importance of ecotourism essay

What is Ecotourism and Why is it Important?

Posted by Francesca Brooking | Sustainable Travel | 12

We’ve become an increasingly global world and travel has never been easier.

Every year, billions of people travel internationally to the point where popular tourist destinations have started to suffer from the effects of overtourism. 

The existence of some of the world’s most beautiful locations is now under threat, and it’s getting out of control. 

Travel is a gift, but it needs reform. The tourism industry needs to cut back and become more sustainable to manage. 

One way this can work is if travel becomes more responsible. 

The answer is ecotourism. 

So, what is ecotourism, and why is it important? What are the benefits of ecotourism, and how does it work? 

When it boils down to it, ecotourism is about using small-scale, nature-based tourism to actively protect the environment and local communities, and educate travellers.

Read on to find out how this works.

What is Ecotourism? 

First, what does ecotourism mean? To put it simply, The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) defines ecotourism as:

‘Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains the well-being of the local people, and involves interpretation and education.’

The definition of ec otourism is that it’s all about active nature tourism.

It’s a small-scale, low-impact form of travel that seeks to preserve the natural world by ensuring that biodiversity, ecosystems and local communities remain protected and unspoiled.

It’s a rewarding and educational experience that improves our cultural awareness and understanding of nature. 

Ecotourism destinations tend to be fragile, untouched and fairly preserved. Think islands, densely biodiverse reserves and significant cultural landmarks. 

This form of travel was first introduced in the 1970s, but it only started to take off towards the end of the 1980s.

Thanks to the growing trend of people prioritising greener choices, it’s getting more popular every year. 

Why is Ecotourism Important? 

The purpose of ecotourism is that it helps to preserve and foster respect for some of the most beautiful environments on Earth.

Ecotourism is a sustainable way to travel. It encourages tourists to protect the environment and contribute to local communities on a deeper level than those just passing through. 

This hands-on approach plays a vital part in educating travellers about some of the hardships these environments face, which can only be a good thing!

The more knowledge we have about the world, the better we can protect it from ourselves and climate change. 

Overtourism is a huge problem . It puts a strain on a destination’s resources and inhabitants, and it can prevent them from safeguarding their most fragile assets. 

Popular places like Machu Picchu in Peru are beginning to limit the number of tourists for fear of long-term and irreversible damage to these precious sites.

So, why choose ecotourism? It’s an antidote to unsustainable tourism.

It’s also an ally of conservation. 

No one wants to visit a beach that’s covered in plastic. Ecotourism-focused attractions put environmental welfare first to ensure that they can provide excellent long-term service. 

It also provides a chance to go off the beaten track and see destinations in a more authentic light.

Examples of Ecotourism

The growing trend in ecotourism has made it easier than ever to find bucket list-worthy eco-friendly tourism opportunities. 

You can now do ecotourism activities that focus on working with and protecting the environment.

These can involve attractions and locally-run small group tours that consider their environmental and social impact. I love G Adventures exactly for this reason.

They are committed to ensuring that every tour they run positively impacts the community and the environment.

They have some pretty epic adventures , from wellness tours to National Geographic Journeys and everything in between!

Ecotourism can also be about where you stay on your travels. Eco-resorts and ecolodges are now popular places to stay among travellers.

The term ‘ecolodge’ is usually associated with roughing it, but it’s not the case.

Ecolodges might not have all the amenities of a standard hotel, but they have become the definition of eco-luxury – beautifully designed, comfortable and unique. You’ll be surprised at what luxuries they do offer. 

Read More: 10 of the Best Ecolodges in the World 

The Benefits of Ecotourism

We’ve talked about the importance of ecotourism and how it minimises negative impacts. Now, let’s dive into why we need it. 

So, what is the purpose of ecotourism? Well, it:

Educates People 

Ecotourism can also help inspire real change. 

All it takes is for someone to spread the word about ecotourism and conservation efforts for more people to get informed, make changes from home and encourage policymakers to make a difference.

Knowledge is power. 

Makes the World a More Beautiful Place

Earth is already beautiful, but some of its corners are far from pristine. 

Ecotourism ensures that the world stays beautiful long-term. It protects and preserves some of the most fragile ecosystems on the planet so they can be enjoyed for generations to come. 

By supporting ecotourism, you can use your travels to fight climate change and save some of the world’s most precious natural gems. 

Supports Local Communities and Conservation Efforts

Ecotourism benefits the local economy by putting money into the hands of small enterprises and local communities rather than large corporations that cut corners to save money. 

It can also increase wealth in impoverished communities and help sustain the livelihoods of local and rural areas.

Improves the Quality of Travel 

Travel should be about enriching experiences, and ecotourism does just that. You get a much deeper cultural understanding of a destination and the chance to appreciate its natural beauty. 

Ecotourism is not just good for the environment. Our own personal development and mental health reap the rewards of it too.

It allows us to connect with nature which has many benefits for our well-being. 

Studies have shown that exposure to natural environments is crucial to our psychological health. In other words, ecotourism makes us feel good. 

Are There Any Drawbacks?

Just like any form of tourism, ecotourism needs to be carefully managed to ensure it remains sustainable and beneficial for all. If not, some drawbacks may include:

• Overtourism: even a small influx of tourists could result in overtourism and environmental pollution in previously unvisited or remote destinations (like Antarctica )
• Negative cultural impact: it may damage cultural traditions or disrupt traditional ways of life in small communities.
• Uneven distribution of wealth: you can’t be 100% sure exactly where your money goes and who stands to benefit. Marginalized communities may still suffer.

If it’s about the Environment, Shouldn’t We Just Stay at Home?

The answer is yes and no.

It’s true that tourism accounts for roughly 8% of greenhouse gases, but it doesn’t mean we should give up travelling altogether. It’s about finding a balance which is exactly what ecotourism does. 

By choosing ecotourism, you’re avoiding mass tourism in favour of an experience that matters and gives back to the planet. It’s conscious travel. 

What is the Difference between Ecotourism and Sustainable Travel? 

‘Ecotourism,’ ‘sustainable travel,’ ‘responsible travel,’ ‘eco-travel,’ ‘green travel,’ ‘regenerative travel,’ ‘ethical travel…’ There’s a lot of jargon about this type of travel and it all starts to get confusing. 

Sustainable travel and ecotourism are similar. They both come from the idea that travel should positively impact the community and the environment.

For both terms, it comes down to making conscious decisions about eco-friendly and ethical travel.

Despite their similarities, sustainable travel and ecotourism differ slightly . The UN World Tourism Organisation defines sustainable tourism as:

‘Refer[ring] to the environmental, economic and socio-cultural aspects of tourism development. A suitable balance must be established between these three dimensions to guarantee its long-term sustainability.’

Sustainable travel is a broader term than ecotourism because it refers to a set of guidelines rather than a form of travel.

These guidelines are aimed at businesses and travel providers rather than consumers. It brings the overall principles of sustainability into the travel industry. 

These principles are known as the three pillars of sustainability:

• Economic impact,
• Socio-cultural impact
• Environmental impact

The focus of these principles is to make sure that the consumer has the opportunity to make sustainable choices in all aspects of their travel, including where they stay and what they do.

The principles of ecotourism refer to a specific type of travel that focuses on conservation and the preservation of communities and ecologies.

It takes action to ensure that the natural world remains preserved and unspoiled.  

It’s a blurred line between the two. You couldn’t have ecotourism without sustainable travel, and there are aspects of each in both concepts. 

Read More: Two Responsible Travellers Share Their Sustainable Travel Tips 

How to be an Ecotourist 

Choose a Destination which is Known for its Ecotourism 

Choose responsible, low-impact, small-scale travel in protected, unspoilt, and natural areas.

These are usually found in destinations that are known for their ecotourism initiatives. I’ve included a list of some of the top ecotourism places below to give you ideas. 

Ecotourism is associated with somewhere biodiverse and tropical, but you can find evidence of it worldwide. 

Keep reading to find some popular ecotourism destinations!

Make Sure the Ecotourism Project or Organisation is Legitimate 

Ecotourism has seen a rise in popularity but so has greenwashing.

The term describes organisations that market their products as ethical and eco-friendly to appeal to consumers who want to make a positive impact on the planet.

Greenwashing organisations are far from the environmentally conscious businesses they depict themselves to be. 

To avoid greenwashing, make sure that the organisation is transparent about its operations.

They should have detailed information about their environmental efforts, and they’re sometimes endorsed by a green label. 

Check out my guide to picking trustworthy activities when you’re on holiday so you can get the most out of your trip.

Avoid Exploitative Voluntourism 

Volunteering abroad is a popular trend among travellers wanting to make a difference in the world.

Volunteer tourism (voluntourism) is an unregulated industry. Some volunteer programmes do more harm than good. 

If you’re keen to volunteer, look into how the programme operates. Think about how your skills can benefit the programme rather than turning up as an unskilled volunteer.

Avoid working in orphanages and be wary of animal ‘sanctuaries.’

Read More: Why Voluntourism Does More Harm than Good 

Make Use of Local Guides 

Book activities with small-scale businesses that employ local staff as guides. You’ll be rewarded with a more in-depth experience from someone who has an insider’s perspective on the area. 

Travel companies that employ local staff and work on projects that give back to the community are prime examples of what to look for in ethical tourism businesses.

Leave Only Footprints

The Leave No Trace principles of responsible hiking, camping and backpacking also apply to ecotourists in nature .

Stick to designated pathways, dispose of your rubbish responsibly, leave everything as you find it and take only photos. 

You should also be respectful of wildlife, observe them at a safe distance and don’t try to feed them. 

Pack travel essentials that are kind to the planet too. This packing list can help. 

Stay in Ecolodges that Support the Environment and the Community 

The best ecolodges, eco-resorts and homestays go above and beyond to ensure their accommodation is cohesive with the natural environment and local communities. 

They work with NGOs to protect the surrounding environment and employ staff from local towns and villages.

Homestays in particular can give you an in-depth cultural understanding of their way of life and you can see first-hand how tourism impacts them.

Top Ecotourism Destinations

What you see below is by no means the extensive list of all ecotourism locations.

There are projects and organisations all over the world. For example, you can stay in luxury ecolodges in Vietnam, plant trees in Scotland and participate in cultural activities in Jordan. 

Here are some of the best destinations for ecotourism:  

Costa Rica 

Costa Rica accounts for nearly 6% of the world’s biodiversity, so it’s no surprise that the country is one of the world’s best examples of ecotourism.

Almost 40% of Costa Rica’s territory is protected, and 25% of its landmass is national parks.

The Galapagos Islands

Ecuador’s Galapagos Islands have been called a   living laboratory of evolution. Some of the species of flora and fauna that live here are not found anywhere else in the world. 

Ecotourism is an important part of this destination and a ll tourists are required to have a guide when they visit.  

The archipelago of over 500 islands in the western Pacific Ocean is committed to becoming the world’s first carbon-neutral tourism destination.

All visitors to the country are required to sign the Palau Pledge, which promises to protect and respect the environment.

Palau also created the world’s sixth-largest marine sanctuary in 2015, and toxic sunscreen is banned.

Bhutan 

As mandated in the constitution, 60% of Bhutan’s forests are protected, and it has the largest percentage of protected land (51%) than any other Asian country. 

Bhutan has also set up a homestay programme that provides tourists with an authentic cultural experience and supports local communities. 

Borneo 

Borneo’s ecotourism is a huge part of the island’s impressive biodiversity. The Danum Valley Conservation Area is one of the last remaining untouched jungles in the world. 

Although deforestation threatens much of Borneo, organisations like the South East Asia Rainforest Research Partnership work to find a solution that protects them and supports the local economy.

New Zealand

New Zealand is a leader in understanding the importance of nature tourism. The country has over 10,000 protected areas, including reserves and 13 national parks.

Ecotourism plays a huge part in encouraging visitors to enjoy its unique natural sites and wildlife responsibly.

Finland 

The untouched landscape, paired with the deep-rooted respect for the environment, makes Finland a haven for environmental tourism.

With over 70% of land covered by forest, Finland is one of the most forested countries in the world.

Kenya 

Kenya is a top ecotourism destination in Africa and owes its eco-friendly focus to its wildlife.

The country has seven habitats, about 11% of the world’s avian species and wildlife, including the ‘Big Five’ (buffalo, elephant, rhino, lion and leopard).

Visitors can participate in a variety of nature-enriched activities that support conservation and the local communities. 

Read More:  Forest Bathing Therapy: What It Is and How to Do It

Quick Guide to Ecotourism (video)

Want a recap? Watch this short video about why we need ecotourism. 

To recap, the significance of ecotourism is that it:

• Educated people about nature and conservation
• It keeps the world beautiful in its natural state
• It has a lower ecological footprint than other ways to travel
• It supports local communities
• It improves the quality of travel

It’s a form of nature tourism that helps preserve otherwise fragile ecosystems, supports community development and gives visitors an enriching and immersive travel experience.

What’s not to love?

If you have any questions about ecotourism or if you would like to discuss the topic further, my inbox is always open for a chat.

And remember to check out my list of some amazing examples of ecotourism!

Looking for more sustainable travel tips?

• Top Sustainable Travel Tip That Will Save the World
• 15 Best Ethical Animal Experiences Around the World
• 9 Amazing Ecotourism Activities To Do Around The World

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About The Author

Francesca brooking.

Francesca Brooking is the Founder of Little Lost Travel. A travel expert with a passion for the planet, Francesca is on a mission to help you travel well. From Costa Rica to Jordan, she's travelled all over the world. When she's not off on an adventure, she's reviewing sustainable travel products and writing travel guides.

12 Comments

This is such an important topic, especially now. If ecotourism becomes more of a focus then tourism providers will start focusing on it more as well.

It is indeed. I’m excited about how it will progress in the future!

Thanks for this guide to ecotourism! There are so many great reasons to travel this way, so thank you for helping us understand what it is and how to do it.

Costa Rica is one of my favorite regular destinations. One reason that I love traveling there so much is that it has never felt touristic to me. I think the government has done a great job preserving it’s authenticity for the most part. Thanks for educating me further on ecotourism.

Costa Rica is such an amazing example of a country that recognises its assets and puts them first above anything else. A true inspiration!

Fascinating read. Let’s hope travel goes in the right direction.

Thank you! Yes, let’s hope so. Things are starting to at least point that way!

Excellent round up of ecotourism. Very clearly defined and I do hope it inspires others to travel a little better.

Nice article.well articulated!

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Last Updated on 06/01/2024

The Importance of Ecotourism

By Anthony Lombardo, Bethesda Green Environmental Leader

What makes ecotourism different from traditional tourism? Ecotourism is responsible travel that assists in conserving the environment and improving the well-being of locals through economic support. With the amount of tourists expanding every year, it’s more important than ever to promote sustainability. Some of the world’s most popular destinations include countries such as Costa Rica, Norway, Kenya, and the United States. These countries are home to world renowned natural wonders, and should be at the top of your list if you are planning on traveling eco-friendly. Covid-19 has taken a toll on many ecotourism industries around the world, making it difficult for rural communities to thrive. When travel bans are lifted and worries subside, it is highly encouraged that you take your next vacation to these locations impacted by the pandemic. It not only maintains a healthy ecosystem but also provides economic support to those who need it.

Tourism has grown exponentially over the past century, and it’s negative effects have never been more apparent. According to the United Nations World Tourism Organization there were an estimated 25 million tourist arrivals in 1950, but that number increased drastically by 2018, reaching an astonishing 1.4 billion tourist arrivals. In 2019 alone, global travel and tourism contributed $8.9 trillion to the world’s GDP. Although tourism is vital to the world’s economy, the environmental side-effects are too great to ignore. Excessive tourism has been known to deplete scarce natural resources, increase pollution, destroy native habitats, and lead to soil erosion. These effects can end up destroying the natural resources that tourism itself relies on. A long term solution must be utilized by travelers in order to maintain the economic benefits that tourism provides. Research conducted by students at the University of Victoria determined the effect of tourism on a bird species native to the Gulf of Thailand. After careful observation using techniques such as habitat modelling, nest monitoring and behavioural observations the students were able to conclude that “Plovers selected wide beaches with low levels of human disturbance.” The Plovers even reproduced more successfully in the native vegetation that is typically destroyed by tourists.

There are many ways in which you can promote sustainability while on vacation in nature. A few things you can do to help minimize the negative impacts of tourism is to make sure you are utilizing public transportation, bringing reusable foodware, following local recycling rules, and utilizing local guides who understand how to protect the fragile environment. Countries usually implement and use strategies to maintain ecotourism including limiting the number of visitors, hotels and other tourist infrastructure that may impose harm on the surrounding environment. Costa Rica is home to multiple ecotourism industries. The Monteverde Cloud Forest Biological Reserve is one of the most popular destinations in Costa Rica. It showcases the wide variety of wildlife and plant life, all while being environmentally conscious. The unique combination of humidity and elevation in this forest creates a stunning formation of clouds which tourists from all over come to enjoy. Carefully conducted tours and hikes through the Cloud Forest minimizes the amount of tourists visiting and provides an eco-friendly opportunity to visit one of the worlds most bio-diverse regions. Other ecotourism opportunities around the world include, the Hardangerfjord in Norway, the Maasai Mara National Reserve in Kenya, and the Denali National Park and Preserve in Alaska.

Altunel, Tayyibe Acikgoz, and Seda Erkan Buğday. “Revenues from Ecotourism Activities in the World.” ResearchGate , Kastamonu University, Feb. 2019, www.researchgate.net/publication/330778496_Revenues_from_Ecotourism_Activities_in_the_World.

Burdett, Matt. “Case Study: Ecotourism in Kenya.” GeographyCaseStudy , 27 Jan. 2018, www.geographycasestudy.com/case-study-ecotourism-in-kenya/.

“How COVID-19 Threatens to Collapse the Ecotourism Sector: Earth.Org – Past: Present: Future.” Earth.Org – Past | Present | Future , 5 Nov. 2020, earth.org/covid-19-threatens-ecotourism/.

Karlsen, Elena Dianova. “The Place of National Park and Ecotourism in Norway.” Norwegian University of Life Sciences , 2015, core.ac.uk/download/pdf/52117252.pdf.

Loss, Laura. “Ecotourism in Costa Rica Boosts the State Budget: .TR.” Ecotourism in Costa Rica Boosts the State Budget | .TR , www.tourism-review.com/ecotourism-in-costa-rica-developing-news11257.

Madden, Duncan. “The Covid-19 Pandemic Has Cost The Global Tourism Industry $935 Billion.” Forbes , Forbes Magazine, 14 Jan. 2021, www.forbes.com/sites/duncanmadden/2021/01/14/the-covid-19-pandemic-has-cost-the-global-tourism-industry-935-billion/?sh=22b022ee7d40.

The World Counts , www.theworldcounts.com/challenges/consumption/transport-and-tourism/negative-environmental-impacts-of-tourism/story.

“WORLD TOURISM ORGANIZATION.” Economic Contribution of Tourism and beyond: Data on the Economic Contribution of Tourism , www.unwto.org/statistic-data-economic-contribution-of-tourism-and-beyond.

Yasué, M., and P. Dearden. “The Potential Impact of Tourism Development on Habitat Availability and Productivity of Malaysian Plovers Charadrius Peronii.” Besjournals , John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 24 July 2006, besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2006.01204.x.

About the author:

Anthony is a senior at Walt Whitman High School. He has always had a strong passion for the environment and believes it is more important than ever that his generation strives to create an environmentally friendly future. He plans to use this platform in order to help spread awareness of the destructive habits our society has in place and create change.

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Essay on Ecotourism

Students are often asked to write an essay on Ecotourism in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Ecotourism

Understanding ecotourism.

Ecotourism is a type of tourism that focuses on nature and aims to conserve the environment. It promotes sustainable travel and respects local cultures.

Importance of Ecotourism

Ecotourism is important because it helps protect our environment. It encourages activities that do not harm nature, and it supports local communities.

Benefits of Ecotourism

Ecotourism benefits both the environment and the local people. It helps conserve biodiversity, reduces pollution, and contributes to the local economy.

Challenges of Ecotourism

Despite its benefits, ecotourism faces challenges. These include ensuring sustainability and managing the impact of tourism on local communities and wildlife.

Also check:

• Paragraph on Ecotourism

250 Words Essay on Ecotourism

Introduction to ecotourism.

Ecotourism is a sustainable, non-invasive form of tourism that seeks to conserve the environment and uphold the well-being of local people. It is a responsible approach to travelling to natural areas, ensuring minimal damage to these habitats, and promoting conservation efforts.

The Essence of Ecotourism

Ecotourism is not merely about enjoying scenic landscapes, but about understanding the complexities of ecosystems. It encourages travelers to learn about the cultural and biological diversity of their destinations, fostering an appreciation that can translate into conservation efforts.

Ecotourism and Sustainability

Ecotourism is closely linked with the concept of sustainable development. It promotes the use of renewable resources while minimizing the impact on the environment and local culture. It also contributes to the local economy, providing employment opportunities for the community.

Challenges in Ecotourism

However, ecotourism comes with its own set of challenges. Without proper regulation, it can lead to environmental degradation and cultural disruption. Therefore, it is crucial to establish guidelines to ensure that ecotourism practices are sustainable and beneficial for all parties involved.

