-solving ( Renkl et al., 2002 ). Preliminary work has shown the advantage of WE in specific STEM domains like mathematics ( Booth et al., 2015 ; Barbieri et al., 2021 ), but less studies have investigated their impact on the acquisition of basic scientific competencies that involve heuristic problem-solving processes (scientific argumentation, Schworm and Renkl, 2007 ; Hefter et al., 2014 ; Koenen et al., 2017 ). In the realm of natural sciences, various basic scientific methodologies are employed to acquire knowledge, such as experimentation or scientific observation ( Wellnitz and Mayer, 2013 ). During the pursuit of knowledge through scientific inquiry activities, learners may encounter several challenges and difficulties. Similar to the hurdles faced in experimentation, where understanding the criteria for appropriate experimental design, including the development, measurement, and evaluation of results, is crucial ( Sirum and Humburg, 2011 ; Brownell et al., 2014 ; Dasgupta et al., 2014 ; Deane et al., 2014 ), scientific observation additionally presents its own set of issues. In scientific observation, e.g., the acquisition of new insights may be somewhat incidental due to spontaneous and uncoordinated observations ( Jensen, 2014 ). To address these challenges, it is crucial to provide instructional support, including the use of WE, particularly when observations are carried out in a more self-directed manner.

For this reason, the aim of the present study was to determine the usefulness of digitally presented WE to support the acquisition of a basic scientific methodological skill—conducting scientific observations—using a digital learning environment. In this regard, this study examined the effects of different forms of digitally presented WE (non-faded vs. faded) on students’ cognitive and motivational outcomes and compared them to a control group without WE. Furthermore, the combined perspective of factual and applied knowledge, as well as motivational and cognitive aspects, represent further value added to the study.

2 Theoretical background

2.1 worked examples.

WE have been commonly used in the fields of STEM education (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) ( Booth et al., 2015 ). They consist of a problem statement, the steps to solve the problem, and the solution itself ( Atkinson et al., 2000 ; Renkl et al., 2002 ; Renkl, 2014 ). The success of WE can be explained by their impact on cognitive load (CL) during learning, based on assumptions from Cognitive Load Theory ( Sweller, 2006 ).

Learning with WE is considered time-efficient, effective, and superior to problem-based learning (presentation of the problem without demonstration of solution steps) when it comes to knowledge acquisition and transfer (WE-effect, Atkinson et al., 2000 ; Van Gog et al., 2011 ). Especially WE can help by reducing the extraneous load (presentation and design of the learning material) and, in turn, can lead to an increase in germane load (effort of the learner to understand the learning material) ( Paas et al., 2003 ; Renkl, 2014 ). With regard to intrinsic load (difficulty and complexity of the learning material), it is still controversially discussed if it can be altered by instructional design, e.g., WE ( Gerjets et al., 2004 ). WE have a positive effect on learning and knowledge transfer, especially for novices, as the step-by-step presentation of the solution requires less extraneous mental effort compared to problem-based learning ( Sweller et al., 1998 ; Atkinson et al., 2000 ; Bokosmaty et al., 2015 ). With growing knowledge, WE can lose their advantages (due to the expertise-reversal effect), and scaffolding learning via faded WE might be more successful for knowledge gain and transfer ( Renkl, 2014 ). Faded WE are similar to complete WE, but fade out solution steps as knowledge and competencies grow. Faded WE enhance near-knowledge transfer and reduce errors compared to non-faded WE ( Renkl et al., 2000 ).

In addition, the reduction of intrinsic and extraneous CL by WE also has an impact on learner motivation, such as interest ( Van Gog and Paas, 2006 ). Um et al. (2012) showed that there is a strong positive correlation between germane CL and the motivational aspects of learning, like satisfaction and emotion. Gupta (2019) mentions a positive correlation between CL and interest. Van Harsel et al. (2019) found that WE positively affect learning motivation, while no such effect was found for problem-solving. Furthermore, learning with WE increases the learners’ belief in their competence in completing a task. In addition, fading WE can lead to higher motivation for more experienced learners, while non-faded WE can be particularly motivating for learners without prior knowledge ( Paas et al., 2005 ). In general, fundamental motivational aspects during the learning process, such as situational interest ( Lewalter and Knogler, 2014 ) or motivation-relevant experiences, like basic needs, are influenced by learning environments. At the same time, their use also depends on motivational characteristics of the learning process, such as self-determined motivation ( Deci and Ryan, 2012 ). Therefore, we assume that learning with WE as a relevant component of a learning environment might also influence situational interest and basic needs.

2.1.1 Presentation of worked examples

WE are frequently used in digital learning scenarios ( Renkl, 2014 ). When designing WE, the application via digital learning media can be helpful, as their content can be presented in different ways (video, audio, text, and images), tailored to the needs of the learners, so that individual use is possible according to their own prior knowledge or learning pace ( Mayer, 2001 ). Also, digital media can present relevant information in a timely, motivating, appealing and individualized way and support learning in an effective and needs-oriented way ( Mayer, 2001 ). The advantages of using digital media in designing WE have already been shown in previous studies. Dart et al. (2020) presented WE as short videos (WEV). They report that the use of WEV leads to increased student satisfaction and more positive attitudes. Approximately 90% of the students indicated an active learning approach when learning with the WEV. Furthermore, the results show that students improved their content knowledge through WEV and that they found WEV useful for other courses as well.

Another study ( Kay and Edwards, 2012 ) presented WE as video podcasts. Here, the advantages of WE regarding self-determined learning in terms of learning location, learning time, and learning speed were shown. Learning performance improved significantly after use. The step-by-step, easy-to-understand explanations, the diagrams, and the ability to determine the learning pace by oneself were seen as beneficial.

Multimedia WE can also be enhanced with self-explanation prompts ( Berthold et al., 2009 ). Learning from WE with self-explanation prompts was shown to be superior to other learning methods, such as hypertext learning and observational learning.

In addition to presenting WE in different medial ways, WE can also comprise different content domains.

2.1.2 Content and context of worked examples

Regarding the content of WE, algorithmic and heuristic WE, as well as single-content and double-content WE, can be distinguished ( Reiss et al., 2008 ; Koenen et al., 2017 ; Renkl, 2017 ). Algorithmic WE are traditionally used in the very structured mathematical–physical field. Here, an algorithm with very specific solution steps is to learn, for example, in probability calculation ( Koenen et al., 2017 ). In this study, however, we focus on heuristic double-content WE. Heuristic WE in science education comprise fundamental scientific working methods, e.g., conducting experiments ( Koenen et al., 2017 ). Furthermore, double-content WE contain two learning domains that are relevant for the learning process: (1) the learning domain describes the primarily to be learned abstract process or concept, e.g., scientific methodologies like observation (see section 2.2), while (2) the exemplifying domain consists of the content that is necessary to teach this process or concept, e.g., mapping of river structure ( Renkl et al., 2009 ).

Depending on the WE content to be learned, it may be necessary for learning to take place in different settings. This can be in a formal or informal learning setting or a non-formal field setting. In this study, the focus is on learning scientific observation (learning domain) through river structure mapping (exemplary domain), which takes place with the support of digital media in a formal (university) setting, but in an informal context (nature).

2.2 Scientific observation

Scientific observation is fundamental to all scientific activities and disciplines ( Kohlhauf et al., 2011 ). Scientific observation must be clearly distinguished from everyday observation, where observation is purely a matter of noticing and describing specific characteristics ( Chinn and Malhotra, 2001 ). In contrast to this everyday observation, scientific observation as a method of knowledge acquisition can be described as a rather complex activity, defined as the theory-based, systematic and selective perception of concrete systems and processes without any fundamental manipulation ( Wellnitz and Mayer, 2013 ). Wellnitz and Mayer (2013) described the scientific observation process via six steps: (1) formulation of the research question (s), (2) deduction of the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis, (3) planning of the research design, (4) conducting the observation, (5) analyzing the data, and (6) answering the research question(s) on this basis. Only through reliable and qualified observation, valid data can be obtained that provide solid scientific evidence ( Wellnitz and Mayer, 2013 ).

Since observation activities are not trivial and learners often observe without generating new knowledge or connecting their observations to scientific explanations and thoughts, it is important to provide support at the related cognitive level, so that observation activities can be conducted in a structured way according to pre-defined criteria ( Ford, 2005 ; Eberbach and Crowley, 2009 ). Especially during field-learning experiences, scientific observation is often spontaneous and uncoordinated, whereby random discoveries result in knowledge gain ( Jensen, 2014 ).