Ecotourism can serve as a powerful tool for environmental conservation and socio-economic development if managed correctly. It is a sustainable alternative to conventional tourism, offering a unique opportunity to connect with nature and local cultures while contributing to their preservation. As responsible global citizens, we must promote and participate in ecotourism to ensure the survival of our planet’s precious biodiversity and cultural heritage.

500 Words Essay on Ecotourism

Introduction.

Ecotourism, a niche yet growing segment within the broader tourism industry, is premised on the idea of sustainable, responsible travel to natural areas. It aims to conserve the environment, preserve local cultures, and contribute to the economic well-being of local communities.

Ecotourism is more than just a buzzword; it’s a commitment to environmental stewardship and socio-economic development. It emphasizes low-impact travel, respect for local cultures, and support for conservation efforts. It’s about experiencing nature in its pristine form without imposing adverse effects on the environment or its inhabitants.

The Importance of Ecotourism

Ecotourism plays a crucial role in conserving biodiversity and promoting sustainable use of resources. It can generate funds for ecological conservation directly from tourists who are willing to pay for the opportunity to experience nature in a responsible manner. Furthermore, it can also provide job opportunities and income for local communities, thereby promoting economic development in areas that might otherwise lack opportunities.

Despite its potential benefits, ecotourism also faces significant challenges. It needs to strike a delicate balance between conservation and development. Over-commercialization can lead to environmental degradation, the very antithesis of what ecotourism seeks to achieve. Moreover, it can sometimes lead to cultural commodification, where local cultures are reduced to mere tourist attractions.

Ecotourism: A Sustainable Approach

The key to successful ecotourism lies in its sustainable approach. It should be planned and managed in a manner that preserves the natural and cultural integrity of the destination. This involves setting limits on visitor numbers, implementing sustainable practices like waste management, and ensuring that the benefits of tourism are equitably distributed among local communities.

Ecotourism represents a shift from traditional, often exploitative tourism practices towards a more sustainable and responsible form of travel. It holds great promise for environmental conservation, socio-economic development, and cultural preservation. However, its success hinges on careful planning, effective management, and a genuine commitment to sustainability. As we move towards a more environmentally conscious world, ecotourism offers a path that respects the earth while still allowing us to explore its diverse beauty.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

• Essay on Ecosystem Restoration
• Essay on Economics Extended
• Essay on Economic Prosperity

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Essay on ecotourism | environment.

Here is an essay on ‘Ecotourism’ for class 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essays on ‘Ecotourism’ especially written for school and college students.

Essay on Ecotourism

Essay # 1. introduction to ecotourism:.

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According to the latest United Nations World Tourism Organization’s (UNWTO) world tourism barometer, International tourist arrivals grew by 4.4 per cent in 2011 to a total 980 million, up from 939 million in 2010 and it is expected to cross 1 billion mark in 2012. The argument for the integration of tourism with conservation was first made widespread by Budowski (1976) in an article.

However, the term “Ecotourism” has become prevalent concept since the mid 1980s and it has experienced the fastest growth of all sub-sectors in the tourism industry. The popularity shows a proof of change in tourist perceptions, increased environmental awareness and a desire to explore natural environments.

The tourism activities stretch from conventional tourism to ecotourism and there has been a lot of contention to the limit at which biodiversity preservation, local social-economic benefits and environmental impact should be considered in ecotourism For this reason, environmentalists, special interest groups and governments define ecotourism differently.

Environmental organizations have generally insisted that ecotourism is nature-based, sustainably managed, conservation supporting and environmentally educated. The tourist industry and governments, however, focus more on the product aspect, treating ecotourism as equivalent to any sort of tourism based in nature. As a further complication, many terms are used under the rubric of ecotourism.

Nature tourism, nature travel, low impact tourism green tourism, soft tourism, bio-tourism, ecologically responsible tourism and others have been used in literature and marketing, although they are not necessary synonymous with ecotourism. Presently the Ecotourism as industry is one of the fastest growing economic sector in the globe.

The concept of ecotourism is probably equally due to the widespread and growing interest in the natural environment and a corresponding recognition of the importance of conserving natural environmental quality. The idea of visiting and experiencing high-quality natural environments and also protecting them from harmful impacts is now an acceptable and marketable one.

Ecotourism involves nature conservation by tourists who visit several attraction sites. This is aimed at securing threatened species of plants and animals that depend of nature to survive. This is done mainly by tourists with an aim of sustaining the beauty and attraction of the sites. It is the exercise that is worthy investing in since the outcome benefits the generations to come and creates a sustainable source of government revenue.

When the visiting tourists explore a certain site and encouraged to conserve the environment, it becomes a source of inspiration and fun to them. On the other hand, the tourists gain an experience of what makes the site attractive and they become eager to visit the same site in future in order to see the outcome of what their work. It is a partnership that enables all the parties to participate in sustaining the attractive sites.

Ecotourism has numerous merits to the environment and nature in general. It has a long run benefits to the climate which in turn improves the favourable weather in the area. By adopting ecotourism as a sustainable model, the forest cover is increased, the canopy is created and in the long run, the climate improves.

This reduces the effects of global warming and improves the water reservoir. It is a common knowledge that nature conservation is easier and cheaper compared to the painful outcome of the nature destruction. For this reason, the environment authorities across the world have adopted ecotourism as a sustainable model.

ADVERTISEMENTS: (adsbygoogle=window.adsbygoogle||[]).push({}); Essay # 2. Definition of Ecotourism:

Defining ecotourism has proven to be a difficult task and there are many different definitions to what ecotourism really is. It is more feasible to treat ecotourism as a spectrum with a variety of products rather than attempting to define ecotourism from a specific stance or product.

Ecotourism was first defined as travelling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural areas with the specific objective of studying, admiring and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals, as well as any existing cultural manifestations found in these areas. The International Ecotourism Society defines ecotourism as “responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the welfare of local people”.

Honey (2008) defined ecotourism as travel to fragile, pristine and usually protected areas that strives to be low impact and often small scale and helps educate traveler; provides funds of conservation; directly benefits the economic development and political empowerment of local communities.

It is also defined as nature-based tourism that involves education and interpretation of the natural environment and is managed to be ecologically sustainable. Ecotourism is responsible travel in areas containing natural resources that possess endemic characteristics and cultural or historical resources that are integrated into the area’s ecological system.

Its purpose is to create awareness among all concerned parties of the need for and the measures used to conserve ecosystems and as such are oriented towards community participation as well as the provision of a joint learning experience in sustainable tourism and environmental management.

Another definition by The World Conservation Union’s Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, defines ecotourism as an environmentally responsible travel and visitation to relatively undisturbed natural areas, in order to enjoy and appreciate nature that promotes conservation, has low visitor impact and provides for beneficially active socio-economic involvement of local populations.

It is a purposeful travel to natural areas to understand the culture and the natural history of the environment; taking care not to alter the integrity of the ecosystem; producing economic opportunities that make the conservation of the natural resources beneficial to the local people. When compared to mass tourism, ecotourism not only stresses the appropriate use of all resources, but also emphasizes community development to meet the economic, social and cultural needs of the community.

Mass tourism on the other hand creates initiatives in Third World countries that are directed towards satisfying the needs of the tourists. Ecotourism development is most likely to be at a smaller scale, locally owned, with low import leakage and a higher proportion of profits remaining in the local economy.

Ecotourism is travel to fragile, pristine and usually protected areas that strives to be low impact and small scale. It helps to educate the traveler; provides funds for conservation; directly benefits the economic development and political empowerment of local communities; and fosters respect for different cultures and for human rights.

Ecotourism appeals to ecologically and socially conscious individuals. Generally speaking, it focuses on volunteering, personal growth and learning new ways to live on the planet. It typically involves travel to destinations where flora, fauna and cultural heritage are the primary attractions.

Ecotourism is a conceptual experience, enriching those who delve into researching and understanding the environment around them. It gives us insight into our impacts as human beings and also a greater appreciation of our own natural habitats.

World Tourism Organization:

The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) was founded on 27 September 1970 and from 1980 onwards, this day is celebrated as “World Tourism Day”. WTO is the United Nations agency responsible for the promotion of responsible, sustainable and universally accessible tourism.

As the leading international organization in the field of tourism, UNWTO promotes tourism as a driver of economic growth, inclusive development and environmental sustainability and offers leadership and support to the sector in advancing knowledge and tourism policies worldwide.

The International Ecotourism Society:

Concept of TIES was launched by a team organized by Megan Epler Wood at a conference in Florida in 1989 as the world’s first international non-profit dedicated to ecotourism as a tool for conservation and sustainable development.

The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) was founded in 1990 and has been in the forefront of the development of ecotourism providing guidelines and standards, training, technical assistance, research and publications. TIES global network of ecotourism professionals and travelers is leading the efforts to make tourism a viable tool for conservation, protection of bio-cultural diversity and sustainable community development.

Through membership services, industry outreach and educational programs, TIES is committed to helping organizations, communities and individuals promote and practice the principles of ecotourism. TIES currently has members in more than 120 countries, representing various professional fields and industry segments including: academics, consultants, conservation professionals and organizations, governments, architects, tour operators, lodge owners and managers, general development experts and eco-tourists.

TIES advocated for sound ecotourism practices at World Parks and Protected Areas Congress in Caracas, Venezuela (1992) and First World Congress on Tourism and the Environment in 1992 at Belize.

Global Significance of Ecotourism:

The global importance of ecotourism is highlighted by several international agreements including: The UN Commission on Sustainable Development, 7 th Session 1999; UN World Tourism Organization Code of Ethics (1999); The Guidelines on Biodiversity and Tourism Development issued by the CBD (2003); The Quebec Declaration on Ecotourism (2002); and the World Summit on Sustainable Development (2002).

Guidelines and standards relating to sustainable/responsible tourism (including specific reference to biodiversity) are developed by the Tour Operators’ Initiative for Sustainable Development which has created environmental guidelines for hotels, resorts and tourist attractions.

Concrete UNEP projects include the Tour Operators Initiative for Sustainable Tourism development, with WTO and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), promotion of the Convention on Biological Diversity’s Guidelines for Sustainable Tourism in Vulnerable Ecosystems and the UNEP Principles for Sustainable Tourism; the further development and implementation of the tourism components of the International Coral Reef Action Network (ICRAN), the Great Apes Survival Project (GRASP) and the Mountain Commons project.

World Ecotourism Summit/Quebec Declaration:

In the framework of the UN International Year of Ecotourism, 2002, under the aegis of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Tourism Organization (WTO), over three thousand representatives from 132 countries met at the World Ecotourism Summit, hosted in Quebec City, Canada by Tourism Quebec and Canadian Tourism Commission during 19-22 May 2002.

The salient features of the event are:

i. The first-ever Ecotourism Summit which has signaled that ecotourism, in practice, can contribute to poverty alleviation and environmental protection

ii. Ecotourism must be considered a privileged tool, leading the way and paving the road towards a tourism that is truly sustainable

iii. Sustainable tourism can contribute to the more global effort of protecting the sustainability of our planet’s resources

iv. Major issues facing ecotourism have been debated: Concept of Ecotourism; Ecotourism Policy and Planning; Regulation of Ecotourism; Product Development, Marketing and Promotion of Ecotourism; Monitoring Costs and Benefits of Ecotourism

v. Ecotourism embraces the principles of sustainable tourism, concerning the economic, social and environmental impacts of tourism.

vi. Ecotourism also embraces the specific principles: ecotourism contributes actively to the conservation of natural and cultural heritage; includes local and indigenous committees in planning, development and operation and contributing to their well-being; interprets the natural and cultural heritage.

Essay # 3. Objectives of Ecotourism:

The question of “why ecotourism” is one of the emerging questions in the present day context. There are two groups and hence two opinions regarding the subject. One group strongly suggests it as an effective tool for conservation while the other group denies it by terming it as the prominent threat to the existence of nature and natural resources.

In this situation the objectives of ecotourism can be listed as follows:

i. To cultivate environmental consciousness among the local population by educating them about the dangers of overexploiting resources and unrestricted number of tourists.

ii. To help preserve ecosystems and natural areas with a high tourism potential.

iii. To promote new economic incentives, alternate employment opportunities, etc.

iv. To ensure communal ownership and control, and that part of the profits flow into community development programs rather than into personal enrichment.

v. To foster a feeling of pride and community through a revival or preservation of traditional practices and cultural techniques.

Essay # 4. Characteristics of Ecotourism:

Ecotourism aims to promote excellence in tourism by development and protection of natural areas, benefiting the local communities and encouraging commercially successful and environmentally sound tourism operations.

Its focus is sustainability, brought about by building up the following characteristics:

i. Tourism activity is carried out in a relatively undisturbed natural setting.

ii. All natural based forms of tourism in which the main motivation of the tourists is the observation and appreciation of nature as well as the traditional cultures prevailing in natural areas.

iii. Educational, appreciation and interpretation features.

iv. Generally, but not exclusively, organized by small groups by specialized and small, locally owned business.

v. Minimum negative impacts upon the natural and socio-cultural environment.

vi. Conserves natural and cultural heritage.

vii. Contributes to sustainable development and is a profitable business.

viii. Actively involves local people in the process, providing benefits to them.

ix. Supports the protection of natural areas by generating economic benefits for host communities, organizations and authorities managing natural areas with conservation purposes.

x. Provides alternative employment and income opportunities for local communities and increases awareness towards the conservation of natural and cultural assets, both among locals and tourists.

Essay # 5. Principles of Ecotourism:

Ecotourism is a tool to unite conservation, communities and sustainable travel.

Hence, those who implement and participate in ecotourism activities should follow the following ecotourism principles:

i. Minimize impact on environment.

ii. Build environmental and cultural awareness and respect.

iii. Provide positive experiences for both visitors and hosts.

iv. Provide direct financial benefits for conservation.

v. Provide financial benefits and empowerment for local people.

vi. Provide healthy political, environmental and social climate for the host country.

Essay # 6. Positive Impacts of Ecotourism:

There are two important promises ecotourism put forward. One promise of ecotourism is that it increases the monetary value of standing biological systems and thereby hopefully encourages the preservation of biological diversity. Another promise is that it is supposed to bring people closer to nature and thus instill a greater desire to protect it.

Ecotourism activities planned and established on the sound ecotourism principles will have the following advantages:

i. It will provide maximum visitor satisfaction with minimal impact on the environment.

ii. It will build awareness and respect for the local culture and environment.

iii. Benefits the local people through employment which is a positive step for the socio-economic development of the local people.

iv. Educates visitors by an on-site visit about the local political, social and environmental issues.

v. Money from the tourism activities go back into the conservation of the area.

vi. Visitors carry new ideas back to influence their own environment.

i. Ecotourism and Conservation:

Is ecotourism a tool for conservation of nature and natural resources? This is debating question today. Both pros and cons are there, but it is, if planned and conducted properly. Ecotourism provides both direct and indirect benefit for conservation. Direct benefit is in terms of financial outturns. The revenue obtained through ecotourism programmes can be directly used for the conservation efforts.

The indirect benefits are raised in terms of the awareness to the people regarding nature and natural resources, employment to the local people, etc. Lack of awareness regarding the importance of nature and natural resources is one of the important challenges faced by conservation efforts.

Hence the chances of visiting natural and cultural heritage areas will enhance the ability of people to appreciate it and will make aware them regarding the importance of conservation. Hence ecotourism can be a simple way of communicating the idea of conservation to the local people. If planned properly, the extent of awareness they are explored can be made more.

ii. Ecotourism and Local Communities:

By increasing local capacity building and employment opportunities, ecotourism is an effective vehicle for empowering local communities around the world to fight against poverty and to achieve sustainable development. In many areas, nowadays ecotourism has been selected as a powerful tool to compensate for the injustice done to the tribal people in the past.

There is always a conflict between the existing rules and regulations and the traditional jobs of the forest dependent community. In this context, it is very important to have some tools for providing sufficient employment opportunities to meet their daily needs and also for improving their living standards. Another important advantage is that, a feeling among the people will arise, that the nature and natural resources are the means of their livelihood and hence they will put their maximum effort to conserve it.

In many of the protected areas, the need of ecotourism is caused by the necessity of the local people for sufficient livelihood opportunities. The new ecotourism activities also provide an opportunity of getting new skills to them and the same can be imparted through proper training also. In short, the healthy relation between the nature and the local community can be achieved through properly planned ecotourism activities.

iii. Ecotourism and Interpretation:

Ecotourism can also be termed as a way of effecting nature interpretation to the visitors. If the packages are designed in such a way that they are getting chances of interpreting the nature, natural resources, natural phenomena etc., it will be an effective interpretation tool.

The lack of awareness among the people is one of the emerging threats to the conservation of nature today. Hence effectively planned ecotourism activities will be an efficient method for making aware the people regarding the conservation of nature and natural resources.

Essay # 7. Threats to Ecotourism:

One definition of ecotourism is the practice of low-impact, educational, ecologically and culturally sensitive travel that benefits local communities and host countries. Many of the ecotourism projects are not meeting these standards. Even if some of the guidelines are being executed, the local communities are still facing other negative impacts.

Some of the negative impacts are forcing people to leave their homes, gross violations of fundamental rights and environmental hazards-far outweigh the medium-term economic benefits etc. A tremendous amount of money is being spent and human resources continue to be used for ecotourism despite unsuccessful outcomes and even more money is put into public relation campaigns to dilute the effects of criticism.

Ecotourism channels resources away from other projects that could contribute more sustainable and realistic solutions to pressing social and environmental problems. The money tourism can generate often ties parks and managements to ecotourism. But there is a tension in this relationship because ecotourism often causes conflict and changes in land-use rights, fails to deliver promises of community-level benefits, damages environments and has plenty of other social impacts.

Indeed many argue repeatedly that ecotourism is neither ecologically nor socially beneficial, yet it persists as a strategy for conservation and development. While several studies are being done on ways to improve the ecotourism structure, some argue that these examples provide rationale for stopping it altogether.

Improper Planning:

Launching of ecotourism activities may cause harmful effects if not planned properly. All the possible demerits will cause direct environmental impacts and hence environmental degradation.

Some of the demerits of the bad planned ecotourism activities are as follows:

i. Overcrowding constructions

ii. Pollution of the habitat

iii. Unlimited numbers of tourists

iv. Traffic congestion

v. Footpath erosion and soil loss

vi. Tourists don’t understand or care what ecotourism really is

vii. Criticism as green washing where the environment is used as a bait to attract tourists

Direct Environmental Impacts:

Ecotourism operations occasionally fail to live up to conservation ideas. It is sometimes overlooked that ecotourism is a highly consumer-centered activity, and that environmental conservation is a means to further economic growth. Although ecotourism is intended for small groups, even a modest increase in population, however, temporary, puts extra pressure on the local environment and necessitates the development of additional infrastructure and amenities.

Threats to Indigenous Cultures is another Negative Impact:

Ecotourism often claims that it preserves and enhances local cultures. However in many areas, evidence shows that with the establishment of protected areas, local people have illegally lost their homes, and most often with no compensation.

Pushing people onto marginal lands with harsh climates, poor soils, lack of water, and infested with livestock and disease does little to enhance livelihoods even when a proportion of ecotourism profits are directed back into the community. The establishment of parks can create harsh survival realities and deprive the people of their traditional use of land and natural resources.

Mismanagement:

While governments are typically entrusted with the administration and enforcement of environmental protection, they often lack the commitment or capability to manage ecotourism sites effectively. The regulations for environmental protection may be vaguely defined, costly to implement, hard to enforce and uncertain in effectiveness.

Management of Ecotourism Sites by Private Ecotourism Companies:

Private management of tourism sites offers an alternative to the cost of regulation and deficiency of government agencies. It is believed that these companies have a self interest in revenue generation and less concerned about environmental conservation. Tourists will pay more for pristine environments, which translates to higher profit. However, theory indicates that this practice is not economically feasible and will fail to manage the environment.

Essay # 8. Ecotourism in Protected Areas:

Many of the protected areas in the world are also excellent ecotourism centres. Ecotourism activities have become prominent among the routine activities of the protected areas today. These activities have been planned and launched in a participatory manner which has benefitted the conservation efforts a lot.

The need of ecotourism activities in protected areas should mainly aim conservation effort through public awareness, assistance for other activities, monetary benefit for assisting conservation activities and assisting local people through employment opportunities.

Many environmentalists are against the practice of ecotourism in protected areas. They argue that the ecotourism activities will not bring anything other than the depletion of the natural resources, especially in wildlife areas. As the protected areas are very much sensitive to human disturbances, the activities in these areas have to be planned with more care.

Some of the facts we have to give special attention while designing an ecotourism package in protected areas are:

i. Carrying capacity of the area has to be studied and the planning has to be done accordingly.

ii. Care has to be given for packages in which the resources are used sustainably.

iii. Protection oriented packages have to be planned.

iv. Wildlife monitoring oriented packages has to be planned.

v. Local participation has to be ensured while planning the packages.

vi. Maximum employment opportunities to the local people have to be ensured.

Kerala popularly known as God’s Own country is gifted with greatest biodiversity wealth in the entire stretch of Western Ghats. Ecotourism is very popular in Kerala with the successful implementation of ecotourism programmes in Parambikulam Tiger Reserve and Periyar Tiger Reserve.

Ecotourism Experiences from Parambikulam Tiger Reserve:

Parambikulam Tiger Reserve is the most protected ecological piece of Anamalai sub unit of Western Ghats, surrounded on all sides by protected areas and sanctuaries of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, the sanctuary is endowed with a peninsular flora and fauna which are excellently conserved due to total protection and minimal human interferences. It has a total area of 285 Square Km. Parambikulam Tiger Reserve is the 38 th Tiger Reserve of India and second of Kerala. It is also well known for the sustainable ecotourism programmes.

Many innovative ecotourism programmes have been designed here with a view to give maximum visitor satisfaction and also to give maximum employment opportunities, but without affecting the ecological sustainability of the area. The emerging threat to this protected area was a huge number of unemployed tribal people and the pressure on forests for their livelihood activities.

Tourism was there but was not in a controlled and sustainable manner. Efforts have been taken to design effective sustainable ecotourism packages without affecting the healthiness of the wildlife habitat existing here.

Main objectives of the ecotourism project planned here are:

i. To give maximum employment opportunities to the local people.

ii. To give effective nature interpretation programmes to the visitors.

iii. To provide effective ecotourism facilities which will help the visitors to appreciate the nature and natural resources.

iv. To use ecotourism as a tool of eco-development and hence to attain local support for protection activities.

v. To make ecotourism as a tool of protection, wildlife monitoring, nature education, etc.

The packages designed here under the ecotourism projects are mainly protection and monitoring oriented. At the same time, attention has been given to have maximum income generating potential also.

Some of the important characteristics of the ecotourism projects launched in Parambikulam area as follows:

i. Strict Control on the Movement of Vehicles inside the Park:

Vehicle safari programme have been launched to attain this goal. Day visitors have been allowed to enter the park only through safari vehicles. Private vehicles are directed to park at the entrance itself. This effort has helped a lot to have effective control on the vehicles moving inside the park.

ii. Engaging Local Tribal as Guides/Naturalists:

Each visitor group has been provided with a guide or naturalist during their visit inside the park. This guide has been given direction to give proper guidelines to the visitors. At the same time, guide has the power to control on the visitors in violation of the rules and regulations of the park. Attention has also been given to give proper training to the guides, to provide reasonable wages, etc.

iii. Providing Sufficient Infrastructure to the Visitors:

Proper infrastruc­ture and its maintenance have been given special care. Interpretation Centre, Information Centre, Accommodation facilities, Canteen, Toilet blocks, etc. have been made available to the visitors through proper timely actions. New constructions have been done without affecting the natural beauty of the area and also without affecting the wildlife habitats. Special attention has been given to maintain the facilities by engaging local tribal for up keeping and maintenance.

iv. Effective Ecotourism Packages:

The ecotourism packages have been designed with a view to have minimum disturbance to the environment, but maximum revenue and also maximum employment to the local people. At the same time, visitor satisfaction has also been taken care. For e.g., in “Tented Niche” programme, seven tents have been provided to the visitors in an undisturbed area.

They have also been provided food, safari, boating etc. under the same package and they will also be assisted by trained guides throughout the programme. For all these provisions under the package, they have to pay a fixed amount. The package shows an excellent example for conducting a variety of activities under a single programme, in a controlled manner, by gaining a reasonable fee and also by giving maximum employment to the local people.

v. Protection Oriented Ecotourism Packages:

Some packages are designed to make people presence in offense sensitive areas such as sandal regeneration areas, illicit felling areas, poaching sensitive areas, etc. This helped a lot to have a check on the entry of offenders to these areas. Similarly trekking in these areas have a check on the illegal activities in park.

vi. Monitoring Oriented Ecotourism Packages:

Some packages have given the chances to the visitors to put their effort in filling the wildlife monitoring datasheets during their visit. For e.g., “Full Moon Census” is an ecotourism package in which the visitors are allowed to stay in Machan near a vayal during full moon day. They are also directed to observe the animals in the vayal and to record the same in the data sheet provided. This data will be very valuable in wildlife monitoring.

vii. Nature Camps:

Systematically arranged and properly conducting nature camps are another feature of the ecotourism here. Nature education is the main objective behind this activity. The classes are taken by experts according to the target groups.

viii. Assistance through Proper Eco-Development Activities:

There are many eco-development units such as paper bag unit, plastic reduction unit, honey unit, Parambikulam dhara unit, etc. to aid the proper functioning of the ecotourism packages. For e.g., in Parambikulam dhara unit, a water filtering unit is functioning to produce pure bottled water for giving the visitors with the condition that they will not be allowed to use their plastic water bottles inside the park. This effort will help to check the menace of plastic bottles inside the park and help ecotourism. Similarly, paper bag unit will check the uncontrolled use of plastic bags inside the park.

ix. Ensuring People’s Participation:

All the activities are planned and controlled by a democratically constituted agency called Forest Development Agency (FDA). The Agency is the apex head of eco-development committees, which are the local committees formed in the area. All the decisions regarding ecotourism have been taken by FDA. People’s participation has thus been ensured throughout the running of a package.

x. Visitor Friendly Efforts:

Updating the facilities through new steps such as online booking, computerized billing, website services, etc. are also important characteristic of Parambikulam ecotourism.

Ecotourism Experiences from Periyar Tiger Reserve:

Periyar tiger Reserve, Thekkady, is an example of nature’s bounty, with great scenic charm, rich biodiversity and providing veritable visitor satisfaction. Sprawled over an area of 925 Square km, Periyar is one of the 27 tiger reserves in India. Zealously guarded and efficiently managed reserve is a repository of rare, endemic and endangered flora and fauna and forms the major watershed of two important rivers of Kerala, the Periyar and Pamba. People oriented and park centered community based ecotourism is the hallmark of Periyar Tiger Reserve. These programmes are conducted by local people responsible for the surveillance of the vulnerable parts of the reserve.

a. Periyar Tiger Trail-Adventure Trekking and Camping:

There used to be a great threat to the Reserve from the illegal collection of Cinnamom bark from Periyar Tiger Reserve (PTR) from a group of smugglers. Lots of trees were getting killed because of these collections. In order to overcome this issue, PTR management had started an innovative ecotourism programme in order to rehabilitate these smugglers.

They were asked to leave their illegal style of livelihood and PTR offered them employment in a programme called “Periyar Tiger Trail’. PTR management has initiated this programme which is a trekking and camping programme inside the forest. One armed staff also accompanies a group of 5 tourists for this camping programme.

The guiding will be done by these ex-smugglers since they have an intimate knowledge of the forest terrain in the reserve. Now because of this ecotourism programmme, a unique experience is being given to the visitors; the livelihood of the local people is improved who once used to be the smugglers and extra protection to the park.

b. Bullock Cart Discoveries:

There were some poaching pressures from the people across the bordering areas of Tamil Nadu to Periyar Tiger Reserve. In order to bring them into the mainstream, an initiative was started in the form of an ecotourism programme called, “Bullock Cart Discoveries”.

These poachers were asked to stop the illegal activities in the PTR and management offered them a couple of bullock carts. Now the tourists coming to Periyar Tiger reserve are given the option of availing this interesting ecotourism programme by which one can have the feel of the grapevine farmyard, bird watching experiences on a bullock cart.

Now because of this ecotourism programme, all the poaching pressures have been reduced drastically as the livelihood of poachers has been ensured through this programme. Moreover, the tourists are now getting one of the very interesting ecotourism experiences.

c. Bamboo Rafting:

This is a dawn to dusk range hiking and rafting programme through some of the richest forest tracts of Periyar Tiger Reserve. A mosaic of habitats will be traversed before the party gets into rafts made of bamboos. The forests are rich in bird life and arboreal animals like giant squirrel and Nilgiri langur.

The rafting is for about three hours and one gets a panoramic view of forest-clad hills reflected on the lake. Animals like elephant, gaur and sambar are sighted keeping close to the edges of the lake. An armed guard and guides will accompany the tourists.

d. Nature Walk – The Guided Day Trek:

Different nature trails traversing diverse habitats form the trekking routes, generally 4 to 5 km in length. This is an interpretive programme offering excellent opportunity to watch birds, butterflies and other wildlife. The trails often pass through evergreen and moist deciduous forests interspersed with marshy grasslands.

e. Border Hiking:

This is a conservation oriented hard trek taking up a full day. The route passes through undulating terrains with altitudinal ranges of 900 – 1,300 meters and the trekkers could glimpse the lofty escarpments bordering the park watershed and the vast plains down below. Gaur, sloth bear, elephant, etc. are often sighted along this route apart from birds and butterflies. The trekkers will go with two guides and an armed forest guard.

f. Green Mansions/Jungle Inn:

A picturesque land is one of the off-the-track destinations ideal for a wilderness retreat replete with trekking, birding, canoeing and facilities for boarding. Hosted and accompanied by trained local people, the visitors can go for trekking and bird watching in the many trails around, paddle in still waters to cool off or perhaps settle down for watching sunset in this oasis of peace and tranquility. The tourists have the pleasure of staying in jungle during night in green mansions.

g. Bamboo Grove/Eco-Lodge:

A hotel that is truly an “eco-lodge” is one that makes efforts to conserve resources and limit waste. The islet of elevated ground studded with bamboo thickets is the eco-lodge for experiential learning. Here a miniature habitat is being recreated for man and nature to co-exist in the already available milieu of grassy downs, sedges and bamboos and stream fringed with screw pine.

Dwelling units made exclusively of natural materials like bamboo and grass and tents are slotted in the available spaces together with treetop huts to give the place an eco-friendly ambience. Experiential learning and nature sensitization camps are conducted for discerning aspirants. Lectures, discussions, audiovisual presentations, field visits etc. go with the programme.

h. Jungle Patrol:

This programme is part of the regular night patrolling in the fringe eco-development zones of the tiger reserve. By participating in this, one is actually helping in the protection of the forests of Periyar.

The trekking could be at any time between 7 pm and 4 am and could be taken by persons having proper physical and mental fitness to trek through the wilderness in the night. The maximum duration for a slot is 3 hours and protection watchers and armed forest guard accompany the tourists.

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Ecotourism, What is it and what are its 10 benefits

• Published: February 7, 2023
• Last Updated: December 26, 2023
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Welcome to our exploration of ecotourism, an incredible form of travel that combines adventure, exploration, and environmental responsibility. Ecotourism, also known as nature-based or conservation-focused travel, is all about enjoying our natural surroundings while ensuring we leave a minimal footprint. It involves visiting amazing locations to support, conserve, and observe flora and fauna in their natural habitats. It has often been defined as “responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local people” ( source ).

Many of the conservation ideals of ecotourism are similar to the Leave No Trace philosophy that we have already covered. This method of mixing tourism and conservation isn’t perfect but it is proven to be very effective at allowing people to experience nature while giving back at the same time.

The Ethical Traveler: 100 Ways to Roam the World (Without Ruining It!) Travel can be a blast, but there are hidden costs to your trips that go deeper than your pockets. From potential impacts on the environment or the communities we visit to respecting others’ cultures, taking a moment to consider our choices can make a real impact on the planet and other people.

Key Takeaways

• Ecotourism focuses on minimizing harm to the natural environment.
• It involves visiting exotic and extreme locations to support, conserve, and observe flora and fauna.
• Ecotourism offers sustainable development, boosts local economies, and preserves native cultures and vulnerable species.
• Conservation, community involvement, and education are the core principles of ecotourism.
• Choosing sustainable destinations is crucial for responsible and eco-friendly travel.

7 Principles of Ecotourism

The seven principles of ecotourism were given by Martha Honey in the 1999 book Ecotourism and Sustainable Development .

• Ecotourism should involve travel to natural destinations
• It should minimize impacts on the environment
• Ecotourism should be built on environmental awareness
• Ecotourism should provide direct financial benefits for conservation efforts
• Ecotourism should respect local culture
• It should provide support for human rights and democratic movements
• It should provide direct financial benefits for the local people

The 10 Benefits of Ecotourism

When it comes to ecotourism, the benefits are far-reaching and impactful. By choosing to engage in this form of travel, we can contribute to the preservation of biodiversity, empower local communities, foster cultural exchange, promote environmental education, support conservation efforts, mitigate negative impacts, and experience personal enrichment along the way.

• Promotes Conservation - Ecotourism provides an economic incentive for the preservation of natural resources. By generating income from tourists visiting protected areas, local communities are more likely to value and protect these areas. In turn, this helps to conserve the environment and protect wildlife.
• Supports Local Economies - Ecotourism can provide significant benefits to local economies by generating income through tourism. This income can be used to improve infrastructure and provide employment opportunities, which can lead to a better quality of life for local communities.
• Offers Unique Experiences - Ecotourism provides the opportunity for tourists to experience nature and wildlife in a way that is not possible through traditional forms of tourism. From trekking through tropical forests to observing wildlife in their natural habitats, ecotourism offers a truly unique and unforgettable experience.
• Raises Awareness - Ecotourism helps to raise awareness about environmental issues and the importance of conservation. By visiting protected areas and learning about the environment, tourists become more informed and invested in the conservation of these areas.
• Promotes Sustainable Development - Ecotourism can promote sustainable development by generating income that is reinvested into the local community. This can help to create a self-sustaining cycle of economic growth and conservation, which benefits both the environment and local communities.
• Offers Alternative Livelihoods - In areas where traditional industries, such as logging or mining, are damaging to the environment, ecotourism can provide alternative livelihoods for local communities. By generating income from ecotourism, these communities can shift away from damaging industries and towards more sustainable forms of economic development.
• Improves Livelihoods - Ecotourism can improve the livelihoods of local communities by generating income and providing employment opportunities. This can help to reduce poverty and improve the standard of living for people living in these areas.
• Enhances Cultural Understanding - Ecotourism can enhance cultural understanding by providing opportunities for tourists to interact with local communities and learn about their culture and traditions. This can help to promote cross-cultural understanding and respect, which can have a positive impact on local communities and the environment.
• Minimizes Environmental Impact - Ecotourism is designed to minimize the environmental impact of tourism. By promoting sustainable practices, such as responsible waste management and low-impact transportation, ecotourism helps to protect the environment and conserve natural resources.
• Generates Income for Conservation - Ecotourism generates income that can be used to support conservation efforts. This income can be used to fund research, protect wildlife, and maintain protected areas, which helps to ensure that these areas remain intact for future generations to enjoy.

Ten Commandments of Ecotourism

According to the American Society of Travel Agents (ASTA) there are 10 commandments of ecotourism. These commandments echo the philosophy and dedication to sustainable and respectful travel as the 7 Principles of Ecotourism. We felt it’s important to include both because there are subtle differences. You can learn more at The Sustainable Tourism Gateway .

• Respect the frailty of the earth. Realize that unless all are willing to help in its preservation, unique and beautiful destinations may not be here for future generations to enjoy.
• Leave only footprints. Take only photographs. No graffiti! No litter! Do not take away souvenirs from historical sites and natural areas.
• To make your travels more meaningful, educate yourself about the geography, customs, manners and cultures of the region you visit. Take time to listen to the people. Encourage local conservation efforts.
• Respect the privacy and dignity of others. Inquire before photographing people.
• Do not buy products made from endangered plants or animals, such as ivory, tortoise shell, animal skins, and feathers.
• Always follow designated trails. Do not disturb animals, plants or their natural habitats.
• Learn about and support conservation-oriented programs and organizations working to preserve the environment.
• Whenever possible, walk or use environmentally-sound methods of transportation. Encourage drivers of public vehicles to stop engines when parked.
• Patronize those (hotels, airlines, resorts, cruise lines, tour operators and suppliers) who advance energy and environmental conservation; water and air quality; recycling; safe management of waste and toxic materials; noise abatement, community involvement; and which provide experienced, well-trained staff dedicated to strong principles of conservation.
• Encourage organizations to subscribe to environmental guidelines. ASTA urges organizations to adopt their own environmental codes to cover special sties and ecosystems.

The Essence of EcoTourism

When it comes to ecotourism, there are three key principles that define its essence: conservation, community involvement, and education. At the heart of ecotourism is a deep commitment to preserving the natural environment, ensuring that the places we visit remain untouched by human presence. This means treading lightly, minimizing our impact, and leaving no trace behind.

But ecotourism goes beyond conservation. It also recognizes the importance of community involvement. By engaging with local communities, we can support their livelihoods and empower them to take an active role in preserving their environment. This can be through community-based tourism initiatives, where locals become partners in sustainable development, or by supporting local businesses and artisans.

Education is another essential aspect of ecotourism. By promoting understanding and appreciation of unique ecosystems, we can cultivate a sense of responsibility towards the environment. Ecotourism offers opportunities for travelers to learn about the flora, fauna, and cultural heritage of a destination, fostering a deeper connection with the natural world and the people who call it home.

“The greatest threat to our planet is the belief that someone else will save it.” - Robert Swan

Conservation

Conservation is at the core of ecotourism. It involves protecting and preserving fragile ecosystems, endangered species, and the overall biodiversity of a region. By practicing responsible travel behaviors, such as sticking to designated trails and respecting wildlife and their habitats, we can ensure that these natural wonders remain intact for future generations to enjoy.

Community Involvement

Empowering local communities is crucial in the realm of ecotourism. By supporting local businesses and initiatives, we contribute to the sustainable development of the communities we visit. This involvement not only helps to preserve cultural traditions but also ensures that the economic benefits of tourism reach those who need it the most.

Ecotourism provides a platform for environmental education. It offers opportunities to learn about the significance of conservation, the interconnectedness of ecosystems, and the importance of sustainable practices. Through these educational experiences, we can cultivate a sense of responsibility and inspire others to protect and cherish our natural world.

What makes ecotourism unique?

Ecotourism is unique in several key ways. Firstly, it’s all about education and awareness. Ecotourists are typically more conscious and knowledgeable about the environment and wildlife they are visiting, and they seek out opportunities to learn more about these things. They want to understand the intricacies of the ecosystems they’re visiting, and how they can help to protect them.

Secondly, ecotourism is focused on sustainability. This means that the experiences offered to visitors are designed to be environmentally friendly and sustainable, with minimal impact on the environment. For example, an ecotourism operator may use renewable energy sources, like wind and solar power, to power their facilities, and may also recycle and compost waste to reduce the amount of waste that ends up in landfills.

Finally, ecotourism is about supporting local communities. This means that ecotourism operators work with local communities to create sustainable jobs and conserve the environment. They may provide training and education programs for local residents, and may also purchase goods and services from local suppliers. This helps to build a strong, resilient, and sustainable local economy.

Why is ecotourism important?

Ecotourism helps to protect the planet’s ecosystems and wildlife, by minimizing the impact of tourism on the environment. It also supports local communities, by providing sustainable jobs and supporting local economies. This helps to create a more resilient and sustainable future for both the planet and its inhabitants.

Secondly, ecotourism provides an opportunity for travelers to connect with the natural world in a meaningful and enriching way. It allows them to escape the hustle and bustle of everyday life and immerse themselves in the beauty and wonder of the planet’s ecosystems and wildlife. This connection with nature can be truly transformative, helping travelers to gain a deeper appreciation for the planet and its inhabitants, and to feel inspired to take action to protect it.

Finally, ecotourism provides a way for travelers to support sustainable and responsible tourism practices. By choosing to participate in ecotourism, travelers can help to ensure that future generations will have the opportunity to experience the planet’s ecosystems and wildlife, just as they have.

Ecotourism Documentry

We only recently watched Green Paradise and we really enjoyed it. They go into a lot of detail about some of the most amazing places on earth, and the people who live there. I can’t recommend it enough, in fact I might write a review on the series soon. I recommend checking it out, if you have Amazon Prime you can stream it for free.

Green Paradise Documentry. 10 Episodes. Explore the Earth and the most beautiful natural paradises in the world. These stunning locales are preserved thanks to the dedication of local populations. Meet the inhabitants of these lands who have developed small businesses to welcome visitors in their environment, and helped create a new form of travel: sustainable tourism.

History of Ecotourism

Ecotourism can be traced back to a group of passionate environmentalists and travel enthusiasts who dreamt of a world where the act of traveling could coexist with the preservation of natural habitats and the welfare of local communities. They believed that travel could be a powerful tool for conservation and sustainable development and that by educating travelers about the fragility of the earth’s ecosystems, they could inspire them to become more conscious and responsible tourists.

As the demand for more sustainable travel options grew, so did the popularity of ecotourism. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, several organizations and governments, including the International Ecotourism Society (TIES) , established ecotourism as a recognized travel category, and defined it as “responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local people.”

Today, ecotourism is a thriving industry, encompassing everything from camping in the wilderness to staying in eco-lodges, from trekking through pristine rainforests to observing wildlife in their natural habitats. It’s a complex and dynamic industry, but at its core, ecotourism remains true to its original mission of promoting sustainable travel and conservation.

The Future of Ecotourism

We are no experts but as the world becomes more conscious of the need for sustainable travel, the future of ecotourism looks promising. With a growing focus on responsible practices and advancements in technology, tourism and travel are evolving to meet the demands of environmentally conscious travelers.

Sustainable Travel Trends

One of the key trends in ecotourism is the emphasis on sustainable travel. Travelers are increasingly seeking destinations that prioritize conservation, biodiversity preservation, and community engagement. They are looking for experiences that not only allow them to connect with nature but also contribute positively to the environment and local communities. From eco-lodges powered by renewable energy to wildlife conservation projects, sustainable travel practices are becoming the norm.

Technological Advancements

Technology is playing a crucial role in the future of ecotourism. Innovations such as smart tourism solutions, sustainable transportation options, and renewable energy sources are being implemented to reduce the industry’s carbon footprint. Additionally, advancements in communication technology are making it easier for travelers to access information about sustainable practices and make informed choices when planning their trips.