To promote successful observing in rather unstructured settings like field trips, instructional support for the observation process seems useful. To guide observation activities, digitally presented WE seem to be an appropriate way to introduce learners to the individual steps of scientific observation using concrete examples.

2.3 Research questions and hypothesis

The present study investigates the effect of digitally presented double-content WE that supports the mapping of a small Bavarian river by demonstrating the steps of scientific observation. In this analysis, we focus on the learning domain of the WE and do not investigate the exemplifying domain in detail. Distinct ways of integrating WE in the digital learning environment (faded WE vs. non-faded WE) are compared with each other and with a control group (no WE). The aim is to examine to what extent differences between those conditions exist with regard to (RQ1) learners’ competence acquisition [acquisition of factual knowledge about the scientific observation method (quantitative data) and practical application of the scientific observation method (quantified qualitative data)], (RQ2) learners’ motivation (situational interest and basic needs), and (RQ3) CL. It is assumed that (Hypothesis 1), the integration of WE (faded and non-faded) leads to significantly higher competence acquisition (factual and applied knowledge), significantly higher motivation and significantly lower extraneous CL as well as higher germane CL during the learning process compared to a learning environment without WE. No differences between the conditions are expected regarding intrinsic CL. Furthermore, it is assumed (Hypothesis 2) that the integration of faded WE leads to significantly higher competence acquisition, significantly higher motivation, and lower extraneous CL as well as higher germane CL during the learning processes compared to non-faded WE. No differences between the conditions are expected with regard to intrinsic CL.

The study took place during the field trips of a university course on the application of a fluvial audit (FA) using the German working aid for mapping the morphology of rivers and their floodplains ( Bayerisches Landesamt für Umwelt, 2019 ). FA is the leading fluvial geomorphological tool for application to data collection contiguously along all watercourses of interest ( Walker et al., 2007 ). It is widely used because it is a key example of environmental conservation and monitoring that needs to be taught to students of selected study programs; thus, knowing about the most effective ways of learning is of high practical relevance.

3.1 Sample and design

3.1.1 sample.

The study was conducted with 62 science students and doctoral students of a German University (age M = 24.03 years; SD = 4.20; 36 females; 26 males). A total of 37 participants had already conducted a scientific observation and would rate their knowledge in this regard at a medium level ( M = 3.32 out of 5; SD = 0.88). Seven participants had already conducted an FA and would rate their knowledge in this regard at a medium level ( M = 3.14 out of 5; SD = 0.90). A total of 25 participants had no experience at all. Two participants had to be excluded from the sample afterward because no posttest results were available.

3.1.2 Design

The study has a 1-factorial quasi-experimental comparative research design and is conducted as a field experiment using a pre/posttest design. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: no WE ( n = 20), faded WE ( n = 20), and non-faded WE ( n = 20).

3.2 Implementation and material

3.2.1 implementation.

The study started with an online kick-off meeting where two lecturers informed all students within an hour about the basics regarding the assessment of the structural integrity of the study river and the course of the field trip days to conduct an FA. Afterward, within 2 weeks, students self-studied via Moodle the FA following the German standard method according to the scoresheets of Bayerisches Landesamt für Umwelt (2019) . This independent preparation using the online presented documents was a necessary prerequisite for participation in the field days and was checked in the pre-testing. The preparatory online documents included six short videos and four PDF files on the content, guidance on the German protocol of the FA, general information on river landscapes, information about anthropogenic changes in stream morphology and the scoresheets for applying the FA. In these sheets, the river and its floodplain are subdivided into sections of 100 m in length. Each of these sections is evaluated by assessing 21 habitat factors related to flow characteristics and structural variability. The findings are then transferred into a scoring system for the description of structural integrity from 1 (natural) to 7 (highly modified). Habitat factors have a decisive influence on the living conditions of animals and plants in and around rivers. They included, e.g., variability in water depth, stream width, substratum diversity, or diversity of flow velocities.

3.2.2 Materials

On the field trip days, participants were handed a tablet and a paper-based FA worksheet (last accessed 21st September 2022). 1 This four-page assessment sheet was accompanied by a digital learning environment presented on Moodle that instructed the participants on mapping the water body structure and guided the scientific observation method. All three Moodle courses were identical in structure and design; the only difference was the implementation of the WE. Below, the course without WE are described first. The other two courses have an identical structure, but contain additional WE in the form of learning videos.

3.2.3 No worked example

After a short welcome and introduction to the course navigation, the FA started with the description of a short hypothetical scenario: Participants should take the role of an employee of an urban planning office that assesses the ecomorphological status of a small river near a Bavarian city. The river was divided into five sections that had to be mapped separately. The course was structured accordingly. At the beginning of each section, participants had to formulate and write down a research question, and according to hypotheses regarding the ecomorphological status of the river’s section, they had to collect data in this regard via the mapping sheet and then evaluate their data and draw a conclusion. Since this course serves as a control group, no WE videos supporting the scientific observation method were integrated. The layout of the course is structured like a book, where it is not possible to scroll back. This is important insofar as the participants do not have the possibility to revisit information in order to keep the conditions comparable as well as distinguishable.

3.2.4 Non-faded worked example

In the course with no-faded WE, three instructional videos are shown for each of the five sections. In each of the three videos, two steps of the scientific observation method are presented so that, finally, all six steps of scientific observation are demonstrated. The mapping of the first section starts after the general introduction (as described above) with the instruction to work on the first two steps of scientific observation: the formulation of a research question and hypotheses. To support this, a video of about 4 min explains the features of scientific sound research questions and hypotheses. To this aim, a practical example, including explanations and tips, is given regarding the formulation of research questions and hypotheses for this section (e.g., “To what extent does the building development and the closeness of the path to the water body have an influence on the structure of the water body?” Alternative hypothesis: It is assumed that the housing development and the closeness of the path to the water body have a negative influence on the water body structure. Null hypothesis: It is assumed that the housing development and the closeness of the path to the watercourse have no negative influence on the watercourse structure.). Participants should now formulate their own research questions and hypotheses, write them down in a text field at the end of the page, and then skip to the next page. The next two steps of scientific observation, planning and conducting, are explained in a short 4-min video. To this aim, a practical example including explanations and tips is given regarding planning and conducting scientific for this section (e.g., “It’s best to go through each evaluation category carefully one by one that way you are sure not to forget anything!”). Now, participants were asked to collect data for the first section using their paper-based FA worksheet. Participants individually surveyed the river and reported their results in the mapping sheet by ticking the respective boxes in it. After collecting this data, they returned to the digital learning environment to learn how to use these data by studying the last two steps of scientific observation, evaluation, and conclusion. The third 4-min video explained how to evaluate and interpret collected data. For this purpose, a practical example with explanations and tips is given regarding evaluating and interpreting data for this section (e.g., “What were the individual points that led to the assessment? Have there been points that were weighted more than others? Remember the introduction video!”). At the end of the page, participants could answer their before-stated research questions and hypotheses by evaluating their collected data and drawing a conclusion. This brings participants to the end of the first mapping section. Afterward, the cycle begins again with the second section of the river that has to be mapped. Again, participants had to conduct the steps of scientific observation, guided by WE videos, explaining the steps in slightly different wording or with different examples. A total of five sections are mapped, in which the structure of the learning environment and the videos follow the same procedure.

3.2.5 Faded worked example

The digital learning environment with the faded WE follow the same structure as the version with the non-faded WE. However, in this version, the information in the WE videos is successively reduced. In the first section, all three videos are identical to the version with the non-faded WE. In the second section, faded content was presented as follows: the tip at the end was omitted in all three videos. In the third section, the tip and the practical example were omitted. In the fourth and fifth sections, no more videos were presented, only the work instructions.

3.3 Procedure

The data collection took place on four continuous days on the university campus, with a maximum group size of 15 participants on each day. The students were randomly assigned to one of the three conditions (no WE vs. faded WE vs. non-faded WE). After a short introduction to the procedure, the participants were handed the paper-based FA worksheet and one tablet per person. Students scanned the QR code on the first page of the worksheet that opened the pretest questionnaire, which took about 20 min to complete. After completing the questionnaire, the group walked for about 15 min to the nearby small river that was to be mapped. Upon arrival, there was first a short introduction to the digital learning environment and a check that the login (via university account on Moodle) worked. During the next 4 h, the participants individually mapped five segments of the river using the cartography worksheet. They were guided through the steps of scientific observation using the digital learning environment on the tablet. The results of their scientific observation were logged within the digital learning environment. At the end of the digital learning environment, participants were directed to the posttest via a link. After completing the test, the tablets and mapping sheets were returned. Overall, the study took about 5 h per group each day.

3.4 Instruments

In the pretest, sociodemographic data (age and gender), the study domain and the number of study semesters were collected. Additionally, the previous scientific observation experience and the estimation of one’s own ability in this regard were assessed. For example, it was asked whether scientific observation had already been conducted and, if so, how the abilities were rated on a 5-point scale from very low to very high. Preparation for the FA on the basis of the learning material was assessed: Participants were asked whether they had studied all six videos and all four PDF documents, with the response options not at all, partially, and completely. Furthermore, a factual knowledge test about scientific observation and questions about self-determination theory was administered. The posttest used the same knowledge test, and additional questions on basic needs, situational interest, measures of CL and questions about the usefulness of the WE. All scales were presented online, and participants reached the questionnaire via QR code.

3.4.1 Scientific observation competence acquisition

For the factual knowledge (quantitative assessment of the scientific observation competence), a single-choice knowledge test with 12 questions was developed and used as pre- and posttest with a maximum score of 12 points. It assesses the learners’ knowledge of the scientific observation method regarding the steps of scientific observation, e.g., formulating research questions and hypotheses or developing a research design. The questions are based on Wahser (2008 , adapted by Koenen, 2014 ) and adapted to scientific observation: “Although you are sure that you have conducted the scientific observation correctly, an unexpected result turns up. What conclusion can you draw?” Each question has four answer options (one of which is correct) and, in addition, one “I do not know” option.

For the applied knowledge (quantified qualitative assessment of the scientific observation competence), students’ scientific observations written in the digital learning environment were analyzed. A coding scheme was used with the following codes: 0 = insufficient (text field is empty or includes only insufficient key points), 1 = sufficient (a research question and no hypotheses or research question and inappropriate hypotheses are stated), 2 = comprehensive (research question and appropriate hypothesis or research question and hypotheses are stated, but, e.g., incorrect null hypothesis), 3 = very comprehensive (correct research question, hypothesis and null hypothesis are stated). One example of a very comprehensive answer regarding the research question and hypothesis is: To what extent does the lack of riparian vegetation have an impact on water body structure? Hypothesis: The lack of shore vegetation has a negative influence on the water body structure. Null hypothesis: The lack of shore vegetation has no influence on the water body structure. Afterward, a sum score was calculated for each participant. Five times, a research question and hypotheses (steps 1 and 2 in the observation process) had to be formulated (5 × max. 3 points = 15 points), and five times, the research questions and hypotheses had to be answered (steps 5 and 6 in the observation process: evaluation and conclusion) (5 × max. 3 points = 15 points). Overall, participants could reach up to 30 points. Since the observation and evaluation criteria in data collection and analysis were strongly predetermined by the scoresheet, steps 3 and 4 of the observation process (planning and conducting) were not included in the analysis.

All 600 cases (60 participants, each 10 responses to code) were coded by the first author. For verification, 240 cases (24 randomly selected participants, eight from each course) were cross-coded by an external coder. In 206 of the coded cases, the raters agreed. The cases in which the raters did not agree were discussed together, and a solution was found. This results in Cohen’s κ = 0.858, indicating a high to very high level of agreement. This indicates that the category system is clearly formulated and that the individual units of analysis could be correctly assigned.

3.4.2 Self-determination index

For the calculation of the self-determination index (SDI-index), Thomas and Müller (2011) scale for self-determination was used in the pretest. The scale consists of four subscales: intrinsic motivation (five items; e.g., I engage with the workshop content because I enjoy it; reliability of alpha = 0.87), identified motivation (four items; e.g., I engage with the workshop content because it gives me more options when choosing a career; alpha = 0.84), introjected motivation (five items; e.g., I engage with the workshop content because otherwise I would have a guilty feeling; alpha = 0.79), and external motivation (three items, e.g., I engage with the workshop content because I simply have to learn it; alpha = 0.74). Participants could indicate their answers on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = completely disagree to 5 = completely agree. To calculate the SDI-index, the sum of the self-determined regulation styles (intrinsic and identified) is subtracted from the sum of the external regulation styles (introjected and external), where intrinsic and external regulation are scored two times ( Thomas and Müller, 2011 ).

3.4.3 Motivation

Basic needs were measured in the posttest with the scale by Willems and Lewalter (2011) . The scale consists of three subscales: perceived competence (four items; e.g., during the workshop, I felt that I could meet the requirements; alpha = 0.90), perceived autonomy (five items; e.g., during the workshop, I felt that I had a lot of freedom; alpha = 0.75), and perceived autonomy regarding personal wishes and goals (APWG) (four items; e.g., during the workshop, I felt that the workshop was how I wish it would be; alpha = 0.93). We added all three subscales to one overall basic needs scale (alpha = 0.90). Participants could indicate their answers on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = completely disagree to 5 = completely agree.

Situational interest was measured in the posttest with the 12-item scale by Lewalter and Knogler (2014 ; Knogler et al., 2015 ; Lewalter, 2020 ; alpha = 0.84). The scale consists of two subscales: catch (six items; e.g., I found the workshop exciting; alpha = 0.81) and hold (six items; e.g., I would like to learn more about parts of the workshop; alpha = 0.80). Participants could indicate their answers on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = completely disagree to 5 = completely agree.

3.4.4 Cognitive load

In the posttest, CL was used to examine the mental load during the learning process. The intrinsic CL (three items; e.g., this task was very complex; alpha = 0.70) and extraneous CL (three items; e.g., in this task, it is difficult to identify the most important information; alpha = 0.61) are measured with the scales from Klepsch et al. (2017) . The germane CL (two items; e.g., the learning session contained elements that supported me to better understand the learning material; alpha = 0.72) is measured with the scale from Leppink et al. (2013) . Participants could indicate their answers on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = completely disagree to 5 = completely agree.

3.4.5 Attitudes toward worked examples

To measure how effective participants rated the WE, we used two scales related to the WE videos as instructional support. The first scale from Renkl (2001) relates to the usefulness of WE. The scale consists of four items (e.g., the explanations were helpful; alpha = 0.71). Two items were recoded because they were formulated negatively. The second scale is from Wachsmuth (2020) and relates to the participant’s evaluation of the WE. The scale consists of nine items (e.g., I always did what was explained in the learning videos; alpha = 0.76). Four items were recoded because they were formulated negatively. Participants could indicate their answers on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = completely disagree to 5 = completely agree.

3.5 Data analysis

An ANOVA was used to calculate if the variable’s prior knowledge and SDI index differed between the three groups. However, as no significant differences between the conditions were found [prior factual knowledge: F (2, 59) = 0.15, p = 0.865, η 2 = 0.00 self-determination index: F (2, 59) = 0.19, p = 0.829, η 2 = 0.00], they were not included as covariates in subsequent analyses.

Furthermore, a repeated measure, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), was conducted to compare the three treatment groups (no WE vs. faded WE vs. non-faded WE) regarding the increase in factual knowledge about the scientific observation method from pretest to posttest.

A MANOVA (multivariate analysis) was calculated with the three groups (no WE vs. non-faded WE vs. faded WE) as a fixed factor and the dependent variables being the practical application of the scientific observation method (first research question), situational interest, basic needs (second research question), and CL (third research question).

Additionally, to determine differences in applied knowledge even among the three groups, Bonferroni-adjusted post-hoc analyses were conducted.

The descriptive statistics between the three groups in terms of prior factual knowledge about the scientific observation method and the self-determination index are shown in Table 1 . The descriptive statistics revealed only small, non-significant differences between the three groups in terms of factual knowledge.

Table 1 . Means (standard deviations) of factual knowledge tests (pre- and posttest) and self-determination index for the three different groups.

The results of the ANOVA revealed that the overall increase in factual knowledge from pre- to posttest just misses significance [ F (1, 57) = 3.68, p = 0.060, η 2 = 0 0.06]. Furthermore, no significant differences between the groups were found regarding the acquisition of factual knowledge from pre- to posttest [ F (2, 57) = 2.93, p = 0.062, η 2 = 0.09].