The Road Ahead

We think that with dedicated efforts from travelers, destinations, and industry stakeholders, the future of ecotourism holds great promise. By continuing to prioritize sustainability, engage local communities, and embrace technological advancements, together we can ensure that future generations have the opportunity to explore and appreciate the wonders of our planet. The journey towards sustainable travel is an ongoing one, and we all have a role to play in shaping the future of ecotourism. As fellow travelers we hope that you embrace this cause with us and help to encourage sustainable ecotourism as you explore the world.

Q: What is ecotourism?

A: Ecotourism is a form of travel that focuses on minimizing harm to the natural environment. It involves visiting areas with exotic and extreme conditions to support, conserve, and observe flora and fauna.

Q: What are the principles of ecotourism?

A: The principles of ecotourism are conservation, community involvement, and education. Ecotourism aims to ensure the places visited remain untouched by human presence, support local communities, and promote understanding and appreciation of unique ecosystems.

Q: What are some benefits of ecotourism?

A: Ecotourism offers numerous benefits, including sustainable development, boosting the local economy, and preserving native cultures and vulnerable species.

Q: How can I choose sustainable destinations for ecotourism?

A: Factors to consider when choosing sustainable destinations include the preservation of biodiversity, community engagement, eco-friendly practices, certifications and accreditations, community benefits, and the empowerment of local economies.

Q: Can you provide examples of eco-friendly destinations?

A: Some examples of eco-friendly destinations include Costa Rica, Norway, Bhutan, New Zealand, and Switzerland.

Q: What are some responsible travel practices for eco-tourism?

A: Responsible travel practices include packing light and smart, respecting wildlife and their habitats, sticking to designated trails, reducing energy consumption, and supporting local economies by purchasing goods and services from local businesses and artisans.

Q: Are there impactful projects and conservation initiatives related to ecotourism?

A: Yes, many eco-tourism destinations have impactful projects and conservation initiatives aimed at preserving the environment and promoting sustainable tourism.

Q: What is the future of eco-tourism?

A: The future of eco-tourism looks promising, with a growing focus on sustainable travel practices and advancements in technology.

Q: Where can I find additional resources on ecotourism?

A: For further information and resources on ecotourism, travelers can explore additional guides and sustainable travel tips that provide insights and recommendations on how to make the most of their eco-friendly journeys.

Q: How can I practice respect for the Earth during ecotourism?

A: It is important to practice responsible behavior during ecotourism, including leaving no trace, learning about local customs and cultures, seeking permission before photographing people, avoiding products made from endangered species, and supporting conservation programs and organizations.

Before You Go …

Thanks for reading, we hope you learned something. Before you go we would like to recommend checking out our articles on slow travel and our eco-friendly travel tips . If you have any questions or comments please contact us on our social media. Safe Travels!

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What Is Sustainable Tourism and Why Is It Important?

Sustainable management and socioeconomic, cultural, and environmental impacts are the four pillars of sustainable tourism

• Chapman University

• Harvard University Extension School
• Sustainable Fashion
• Art & Media

What Makes Tourism Sustainable?

The role of tourists, types of sustainable tourism.

Sustainable tourism considers its current and future economic, social, and environmental impacts by addressing the needs of its ecological surroundings and the local communities. This is achieved by protecting natural environments and wildlife when developing and managing tourism activities, providing only authentic experiences for tourists that don’t appropriate or misrepresent local heritage and culture, or creating direct socioeconomic benefits for local communities through training and employment.

As people begin to pay more attention to sustainability and the direct and indirect effects of their actions, travel destinations and organizations are following suit. For example, the New Zealand Tourism Sustainability Commitment is aiming to see every New Zealand tourism business committed to sustainability by 2025, while the island country of Palau has required visitors to sign an eco pledge upon entry since 2017.

Tourism industries are considered successfully sustainable when they can meet the needs of travelers while having a low impact on natural resources and generating long-term employment for locals. By creating positive experiences for local people, travelers, and the industry itself, properly managed sustainable tourism can meet the needs of the present without compromising the future.

What Is Sustainability?

At its core, sustainability focuses on balance — maintaining our environmental, social, and economic benefits without using up the resources that future generations will need to thrive. In the past, sustainability ideals tended to lean towards business, though more modern definitions of sustainability highlight finding ways to avoid depleting natural resources in order to keep an ecological balance and maintain the quality of environmental and human societies.

Since tourism impacts and is impacted by a wide range of different activities and industries, all sectors and stakeholders (tourists, governments, host communities, tourism businesses) need to collaborate on sustainable tourism in order for it to be successful.

The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) , which is the United Nations agency responsible for the promotion of sustainable tourism, and the Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC) , the global standard for sustainable travel and tourism, have similar opinions on what makes tourism sustainable. By their account, sustainable tourism should make the best use of environmental resources while helping to conserve natural heritage and biodiversity, respect the socio-culture of local host communities, and contribute to intercultural understanding. Economically, it should also ensure viable long-term operations that will provide benefits to all stakeholders, whether that includes stable employment to locals, social services, or contributions to poverty alleviation.

The GSTC has developed a series of criteria to create a common language about sustainable travel and tourism. These criteria are used to distinguish sustainable destinations and organizations, but can also help create sustainable policies for businesses and government agencies. Arranged in four pillars, the global baseline standards include sustainable management, socioeconomic impact, cultural impacts, and environmental impacts.

Travel Tip:

The GSTC is an excellent resource for travelers who want to find sustainably managed destinations and accommodations and learn how to become a more sustainable traveler in general.

Environment 

Protecting natural environments is the bedrock of sustainable tourism. Data released by the World Tourism Organization estimates that tourism-based CO2 emissions are forecast to increase 25% by 2030. In 2016, tourism transport-related emissions contributed to 5% of all man-made emissions, while transport-related emissions from long-haul international travel were expected to grow 45% by 2030.

The environmental ramifications of tourism don’t end with carbon emissions, either. Unsustainably managed tourism can create waste problems, lead to land loss or soil erosion, increase natural habitat loss, and put pressure on endangered species . More often than not, the resources in these places are already scarce, and sadly, the negative effects can contribute to the destruction of the very environment on which the industry depends.

Industries and destinations that want to be sustainable must do their part to conserve resources, reduce pollution, and conserve biodiversity and important ecosystems. In order to achieve this, proper resource management and management of waste and emissions is important. In Bali, for example, tourism consumes 65% of local water resources, while in Zanzibar, tourists use 15 times as much water per night as local residents.

Another factor to environmentally focused sustainable tourism comes in the form of purchasing: Does the tour operator, hotel, or restaurant favor locally sourced suppliers and products? How do they manage their food waste and dispose of goods? Something as simple as offering paper straws instead of plastic ones can make a huge dent in an organization’s harmful pollutant footprint.

Recently, there has been an uptick in companies that promote carbon offsetting . The idea behind carbon offsetting is to compensate for generated greenhouse gas emissions by canceling out emissions somewhere else. Much like the idea that reducing or reusing should be considered first before recycling , carbon offsetting shouldn’t be the primary goal. Sustainable tourism industries always work towards reducing emissions first and offset what they can’t.

Properly managed sustainable tourism also has the power to provide alternatives to need-based professions and behaviors like poaching . Often, and especially in underdeveloped countries, residents turn to environmentally harmful practices due to poverty and other social issues. At Periyar Tiger Reserve in India, for example, an unregulated increase in tourists made it more difficult to control poaching in the area. In response, an eco development program aimed at providing employment for locals turned 85 former poachers into reserve gamekeepers. Under supervision of the reserve’s management staff, the group of gamekeepers have developed a series of tourism packages and are now protecting land instead of exploiting it. They’ve found that jobs in responsible wildlife tourism are more rewarding and lucrative than illegal work.

Flying nonstop and spending more time in a single destination can help save CO2, since planes use more fuel the more times they take off.

Local Culture and Residents

One of the most important and overlooked aspects of sustainable tourism is contributing to protecting, preserving, and enhancing local sites and traditions. These include areas of historical, archaeological, or cultural significance, but also "intangible heritage," such as ceremonial dance or traditional art techniques.

In cases where a site is being used as a tourist attraction, it is important that the tourism doesn’t impede access to local residents. For example, some tourist organizations create local programs that offer residents the chance to visit tourism sites with cultural value in their own countries. A program called “Children in the Wilderness” run by Wilderness Safaris educates children in rural Africa about the importance of wildlife conservation and valuable leadership development tools. Vacations booked through travel site Responsible Travel contribute to the company’s “Trip for a Trip” program, which organizes day trips for disadvantaged youth who live near popular tourist destinations but have never had the opportunity to visit.

Sustainable tourism bodies work alongside communities to incorporate various local cultural expressions as part of a traveler’s experiences and ensure that they are appropriately represented. They collaborate with locals and seek their input on culturally appropriate interpretation of sites, and train guides to give visitors a valuable (and correct) impression of the site. The key is to inspire travelers to want to protect the area because they understand its significance.

Bhutan, a small landlocked country in South Asia, has enforced a system of all-inclusive tax for international visitors since 1997 ($200 per day in the off season and $250 per day in the high season). This way, the government is able to restrict the tourism market to local entrepreneurs exclusively and restrict tourism to specific regions, ensuring that the country’s most precious natural resources won’t be exploited.

Incorporating volunteer work into your vacation is an amazing way to learn more about the local culture and help contribute to your host community at the same time. You can also book a trip that is focused primarily on volunteer work through a locally run charity or non profit (just be sure that the job isn’t taking employment opportunities away from residents).

It's not difficult to make a business case for sustainable tourism, especially if one looks at a destination as a product. Think of protecting a destination, cultural landmark, or ecosystem as an investment. By keeping the environment healthy and the locals happy, sustainable tourism will maximize the efficiency of business resources. This is especially true in places where locals are more likely to voice their concerns if they feel like the industry is treating visitors better than residents.

Not only does reducing reliance on natural resources help save money in the long run, studies have shown that modern travelers are likely to participate in environmentally friendly tourism. In 2019, Booking.com found that 73% of travelers preferred an eco-sustainable hotel over a traditional one and 72% of travelers believed that people need to make sustainable travel choices for the sake of future generations.

Always be mindful of where your souvenirs are coming from and whether or not the money is going directly towards the local economy. For example, opt for handcrafted souvenirs made by local artisans.

Growth in the travel and tourism sectors alone has outpaced the overall global economy growth for nine years in a row. Prior to the pandemic, travel and tourism accounted for an $9.6 trillion contribution to the global GDP and 333 million jobs (or one in four new jobs around the world).

Sustainable travel dollars help support employees, who in turn pay taxes that contribute to their local economy. If those employees are not paid a fair wage or aren’t treated fairly, the traveler is unknowingly supporting damaging or unsustainable practices that do nothing to contribute to the future of the community. Similarly, if a hotel doesn’t take into account its ecological footprint, it may be building infrastructure on animal nesting grounds or contributing to excessive pollution. The same goes for attractions, since sustainably managed spots (like nature preserves) often put profits towards conservation and research.

Costa Rica was able to turn a severe deforestation crisis in the 1980s into a diversified tourism-based economy by designating 25.56% of land protected as either a national park, wildlife refuge, or reserve.

While traveling, think of how you would want your home country or home town to be treated by visitors.

Are You a Sustainable Traveler?

Sustainable travelers understand that their actions create an ecological and social footprint on the places they visit. Be mindful of the destinations , accommodations, and activities you choose, and choose destinations that are closer to home or extend your length of stay to save resources. Consider switching to more environmentally friendly modes of transportation such as bicycles, trains, or walking while on vacation. Look into supporting locally run tour operations or local family-owned businesses rather than large international chains. Don’t engage in activities that harm wildlife, such as elephant riding or tiger petting , and opt instead for a wildlife sanctuary (or better yet, attend a beach clean up or plan an hour or two of some volunteer work that interests you). Leave natural areas as you found them by taking out what you carry in, not littering, and respecting the local residents and their traditions.

Most of us travel to experience the world. New cultures, new traditions, new sights and smells and tastes are what makes traveling so rewarding. It is our responsibility as travelers to ensure that these destinations are protected not only for the sake of the communities who rely upon them, but for a future generation of travelers.

Sustainable tourism has many different layers, most of which oppose the more traditional forms of mass tourism that are more likely to lead to environmental damage, loss of culture, pollution, negative economic impacts, and overtourism.

Ecotourism highlights responsible travel to natural areas that focus on environmental conservation. A sustainable tourism body supports and contributes to biodiversity conservation by managing its own property responsibly and respecting or enhancing nearby natural protected areas (or areas of high biological value). Most of the time, this looks like a financial compensation to conservation management, but it can also include making sure that tours, attractions, and infrastructure don’t disturb natural ecosystems.

On the same page, wildlife interactions with free roaming wildlife should be non-invasive and managed responsibly to avoid negative impacts to the animals. As a traveler, prioritize visits to accredited rescue and rehabilitation centers that focus on treating, rehoming, or releasing animals back into the wild, such as the Jaguar Rescue Center in Costa Rica.

Soft Tourism

Soft tourism may highlight local experiences, local languages, or encourage longer time spent in individual areas. This is opposed to hard tourism featuring short duration of visits, travel without respecting culture, taking lots of selfies , and generally feeling a sense of superiority as a tourist.

Many World Heritage Sites, for example, pay special attention to protection, preservation, and sustainability by promoting soft tourism. Peru’s famed Machu Picchu was previously known as one of the world’s worst victims of overtourism , or a place of interest that has experienced negative effects (such as traffic or litter) from excessive numbers of tourists. The attraction has taken steps to control damages in recent years, requiring hikers to hire local guides on the Inca Trail, specifying dates and time on visitor tickets to negate overcrowding, and banning all single use plastics from the site.

Traveling during a destination’s shoulder season , the period between the peak and low seasons, typically combines good weather and low prices without the large crowds. This allows better opportunities to immerse yourself in a new place without contributing to overtourism, but also provides the local economy with income during a normally slow season.

Rural Tourism

Rural tourism applies to tourism that takes place in non-urbanized areas such as national parks, forests, nature reserves, and mountain areas. This can mean anything from camping and glamping to hiking and WOOFing. Rural tourism is a great way to practice sustainable tourism, since it usually requires less use of natural resources.

Community Tourism

Community-based tourism involves tourism where local residents invite travelers to visit their own communities. It sometimes includes overnight stays and often takes place in rural or underdeveloped countries. This type of tourism fosters connection and enables tourists to gain an in-depth knowledge of local habitats, wildlife, and traditional cultures — all while providing direct economic benefits to the host communities. Ecuador is a world leader in community tourism, offering unique accommodation options like the Sani Lodge run by the local Kichwa indigenous community, which offers responsible cultural experiences in the Ecuadorian Amazon rainforest.

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• Regenerative Travel: What It Is and How It's Outperforming Sustainable Tourism
• How to Be a Sustainable Traveler: 18 Tips
• What Is Ecotourism? Definition, Examples, and Pros and Cons
• Some Advice on How to Travel More Intentionally
• 'The Last Tourist' Film Will Make You Approach Travel Differently
• Best of Green Awards 2021: Sustainable Travel
• Costa Rica’s Keys to Success as a Sustainable Tourism Pioneer
• What Is Community-Based Tourism? Definition and Popular Destinations
• What Is Overtourism and Why Is It Such a Big Problem?
• What Is Experiential Tourism?
• What Is Voluntourism? Does It Help or Harm Communities?
• Food Sovereignty: Definition, Principles, and Importance
• Best of Green Awards 2021: Eco Tech
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Home > Books > Tourism - From Empirical Research Towards Practical Application

Ecotourism and Its Role in Sustainable Development of Nepal

Submitted: 04 October 2015 Reviewed: 27 January 2016 Published: 04 May 2016

DOI: 10.5772/62308

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Tourism - From Empirical Research Towards Practical Application

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Ecotourism helps in environmental protection, wildlife conservation, poverty alleviation and socio-economic development. It affects environmental, social and economic components of the community and the whole country. It has different forms which are named according to the preference of the country. Developed as well as developing countries , such as Nepal, are promoting ecotourism for sustainable development of the nation. Different methodologies are applied throughout the world by different researchers for assessing ecotourism. This chapter focuses on review of ecotourism researches throughout the world. It has both positive and negative impacts on environmental, social and economic aspects of the country. Due to the high rate of beneficial impacts, it is helping in the overall development of the community, country and the whole world. There is need of cooperation among different stakeholders, training of ecotourism to tourism entrepreneurs and appropriate management policy for sustainable implementation of ecotourism projects.

• environmental conservation
• economic enhancement
• social development

Author Information

Anup k. c. *.

• Nepal Electricity Authority, Environment and Social Studies Department, Kathmandu, Nepal

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

Ecotourism is one of the fastest growing segments of the sustainable tourism industry [ 1 – 3 ], which focuses on wildlife conservation, environmental protection, poverty alleviation and economic development [ 4 , 5 ]. Hector Ceballos Lascurain coined the term, “Ecotourism” in 1983 to describe the nature-based travel to relatively undisturbed area with an emphasis on education [ 1 ]. There is no such universally accepted definition of ecotourism. It is differentiated from nature-based tourism as it helps in sustainable rural development and makes biodiversity conservation economically viable for local communities [ 2 ]. Ecotourism is one of the preferred tools for conservation and community development in many rural areas. Its effectiveness depends in its potential to provide local economic benefits by maintaining ecological resource integrity through low-impact and non-consumptive use of local resources [ 6 ].

Ecotourism is an alternative form of tourism which embraces tourism in the biophysical environment in natural areas. It incorporates ecologically sustainable activities, conservation supporting measures and involvement of local communities [ 7 ]. It neoliberalises nature and focuses on capitalist development, community development, poverty alleviation, wildlife conservation and environmental protection [ 4 ]. Traditional economic bases like agriculture, livestock and hunting are not compatible with protected territories so change in traditional economic activities can be done by shifting cultural attitudes [ 8 ], towards ecotourism enhancement [ 9 ].

Ecotourism provide jobs for the local people and a market for local products. It encourages cultural sensitivity in guest–host relations and acts as a catalyst for ecologically sustainable development. But, planning is required to address the issues of ownership, management and coordination of protected areas. It enhances wildlife conservation and equitable sharing of benefits from ecotourism [ 10 ]. It helps in the conservation of natural, cultural and built resources and maintains the quality of life of local area [ 11 ]. With an objective of environmental conservation, it creates sustainable economic development and balances the conflicting goals of economic development and biodiversity conservation [ 2 , 5 , 12 ]. Considering the sustainable principles and practices, it fulfills goals of biodiversity conservation, poverty reduction and business viability [ 13 ]. In ecotourism, local people realize the importance of conservation and protect the environment in active manner. They maintain national standards of atmospheric quality, sound quality, drinking water, sewage, lampblack and all kinds of establishments [ 14 ].

1.1. Different forms of ecotourism

Community-based ecotourism is the best option in an area which is conserved, owned and managed by a community to gain income by operating a tourism enterprise [ 1 ]. There will be direct and indirect participants and beneficiaries looking after environmental conservation, business enterprise and community development [ 1 ]. Local income, biodiversity conservation and cultural preservation are necessary for tourism intervention in such areas. Successful implementation of such ecotourism requires improvement of accessibility, liberalization of pricing policy, empowerment of community, development of tourism facilities and incorporation of nature-based tourism products [ 15 ]. Community-based ecotourism is associated with basic accommodation and facilities marketed for independent and low-budget travelers who do not expect high-end tourism facilities. There is high degree of public participation but sometimes exclude interests of communities and benefits narrow elite. Wildlife and landscapes are sold in multiple ways as images, products and destinations in such tourism [ 4 ].

Ecosystem tourism is supply-led tourism strategy that enables sustainable development with the central theme of ecosystem integrity. It does not exclude tourist and commercial exploitation of the ecosystem but the entire ecosystems or the specific biological diversity are managed in relation to the tourism experience. The main resource base or capital stock for tourists is the ecosystem which is the assemblages of organisms, physical environment and an array of interactions and feedbacks. In such ecotourism, the ecosystem is able to absorb or adapt the pressures of tourists until it develops a more urban character [ 16 ].

Rural tourism is a form of tourism originated in Europe which takes place in rural environment based on the rural resources reflecting rurality, traditional folk­custom and agricultural products. In such tourism, tourists enjoy staying in the yard, strolling and looking around flowers, green plants, gardens, old architecture and playing cards. It enhances the profit from agriculture and provides peasantry with more profit, more employment opportunities and better living conditions by combining agriculture and tourism. It plays a positive role in prompting the development of rural economy and rural culture. Rural tourism is in a primary stage by giving priority to agricultural sightseeing, farming experience and close quarters leisure with accommodations and simple entertainment [ 14 ].

Cultural tourism preserves cultural traditions and enriches the quality of the life of local communities. It is necessary to provide education and training programs of ecotourism and nature reserve for tourism operators, employees and tourist to develop and promote minority cultures and cultural traditions. Research opportunities should be provided to attract scientists and students to conduct research in the region [ 17 ].

Nature-based tourism is a large growing global industry which depends upon the natural environment occurring in parks and protected areas. It depends on appropriate levels of environment quality and suitable levels of consumer service. Nature-based tourism has been a key component of tourism industry in several countries [ 18 ].

1.2. Ecotourism in global and national scenario

Protected area-based tourism in parks and protected areas constitute a significant proportion of international tourism in developing countries. It has generated substantial revenue for the state and improved the local livelihoods which are directly dependent on tourism. Many state governments and international conservation agencies provide sufficient funds for the establishment of protected areas and their long-term viability. Countries such as Kenya, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Costa Rica and Nepal are only a few examples where protected area tourism constitutes a significant proportion of international tourism [ 11 ].

There is nature-based tourism in Australia, Tanzania and New Zealand. The national ecotourism strategy for Australia had focused on ecotourism in regional areas to generate foreign exchange earnings, employment, and other economic and social benefits. For the aggressive and successful policy development in the country, Australia is taking advantage with its spectacular and diverse natural features, unique flora and fauna, and diverse cultural heritage [ 18 ].

After the coronation of 1974 in Bhutan, small groups of tourists were allowed into the country and given permission to visit dzongs and goembas in Thimphu and Paro. Government established a quota of 200 tourists a year in which tourist have to travel in a group of six or more. The cost was set at US$130 per day and all the guests had to stay in government-approved hotels, guesthouses and lodges. Bhutan’s rich heritage and vibrant culture has its distinctive traditions and customs demonstrated in its religious festivals and architecture. Towering crags and highly diverse forests is also home to takin, snow leopard, golden langur, red panda, tiger and elephant. Trained trekking guides are provided periodic knowledge and services to accompany trekking groups. Gross expenditure of US$14 million provides significant foreign exchange earnings in Bhutan. The present policy consists of a fixed price set by government with quality of service and visitor experience maintained by market share competition between tour operators and government regulation. Ecotourism in Bhutan was able to limit environmental and cultural impact of Western countries. But, a large number of Indian tourists would cause a major challenge in maintaining cultural and environmental carrying capacity [ 19 ].

In Small Islands of the South Dodecanese, local communities contribute in ecotourism program and help to minimize the conflicts. The islands’ geomorphology and geographic position provides opportunity in nature trekking, mountain climbing and sailing. It contributes to the elongation of the tourist period and the increase in tourist revenues. Adverse ecological effects of adventure tourism activities such as underwater fishing by free-divers are negligible [ 20 ].

Ecotourism is already the largest source of foreign exchange in countries like Costa Rica and Guatemala. It is one of the meaningful sources of economic development and job creation. Cross country evidence demonstrates that tourism is labor intensive and offers a variety of small scale opportunities creating jobs for poor, women, young and indigenous communities [ 1 ].

Community-based ecotourism in southern Thailand is only partially successful. The benefits of ecotourism in Phuket are more than the costs in terms of community development. Environmental sensitivity and responsibility promoted by ecotourism can increase the political, economic, social and environmental interests of host communities. The relationship between community-based ecotourism and empowerment is complex and incomplete. The economic and psychological empowerment of individuals is accomplished by the political and social empowerment of communities [ 21 ]. Tourism operators in countryside of Thailand had also focused in nature-based tourism [ 11 ].

In Kuscenneti National Park of Turkey, the park administration encouraged local bodies to organize youth camps in the park along with some additional facilities. By allowing nearby communities to provide infrastructure and services to visitors, visitor expenditures are able to flow more easily into the local economy. Locals have positive views towards tourism development and have established some restaurants and guest houses. These activities have provided sources of extra income for families who depend on traditional activities. Economic benefits of tourism have changed the attitudes of local communities and there is good relationship between the national park and the local community [ 22 ].

Tourism in Kerala was promoted as a major agenda by government for employment opportunities and foreign exchange earnings. Accommodation industry provides more subsidies, tax cuts, concessions, promotional packages and soaps which contributes to the growth and development of the economy. In spite of the positive benefit to the economy, tourism projects have adverse environmental effects [ 23 ].

Implementation of Sitakunda Botanical Garden and Eco-park project in Chittagong, Bangladesh, had enriched the area with natural regeneration, new plantations, infrastructure development, new destination for visitors and nature-based tourism. Tourism is also providing revenue to the park authority and income to local people [ 24 ].

Tourism had provided alternative mechanism of resource utilization in China’s nature reserves but it is causing adverse impact on environmental resources. Litter problems, water pollution, noise pollution and air pollution are the major problem occurring in nature reserves [ 25 ]. Local government officials had a great role for conservation, development and logistical functions towards tourism development in Wuzhishan Mountain Region of China. Participation of local communities and cooperation between local governments, local communities, NGOs and the private sector was important for development and management of the nature reserve [ 17 ].

Lugu Lake region is one of the most important areas for ecosystem conservation and cultural heritage protection in China [ 26 ]. Shangri-La County in China has abundant tourism resources and products but the natural resources were exploited beyond the carrying capacity. There is need for sustainable use of tourism resources, proper handling of tourism demands, repartitioning tourism flow and digital system for tourism management [ 27 ]. Appropriate measures by government were conducted in Xishuangbanna Biosphere Reserve (XBR) to protect the core area from over-exploitation and unsustainable human use. But, simple life and material needs of traditional local people is vulnerable to Western influence [ 28 ]. Visitors as a knowledge seeker, leisure traveler and nature lover are preferring good-quality information, tour guides and low impact activities. They are selecting the destination with high ecological value and good site management in the case of Hong Kong [ 29 ].

1.3. Ecotourism in Nepal

Ecotourism as a component of green economy contributes greatly for Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for government and private organizations [ 30 ]. Developing countries such as Nepal have advantage in ecotourism as they have unique natural environment and culture. It generates employment for the unskilled workforce in rural area through community-led tourism activities for preserving natural ecosystems [ 3 ].

Nepal is a small country with an area of 147,181 sq. km., having great diversity of topographic and eco-climatic features rich in natural and cultural heritage. It is renowned for its physiographic and eco-climatic variations, Himalayan ranges, natural beauty, protected areas, rich bio-diversity, spectacular landscape, extraordinary cultural heritage and mosaic of ethnic diversity [ 31 ]. It is one of the most adventurous cultural and ecotourism destinations in the world which depends on the quality of the natural environment [ 11 , 32 ]. Its main attractions are the highest mountain range in the world and many cultural and natural attractions [ 32 ]. There are many trekking routes and sites for ecotourists to explore natural beauty throughout Nepal ranging from the Kanchenjunga Conservation Area and Illam in the east to Khaptad and Shuklaphanta National Park in the west [ 5 ].

Nepal has a total population of over 23 million and consists of 59 ethnic groups and 101 spoken languages. It is the birthplace of Lord Buddha, the Light of Asia. It has a rich cultural heritage, where more than 1250 heritage sites have been identified and documented from 72 districts. Within Kathmandu valley, Kathmandu Development Committee has listed a total of 870 religious and cultural shrines and monuments. It consists of eight World Cultural Heritage Sites: Bhaktapur, Patan and Kathmandu Durbar Squares; Swayambhunath; Baudhanath; Pashupatinath; Changunarayan and Lumbini (the birth place of Lord Buddha) combined with two world’s Natural Heritage Sites: Sagarmatha and Chitwan National Parks [ 31 ].

These resources are the major attractions for the foundation and acceleration of tourism industry in Nepal. It is necessary to manage these tourism resources properly by mobilizing the local participation with sufficient considerations on the quality of supply side of tourism in order to attract the maximum number of tourists from different parts of the world. Nepal is one of the countries that receive the largest number of international tourists with rapid growth of tourism [ 31 ]. Trekking and mountaineering are creating opportunities in the operation of tea houses and lodges along the trails [ 33 ], which has direct impact on livelihoods [ 5 , 34 – 37 ]. Nepal Government has also identified ecotourism as a strong sector contributing significantly to environmental conservation, employment generation and socioeconomic development [ 38 ].

Community-based rural tourism in protected areas had supported livelihood of local communities by providing opportunities to the national and international visitors in community activities [ 11 , 38 ]. So, Nepalese government has developed national parks, wild life reserves, buffer zones, conservation areas and cultural heritage sites for conserving wildlife and enhancing ecotourism [ 39 ]. Ecotourists enjoy its Himalayan ranges, natural beauty, protected areas, biodiversity, landscape, cultural heritage and ethnic diversity [ 31 ]. Having 8 out of the 14 high mountains over 8000 m elevation in the world is also making Nepal a main source of tourist attraction [ 32 ]. Tourism had already been an alternative source of income generation in the villages of Kaski, Tanahu, Syangja, Lamjung and Gorkha districts in Western Nepal through rural tourism initiatives [ 5 , 38 ].

Tourist can enjoy scenic beauty, trek and Climb Mountains, view Sagarmatha and encounter wilderness in Sagarmatha National Park (SNP). Ecotourism and its sustainability in SNP require the inclusion of local participation, economic viability, education dissemination, tourist satisfaction and tourism impact reduction [ 32 ].

Annapurna region is one of the world's most popular trekking destinations which comprises a variety of ecosystems from sub-tropical lowlands and temperate forest to some of the world's highest alpine peaks [ 7 ]. To save the region’s biological diversity from growing environmental crisis, conservation area was set up handling management by government to National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC), formerly King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation (KMTNC) [ 11 ]. Considering local people as a custodian of natural and cultural heritage, participatory natural resources conservation method was implemented for making project financially sustainable [ 11 ]. With a goal to lessen the adverse impacts and strengthen the positive benefits of tourism, bottom up approach based on local management was implemented in Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP) [ 7 ]. While trekking through Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA), visitors can enjoy hiking, mountaineering, viewing wildlife and visiting cultural sites, ethnic museums and natural photography [ 39 ]. For this, ACAP collect entry fees from international tourist for community development projects on health and sanitation, education, environmental protection, etc. [ 11 ]. Also, to increase community ownership and participation, management committees have been formed which enhance ecotourism for conservation and development activities by implementing fuel-efficient stoves, back boilers, kerosene and electricity [ 5 , 7 ].

Homestays in Barpak, Nepal, are helpful in addressing socioeconomic, political, ethnic and gender disparities. They have experienced cleaner pathways, yards and junctions with shops full of a variety of cleaner products, water taps and public toilets [ 38 ].

Total number of tourist arrival in Nepal in 2012, 2013 and 2014 was 803,092, 797,616 and 790,118, respectively. Annual growth rate of tourists during these years was 9.1, -0.70 and -0.95 and their average length of stay was 12.16, 12.51 and 12.44, respectively. But from 2009 to 2012, annual growth rate of tourist and average length of stay was in increasing trend. Out of total tourist arrival in Nepal, 57.8 percent tourist arrives for the purpose of holiday in 2011 and this trend decreases to 47.3 percent in 2012. In 2013, tourist arriving for the purpose of holiday was again increased to 51.5 percent. The arrival of tourist for trekking and mountaineering, business, pilgrimage, official and other purpose was 12.8, 3.5, 9.0, 4.7 and 6.8 percent, respectively in 2013 [ 40 ].

2. Methodological issues of ecotourism

Different studies are conducted to assess the issues of ecotourism. There is a need to find out the issues raised in these researches and find out the methodologies applied by them. It would help the researchers to find the subject of research with appropriate methodology. It would be easier and faster to select appropriate literature for them. This part of the chapter reviews the location, aim and methodology of different researches throughout the world.

2.1. Challenges of ecotourism

Nianyong and Zhuge [ 25 ] conducted a study in China’s nature reserves to assess the opportunities and challenges of ecotourism. Questionnaire survey was implemented between July and December 1997 to identify broad issues on ecotourism development in China’s nature reserves.

Schellhorn [ 41 ] conducted a study in Indonesian Island of Lombok to understand the constraints and barriers of ecotourism in indigenous communities with the help of census survey of the local hospitality sector, semi-structured interviews with local tourism stakeholders, participant observations and analytical mapping of tourism infrastructure and services.

Bertella [ 42 ] conducted a study in Norway with an objective to assess the challenges and the critical factors for the development and management of wildlife tourism based on the knowledge of natural sciences. The study was conducted with the help of secondary data from the internet and primary data through informal conversations and semi-structured interviews with the firm leader in June and August 2009.

Becken and Clapcott [ 43 ] conducted a study in Fiji and New Zealand with the help of a research to make appropriate policy to cope with impacts of climate change. Stakeholders of climate change, tourism and both the field were involved in policy-making process.

2.2. Impacts of ecotourism

Okello [ 44 ] conducted a research in Kuku Community Conservation Area (KCCA) in Kenya to assess ethical, ecological, economic and management issues at community level with the help of semi-structured questionnaire to visitors and tour companies.

Degang and Xiaoting [ 14 ] conducted a study in Nongke Village of Chengdu City to assess the concepts and criteria of rural tourism and ecotourism with the help of field work, small-scaled informal discussion, unstructured interviews and data from local tourism management.

Genzong et al. [ 17 ] conducted a research in Wuzhishan Mountain Region of China to identify the information that incorporates ecotourism related values. Sixty-seven questionnaires were administered to assess how the local government officials saw the development of tourism as an important priority in the region through four phases: profiling the community, analyzing trends, creating the vision, and developing an action plan.

Hitchner et al. [ 45 ] conducted a study in Kelabit Highlands of Sarawak, Malaysia, and the Kerayan Highlands of Kalimantan, Indonesia to examine the current state of community-based transboundary ecotourism. The study was conducted with the help of interviews with local guides, homestay owners, urban-based tour operators, tourism promotion centers and agencies; intercommunity dialogues regarding transboundary ecotourism and analysis of promotional materials on ecotourism; comments in the visitors’ books of lodges, tourists’ websites and travel blogs.

Beaumont [ 46 ] conducted a study to identify ecotourists’ environmental concern for sustainability in Australia. For this, 243 respondents having ecotourism experience were surveyed based on the nature and learning criteria of previous segmentation studies. Pro-environmental attitudes were measured as an indication of their sustainability.

Zhuang et al. [ 47 ] conducted a study in Laojunshan area of Northwestern Yunnan Province in Western China to examine an ecotourism demonstration project. They analyzed the strengths and weaknesses of the primary actors such as government, private business, NGO, and local people to evaluate the potential for the development of ecotourism in the current institutional environment in China. In the first stage, government documents and GEI reports from the Laojunshan Ecotourism Project were reviewed to develop a guide for semi-structured interviews. Key stakeholders from different institutions were identified in collaboration with GEI staff. Field interviews were conducted by the first author using a fairly open framework for focused conversations with a core set of questions. Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) analysis and an analytical hierarchy process (AHP) were used to analyze the data.

K.C. et al. [ 5 ] conducted a study in the Ghandruk Village Development Committee of Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal to assess the impacts of ecotourism on environmental conservation, social and cultural heritage preservation, economic development and enhancement of livelihoods. Two hundred and forty two households were interviewed, followed by three focus group discussions and five key informant interviews.

2.2.1. Environmental impacts of ecotourism

Obua [ 48 ] conducted a study to assess the environmental impacts of recreation on camping sites and nature trails in Kibale National Park in Uganda. Nine physical parameters were assessed in camping sites and four parameters on nature trails of the national park.

Kelkit et al. [ 9 ] conducted a study in Kazdagi (Mt. Ida) National Park, Turkey to assess tourism activities sensitive to the environment and spread ecotourism by protecting biological species in Turkey and neighboring countries. Strength, Weakness, Opportunity and Threat analysis of the Park was done to derive strategic proposals for future development.

Winson [ 49 ] conducted an empirical case study to examine efforts on the Island of Cuba to establish environmentally sensitive and sustainable tourism. The study was conducted with face-to-face interviews with key informants from semi-autonomous agencies organizing eco-tours, personnel at government ministries, management personnel involved in ecotourism and government park managers involved with tourism operations.

Ballantyne and Pickering [ 50 ] conducted a scoping assessment to identify the loss of orchids by tourism activity in the wild by directly collecting, habitat clearance and trampling and indirectly by weeds, pathogens and climate change using data on Australian threatened orchids.

Coghlan [ 51 ] assessed the relationships between natural resource management and tour operators’ inputs and outputs with the help of quantitative and secondary data collection methods. Input data were collected from a variety of secondary sources whereas output data were collected through 4800 surveys of reef visitors from November 2006 to December 2008. Analysis of data was carried in SPSS 16.

2.2.2. Social impacts of ecotourism

Maikhuri et al. [ 52 ] conducted a study in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, India with the help of detailed household survey and interviews with buffer zone villages to collect information on socio-economic conditions and population structure.

Clifton and Benson [ 53 ] conducted a study to identify the nature and causes of socio-cultural impacts of ecotourism from Indonesia with the help of semi structured interviews with local residents and ecotourists.

Dicken [ 54 ] conducted a study in Pondoland Marine Protected Area, South Africa to assess the recreational aspects of the boat-based tourism industry focused on the sardine run and estimate the economic value to the local communities with the help of face to face questionnaire survey.

Gezon [ 55 ] conducted a study in Ankarana protected area, Madagascar using a qualitative and longitudinal approach focusing on the social impacts of tourist intensification by comparing and contrasting communities nearby the protected area.

2.2.3. Economic impacts of ecotourism

Brunet et al. [ 19 ] conducted a study in Bhutan to assess the relationship of tourism, development, culture and environment. Primary data was collected through field visit, participant observation and interviews with stakeholders while secondary data was collected from electronic and printed texts.

Maroudas and Kyriakaki [ 20 ] conducted a study in two small islands of Dodecanese to describe and assess the relations and interactions between local development and ecotourism.

Boxill and Severin [ 56 ] conducted an exploratory study on tourism development and its impact on the caribs of Dominica.

Silva and McDill [ 57 ] conducted a study in Pennsylvania and Maryland in the United States to compare agency and business perspectives on barriers affecting ecotourism suppliers. Data were collected through forty five face to face key informant interviews with business owners, tour operators and outfitters, state and local government personnel, natural resource managers working on public lands and conservation leaders.

Nath and Alauddin [ 24 ] conducted a study in Sitakunda Botanical Garden and Eco-park, Chittagong, Bangladesh to assess the impact of park in rural community. Socio-economic survey, personal observations, informal discussion and key informant interviews was conducted using a semi-structured questionnaire with visitor and park managers.

Duffy [ 4 ] conducted a study in Madagascar to observe the development of ecotourism in the wider debates of neoliberalism and commodification of nature. Thirty six semi-structured interviews with key interest groups involved with environmental policymaking were conducted during a two months of fieldwork in Madagascar in 2004.

Lacher and Nepal [ 58 ] conducted a study to document and examine local-level strategies employed to reduce leakages of tourism revenue in three peripheral regions of Northern Thailand. The study was conducted between October and December 2006 by conducting informal interviews with tourism entrepreneurs, local tourist guides, village officials and village headman.

Zambrano et al. [ 59 ] conducted a study in Osa Peninsula of Costa Rica to assess social and environmental effects of ecotourism. The study was conducted with the help of socioeconomic data from owners, operators, managers, team leaders and locals gathered during the field work from June–August 2005.

Gallagher and Hammerschlag [ 60 ] conducted a study to examine the distribution, frequency and economic value of shark based ecotourism. In 83 locations of 8 geographic regions, 376 shark ecotour operations were identified. A socioeconomic case study of shark tourism in South Africa was conducted from October to November 2010 by taking information on customer served and cost per trip. Consumptive and non-consumptive values of shark resources was compared and discussed. The relative economic importance of shark-based tourism at global scale and potential implications of the industry was evaluated.

Amati [ 30 ] conducted a study in Kimana Community Wildlife Sanctuary, Kenya to explore individual and household experiences of long-term participation with the help of in-depth interviews, a survey, participant observation and secondary data.

Wood et al. [ 61 ] evaluated sustainability of behavioral changes associated with the agreements and development activities supported by the grants and identified determinants of success and lessons in around Kerinci Seblat National Park in Indonesia. They conducted focus-group discussions with village leaders, farmers and others involved in the ICDP and semi structured interviews with villagers, park staffs and local NGO representatives and District Head’s office in three Districts.

Acharya and Halpenny [ 38 ] conducted a study in Barpak, Gorkha, Nepal, to assess the role of homestay tourism in sustainable community development. The study was analyzed through community-based action research and evaluation methodologies. The primary information was generated through ethnographic observations and semi-structured interviews with politicians, social workers, officials, members of youth clubs, NGO workers and women from the homestay households.

K.C. and Thapa Parajuli [ 36 ] conducted a study in Manaslu conservation area (MCA) in Gorkha district of Nepal to assess the impact of ecotourism on livelihood of local people. Seventy-six household surveys, three focus group discussions and five key informant interviews were conducted to get the primary information. Graphical, correlation and regression analysis was carried out for analysis of collected information.

2.3. Visitors attitude towards ecotourism

Stem et al. [ 6 ] conducted a study in Costa Rica to assess ecotourism benefits, impacts and its potential for promoting conservation and community development with the help of semi-structured individual and group interviews and direct observation.

Puhakka and Siikamaki [ 62 ] examines nature tourists’ environmental values and perceptions of ecolabels in PAN Parks certified Oulanka National Park in northeastern Finland. The method includes 273 surveys, 212 to Finnish tourists and 61 questionnaires by foreign tourists of 13 European and 3 other countries.

Cheung and Jim [ 29 ] conducted a study in four remote ecotourism hot spots in Hong Kong to understand the resource base and visitor attitude and expectation. The study was conducted with the help of 456 questionnaire surveys with visitors to evaluate the preferences of ecotourism services.

With an objective to identify the local tourism resources and calculate the ecotourism carrying capacity, Shi et al. [ 27 ] conducted a study in Shangri-La County in China. The information related to ecotourism related aspects and a resource was gathered with the help of seminars, randomized surveys and consultations with local authorities between September and October 2011.