An analysis of the descriptive statistics showed that the largest differences between the groups were found in applied knowledge (qualitative evaluation) and extraneous load (see Table 2 ).

Table 2 . Means (standard deviations) of dependent variables with the three different groups.

Results of the MANOVA revealed significant overall differences between the three groups [ F (12, 106) = 2.59, p = 0.005, η 2 = 0.23]. Significant effects were found for the application of knowledge [ F (2, 57) = 13.26, p = <0.001, η 2 = 0.32]. Extraneous CL just missed significance [ F (2, 57) = 2.68, p = 0.065, η 2 = 0.09]. There were no significant effects for situational interest [ F (2, 57) = 0.44, p = 0.644, η 2 = 0.02], basic needs [ F (2, 57) = 1.22, p = 0.302, η 2 = 0.04], germane CL [ F (2, 57) = 2.68, p = 0.077, η 2 = 0.09], and intrinsic CL [ F (2, 57) = 0.28, p = 0.757, η 2 = 0.01].

Bonferroni-adjusted post hoc analysis revealed that the group without WE had significantly lower scores in the evaluation of the applied knowledge than the group with non-faded WE ( p = <0.001, M diff = −8.90, 95% CI [−13.47, −4.33]) and then the group with faded WE ( p = <0.001, M diff = −7.40, 95% CI [−11.97, −2.83]). No difference was found between the groups with faded and non-faded WE ( p = 1.00, M diff = −1.50, 95% CI [−6.07, 3.07]).

The descriptive statistics regarding the perceived usefulness of WE and participants’ evaluation of the WE revealed that the group with the faded WE rated usefulness slightly higher than the participants with non-faded WE and also reported a more positive evaluation. However, the results of a MANOVA revealed no significant overall differences [ F (2, 37) = 0.32, p = 0.732, η 2 = 0 0.02] (see Table 3 ).

Table 3 . Means (standard deviations) of dependent variables with the three different groups.

5 Discussion

This study investigated the use of WE to support students’ acquisition of science observation. Below, the research questions are answered, and the implications and limitations of the study are discussed.

5.1 Results on factual and applied knowledge

In terms of knowledge gain (RQ1), our findings revealed no significant differences in participants’ results of the factual knowledge test both across all three groups and specifically between the two experimental groups. These results are in contradiction with related literature where WE had a positive impact on knowledge acquisition ( Renkl, 2014 ) and faded WE are considered to be more effective in knowledge acquisition and transfer, in contrast to non-faded WE ( Renkl et al., 2000 ; Renkl, 2014 ). A limitation of the study is the fact that the participants already scored very high on the pretest, so participation in the intervention would likely not yield significant knowledge gains due to ceiling effects ( Staus et al., 2021 ). Yet, nearly half of the students reported being novices in the field prior to the study, suggesting that the difficulty of some test items might have been too low. Here, it would be important to revise the factual knowledge test, e.g., the difficulty of the distractors in further study.

Nevertheless, with regard to application knowledge, the results revealed large significant differences: Participants of the two experimental groups performed better in conducting scientific observation steps than participants of the control group. In the experimental groups, the non-faded WE group performed better than the faded WE group. However, the absence of significant differences between the two experimental groups suggests that faded and non-faded WE used as double-content WE are suitable to teach applied knowledge about scientific observation in the learning domain ( Koenen, 2014 ). Furthermore, our results differ from the findings of Renkl et al. (2000) , in which the faded version led to the highest knowledge transfer. Despite the fact that the non-faded WE performed best in our study, the faded version of the WE was also appropriate to improve learning, confirming the findings of Renkl (2014) and Hesser and Gregory (2015) .

5.2 Results on learners’ motivation

Regarding participants’ motivation (RQ2; situational interest and basic needs), no significant differences were found across all three groups or between the two experimental groups. However, descriptive results reveal slightly higher motivation in the two experimental groups than in the control group. In this regard, our results confirm existing literature on a descriptive level showing that WE lead to higher learning-relevant motivation ( Paas et al., 2005 ; Van Harsel et al., 2019 ). Additionally, both experimental groups rated the usefulness of the WE as high and reported a positive evaluation of the WE. Therefore, we assume that even non-faded WE do not lead to over-instruction. Regarding the descriptive tendency, a larger sample might yield significant results and detect even small effects in future investigations. However, because this study also focused on comprehensive qualitative data analysis, it was not possible to evaluate a larger sample in this study.

5.3 Results on cognitive load

Finally, CL did not vary significantly across all three groups (RQ3). However, differences in extraneous CL just slightly missed significance. In descriptive values, the control group reported the highest extrinsic and lowest germane CL. The faded WE group showed the lowest extrinsic CL and a similar germane CL as the non-faded WE group. These results are consistent with Paas et al. (2003) and Renkl (2014) , reporting that WE can help to reduce the extraneous CL and, in return, lead to an increase in germane CL. Again, these differences were just above the significance level, and it would be advantageous to retest with a larger sample to detect even small effects.

Taken together, our results only partially confirm H1: the integration of WE (both faded and non-faded WE) led to a higher acquisition of application knowledge than the control group without WE, but higher factual knowledge was not found. Furthermore, higher motivation or different CL was found on a descriptive level only. The control group provided the basis for comparison with the treatment in order to investigate if there is an effect at all and, if so, how large the effect is. This is an important point to assess whether the effort of implementing WE is justified. Additionally, regarding H2, our results reveal no significant differences between the two WE conditions. We assume that the high complexity of the FA could play a role in this regard, which might be hard to handle, especially for beginners, so learners could benefit from support throughout (i.e., non-faded WE).

In addition to the limitations already mentioned, it must be noted that only one exemplary topic was investigated, and the sample only consisted of students. Since only the learning domain of the double-content WE was investigated, the exemplifying domain could also be analyzed, or further variables like motivation could be included in further studies. Furthermore, the influence of learners’ prior knowledge on learning with WE could be investigated, as studies have found that WE are particularly beneficial in the initial acquisition of cognitive skills ( Kalyuga et al., 2001 ).

6 Conclusion

Overall, the results of the current study suggest a beneficial role for WE in supporting the application of scientific observation steps. A major implication of these findings is that both faded and non-faded WE should be considered, as no general advantage of faded WE over non-faded WE was found. This information can be used to develop targeted interventions aimed at the support of scientific observation skills.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics statement

Ethical approval was not required for the study involving human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent to participate in this study was not required from the participants in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements.

Author contributions

ML: Writing – original draft. SM: Writing – review & editing. JP: Writing – review & editing. JG: Writing – review & editing. DL: Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Supplementary material

The Supplementary material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2024.1293516/full#supplementary-material

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Keywords: digital media, worked examples, scientific observation, motivation, cognitive load

Citation: Lechner M, Moser S, Pander J, Geist J and Lewalter D (2024) Learning scientific observation with worked examples in a digital learning environment. Front. Educ . 9:1293516. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2024.1293516

Received: 13 September 2023; Accepted: 29 February 2024; Published: 18 March 2024.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2024 Lechner, Moser, Pander, Geist and Lewalter. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Miriam Lechner, [email protected]

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Study protocol
Open access
Published: 28 March 2024

Design and evaluation of mobile application for adolescents’ self-care: protocol for a randomized controlled field trial

Razieh Rezaee 1 ,
Mohtasham Ghaffari 1 ,
Reza Rabiei 2 ,
Amir Kavousi 1 , 3 &
Sakineh Rakhshanderou 1

Trials volume 25 , Article number: 225 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Adolescence is a critical stage for the development of self-care. Many adolescents use mobile apps to monitor and improve their health. Health information technology plays a significant role in the field of self-care. This article provides a protocol for a study to design and evaluate mobile applications for adolescent self-care.

The present research is a combination of applied development study, methodological, and intervention experimental. This study will be done in three stages: The first stage is the design and evaluation of a mobile application for adolescent self-care. The second stage is, designing and evaluating the psychometric properties of the “Questionnaire for Measuring Adolescent Self-Care Performance.” This questionnaire will be used before and after using the application in the third stage. The third stage is determining the effectiveness of self-care interventions based on mobile applications among adolescents. The target group will be adolescents aged 10–19 from the schools of Amol City. In the first stage, the opinions of 30 people adolescents, parents, and experts will be used. In the second stage, the number of samples will be 10 times the number of items in the questionnaire. In the third stage, 50 people will be in the intervention group and 50 people will be in the control group. Descriptive statistics will be used for data analysis. Between-group and intra-group comparisons will be calculated about quantitative variables, independent t-test and paired t -test, and analysis of variance. The chi-square test and Fisher’s exact test will be used in SPSS 16 software to test the homogeneity of qualitative variables between the two groups.