Nepal [ 63 ] conducted a study to find the areas of satisfaction and concerns that tourists expressed on their stay in the lodges of Annapurna Conservation Area and its effect on their total ecotourism experience. The study was conducted in May 2004 for a period of three weeks based on on-site exit interviews with 130 trekkers in the Annapurna region by in-depth qualitative discussions.

Baral et al. [ 39 ] conducted a study in Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA), Nepal to evaluate ecotourism and rate their level of satisfaction from their ecotourism experience. For this, a sample of 315 international visitors were surveyed in April and May of 2006 in Ghorepani. Statistically valid and reliable confirmatory factor analysis ecotourism evaluation scale containing seven items was applied to assess visitors’ perceptions of the socio-economic and environmental outcomes of ecotourism.

2.4. Role of local guide in ecotourism

Black et al. [ 64 ] conducted a study on range of Ecotour guide training in less developed countries with the help of literature review and emailed questionnaire survey to 240 individuals. The research was based on training models, program aims, structure and content of existing training, trainers and trainees assessment methods and program evaluation.

Ormsby and Mannle [ 65 ] conducted a study in Masoala National Park, Madagascar focusing on ecotourism benefits and the role of local guides in promoting conservation awareness with the help of interviews, participant observation, and archival research to park’s guide association and residents.

Serenari et al. [ 66 ] conducted a study in Garhwal, Uttarakhand from May-June, 2009 with a goal to predict guides’ intentions on environmentally significant behaviors on their expeditions in Garhwal. The study was conducted with the help of 68 questionnaires by snowball sampling to guides and visiting adventure tour companies, guide agencies and storefronts.

2.5. Ecotourism certification

Matysek and Kriwoken [ 67 ] conducted a study to assess the nature and ecotourism program in Tasmania with the help of in-depth structured interviews with a key informant group of operators, industry representatives, government officials and academics. A qualitative research was conducted on an individual and personalized basis.

Catibog-Sinha and Wen, [ 28 ] conducted a study in Xishuangbanna Biosphere Reserve (XBR), South China to assess the importance of effective tourism planning and management through the integration of the social, economic and environmental goals. The study focuses on the planning stage of the 7Es model, Environment, Economics, Enforcement, Experience, Engagement, Enquiry and Education.

Chung [ 68 ] conducted a study in Hong Kong to assess the problem of implementing international ecotourism certification at local level with the help of face-to-face interviews, tele-interviews and mailed-questionnaires. The views of stakeholders on international certification for ecotourism in Hong Kong were diversified.

Deng et al. [ 69 ] conducted a study in West Virginia to create a point evaluation system to rate and rank forest-based ecotourism areas in West Virginia, USA based on input from academics and ecotourism operators using the Delphi method. It involved one hundred ecotourism academics and sixty one ecotourism operators. Twelve criteria having several indicators were pre-identified from the literature while criteria and associated indicators in the second round were redesigned to reflect the destination conditions and the destination management.

Deng and Selin [ 70 ] conducted a study for the development of a point evaluation system for ecotourism destinations. It involves first round of panel discussion for generation of ideas and the second round for ranking and scoring of measurement items.

Different issues of ecotourism were raised by different researchers throughout the world. Issues such as challenges to ecotourism, impacts of ecotourism focusing on environmental aspects, social aspects and economic aspects, visitors attitude towards ecotourism, role of local guide in ecotourism and ecotourism certification were raised by the researchers. Primary and secondary sources of information were analyzed by researchers through literature reviews, questionnaire survey, semi structured interviews, key informant interviews, participant observation, Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats’ (SWOT) analysis and qualitative researches. This chapter identified location, objectives and methodologies implemented in the ecotourism researches. Methodologies implemented by different researchers were quiet similar but the objectives and study area were different.

3. Ecotourism and its role in sustainable development

Infrastructures for tourism have given many benefits for local residents [ 14 ]. The ecotourism industry is taken as the driving force to accelerate the socio-economic development, change the traditional growth patterns and construct a harmonious and environment-friendly society [ 71 ]. Ecotourism and its impacts on environmental aspects, social aspects and economic aspects throughout the world are described briefly in this part of the chapter with the help of literature review of the researches on impacts of ecotourism.

3.1. Environmental impacts

3.1.1. positive impacts.

Ecotourism is supply led tourism strategy that enables sustainable development with the central theme of ecosystem integrity. It is dictated by the ability of the ecosystem to absorb the impacts but does not exclude the tourist and commercial exploitation of the ecosystem. Ecotourism does not set limits on tourist numbers from the notion of carrying capacity but only controls the nature and extent of their activity [ 16 ]. Atmospheric quality, sound quality, drinking water, sewage, lampblack and all kinds of establishments should meet the relative ordains of the national standards of environmental conservation [ 14 ].

It has significant potential to generate direct community benefits from conservation. It protects the environment, saves unique species and helps to earn money from tourists [ 65 ]. Parks helps in combining conservation and development through a program to bring tourism benefits to local committees [ 65 ]. Commercial hiking and trekking encourage development where guest facilities and businesses are located [ 41 ]. Local people realize the importance of conservation and protect the environment actively [ 14 ]. Conservation of nature attracts tourist and provide high level of satisfaction by exploring the nature and provide partnerships between protected area managers and tourism operators [ 51 ]. Forest coverage rate can be increased which provide solid foundation for developing ecotourism [ 71 ]. Ecotourism emphasized the protection of natural resources and biological diversity during the tourism development. It also requires maintaining the sustainability of resource use and transforming the advantages of regional tourism resources into industrial and economic advantages [ 71 ].

Ecotourism positively influence conservation near protected areas and decreases deforestation and hunting rate. Alternative ecotourism provide economic benefits and discourage the conversion of forest to agricultural and pastoral land. Resource management and financial components play a great role in conservation. Its attractiveness rests in its potential to provide local economic benefits while also maintaining ecological resource integrity through low-impact and non-consumptive use of local resources. Ecotourism has pushed its way to the forefront as one of the preferred tools for conservation and community development in many rural areas [ 6 ].

Ecotourism is a strategy that has been used to create sustainable economic development, while pursuing conservation objectives. It is a tool that may balance the conflicting goals of economic development and biodiversity conservation [ 2 ]. It is developed for the benefit of communities and for conservation activities [ 4 ]. In ecotourism, natural resources are not threatened and local people are encouraged in park protection. Rich natural resources are protected together with the recreational and tourist potential which creates a center of attraction [ 9 ]. Ecotourism project enriches the area with natural regeneration, new plantations, infrastructure development and new destination for visitors and nature-based tourism [ 24 ].

Ecotourism has a positive impact on education, job training, hunting, and deforestation [ 59 ]. There is also positive benefit to flora and fauna [ 49 ]. It is able to limit environmental and cultural impact of Western countries [ 19 ]. By encouraging both ecological sustainability and grassroots development, community-based ecotourism hope that the environmental sensitivity and responsibility promoted by ecotourism can serve the political, economic, social and environmental interests of host communities [ 21 ]. Ecotourism supplies real experiences of natural environments [ 16 ]. Environmentally and culturally sensitive ecotourism programs can play a key role in justifying the rationale for the existence, maintenance and future benefits of protected areas worldwide. They may also serve to mediate conflict by explaining to local residents the purpose of conservation and the roles of park personnel, and can be a means of strengthening park staff’s community visibility and credibility [ 65 ]. It is an excellent solution to increased tourists and increased degradation to natural areas [ 72 ].

Concentration of ecotourism services within a region can marginalize neighboring human communities without causing environmental degradation. Multi-sector planning efforts can maximize profits, distribute benefits equitably and minimize adverse environmental impacts as tourist numbers increase [ 55 ]. The environment-friendly characteristic of ecotourism not only brings more economic benefits but also has notable ecological benefits [ 71 ].

3.1.2. Negative impacts

Tourism is an industrial activity that exerts a series of impacts that are similar to most other industrial activities. It consumes scarce resources, produces waste by-products and requires specific infrastructure and superstructure to support it [ 73 ]. Ineffective management of tourism causes negative impact on protected area resources [ 18 ]. It provides an alternative mechanism of resource utilization which may bring adverse impact on environmental resources. Litter problems had occurred in 44% of the nature reserves, water pollution in 12%, noise pollution in 11% and air pollution in 3% of the nature reserves in China [ 25 ]. Camping sites felt environmental degradation in both wet and dry seasons but more in dry season. Environmental degradation is a common problem which increases with increase in visitor number in a protected area open to recreational use [ 48 ].

Camping and caravanning zones will add increased levels of pollution to the nearby river [ 9 ]. The ecosystem may become less stable and local pollution may have drastic effects, such as fish kills [ 16 ]. Ecotourism will require more space for tourists and increased clearing of land [ 72 ]. Farmers’ extensive farming methods can bring some negative effects, such as sharp drop of forest, vegetation damage, desertification and soil erosion [ 71 ]. Successful ecotourism initiatives may draw increasing interest and a correspondingly higher number of tourists, thus intensifying negative impacts such as solid waste generation, habitat disturbance, and trail erosion. Such impacts could seriously threaten the resources upon which ecotourism depends [ 6 ].

3.2. Social impacts

3.2.1. positive impacts.

The social impacts of tourism are minimal but are largely positive [ 56 ]. The growth of tourism led to migration of people to the area [ 41 ]. Guest houses provide food and beverages and are located along the main access route to the National Park [ 41 ]. Economic benefits of tourism are successful to stop political opposition to economically unviable and environmentally harmful tourism projects [ 23 ].

The local residents show traditional hospitality and their honest folkway in spite of the modernization. The traditional culture has been strengthened in the course of economic development [ 14 ]. Ecotourism operators may organize cultural tours with different community groups to ensure experience of both the tourists and community members [ 6 ]. The rich culture of the neighborhood can be introduced to visitors [ 9 ]. For sustainable ecotourism, lodges should behave as good neighbors to the local people and visitors [ 6 ]. Tourism is conducive to the social stability and harmony [ 71 ].

Ecotourism offers diverse products and services that can be categorized as both a service and an experience. Ecotourism sites, such as historic houses or theme parks, are primarily consumed for their experiential/ emotional dimensions, which is more a representation of consumption of service experiences rather than relating to their functional properties. Thus, the psychological benefits gained by ecotourists are deemed more relevant and important in this context [ 74 ]. There is no conflict between development of planting and conservation of environment. The development of rural tourism provides the villagers with second revenue [ 14 ].

3.2.2. Negative impacts

Tourism intervention has the potential to promote social conflict and challenge cultural values [ 15 ]. It may results in conflicts between the locals and government authorities [ 52 ]. There is increase in alcoholism, drug addiction and prostitution as a result of tourism [ 59 ]. Foreign cultures brought by tourists have an impact on local traditional and plain cultures [ 71 ]. Due to tourism, traditional local people having simple life but material needs are vulnerable to Western influence [ 28 ]. Copy of Westerners clothing by wearing vests by young people is intolerable in some place [ 53 ]. Younger generation conduct between sexes and consumption of alcohol is inappropriate to local norms [ 53 ]. There is conflicting experiences of participation in conceptualization and operation of their communal ecotourism initiative. Community members do not share same understanding and appreciation of financial growth [ 30 ].

3.3. Economic impacts

3.3.1. positive impacts.

Ecotourism enhances conservation and development by providing environmental and economic benefits [ 6 ]. There was socio-cultural change from subsistence to market economy and changes in traditional land resource rights and institutions [ 52 ]. Economic benefit in ecotourism comes from direct employment, rental of accommodation for visitors and the sale of handicrafts and food [ 53 ]. Ecotourism provides local economic benefits such as employment, improved infrastructure, increased business for local stores and also maintain ecological resource integrity through low-impact, non-consumptive resource use [ 6 ].

Rural tourism provides peasantry with more profit, more employment and better living conditions by promoting the linkage of agriculture and tourism [ 14 ]. It develops rural economy and rural culture. It brings a lot of economic income for the local villagers and provides second revenue [ 14 ]. It can attract developed region’s funds to invest in periphery regions through construction, bring revenue through flows of passengers, transportation, and accommodation and solves the poverty problem. It helps to transfer the rural surplus labors to non-agricultural industries, change the traditional rural lifestyle and productive style, increase the income of farmers and improve the welfare [ 71 ]. It had great contribution to the regional economy [ 71 ].

The environment-friendly characteristic of ecotourism brings economic and ecological benefits [ 71 ]. Population having experience and skill for highland tourism business takes ecotourism as the most desirable and important economic opportunity. The major sources of revenue generation in tourism are restaurants, souvenirs shops, guiding services, accommodation and entrance fees [ 58 ]. Additional sources of income from ecotourism might include sale of traditional handicrafts or agricultural products [ 2 ]. Traditional local handicrafts can be sold to tourist to increases economic gains of local communities [ 9 ]. Communities try to enhance economic importance and wanted to develop a greater involvement in the future [ 54 ].

Many parks works as government agency to collect revenue from fee and license, retention of budget surpluses, set prices to overcome the cost of production and coordinate with corporate and non-profit entities [ 18 ]. Ecotourism financially supports protected areas through tourism-related park fees [ 6 ]. It provides revenue to the park authority and income to local people [ 24 ]. Ecotourism is already the largest source of foreign exchange in many countries [ 1 ].

Ecotourism generate foreign exchange earnings, employment, and other economic and social benefits in the areas so it helps in developing thoughtful economic policy and institutional development [ 18 , 23 ]. Accommodation industry are provided more subsidies, tax cuts, concessions, promotional packages and soaps to contribute for the growth and development of the economy [ 23 ]. Ecotourism can be an integral part of the master development strategy of a developing nation [ 75 ].

Half of park visitor entrance fees are allocated to local management committees for development projects of their choice such as road improvements, construction of tables for a primary school, well and public toilet construction and building rehabilitation [ 65 ]. Due to the increase in tourist number, infrastructure for tourism and tour guiding have been developed [ 55 ]. Tourism can have both environmental and social consequences [ 55 ].

Other than the cultural centre and resource access, tourism creates jobs for community members, helps in socio-economic development and generates revenue from conservation [ 44 ]. Tourism is an important source of employment for the people in the territory [ 56 ]. Economic benefits for local residents rates the direct employment of locals in the tourism industry, including hotels, lodges, tourist restaurants, and tourist chauffeuring [ 75 ]. It should be taken as the important way to increase employment and release environmental pressure [ 71 ]. It helps to transfer the rural surplus labors to non-agricultural industries, change the traditional rural lifestyle and productive style, increase the income of farmers and improve the welfare [ 71 ]. It provides more native employment in lower job status and income [ 1 , 41 , 59 ]. Women make up to 45.3% of all staff working in guest houses and restaurants. Nearly 80% of the helping staff is family members with 50% women helpers. But most of the tourism businesses are owned and operated by male migrants or old established noble families [ 41 ]. It is labor intensive and offers a variety of small scale opportunities creating jobs for poor, women, young people and indigenous community [ 1 ]. Tourism and recreation inside the park provides employment and new business opportunities [ 9 ]. The guides working in the tour companies come from local villages and other settlements and know the environment well [ 9 ]. In some cases, community involvement is rudimentary and limited to temporary employment (3–4 weeks) in the form of maids, cooks, entertainers, porters and security guards [ 54 ].

3.3.2. Negative impacts

Ecotourism can bring negative social, cultural and economic impacts. In addition to its potential environmental drawbacks, it often fails to provide widespread economic benefits [ 6 ]. There is major impact on the local economy due to ban on trade and mountaineering/expeditions and trekking activities [ 52 ]. Ineffective management of tourism causes negative impact on park resources [ 18 ].

From the above discussion, environmental, social and economic benefits of ecotourism were observed. Ecotourism has helped in environmental conservation, natural regeneration, new plantations, increase in forest cover, protection of natural resources and biological diversity, conservation of flora and fauna and decrease in deforestation and hunting rate. In spite of these positive environmental impacts, it consumes scarce resources, produces waste by-products, requires specific infrastructure and superstructure, causes litter problem, air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution, destruction of fish, increased clearing of land, drop of forest, vegetation damage, desertification, soil erosion, habitat disturbance and trail erosion.

Increase in traditional hospitality and honest folkway, social stability and harmony, development of rural culture are positive social aspects while negative aspects includes promoting social conflict by challenging cultural values, increase in conflicts between the locals and government authorities, increase in alcoholism, drug addiction and prostitution, adverse impact on local traditional and plain cultures and also makes simple life vulnerable to Western influence.

Economic benefit in ecotourism comes from direct employment, rental of accommodation for visitors, sale of handicrafts and food, improved infrastructure, increased business for local stores, better living conditions, promotion of linkage between agriculture and tourism, development of rural economy, transfer of rural surplus labors to non-agricultural industries, change in traditional rural lifestyle and productive style and increase in income of farmers. Negative impact on the local economy is due to ban on trade, mountaineering/expeditions and trekking activities and negative impact on park resources.

4. Ecotourism and its role in sustainable development in Nepal

Ecotourism helps in sustainable development of the country. As, Nepal is rich in biological, cultural and social diversity, there is a great scope of sustainable development from ecotourism. By observing these benefits, this part assesses the impacts of ecotourism in environment, society and economy with the help of researches conducted in Nepal.

4.1. Environmental impacts

Ecotourism helps in natural resource management and biodiversity conservation in Ghandruk. Increase in forest cover, conservation of flora and fauna, increase in greenery and use of alternative energy sources are the positive environmental impacts of ecotourism. Floral and faunal diversity had also been increased [ 5 ].

In ACA, there are clean and comfortable stays, good local cuisine, outstanding natural scenery and positive interactions with host communities. Satisfaction rating of living room comfort, overall cleanliness, views, peaceful atmosphere, host friendliness, price, and local food exceeded the importance attached to them while bedroom options, toilet, shower, menu, Western food, lodging recommendations and environmental quality did not exceed the importance rating. But the satisfaction of environmental quality was rated very high [ 63 ].

4.2. Social impacts

Ecotourism had helped in increasing mutual help and cooperation, controlling antisocial activities and conserving religious and cultural heritage in Ghandruk. It had also played a great role in maintaining peace and prosperity in the society. There is increase in cooperation of people with religious beliefs and religious tolerance [ 5 ].

The local people felt that the presence of visitors in remote area enhanced their pride in Barpak. Increased excitement of children was the positive outcomes of ecotourism. Success of ecotourism is due to coordination of local community members, line agencies and various levels of government, transparency in the development of the homestay progras, clear guidelines and standards, hospitality training and monitoring of environment and bottom up approach of women taking local level ownership and control. Also, ecotourism entrepreneurs sit in a meeting every month reviews the activities and takes feedback to improve their services. Ecotourism addresses gender inequities by the active involvement of women in economic activities associated with tourism [ 38 ].

4.3. Economic impacts

Government of Nepal recognizes tourism as a priority sector and major contributor to Nepal’s economy. The total foreign exchange earnings from tourism in Nepal in fiscal year 2010/2011, 2011/2012 and 2012/2013 was Rs. 24,611.0, 30,703.8 and 34,210.6 million, respectively. The tourism sector contribution in GDP was 1.5, 1.4, 2.3, 2.8, 2.4, 1.8, 2.0 and 2.0 percent in 2005/2006, 2006/2007, 2007/2008, 2008/2009, 2009/2010, 2010/2011, 2011/2012 and 2012/2013, respectively. The highest total foreign exchange earnings from tourism were Rs. 34,210.6 million in 2012/2013 [ 40 ].

Ecotourism is one of the meaningful sources of economic development and job creation in Ghandruk. It had encouraged people to establish hotels, restaurants, tea shops, bakery cafes, grocery and gift shops. It has brought a lot of economic income for the local villagers [ 5 ]. Ecotourism provides fixed price of available services in a package as per the choice of the tourist in the format of a menu in Barpak [ 38 ].

Ecotourism participation had increased household consumption in MCA. By participating in ecotourism activities, people are able to generate more income and are increasing their household consumption [ 36 ].

Ecotourism has been widely recognized for its role in employment generation and contribution to the national economy. Trekking is recognized as a major part of this industry in Nepal. It can generate jobs directly through hotels, restaurants, taxis, souvenir sales, local guides and indirectly through the supply of goods and services needed by tourism related business. The impressive growth of Pokhara is a good example of how tourism can contribute to economic growth. Similarly, settlements along the trekking routes in ACA have received tourism benefits, which have contributed to development of the region [ 76 ].

Ecotourism has immense potential to help in poverty alleviation in Nepal. It had made significant contribution to rural development, agricultural transformation, community enrichment and social empowerment of women in ACA. Because of higher incomes, many parents of Manang District of ACA can now afford to send their children to high schools and universities in Kathmandu [ 77 ].

From the above findings, it is observed that ecotourism helps in natural resource management, biodiversity conservation, increase in forest cover, conservation of flora and fauna and increase in greenery and use of alternative energy sources in Nepal. It develops mutual help and cooperation, controls antisocial activities, conserves religious and cultural heritage, maintains peace and prosperity in the society and increases cooperation of people with religious beliefs and religious tolerance. Tourism is a major contributor to Nepal’s economy and helps in economic development, job creation, increase in household consumption and poverty alleviation. Also, it had made significant contribution to rural development, agricultural transformation, community enrichment and social empowerment.