In the first stage, based on the opinions received from the target group, a user-centered educational application for self-care of adolescents will be designed. In the second stage, after determining the validity and reliability, a questionnaire will be designed to measure the self-care performance of adolescents. In the third stage, using an intervention study for 3 months, the effectiveness of the training will be determined through the designed application. Our findings are scheduled for a full analysis, with expectations that analyses will be completed by September 2023.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Enjoying health and well-being is considered one of the basic human needs and rights. Self-care—the first step to health—means taking care of yourself [ 1 ]. The concept of self-care was first introduced in 1959 by Orem as the “Nursing care deficit theory of self” [ 2 ]. Self-care is a conscious, learned, and purposeful practice. In it, each person uses his acquired abilities and skills in such a way that he can take care of himself personally and independently and help maintain and improve his health [ 2 , 3 ].

Self-care is known to be one of the health-promoting behaviors of all ages that increases the level of health and quality of life. Health in adolescence guarantees health in adulthood and the health of future generations of any society. One of the best approaches in the field of adolescent health is to pay attention to the concept of self-care and its principles, about the physical and mental development of adolescents [ 4 ]. Therefore, the need for education and adoption of self-care behaviors is of particular importance for adolescents. In addition, raising the level of awareness of children and adolescents about the harmful factors that exist around them and teaching them how to interact properly with pathogens can play an important role in vaccinating them against such injuries [ 3 , 5 ].

Adolescence is the phase of life between childhood and adulthood, from ages 10 to 19. It is a unique stage of human development and an important time for laying the foundations of good health. Adolescents experience rapid physical, cognitive, and psychosocial growth. This affects how they feel, think, make decisions, and interact with the world around them. Despite being thought of as a healthy stage of life, there is significant death, illness, and injury in the adolescent years. Much of this is preventable or treatable. During this phase, adolescents establish patterns of behavior—for instance, related to diet, physical activity, substance use, and sexual activity—that can protect their health and the health of others around them, or put their health at risk now and in the future. To grow and develop in good health, adolescents need information, including age-appropriate comprehensive sexuality education; opportunities to develop life skills; health services that are acceptable, equitable, appropriate, and effective; and safe and supportive environments. They also need opportunities to meaningfully participate in the design and delivery of interventions to improve and maintain their health. Expanding such opportunities is key to responding to adolescents’ specific needs and rights https://www.who.int/health-topics/adolescent-health#tab=tab_1 . Compared to developed countries, adolescents living in developing countries generally receive fewer life skills and self-directed education on how to improve lifestyles, and a large number of these adolescents suffer from several health and lifestyle problems such as They suffer from unhealthy food or malnutrition, iron deficiency anemia, inactivity, tooth decay, mood disorders, and poor communication (especially with the opposite sex) and life skills [ 6 , 7 , 8 ].

Developmental self-care needs are identified as “conditions related to human developmental processes or conditions and events that occur during various stages of the life cycle.” In adolescents and adults, self-care needs are ideally met through the practice of self-care. When a person’s self-care requirements are met through self-care practice, the goal of self-care is achieved, and when it is not met, there is a lack of self-care [ 9 ].

One of the most effective strategies is the use of e-health in the treatment and prevention of health problems in children and adolescents. According to the definition of the World Health Organization (WHO), e-health emphasizes the cost-effective and secure use of information and communication technologies (ICT) in health support, including health services, monitoring, education, knowledge, and related research [ 10 ]. Increasing interest in exploiting the capabilities of mobile technology to support health has led to the development of an interdisciplinary branch of mobile health that can support the provision and promotion of health [ 11 ]. Mobile health is the provision of health services through mobile phones and their applications. Mobile applications are the ones designed for electronic devices such as smartphones and tablets [ 12 , 13 ].

Self-care is greeted with more acceptance in the form of health along with providing targeted services, non-stop and interactive. It can increase technical capabilities, that is, the ability to carry it anywhere and anytime and the ability to send information through social networks. It also provides individual feedback and is used as a tool to encourage physical activity and healthy diets as well as monitoring heart disease, diabetes, and asthma symptoms. Furthermore, it can send reminders regarding appointments. Quitting smoking, promoting sexual health, reducing the transmission of sexually transmitted diseases, and assisting with prenatal care are some of the other benefits of self-care [ 14 ]. These programs can reduce the cost of health care and promote prevention, management, and treatment of chronic diseases, therefore reducing hospital stays. It also increases the quality of the data gathered, which helps healthcare professionals make faster and more accurate decisions. With the increase in the range of health software, the provision of services by mobile health has developed [ 15 , 16 ].

A study of a mobile app to promote good oral health behaviors by Scheerman et al. (2018) showed that users welcome and enjoy consulting the app. The “white teeth” program can be included in current orthodontic care. The “white teeth” program includes all the techniques that make it a unique and promising home program to promote oral health among adolescents with fixed orthodontics [ 17 ]. A study by Ahmadi et al. (2015) showed that by connecting patients to care providers anywhere and anytime, mobile technologies can quickly access information, reduce costs, facilitate remote care, and increase quality care efficiency [ 18 ].

Given the ever-increasing popularity of healthcare software and as part of customer health informatics, these applications have the potential to facilitate patient self-care through patient education, disease management, and tracking. In addition, these apps potentially increase motivational capabilities and improve drug adherence. On the other hand, what is vital for the development of effective self-care as well as health and disease management are supervision of health activities and conditions directly related to the individual’s health goals, understanding and applying areas affecting health activities as well as the latest technologies in the world [ 16 ].

The mobile applications available in and out of the country have merely focused on self-care for a specific disease such as diabetes or asthma or for a health problem such as obesity. According to the investigations, a comprehensive mobile application for physical self-care of adolescents was not found. Therefore, the aim of this study was to design a protocol for the design and evaluation of mobile application for adolescents’ physical self-care.

General goals

This study has three general goals:

Design and evaluation of a mobile application for adolescent self-care.

Designing and evaluating psychometric properties of “Questionnaire for Measuring Adolescent Self-Care Performance.”

Determining the effectiveness of self-care interventions based on mobile application among adolescents.

The present study is a combination of developmental, applied, methodological, and field trials or studies and will be conducted in three stages. The first stage is to design and evaluate the initial version of a mobile application for adolescent’s self-care. The second stage is the design and psychometrics of a “Questionnaire for Measuring Adolescent Self-Care Performance.” The third stage is determining the effectiveness of the designed application in an interventional study. The target group of this study are adolescents aged 10–19 years old (Fig. 1 ).

An overview of the study design

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Inclusion criteria are as follows: 10–19 years old, informed consent to participate in the study as well as the consent of their parents or legal guardians, having a smartphone and the ability to work with it. Exclusion criteria are as follows: unwillingness to continue cooperation and incomplete completion of the questionnaire.

Study population

The first stage.

In this section, the participants and population under investigation are adolescents (male and female students of Amol City schools), parents (father or mother or both), health professionals (specialists who have experience working in the field of adolescents and programming in the field of health) who are willing to participate and present their experiences and opinions in the field of designing and developing Self-care mobile application.

The second stage

The population studied at this stage are adolescents (boys and girls students of Amol schools), parents (father or mother or both), health professionals (specialists who have experience working in the field of adolescents), and the desire to participate and provide experiences and they have their own opinions in the field of questionnaire design.

The third stage

The studied population will be all adolescents aged 10–19 years old in Amol City and interested in knowingly participating in the research.

Sampling method

The sampling of adolescents is conducted purposefully with maximum diversity (considering factors such as age, sex, educational background, and parents’ education). Also, eligible parents or caregivers of adolescents will be invited and health professionals will be purposefully selected. Then, the interview is carried out until no new code is created through repeated and open questions and the data is saturated. Satisfaction with the study will be obtained before the interview and people will answer general and specific questions about mobile apps during the interview. In the stage of application usability evaluation, 15 male and female users and 15 specialists will be employed.