5. Needs of ecotourism

Self-reliant communities have greater chance of progress in ecotourism [ 78 ]. There is need for sustainable use of tourism resources, proper handling of tourism demands, repartitioning tourism flow and digital system for tourism management [ 27 ]. Expertise in park management and finance management lowers negative environmental impacts and increases positive economic impact. There will be major shift in park management, tourism management and financial management which will help in sustainable development of tourism [ 18 ].

Local income, biodiversity conservation and cultural preservation are necessary for tourism intervention in remote areas. There is need of improvement of accessibility, liberalization of pricing policy, community empowerment, and development of tourism facilities and incorporation of nature-based tourism products. To generate social, economic and environmental benefits, tourism intervention in protected areas must make a multi or interdisciplinary and interdepartmental effort. This requires strengthening collaboration between the conservation and tourism authorities to develop ecotourism inside the park [ 15 ]. Cultural tourism need to be developed to preserve cultural traditions and enrich the quality of the life of local communities. It is necessary to develop and promote minority cultures to support preserving cultural traditions and education and training programs of ecotourism and nature reserve for tourism operators, employees and tourist [ 17 ].

Ecotourism requires four tradeoffs: success and survival at the expense of ecotourism’s spatial isolation and structural independence; local employment and benefits at the expense of local initiation and control; social status and mobility at the expense of social cohesion and harmony; and incipient environmentalism at the expense of ecological sustainability [ 21 ]. Successful ecotourism ventures depend on an integrated management philosophy that considers beneficiaries, socioeconomic constraints and impacts on the resource base within a realistic spatial and temporal scale. It requires that entire ecosystems, or at least the biological diversity that they contain, are managed in relation to the tourism experience [ 16 ]. Ecotourism and its sustainability require the inclusion of local participation/benefits, economic viability, education dissemination, tourist satisfaction and the minimizing of tourism impact [ 32 ].

5.1. Cooperation of communities

Parks and protected areas need people’s effective participation for meaningful resource management [ 78 ]. If locals are actively involved in tourism planning and development, it becomes much easier to get their support for conservation and avoid serious conflicts with the management [ 22 ]. Support and participation of local communities is important for development and management of the nature reserve [ 17 ]. Community participation is needed to make ecotourism sustainable [ 56 ]. Community-based programs such as community organizing, environmental education and leadership training should be done with the involvement of relevant stakeholders in a collective manner [ 28 ].

After privatization of tourism facilities and services, park management encouraged the local communities to involve directly in delivering tourism activities. Nature guiding training is provided to local communities to enhance themselves in this sector. Local tourism provider associations are established to secure local interest in tourism participation [ 79 ]. Local economic diversity is also important to the sustainability of community-based ecotourism projects [ 2 ]. Mechanisms for managing conflicts between protection and development faced by the nature reserves should be clearly addressed [ 25 ].

Establishment of the National Network of Protected Areas needs sound management and should ensure long-term maintenance and achieve the goal of promoting local economic development within the communities [ 22 ]. The management committee should be formed which include all government agencies responsible in natural resources management and economic development. There is need of cooperation between local governments, local communities, NGOs and the private sector [ 17 ]. Development of park management framework for staff and finance management play a key role in running a park effectively [ 18 ].

Local government officials had a great role for conservation, development and logistical functions towards tourism development [ 17 ]. Local governments should develop fund from provincial and national governments or NGOs for managing the reserve [ 17 ]. Appropriate measures to protect the core area from over-exploitation and unsustainable human use need to be conducted by government [ 28 ]. Macro-scale institutional organization and coordination, both at the national and international levels, are important for the sustainability of community-based projects. Multiple government departments, including ministries of tourism, natural resources, and rural development, should coordinate policies and programs in order to pursue the success of ecotourism projects. International organizations, which often fund ecotourism projects, must also coordinate with government agencies and local non-profits [ 2 ]. Planning and management need to be supervised by a council, advisory board, association, or program, which would be a not-for-profit NGO. The roles of the various stakeholders involved in the project, as well as the hierarchy of the people involved, will need to be clearly articulated, since the success of the ecotourism network will depend on appropriate levels of leadership, cooperation and coordination amongst the involved parties [ 80 ].

Conservation agreements effectiveness depends on appropriate role of local circumstance. An agreement between community and park management is beneficial when people are encouraged to abandon behavior that brings conflicts with conservation. Conditional link between the obligations of the community and benefits is created by agreement with external monitoring and enforcement. If the livelihoods are directly dependent on legal and sustainable use of park resource and services, an agreement for internal control is relevant to regulate access to benefits and prevent selfish behavior [ 61 ].

5.2. Skill and capacity

Tourism agencies need to enhance their skill and capacity to address climate change. Development of strong leadership, commitment and sufficient resource is necessary to cope with impact of climate change on tourism sector [ 43 ]. Knowledge and experience of local community can improve planning and decision making of tourism, conservation and economic development. For the smooth operation of tourism in protected areas, it is important to have trained staff, more efficient administration and better coordination with the contributions of various stakeholders [ 28 ]. Hence, trainings on skills, knowledge and quality development is necessary. For appropriate training approach, research on evaluation of formal training and follow up training is necessary. Systematic evaluation of existing informal and formal training is needed to assist in developing new programs and improve existing ones [ 64 ].

Positive attitude of guide is important to show pro-environmental behavior while guiding [ 66 ]. Visitors prefer good quality information; tour guides and low impact activities and select the destination with high ecological value and good site management [ 29 ]. To promote conservation, education programs should be developed for local residents related to nature reserve [ 17 ]. Overall planning for ecotourism development is necessary in most nature reserves [ 25 ]. There is need of competent staff as tourist guides with good management experience [ 25 ].

5.3 Ecotourism policies

It was recommended to develop environmental friendly policies focusing on research to understand the motivations and expectations of qualified co-workers for a successful recruitment process and conduction of longitudinal studies to investigate the lifecycle of the individual firms [ 42 ]. Management strategies should focus on ways to achieve sustainability by involving local people [ 54 ]. Strategic planning, financial analysis, and business plan development are needed to improve the quality and viability of ecotourism [ 13 ]. Also, climate change and tourism sector requires a strong policy framework led by a government agency to convert private into public and global flow into local flow in the current time [ 43 ].

5.4 Challenges of ecotourism

The main challenge for adoption of natural sciences knowledge in wildlife tourism was lack of competent and dedicated human capital and difficulties in networking. Differences in gender, culture and professional background and difficulties in local networking act as barriers to cooperation within the local context [ 42 ]. Lack of education and English language skills is a major obstacle for tourism business development and direct employment [ 41 , 53 ]. The main challenge is to increase the length of stay of visitors which could be done by hiking and camel safaris [ 44 ].

6. Conclusions

Ecotourism has environmental, social and economic impacts to the community, nation and the whole world. For assessing its issues and impacts, social tools such as questionnaire surveys, focus group discussions, key informant interviews and review of literature were applied by different researchers. It has helped in sustainable development of Nepal and the whole world by conserving environment, increasing employment, enhancing livelihood and promoting the culture and traditions. There is need of cooperation among different stakeholders, training of ecotourism to tourism entrepreneurs and appropriate management policy for sustainable implementation of ecotourism projects.

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• Published: 31 May 2023

Eco-tourism, climate change, and environmental policies: empirical evidence from developing economies

• Yunfeng Shang 1 ,
• Chunyu Bi 2 ,
• Xinyu Wei 2 ,
• Dayang Jiang 2 ,
• Farhad Taghizadeh-Hesary   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5446-7093 3 , 4 &
• Ehsan Rasoulinezhad   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7726-1757 5  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  10 , Article number:  275 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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• Environmental studies

Developing ecotourism services is a suitable solution to help developing countries improve the status of sustainable development indicators and protect their environment. The primary purpose of this paper is to find out the effects of green governance variables and carbon dioxide emissions on ecotourism for 40 developing economies from 2010 to 2021. The results confirmed a uni-directional causal relationship between the green governance indicator and the inflation rate of the ecotourism indicator. In addition, with a 1% improvement in the green governance index of developing countries, the ecotourism of these countries will increase by 0.43%. In comparison, with a 1% increase in the globalization index of these countries, ecotourism will increase by 0.32%. Moreover, ecotourism in developing countries is more sensitive to macroeconomic variables changes than in developed economies. Geopolitical risk is an influential factor in the developing process of ecotourism. The practical policies recommended by this research are developing the green financing market, establishing virtual tourism, granting green loans to small and medium enterprises, and government incentives to motivate active businesses.

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Introduction.

The challenge of climate change has become a primary threat to living on the Earth in the last centuries (Rasoulinzhad and Taghizadeh-Hesary, 2022 ). Many meetings of the countries at the regional and international level are held on the topics of environment and climate change. Regardless of environmental issues, population growth, and the lack of control of greenhouse gas emissions, industrialization has been the most crucial cause of the climate change crisis. Chao and Feng ( 2018 ) address human activity as the leading cause of climate change and express that this challenge is a potential threat to living on Earth. Woodward ( 2019 ) argued that climate change threats include the rise in global temperature, the melting of polar ice caps, and unprecedented disease outbreaks. Therefore, urgent policies and solutions are essential to control and lower the risk of global change. One of the signs of climate change is the increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s surface. Figure 1 shows the temperature data from 1910 to 2021 for the four continents of Asia, Europe, Africa, and North America.

Source: Authors from NOAA ( https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/climate-at-a-glance/global/time-series ).

The data in Fig. 1 shows that the air temperature has increased significantly over the past century, which has been more prominent in Asia and Europe. In 2021, we saw a decrease in temperature changes due to the spread of the Corona disease and a decrease in the rate of greenhouse gas emissions. However, the role of the Asian continent in increasing the global temperature has been more than other continents due to its large population and excessive consumption of fossil fuels.

During the past decades, the world’s countries have tried to formulate and implement various environmental policies collectively in the form of agreements or separately to fight environmental threats. Regarding international agreements, such things as the Paris Agreement of 2015, the Kyoto Protocol of 1997, the Montreal Protocol of 1987, and the Vienna Convention on the Protection of the Ozone Layer in 1985 can be addressed whose primary purpose is to integrate the goals and motivation of the international community to the world’s environmental threats. However, a group of earlier studies, such as Zheng et al. ( 2017 ), Takashima ( 2018 ), and Roelfsema et al. ( 2022 ), emphasized the inefficiency of these global agreements, especially after the left the USA from the Paris Agreement on 1 June 2017. The most important cause of this inefficiency has been the need for more motivation of countries to fulfill their international obligations towards environmental issues. However, many governments consider the threat of climate change only within their geographical boundaries and have tried to formulate and implement green policies to advance their environmental protection goals. These policies include green financial policies (green taxes, green subsidies), monetary policies (such as green loans and green financing), and cultural and social policies in line with sustainable development. The ultimate goal of these green policies is a green economy, an environmentally friendly economy, a zero carbon economy, or a sustainable economy. Lee et al. ( 2022 ) define the green economy as a broad concept comprising green industry, agriculture, and services. Centobelli et al. ( 2022 ) express that environmental sustainability should be more attention in the service sector owing to its penetration into social life and interactions.

Tourism and travel-related services are among countries’ main parts of the service sector. By creating the flow of tourists, tourism services can lead to capital transfer, job creation, cultural exchange (globalization), and increasing welfare in the country hosting the tours. According to the Yearbook of Tourism Statistics published by the World Tourism Organization, international tourism has increased from 522.2 billion US dollars in 1995 to nearly 1.86 trillion US dollars in 2019. This increase shows the importance of tourism services in generating income for countries, especially in the era of Corona and post-corona. Casado-Aranda et al. ( 2021 ) express that tourism services can be a central driver of economic growth recovery in post COVID era. Jeyacheya and Hampton ( 2022 ) argue that tourism can make high incomes for host countries leading to job creation and economic flourishing in destination cities for tourists.

An important issue mentioned in the corona era and relies on the post-corona era is the revitalizing of green economic growth. An important issue mentioned in the corona era and relying on the post-corona era is the revitalizing green economic growth (Bai et al., 2022 ; Werikhe, 2022 ), an opportunity that countries should pay more attention to in order to rebuild their economic activities. In other words, countries should plan their return to economic prosperity with environmental issues in mind. To this end, the issue of tourism finds a branch called Ecotourism or sustainable tourism which has environmental concerns and tries to help countries to improve environmental protection policies. Ecotourism is an approach based on environmental criteria, which is opposed to over-tourism (a type of tourism that disrupts the protection of the environment and destroys natural resources). The International Ecotourism Society defines Ecotourism as an efficient way to conserve the environment and improve local people’s well-being. It can be said that Ecotourism, along with various economic advantages (income generation, job creation, globalization, poverty alleviation), will bring environmental protection to the world’s countries, achieving the goals of green economic growth recovery and sustainable development. Xu et al. ( 2022 ) consider Ecotourism as one of the essential components of achieving sustainable development in the post-corona era.

Ecotourism in developing countries has more priorities compared to developed economies. Firstly, developing countries are often countries with financial problems of the government, and the governments in these countries need more capital to advance sustainable development goals. Therefore, developing ecotourism services can be a suitable solution to help these countries improve the status of sustainable development indicators and protect their environment. Second, due to the spread of the Corona disease, developing countries have experienced numerous bankruptcy in the tourism services sector. Therefore, promoting ecotourism in these countries is of great importance in the post-corona era. Third, developing countries have a high share in the emission of greenhouse gases in the world due to their high dependence on fossil fuels and the lack of advanced green technologies. Fourth, due to bureaucratic processes, high cost, and lack of market transparency, greenwashing may happen in developing economies’ ecotourism industry, meaning that a company serving ecotourism services makes its activities seem more sustainable and ethical than they are. The term “greenwashing” can harshly impact the future development path of the ecotourism industry in developing economies. According to the reasons mentioned above, developing ecotourism in developing countries can be an essential factor in controlling and reducing greenhouse gas emissions in these countries.

This paper tries to contribute to the existing literature from the following aspects:

Calculating the ecotourism index for selected countries based on the criteria for measuring sustainable tourism stated by the World Tourism Organization in the United Nations. Considering that there is no specific index for ecotourism, the calculation of ecotourism in this article will be innovative.

Measuring the green governance index as a proxy for environmental policies for selected countries based on the Environment Social and Governance (ESG) data.

Selecting a sample of 40 developing countries from different geographical regions to calculate the interconnections between ecotourism, green governance, and climate change

Making a further discussion to address the role of uncertainty and the developing level of countries in the relationship between ecotourism and explanatory variables.

The main results confirm the existence of a uni-directional causal relationship running from the green governance indicator and inflation rate to the ecotourism indicator. In addition, with a 1% improvement in the green governance index of developing countries, the ecotourism of these countries will increase by 0.43%. A 1% increase in the globalization index of these countries accelerates ecotourism by 0.32%.

Moreover, ecotourism in developing countries is more sensitive to macroeconomic variables changes than in developed economies. Geopolitical risk is an influential factor in the developing process of ecotourism. The practical policies recommended by this research are developing the green financing market, establishing virtual tourism, granting green loans to small and medium enterprises, and government incentives to motivate active businesses.

The paper in continue is organized as follows: section “Literature review” provides a short literature review to determine the gaps this research seeks to fill. Section “Data and model specification” argues data and model specification. The following section represents empirical results. Section “Discussion” expresses discussion, whereas the last section provides conclusions, policy implications, research limitations, and recommendations to research further.

Literature review

This part of the article analyzes and classifies the previous literature on ecotourism and sustainable development in a rational and structured way. The importance of tourism in economic growth and development has been discussed in previous studies. However, the study of the effect of tourism on climate change has received little attention. Especially the relationship between sustainable tourism, climate change, and environmental policies is a problem that has yet to receive the attention of academic experts.

A group of previous studies has focused on the place of tourism in economic development and growth. Holzner ( 2011 ) focused on the consequences of tourism development on the economic performance of 134 countries from 1970 to 2007. They found out that excessive dependence on tourism income leads to Dutch disease in the economy, and other economic sectors need to develop to the extent of the tourism sector. In another study, Sokhanvar et al. ( 2018 ) investigated the causal link between tourism and economic growth in emerging economies from 1995 to 2014. The main results confirmed that the linkage is country-dependent. Brida et al. ( 2020 ) studied 80 economies from 1995 to 2016 to determine how tourism and economic development are related. The paper’s conclusions highlighted tourism’s-positive role in economic activities.

Another group of previous studies has linked tourism to sustainability targets. Sorensen and Grindsted ( 2021 ) expressed that nature tourism development has a positive and direct impact on achieving sustainable development goals of countries. In a new study, Li et al. ( 2022 ) studied the impacts of tourism development on life quality (as one of the sustainable development goals defined by the UN in 2015) in the case of Japan. They found that tourism development positively impacts the quality of life of age groups in the country. Ahmad et al. ( 2022 ) explored the role of tourism in the sustainability of G7 economies from 2000–2019. The primary findings revealed the positive impact of tourism arrivals on sustainable economic development. Zekan et al. ( 2022 ) investigated the impact of tourism on regional sustainability in Europe. They concluded that tourism development increases transport, leading to increased carbon dioxide emissions. Therefore, tourism development causes environmental pollution.

Tourism that can pay attention to environmental issues is called “ecotourism.” Many new studies have studied different dimensions of ecotourism. Lu et al. ( 2021 ) expanded the concept of the ecotourism industry. The significant results expressed that smart tourist cities are essential for efficient ecotourism in countries. Thompson ( 2022 ) expressed the characteristics of ecotourism development through survey methodology. The results confirmed the importance of transparent regulations, government support, and social intention to promote ecotourism. In another study, Heshmati et al. ( 2022 ) employed the SWOT analysis method to explore the critical success factors of ecotourism development in Iran. They found that legal documentation and private participation are major influential factors in promoting ecotourism in Iran. In line with the previous research, Hosseini et al. ( 2021 ) tried to explore the influential factors in promoting ecotourism in Iran by employing a SWOT analysis. They depicted that attracting investors is essential to enhance ecotourism projects in Iran. Hasana et al. ( 2022 ) reviewed research to analyze the earlier studies about ecotourism. The conclusions expressed that ecotourism is necessary for environmental protection. However, it is a challenging plan for the government, and they should carry out various policies toward ecotourism development. Kunjuraman et al. ( 2022 ) studied the role of ecotourism on rural community development in Malaysia. The significant results confirmed that ecotourism could transfer-positive impacts.

Several earlier studies have concentrated on the characteristics of ecotourism in different developed and developing economies. For example, Ruhanen ( 2019 ) investigated the ecotourism status in Australia. The paper concluded that the country could potentially make a larger share of ecotourism to the entire local tourism industry. Jin et al. ( 2022 ) studied the role of local community power on green tourism in Japan. They concluded that the concept of agricultural village activity and regional support positively influences the development of green tourism in Japan as a developed economy. Choi et al. ( 2022 ) sought to find aspects of ecotourism development in South Korea. The preliminary results confirmed the importance of green governance and efficient regulation to promote a sustainable tourism industry. Baloch et al. ( 2022 ) explored the ecotourism specifications in the developing economy of Pakistan. They found that Pakistan’s ecotourism needs government support and the social well-being of the visited cities. Sun et al. ( 2022 ) studied ecotourism in China. They concluded that there is imbalanced development of ecotourism among Chinese provinces due to the need for more capital to invest in all ecotourism projects throughout the Chinese cities. Tajer and Demir ( 2022 ) analyzed the ecotourism strategy in Iran. They concluded that despite various potentials in the country, insufficient capital, lack of social awareness, and political tension are the major obstacles to promoting a sustainable tourism industry in Iran.

Another group of earlier studies has drawn attention to promoting eco-tourism in the post COVID era. They believe that the corona disease has created an excellent opportunity to pay more attention to environmental issues and that countries should move towards sustainable development concepts such as sustainable (eco) tourism in the post-corona era. Soliku et al. ( 2021 ) studied eco-tourism in Ghana during the pandemic. The findings depicted the vague impacts of a pandemic on eco-tourism. Despite the short-term negative consequence of the pandemic on eco-tourism, it provides various opportunities for developing this sector in Ghana. Hosseini et al. ( 2021 ) employed the Fuzzy Dematel technique to find solutions for promoting eco-tourism during COVID-19. They found out that planning to increase the capacity of eco-tourism and incentive policies by governments can help promote the eco-tourism aspect under the pandemic’s consequences. Abedin et al. ( 2022 ) studied the consequence of COVID-19 on coastal eco-tourism development. The primary findings confirmed the negative impacts of a pandemic on the development of eco-tourism.

A review of previous studies shows that tourism can positively impact green growth and sustainable development. Sustainable tourism can be used as a policy to deal with the threat of climate change. This issue needs more attention in the corona and post-corona eras. Because in the post-corona era, many countries have sought to revive green economic growth, and ecotourism can be one of the tools to achieve it. As observed, a detailed study of the relationship between climate change, ecotourism, and environmental policies has yet to be done. Therefore, this research will address and fill this literature gap.

Data and model specification

Data description.

The paper seeks to find the relationship between climate change, ecotourism, and environmental policy for the panel of 40 developing economies from different regions from 2010 to 2021 (480 observations). The sample size could have been more extensive due to the lack of information on some variables. However, there are 480 observations in the data analysis of the data panel; therefore, the number of samples selected is acceptable.