To perform construct validity, based on the list prepared by the Department of Education, out of the 337 public schools and 93 non-governmental schools listed, six girls’ schools and six boys’ schools were randomly selected, and from each school and every grade, students of 10–19 years old were selected. The number of samples will be 5–10 times the questionnaire items.

The next stage of the sampling method is cluster random. From 337 government schools and 93 non-government schools, based on the list of urban schools received from the Department of Education, two boys’ schools and two girls’ schools are randomly selected. Then, one boy’s school and one girl’s school will be randomly assigned as the intervention group and one boy’s school and one girl’s school will be in the control group, and the sampling of students of different grades of the selected schools will be simple cluster or random. Sampling of students from different grades from selected schools will be simple in cluster or random. The sample size was calculated according to the formula of 43 people in each group. Taking into account 15% attrition, the sample size was determined to be 50 people in each group. The study will be conducted on 100 students of Amol City. Of these, 50 people will be assigned to the intervention group and 50 people will be assigned to the control group. From each school, 25 samples were selected (Fig. 2 ).

The study sampling stages

The schools selected for the intervention and control groups will be far apart in order to prevent contamination bias. The effects of confounding variables such as economic status and social class will be controlled in the clusters in the data analysis with the covariance test. All samples, education office, school managers, and user panel managers will be blinded.

Study process

In the first stage, in line with the principles of user-centered design, the design consists of four key steps:

Assess the needs of end users through in-depth interviews with stakeholders

Design functional modules and evidence-based content based on the end needs of users

Design and development of M-Health system structure and user interface based on the role and characteristics of end users

Improving and upgrading the system through the evaluation of the final program

Step 1: This step examines the needs, preferences, and priorities of adolescents, parents, and health professionals about a mobile self-care app for adolescents. At this stage, individual interviews are conducted with parents and adolescents separately. Considering that the purpose of this study is to design a mobile application with the topic of self-care in adolescents, three subgroups of experts, parents, and adolescents can be used for the interview. While the guide questions will have slight differences in the three subgroups, they should cover two sections related to app features and self-care content. In general, the guide questions will be set according to the review of the texts and the expert opinions of the research team (Table 1 ). For example, in the content section, based on a review of the texts, 5 sections were considered for the physical dimension of self-care, which is discussed in the interviews. During the interviews probing questions can be used to collect more data.

Step 2: Content quality is one of the most important aspects of reputable health programs. Interviews and discussions will be held on the main topics of the content and features of the program. To ensure the quality of health information provided in the program, a review of the texts is carried out. Information on the main themes of the self-care program will be obtained from national and international guidelines (WHO, CDC, FDA, ADF, Ministry of Health and Medicine, Health Education, and Health Promotion Office).

Step 3: After specifying the functions and modules, the system architecture is designed. To ensure a user-friendly interface, a smart mobile application will be designed by professional designers and application development experts with full consideration of user needs. The user interface should be designed in a friendly and efficient way, which is critical in improving the user experience in using and interacting with the app. This program has three main innovative features: privacy, program updates, and simple and automatic transfer of self-care programs related to user health status. This app will be designed for the popular Android operating system smartphones. This operating system (OS) has widely been used in mobile phones worldwide, in particular in those which are common in the Iranian market and we chose the Android OS to avoid limitations that could be experienced with other less common OS in our context of use.

Step 4: Evaluate the final program. In this step, the usability of mobile applications for adolescent self-care is evaluated from the perspective of students and health professionals. At this stage, 15 male and female students are randomly selected and 15 health professionals are selected by available sampling and are asked to install the final version of the self-care program on their mobile phones. After 2 weeks of using the program, participants are asked to answer the Mobile Health App Usability Questionnaire (MAUQ). The Mobile Health App Usability Questionnaire (MAUQ) has 3 subscales and 18 questions: the first part is related to ease of use (5 questions), the second part is user interface and satisfaction (7 questions) and the third part is about usefulness (6 questions) [ 19 ].

In the second stage, with an organized review of available sources and articles based on the concept of self-care, the items of the “Questionnaire for Measuring Self-Care Performance in Adolescents” will be extracted. Next, the validity (face, content, and construct) and reliability of the designed questionnaire will be determined.

The third stage is an interventional method of experimental study. This research will be conducted through a pre-test-post-test design with a control group. All the students studying in schools constitute the research community. The researcher first introduces the adolescents to the full explanation of the research and its goals. Then informed written consent will be obtained from the volunteers. None of the participants will be subject to any other research intervention. Schools will be randomly assigned to one of the two intervention (group 1) and control (group 2) groups. The full content of the program will be visible only to the participants in the intervention group. Participants in the control group will be able to download the app after the end of the intervention to use the educational benefits of the app. A self-care application can be used online and offline designed for smartphones running the Android operating system. To run this test, eligible students are asked to install the self-care app on their smartphone and see the necessary instructions on how to work with the program in the form of a short guide on the main page of the application. Initially, the participants are asked to complete the self-care questionnaire in the form of a pre-test. Then, the educational content designed for the application is provided for individuals based on national and international guidelines and protocols of (WHO, CDC, FDA, ADF, Ministry of Health and Medicine, Health Education and Health Promotion Office). This program will be available to people for 3 months and after installing the application on their smartphone and entering the information requested from the users, educational content and reminder messages will be sent according to their conditions. In the reminders section, the user registers his health behavior based on the day, time, and number of times he wants, and a reminder is sent to him. But if the user’s self-care status after answering the self-care questions in each of the 5 dimensions of self-care is assessed as weak or average, motivational health messages are sent to the user daily in the form of notifications, so that the user is encouraged to perform self-care behaviors. The use of the application by the participants is reviewed in the management panel and health messages and incentives are provided for the use of this program. To provide support, the researcher’s phone number is given to the subjects to make a call in case of problems. Three months after the intervention, when no new content is sent to the student, the participants in both groups are requested to complete the self-care questionnaire in the form of a post-test. After the end of the data collection process, the individuals in the control group can install a mobile Application and the necessary training will be given to them after the end of the study. In the present study, content, information, and experiences reach the end users or audience with the specific purpose of self-care through mobile applications in the form of text, audio, or other art forms. Users find and use health-related self-care information through content. The graphic design of the application is based on the opinion of the research team professional designers and application development experts. The production of the content is based on the points extracted from the interviews, national and international guidelines, and protocols of (WHO, CDC, FDA, Ministry of Health and Medicine, Health Education and Health Promotion Office), for example, Australian dietary guidelines, Canberra: NHMRC [ 20 ], WHO guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behavior for children and adolescents aged 5–17 years: summary of the evidence [ 21 ], and physical activity guidelines [ 22 ].

Data collection methods

At this stage, data is collected separately through in-depth semi-structured interviews with adolescents, parents, and health professionals. Informed consent will be obtained before the interview. Interviews will be conducted by the researcher, using the interview guide questions. To minimize the differences between the interviewer and the respondents, the interviewer will make use of ice-breaking questions, appropriate language, active listening, and calm body language. All interviews will be transcribed verbatim. They will be analyzed and the codes will be extracted.

At this stage, to determine construct validity, based on the list prepared by the Department of Education, six girls’ schools and six boys’ schools were randomly selected. From each school and each grade—within the 10–19-year-old age group—a class will be selected in a cluster random sample. The number of samples per item will be 5–10 samples. At this stage, we collect data using a questionnaire prepared in the previous stage, which has both face and content validity.

At this stage, we use a researcher-made questionnaire the validity and reliability of which were determined in the second stage. The desired questionnaire is uploaded on the application and after installation, this program will be available to people for 3 months. After 3 months of the intervention, by an SMS or a phone call, the people of both groups are asked to complete the questionnaire uploaded, which is in the form of a post-test, and send it back to the researcher. After collecting the data, analysis is conducted by statistical tests.

Methods of analysis

In the first stage, after the interviews are completed, all the interviews will be transcribed verbatim and entered into NVIVO 12 (Qualitative Analysis Software) for data management. Demographic data will be encoded and analyzed using Microsoft Excel software to determine central indicators and values in a sampling distribution. The data will be analyzed to provide a simple descriptive summary of participants’ opinions presented in everyday language. Specifically, the data will be coded for all the participants and classified to reflect the main themes. In the second stage, we employ factor analysis which is a statistical method that determines the number and nature of variables that a test measures. Following this method, variables with homogeneous correlations are categorized in the form of new variables called factors. The purpose of exploratory factor analysis is to discover the dimensions and common applications including instrument dimensions, standardization of questionnaires or tests, dimensionality, and evaluation of consistency and differentiation in the discussion of construct validity [ 23 ]. In the third stage, descriptive statistics (frequency, frequency percentage, mean, and standard deviation) will be used to analyze the data. The Kolmogorov–Smirnov test will also be used to check the normality of quantitative variables. Between-group and within-group comparisons about quantitative variables, independent t -test and paired t -test, and analysis of variance will be calculated. The chi-square test and Fisher’s exact test in SPSS 16 software will be utilized to test the homogeneity of qualitative variables between the two groups.

Ethical considerations

➣ All aspects of human subject research ethics will be fully observed in this research. All exemptions and approvals will be checked and observed by the researchers. Also, this research has a code of ethics from Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences. IR.SBMU.PHNS.REC.1400.073(.

➣ Informed consent will be obtained from all study participants at all stages. In addition, informed consent will be obtained from adolescents, their parents, or legal guardians to participate in the study. Also, in the initial informed consent received from the participants, it will be mentioned that the possibility of secondary analysis is possible without additional consent. Participants will also be assured of their voluntary participation in the research and their freedom to withdraw from the study at any stage of the research.

➣ The data obtained from the study remains confidential and anonymous in the study. Participants will also be assured that the information will remain confidential. In the reports and presentation of the results, no connection between the data and the profile of the participant will be given, so that the participants will not be identified.

➣ This study will not involve any therapeutic or invasive procedures. During the implementation of the research, there will be no threat of physical, financial, or social harm to people.

Our findings are scheduled for a full analysis, with expectations that analyses will be completed by September 2023. We intend to publish results in peer-reviewed journals.

It is expected based on the objectives of the study:

The self-care mobile application should be designed in a scientific and user-oriented way and should be usable in the target group. We also expect users to be satisfied with the application, consider it useful, and evaluate it as easy to use.

Also, we expect that at the end of the research, a questionnaire measuring the self-care performance of adolescents will be designed, and it will have appropriate validity and reliability, and it can be used in other studies and populations.

Based on the objectives of the third stage of the study, we expect that the educational intervention in the intervention group, through the use of the designed mobile application, will improve self-care behaviors in terms of physical activity, nutrition, personal hygiene, risky behaviors, and safety and events.

In the first stage, based on the opinions received from the target group, a user-centered educational application for the self-care of adolescents will be designed. In the second stage, after determining the validity and reliability, a questionnaire will be designed to measure the self-care performance of adolescents. In the third stage, using an intervention study for 3 months, the effectiveness of the training will be determined through the designed application.

In the context of the goal of the first stage, our goal in the first stage is to design an application for the self-care of adolescents so that this application is comprehensive and practical and based on the needs and tastes of users. Therefore, it should be noted that designing a mobile phone application by involving users is one of the points that should be considered in the design of health applications. Mobile health projects (mHealth) apply user-centered design (UCD) using patient inputs, careers, physicians, and other stakeholders throughout the project life cycle to create better designs that ultimately could improve efficiency and effectiveness [ 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 ]. Williams et al. (2014) emphasized that mobile health-tracking applications play a supportive role in self-management rather than replacing current care. Therefore, user-centered mobile health tracking applications may be effective not as stand-alone treatments, but as adjunctive treatments [ 29 ]. The study by Young Kim et al. (2020) showed that there were barriers such as security issues, application costs, and the need for user-friendly designs and reliable information for optimal patient use. In addition, healthcare professionals should consider the needs and preferences of patients to promote the acceptance of mobile applications [ 30 ]. The goals and results of these two studies are in line with the aim of the 1 stage of our research. In the context of the goal of the second stage, questionnaires are the main means of data collection and there is an increasing need for different questionnaires. Maneesriwongul believes that in the process of questionnaire making, cultural background differences should be taken into account along with the translation of the questionnaire, and the questionnaire should be compatible with the culture of the target community to be valid and reliable. In addition, an assessment questionnaire should be relevant and easily applicable to the target population [ 31 , 32 ]. In the context of the goal of the second stage, the “Child and Adolescent Self-Care Performance Questionnaire” (CASPQ) examines self-care performance at the ages of 9–18 years in 3 dimensions (global self-care needs, developmental self-care needs, and health deviation self-care needs) using 35 items [ 33 ]. Fernández et al. investigated the validity and reliability of this questionnaire in 489 children aged 8–12 years. The results showed that CASPQ shows sufficient metric properties similar to the original questionnaire. For this reason, it is a useful questionnaire for evaluating self-care practices and planning interventions aimed at improving them [ 34 ]. The purpose and results of this study are consistent with the purpose of the current study, which is to design a questionnaire to measure self-care performance, but this questionnaire is not comprehensive. Meanwhile, the Congenital Heart Disease Self-Care Questionnaire (CHDSCQ), includes 45 items with 4 subscales (knowledge, adherence, symptom recognition, and health maintenance behaviors), and evaluates self-care status in adolescents and young adults with congenital heart disease. The questionnaire takes approximately 15 min to complete, and higher scores indicate better self-care. In a psychometric study, Pike et al. (2019) examined the self-care questionnaire of adolescents and young adults with congenital heart disease. The results showed that the CHDSCQ is the first valid questionnaire (both content and criteria/clinical validation) to assess self-care in the CHD population [ 35 ]. This questionnaire is designed for adolescents with heart disease, which only examines the self-care status related to heart disease in patients and does not have the necessary capacity to evaluate self-care in healthy adolescents. The purpose and results of this study are contrary to the purpose of the current study, which is to design a questionnaire to measure self-care performance in healthy adolescents. In the context of the goal of the third stage, Thornton et al. (2021) conducted a study aimed at multiple health behavior change, a self-monitoring mobile app for adolescents: A development and usability study of the Health4Life app. The Health4Life program is a smartly designed, self-monitoring program for adolescents that simultaneously targets the Big 6 lifestyle behaviors. Adolescents evaluated this program as very acceptable and usable. This program has the potential to effectively modify important risk factors for chronic disease among youth [ 36 ]. Also, a study by Alves et al. (2021) was conducted to develop and validate health technology to promote self-care for adolescents with diabetes. The results showed that the use of this program by adolescents, considering that it is a very understandable electronic technology, helps to acquire new knowledge and adhere to healthy practices [ 37 ]. The purpose and results of these two studies are consistent with the purpose of the present study, in the field of using a health application to promote health in adolescents.

Also, the study by Antunes et al. (2023) aims to evaluate the impact of an educational intervention associated with physical exercise based on the web in promoting health and quality of life of patients with fibromyalgia in Brazil. which is consistent with the current research in terms of Online educational intervention for self-care and health promotion [ 38 ].

From the limitations of this research, it can be said that because little research has been done in the field of application design to improve the health of adolescents, the possibility of comparing the results will be limited. Considering that adolescents are active users of mobile phone applications, it is recommended to design more applications in the field of adolescent health. One of the strengths of this research study is the novelty of the method used to institutionalize self-care and assess adolescents’ health by contemporary technologies, namely mobile applications. Application design with a user-centered approach (in this study, parents, students, and professionals) is another strength of this research. In addition, this research provides a suitable platform for various interventions for adolescents and schools. This method can also be used for other age groups or other diseases and health problems.

This study is an integration of mobile technologies, health education, and health promotion programs in the form of mobile health. Given that the number of mobile phone users is increasing day after day and so is their popularity, it seems that using applications in the field of health seems to be the right decision. The researchers also tried to keep in mind the following considerations such as the application design process, criteria such as user participation, content quality, usability, the need for the program to match the literacy level of users, program security, user privacy, and the possibility of updating the content without the need to update the entire program. The findings of this study can be useful in designing and formulating policies, applications, and programs in the field of health and on how to monitor and guide the health of individuals.

Trial status

Protocol version number: May 12, 2023

First day of recruitment: July 26, 2022

Expected end of the intervention: December 31, 2023

Implications

Among the possible implications, we can point out some such as using the application at the level of the Ministry of Health, and Education, as well as research centers and health professionals to promote adolescent health. This study helps the society to improve the level of self-care behaviors of adolescents and as a result, by reducing chronic diseases, they are healthier in adulthood and have a healthier society. Also, experts can use the results of research related, to discover the needs and gaps in the health of adolescents and develop more appropriate educational plans. On the other hand, the results can help the health system in the direction of health policies, reducing the disease and financial burden.

Availability of data and materials

Following analysis, an anonymized data set will be made available to interested fellow investigators by the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Abbreviations

World Health Organization

Information and communication technologies

Child and Adolescent Self-Care Performance Questionnaire

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Food and Drug Administration

National Health and Medical Research Council

User-centered design

Congenital Heart Disease Self-Care Questionnaire

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Acknowledgements

The authors hereby express their gratitude to Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences and all those who cooperated in this research.

There was no funding for this study and the manuscript was extracted as part of a PhD project. The funding for this research is provided by the authors.

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Health Education and Health Promotion, School of Public Health and Safety, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Razieh Rezaee, Mohtasham Ghaffari, Amir Kavousi & Sakineh Rakhshanderou

Department of Health Information Technology and Management, School of Allied Medical Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Reza Rabiei

Workplace Health Promotion Research Center and Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health and Safety, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

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Contributions

All authors contributed to the study’s conception and design. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Razieh Rezaee: contributed to writing—original draft. Mohtasham Ghaffari, Reza Rabiei, Amir Kavousi, and Sakineh Rakhshanderou: contributed to supervision, review and editing, and project administration.

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Correspondence to Sakineh Rakhshanderou .

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This study is taken from the Ph.D. thesis on health education and health promotion, which was approved by the ethics committee of Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences with the code of ethics (IR.SBMU.PHNS.REC.1400.073).

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The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

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Rezaee, R., Ghaffari, M., Rabiei, R. et al. Design and evaluation of mobile application for adolescents’ self-care: protocol for a randomized controlled field trial. Trials 25 , 225 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-024-08064-2

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hUMNs of Chemistry #13

Gwen Bailey

Sher/her Assistant Professor

Tell us about your journey to the University of Minnesota.

I became fascinated with synthetic chemistry as an intern at Tekmira Pharmaceuticals (now Arbutus Biopharm) in Burnaby, BC. It struck me as so powerful that humans could manipulate matter in order to make and break bonds and create compounds with new chemical compositions and properties. Later in third-year inorganic chemistry class, I became fascinated with the chemistry of metals, and the rest of my career has been devoted to pursuing this passion. Like many others in my discipline, I was motivated by the desire to learn and develop new knowledge by carrying out experimental research. I was also passionate about sustainability and soon realized that I could use my knowledge of inorganic chemistry to contribute to more sustainable synthesis and energy solutions. My excitement for this topic is what drove me to pursue a Ph.D. at the University of Ottawa (fun fact: Canada's only officially bilingual institution!) and then a postdoc at Caltech.

We would love to hear more about your research! What do you hope to accomplish with this work? What is the real-world impact for the average person?

Our research is focused on development of atomically precise nanocluster systems that mimic the structure and reactivity of heterogeneous electrocatalysts. By preparing these discrete compounds and evaluating them in solution environments, we can precisely pinpoint important mechanistic information including the site of substrate binding, delocalization of charge, and the dynamic reconfiguration of bonds that leads to substrate turnover. Our cluster systems not only capture the capabilities of heterogeneous electrocatalysts in a discrete model but they go one step beyond these capabilities in that they have a high density of active sites and are precisely tunable in their steric environment and electronic structure according to well-defined structure-property relationships. Overall, we hope to develop new approaches to catalysis using our atomically precise nanocluster systems and ultimately contribute solutions to solve climate change, for example by developing methods for synthesizing commodity chemicals on large scale using abundant feedstocks (like CO2) and renewable electricity.

What courses do you teach? What can students expect to get out of your course?

I teach advanced inorganic chemistry classes (CHEM 4745/8745 and 4715/8715) and introductory general chemistry (CHEM 1061). I love talking to students and drawing them into deep conversations about the properties and study of matter! I believe that education is accessible to anyone with a good work ethic and growth mindset, and my teaching style reflects this philosophy. Activities in my classes are split between short, interactive lectures and small-group activities where students go deep with the material through problem-solving and discussion. Students in my classes can expect to be challenged intellectually and ultimately rewarded with new ways of thinking about challenging scientific concepts.

What do you hope to contribute to the chemistry community at the University?

Beyond the science, I hope to reflect that chemistry is something that is accessible and practicable for all, and that teamwork and mentorship are integral to the practice. Also, I hope to provide opportunities for students to grow their personal, interpersonal, and scientific abilities through the practice of science and through participation in conferences and other programming.

What do you do outside of the classroom/lab/office for fun?

I am pretty much obsessed with training my body for better health and longevity. I have enjoyed reading books such as "Outlive" by Peter Attia that have focused my efforts in these areas. My current exercise program includes regular zone 2 training (cycling/walking), interval training, strength training, and (mostly for fun) bouldering.

John Beumer

Senior Designer, Center for Sustainable Polymers

Please give a brief description of your role within the UMN Chemistry department.

I am the Senior Designer for the Center For Sustainable Polymers. My day-to-day tasks include creating artwork for publication, managing the website, and leading our monthly research meetings.

Before coming to the University of Minnesota I was a design consultant for Pentair and Bright Health in the Twin Cities. In addition, I spent a fair amount of time in the nonprofit world leading marketing and communications efforts.

What’s your favorite piece of chemistry/science pop culture media? Why do you love it?

I remember visiting the Bell Museum for a CSP Annual Meeting years ago and we got to see closeup images of the Mars surface in their Planetarium. It is so special to live in a time when we get to see images from another planet. And I am equally excited to see what the Mars Perseverance rover returns to us in 2033.

Where is your favorite spot in the Twin Cities?

The Prospect Park Water Tower is a favorite spot. It is currently in the process of renovation but my guess is that they will have limited access to the tower again in a couple of years. It is a great place to get a birds eye view of Minneapolis.

Emily Robinson

She/her Graduate Student, Buhlmann Group

I am a Minnesotan, born and raised! I went to college and got my chemistry degree at the University of Minnesota Morris, which is part of the U system but out in the middle of western Minnesota, in 2020. I also studied for a semester at the University of Limerick in Ireland for a semester studying chemical nanotechnology. I applied for graduate school all over the US but UMN was one of the few schools felt I could thrive in. I loved the atmosphere and people I met.

We would love to hear more about your research interests! What do you hope to accomplish with this work? What is the real-world impact for the average person?

I work on the development of ion-selective electrodes. Ion detection is vital for medical analysis, environmental monitoring, and industrial applications. think of ions such as chloride and potassium, for medical purposes such as to assess kidney function, and nitrate and arsenate, common environmental pollutants. While there is equipment that can detect there ions, many of them are costly, require complex instrumentation with trained professionals, and are not time-efficient. Ion-selective electrodes (ISEs) are my are an great alternative, they have high selectivity, sensitivity, and versatility. They also overcome the limits that many other instruments have, being relatively small, easy to handle, and give fast response times. These factors are critical for point of care, for rapid test results, and for deployable, wearable, and implantable devices. For these applications, sensors not only need to be dependable for short periods but for days or even years. That is why I have pushed the boundaries of ISE systems to develop exceedingly stable sensing and reference electrodes that can be used to meet the needs of the medical, environmental, and industrial fields today.

Are you involved in any student groups? What inspired you to get involved?

I am currently the co-president for the Joint Safety Team! I have always been a big proponent of lab safety culture and when the opportunity came up, I thought why not? I have been able to work with other lab safety teams throughout the US and we recently submitted a paper on LSO programs as well as were accepted to host a symposium at ACS fall on lab safety culture. Lab safety is something that affects everyone, whether it be on big or small scales, and I am very happy to have been able to be a part of that here.

We keep a garden on our patio that I (try to) help take care of and I am always down for an easy hike in the fall.

Black Coffee & Waffle Bar

Tell us about who makes up your household (including pets).

Our household is myself, my partner Zach who does cancer research at UMN, and our adorable grey tuxedo cat Beatrice

Headshots of three people over a maroon and gold banner

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Gwen Bailey Sher/herAssistant ProfessorTell us about your journey to the University of Minnesota.I became fascinated with synthetic chemistry as an intern at Tekmira Pharmaceuticals (now Arbutus Biopharm) in Burnaby, BC. It struck me as so powerful that humans could manipulate matter in order to make and break bonds and create compounds with new chemical compositions and properties. Later in ...