To determine the proxies for main variables, CO2 emissions per capita are selected as the proxy for climate change. Many earlier studies (e.g., Espoir et al., 2022 ) have employed this variable as an appropriate variable representing the status of climate change. Regarding ecotourism, the World Tourism Organization proposed some measurements of sustainable tourism, and also following Yusef et al. ( 2014 ), the entropy weight method is employed to calculate a multi-dimensional ecotourism indicator comprising per capita green park area (square meters), gross domestic tourism revenue (US dollars), the ratio of good air quality (%), green transport, renewable water resources (km3) and deforestation rate (%). It is a novel ecotourism indicator that can show the ecotourism status in countries.

In addition, the green governance index is calculated as a proxy for environmental policy. Principally, the Environment, Social, and Governance (ESG) data from World Bank are gathered to calculate this variable. With the improvement of the Green Governance Index, the quality of environmental policies will also increase, and vice versa. With the adverseness of the Green Governance Index, the efficiency of environmental policies will decrease.

Regarding control variables, the inflation rate as an influential factor in tourism flows is selected. The importance of this variable to promoting/declining tourism flows has been drawn to attention by some earlier studies, such as Liu et al. ( 2022 ). The inflation rate can raise the total cost of travel, causing a reduction in tourism flows, while any reduction in the inflation rate can increase the intention of tourists to travel. In addition, the KOF globalization index provided by the KOF Swiss Economic Institute is another control variable. A country with a higher degree of globalization means more readiness to accept tourists from countries with different cultures and religions.

Model specification

According to the variables mentioned above, 40 examined developing countries from 2010 to 2021, the panel co-integration model can be written as Eq. 1 :

ETOR indicates the ecotourism index, while CO2, GGI, INF, and GLOB denote Carbon dioxide emissions per capita, green governance index, inflation rate, and globalization index, respectively. i is 1,2,…,40 and shows examined developing economies, while t is time and contains 2010, 2011,..,2021.

Prior to the estimation of coefficients of Eq. 1 , the panel unit root tests are employed to find out whether the series is stationary. To this end, three tests of LLC (Levin et al., 2002 ), Breitung’s test ( 2000 ), and the PP-Fisher test (Philips and Perron, 1988 ). If all the variables are stationary at the first level of difference (I(1)), a panel co-integration test can be conducted to explore whether the model is spurious. To this end, Kao’s co-integration test ( 1999 ) and Pedroni’s residual co-integration test ( 2004 ) are conducted. If the co-integration relationship exists among variables, the panel causality test can be run to determine the causal linkages among variables. In this paper, the two steps of Engle and Granger (1987)‘s test, which is based on the error correction model (ECM) is used as Eqs. 2 – 6 :

In the above Equations, Δ is the first differences of variables, while θ and ECT represent the fixed country effect and error correction term.

The next step is the long-run panel co-integration estimations. To this end, Fully Modified OLS (FMOLS) and Dynamic OLS (DOLS) as robustness checks are conducted, which are two famous panel co-integration estimators (Rasoulinezhad, 2018 ). The FMOLS estimator has various advantages. It allows serial correlation, endogeneity, and cross-sectional heterogeneity (Erdal and Erdal, 2020 ).

Empirical results

In this section, we will implement the experimental research model. The purpose of implementing an econometric model based on panel data is to find the effects of green governance variables and carbon dioxide emissions on ecotourism. As the first step, the panel unit root tests are conducted. The results are reported in Table 1 as follows:

According to Table 1 , all three-panel unit root tests depict that all series are non-stationary at the level and become stationary after a first difference. Next, the panel co-integration tests are conducted, and their results are represented in Tables 2 and 3 :

The two-panel co-integration tests’ findings confirm the presence of co-integration linkages among variables.

The panel causality test studies the short-term and long-term causal relationship among variables. Table 4 reports the results of the panel causality check as follows:

According to Table 4 , there is a uni-directional causal relationship between the green governance indicator and the inflation rate of the ecotourism indicator. At the same time, there is a bi-directional causal relationship between carbon dioxide emissions and ecotourism indicators, confirming the existence of the feedback effect. In addition, there is only short-term causality from the green governance indicator to carbon dioxide emissions. In contrast, ecotourism and the globalization index have a uni-directional causal linkage. In the short term, improving ecotourism can cause globalization and reduce carbon emissions in developing economies. Regarding the long-term causality, it can be concluded that the ECT of ecotourism, green governance index, and globalization index are statistically significant. These three variables are major adjustment variables when the system departs from equilibrium.

In the last stage, the long-run estimations are done through FMOLS and DOLS estimators. Table 5 lists the results of the estimations by these two-panel co-integration estimators:

Based on FMOLS estimation, it can be concluded that the Green Governance index has a positive and significant coefficient in such a way that with a 1% improvement in the green governance index of developing countries, the ecotourism of these countries will increase by 0.43%. By improving the state of green governance, the quality of formulated and implemented green policies in these countries will increase, improving the conditions of ecotourism development. This finding aligns with Agrawal et al. ( 2022 ) and Debbarma and Choi ( 2022 ), who believe that green governance is essential to sustainable development. In the case of carbon dioxide emissions, the coefficient of this variable is not statistically significant. In other words, the variable of carbon dioxide emissions per capita has no significant effect on ecotourism in developing countries. The inflation rate has a significant negative effect on ecotourism. With a 1% increase in the general prices of goods and services in developing countries, ecotourism will decrease by 0.34%. This finding aligns with Rahman ( 2022 ), who showed a negative relationship between inflation and sustainable development in their research. An increase in inflation means an increase in the total cost of a tourist’s trip to the destination country, inhibiting the growth of tourist services.

Regarding the globalization variable, this variable has a significant positive effect on the ecotourism of developing countries. With a 1% increase in the globalization index of these countries, ecotourism will increase by 0.32%. Globalization means more interaction with the world’s countries, acceptance of different cultures and customs, more language learning in society, more acceptance of tourism, and development of tourist services in the country. This finding is consistent with the results of Akadiri et al. ( 2019 ), who confirmed that globalization is one of the crucial components in tourism development.

The DOLS estimator was also used to ensure the obtained findings’ validity. The results of this method are shown in Table 5 . The signs of the coefficients are consistent with the results obtained by the FMOLS method. Therefore, the validity and reliability of the obtained coefficients are confirmed.

In this section, we will briefly discuss the relationship between ecotourism and climate change and the environmental policy considering the uncertainty and the relationship between variables in developed and developing countries.

Consideration of uncertainty

Uncertainty as a primary reason for risk has become a research issue in recent decades. Uncertainty can make the future unpredictable and uncontrollable, affecting economic decision-making. Regarding tourism, the impacts of uncertainty have been drawn to attention by several earlier studies (e.g., Dutta et al., 2020 ; Das et al., 2020 ; and Balli et al., 2019 ; Balli et al., 2018 ). In general, uncertainty in the tourism industry reflects tourists’ concerns and consumption habits in the way that by increasing uncertainty, it is expected that tourists make sense of risks and postpone their tourism activities, and vice versa; in the sphere of certainties, the various risks are clear, and tourists can make rational decisions for their tourism plans and activities. In order to explore the impacts of uncertainties on eco-tourism of the examined developing economies, the geopolitical risk index (GPR) as a proxy for economic policy uncertainty index is gathered and added as a control variable to Eq. 1 . The estimations results by FMOLS are reported in Table 6 as follows.

According to Table 6 , the uncertainty (geopolitical risk) has a negative coefficient meaning that with a 1% increase in geopolitical risk, the eco-tourism industry in the examined developing countries decreases by approximately 0.69%. The signs of coefficients of other variables align with the earlier findings, represented in Table 5 . In addition, the magnitude of the impact of geopolitical risk is larger than the impacts of other variables highlighting the importance of lower geopolitical risk in these economies to reach sustainable tourism targets.

Difference in developed and developing economies

Considering the different structures and financial power of these two groups of countries, the relationship between the variables mentioned in these two groups is expected to be different. In the previous section, the results for the group of developing countries showed that the Green Governance index has a positive and significant coefficient. In the case of carbon dioxide emissions, the coefficient of this variable is not statistically significant. The inflation rate has a significant negative effect on ecotourism. Regarding the globalization variable, it can be mentioned that this variable has a significant positive effect on the ecotourism of developing countries. In order to analyze the relationship between variables in the developed countries, the top 10 countries with the highest HDI in 2021 are selected (Switzerland (0.962), Norway (0.961), Iceland (0.959), Hong Kong (0.952), Australia (0.951), Denmark (0.948), Sweden (0.947) and Ireland (0.945)). The selected variables, explained in section “Data and model specification”, are collected from 2010 to 2021. The panel unit root tests confirmed that all series are non-stationary at the level and become stationary after a first difference. In addition, the presence of co-integration linkages among variables is revealed by the panel co-integration test. The panel co-integration estimator of FMOLS is employed to study the long-term relationship among variables. The findings are reported in Table 7 as follows:

According to the estimated coefficients, the green governance indicator positively and statistically significantly impacts ecotourism in the examined developed economies. However, the magnitude of the impact of this variable is more considerable for developing countries because these countries have more imbalances in markets and regulations. Therefore, the presence of good green tourism can have a more positive effect on advancing the goal of ecotourism. Contrary to the findings of developing countries, carbon dioxide emission in developed countries has a negative and significant effect, meaning that with an increase of 1% in carbon dioxide in developed countries, the level of ecotourism becomes more unfavorable by 0.034%. Moreover, inflation and globalization variables have significant negative and positive coefficients, respectively. However, the magnitudes of these two variables’ coefficients are also higher in developing countries. Ecotourism in developing countries is more sensitive to changes in macroeconomic variables such as green governance, globalization, and inflation.

Another difference between eco-tourism in developed and developing economies may be interpreted through the term “greenwashing,” introduced by Westerveld in 1986 (Maichum et al., 2016 ). In developing countries, due to the economic structure, limited knowledge, bureaucratic process, lack of legal eco-certification, and imperfect competition, a company involved in the eco-tourism industry makes an unsubstantiated claim to deceive consumers into accepting the company’s services are in line with environmental protection policies. Hence, green governance in developing countries should have another role in regulating the eco-tourism market to lower the threat of greenwashing in eco-tourism services.

Conclusions and policy recommendations

Concluding remarks.

The findings of econometric modeling revealed the relationship between environmental policies, climate change, and ecotourism. Based on the findings of the econometric model, the following conclusions can be presented:

A uni-directional causal relationship runs from the green governance indicator and inflation rate to the ecotourism indicator, which means that any changes in green governance and inflation rate cause changes in ecotourism, which is vital for developing economies where governance and inflation rate are two crucial issues.

There is a bi-directional causal relationship between carbon dioxide emissions and ecotourism indicators, confirming the existence of the feedback hypothesis, expressing that in developing economies, any policies related to ecotourism cause changes in CO2 emissions and vice versa.

There is only short-term causality from the green governance indicator to carbon dioxide emissions, whereas there is a uni-directional causal linkage from ecotourism to the globalization index. In other words, in the short term, improving ecotourism can cause globalization and reduce carbon emissions in developing economies.

By improving green governance in developing economies, the quality of formulated and implemented green policies in these countries will increase, improving the conditions of ecotourism development.

An increase in the inflation rate raises the total cost of a tourist’s trip to developing economies, inhibiting the growth of eco-tourist services.

Globalization means more interaction with the world’s countries, acceptance of different cultures and customs, more language learning in society, more acceptance of tourism, and development of tourist services in developing countries.

Policy implications

In order to achieve the promotion of ecotourism in developing countries, the implementation of integrated and effective strategic and practical policies is of great importance. According to the concluding remarks mentioned, practical policies are presented as follows for enhancing ecotourism in developed countries. The development of ecotourism requires the improvement of various infrastructures and mechanisms, which depends on the implementation of projects related to ecotourism in developing countries. Because most countries do not have enough financial power to invest in such projects, developing the green financing market can be one of the critical practical solutions. The green financing tool can increase the investment risk and return on investment in such projects, and as a result, the participation of the private sector in these projects will increase. With information and communication technology development, virtual tourism can solve many environmental issues related to human physical presence. Virtual tourism is one of the branches of tourism services that provide people with destinations, places of interest, and tourist attractions with full quality but in virtual form. Another practical policy is granting green loans to small and medium enterprises active in ecotourism. Despite the organizational agility, these companies do not have the significant financial power to develop different sectors of ecotourism; therefore, the cooperation of the banking industry of developing countries by providing green loans (with low-interest rates) can motivate small and medium-sized companies in the field of activities related to ecotourism. Government incentives to motivate businesses active in ecotourism and government deterrent policies (green tax) from businesses active in the field of tourism to lead them to increase the share of ecotourism in their activities can be a proper operational strategy. In developing countries, the role of government and green governance is vital in advancing the goals of ecotourism. By improving the level of its green governance, the government can create efficient policies, regulations, and social tools to create motivation and desire to accept ecotourism, an essential and undeniable issue in developing societies. Creating a guarantee fund for ecotourism companies in developing countries is another practical policy to support these companies financially. Guarantee funds can be established with the participation of the people of ecotourism destinations in order to strengthen the financial strength of ecotourism companies in these destinations.

Limitations and recommendations to further research

This research had a practical and innovative contribution to the literature on ecotourism in developing countries. The findings obtained from the econometric model analysis provided appropriate practical and strategic policies to the policymakers of countries interested in the development of ecotourism. However, access to data related to the ecotourism index and sustainable development of developing countries due to the lack of community in a specific database is considered one of the critical limitations of this research. This limitation caused many developing countries to be excluded from the research sample, which may have created a deviation in the research. Adding more countries to the test sample in future research is suggested to obtain complete and accurate results. Also, due to the outbreak of the Corona pandemic at the end of 2019 and the Russia-Ukraine war since the beginning of 2022, it is suggested that these two variables be included in the econometric model as an illusion in order to analyze their effects on the ecotourism of the countries of the world. Using other econometric methods, such as artificial neural networks, is suggested to model ecotourism in different countries. Complex modeling by taking into account trends and trends to predict the relationship between variables in the future will be an essential step in formulating effective programs in ecotourism.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Ecotourism and sustainable development: a scientometric review of global research trends

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With the increasing attention and awareness of the ecological environment, ecotourism is becoming ever more popular, but it still brings problems and challenges to the sustainable development of the environment. To solve such challenges, it is necessary to review literature in the field of ecotourism and determine the key research issues and future research directions. This paper uses scientometrics implemented by CiteSpace to conduct an in-depth systematic review of research and development in the field of ecotourism. Two bibliographic datasets were obtained from the Web of Science, including a core dataset and an expanded dataset, containing articles published between 2003 and 2021. Our research shows that ecotourism has been developing rapidly in recent years. The research field of ecotourism spans many disciplines and is a comprehensive interdisciplinary subject. According to the research results, the evolution of ecotourism can be roughly divided into three phases: human disturbance, ecosystem services and sustainable development. It could be concluded that it has entered the third stage of Shneider’s four-stage theory of scientific discipline. The research not only identifies the main clusters and their advance in ecotourism research based on high impact citations and research frontier formed by citations, but also presents readers with new insights through intuitive visual images.

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1 Introduction

Ecotourism, which has appeared in academic literature since the late 1980s, is a special form of nature-based tourism that maintains the well-being of the local community while protecting the environment and provides tourists with a satisfying nature experience and enjoyment (Ceballos-Lascuráin, 1996 ; Higgins, 1996 ; Orams, 1995 ). With years of research and development, ecotourism has risen to be a subject of investigation in the field of tourism research (Weaver & Lawton, 2007 ). In 2002, the United Nations declared it the International Year of Ecotourism (IYE), and the professional Journal of Ecotourism was established in the same year.

With the progress and maturity of ecotourism as an academic research field, countless scholars have put forward standards and definitions for ecotourism (Sirakaya et al., 1999 ; Wight, 1993 ). The main objectives of ecotourism emphasize long-term sustainable development (Whitelaw et al., 2014 ), including the conservation of natural resources, the generation of economic income, education, local participation and the promotion of social benefits such as local economic development and infrastructure (Ardoin et al., 2015 ; Coria & Calfucura, 2012 ; Krüger, 2005 ; Oladeji et al., 2021 ; Ross & Wall, 1999 ; Valdivieso et al., 2015 ). It can also boost rural economies and alleviate poverty in developing countries (Snyman, 2017 ; Zhong & Liu, 2017 ).

With unrestricted increasing attention to the ecological environment and the improvement of environmental awareness, ecotourism is becoming ever more prevalent, and the demand for tourism is increasing year by year (CREST, 2019 ). This increase, however, leads to a number of environmental, social and economic challenges in the development of ecotourism. For example, due to the low public awareness of ecotourism, the increase in tourists has brought a series of negative impacts on the local ecological environment, culture and economy, including disrespect for local culture and environmental protection, as well as more infrastructure construction and economic burden to meet the needs of tourists (Ahmad et al., 2018 ; Chiu et al., 2014 ; Shasha et al., 2020 ; Xu et al., 2020 ). Such challenges and contradictions are urgent problems to be tackled by the sustainable development of ecotourism. Especially against the backdrop of the current pandemic, tourism has experienced a severe blow, but climate change and other environmental issues have not been improved (CREST, 2020 ). In this context, facing these challenges and difficulties, it is essential to re-examine the future development path of ecotourism, to explore how government agencies can formulate appropriate management policies while preserving the environment and natural resources to support sustainable tourism development. Accordingly, it is necessary to consult literature in the field of ecotourism to understand the research progress and fundamental research issues, to identify challenges, suitable methods and future research direction of ecotourism.

Some previous reviews of ecotourism offer a preview of research trends in this rapidly developing area. Weaver and Lawton ( 2007 ) provide a comprehensive assessment of the current state and future progress of contemporary ecotourism research, starting with the supply and demand dichotomy of ecotourism, as well as fundamental areas such as quality control, industry, external environment and institutions. Ardoin et al. ( 2015 ) conducted a literature review, analyzing the influence of nature tourism on ecological knowledge, attitudes, behavior and potential research into the future. Niñerola et al. ( 2019 ) used the bibliometric method and VOSviewer to study the papers on sustainable development of tourism in Scopus from 1987 to 2018, including literature landscape and development trends. Shasha et al. ( 2020 ) used bibliometrics and social network analysis to review the research progress of ecotourism from 2001 to 2018 based on the Web of Science database using BibExcel and Gephi and explored the current hot spots and methods of ecotourism research. These reviews have provided useful information for ecotourism research at that time, but cannot reflect the latest research trends and emerging development of ecotourism either of timeliness, data integrity, research themes or methods.

This study aims to reveal the theme pattern, landmark articles and emerging trends in ecotourism knowledge landscape research from macro- to micro-perspectives. Unlike previous literature surveys, from timeliness, our dataset contains articles published between 2003 and 2021, and it will reveal more of the trends that have emerged over the last 3 years. Updating the rapidly developing literature is important as recent discoveries from different areas can fundamentally change collective knowledge (Chen et al., 2012 , 2014a ). To ensure data integrity, two bibliographic datasets were generated from Web of Science, including a core dataset using the topic search and an expanded dataset using the citation expansion method, which is more robust than defining rapidly growing fields using only keyword lists (Chen et al., 2014b ). And from the research theme and method, our review focuses on the area of ecotourism and is instructed by a scientometric method conducted by CiteSpace, an analysis system for visualizing newly developing trends and key changes in scientific literature (Chen et al., 2012 ). Emerging trends are detected based on metrics calculated by CiteSpace, without human intervention or working knowledge of the subject matter (Chen et al., 2012 ). Choosing this approach can cover a more extensive and diverse range of related topics and ensure repeatability of analysis with updated data (Chen et al., 2014b ).

In addition, Shneider’s four-stage theory will be used to interpret the results in this review. According to Shneider’s four-stage theory of scientific discipline (Shneider, 2009 ), the development of a scientific discipline is divided into four stages. Stage I is the conceptualization stage, in which the objects and phenomena of a new discipline or research are established. Stage II is characterized by the development of research techniques and methods that allow researchers to investigate potential phenomena. As a result of methodological advances, there is a further understanding of objects and phenomena in the field of new subjects at this stage. Once the techniques and methods for specific purposes are available, the research enters Stage III, where the investigation is based primarily on the application of the new research method. This stage is productive, in which the research results have considerably enhanced the researchers’ understanding of the research issues and disclosed some unknown phenomena, leading to interdisciplinary convergence or the emergence of new research directions or specialties. The last stage is Stage IV, whose particularity is to transform tacit knowledge into conditional knowledge and generalized knowledge, so as to maintain and transfer the scientific knowledge generated in the first three stages.

The structure of this paper is construed as follows. The second part describes the research methods employed, the scientometric approach and CiteSpace, as well as the data collection. In the third part, the bibliographic landscape of the core dataset is expounded from the macroscopic to the microscopic angle. The fourth part explores the developments and emerging trends in the field of ecotourism based on the expanded dataset and discusses the evolution phase of ecotourism. The final part is the conclusion of this study. Future research of ecotourism is prospected, and the limitations of this study are discussed.

2 Methods and data collection

2.1 scientometric analyses and citespace.

Scientometrics is a branch of informatics that involves quantitative analysis of scientific literature in order to capture emerging trends and knowledge structures in a particular area of study (Chen et al., 2012 ). Science mapping tools generate interactive visual representations of complex structures by feeding a set of scientific literature through scientometrics and visual analysis tools to highlight potentially important patterns and trends for statistical analysis and visualization exploration (Chen, 2017 ). At present, scientometrics is widely used in many fields of research, and there are also many kinds of scientific mapping software widely used by researchers and analysts, such as VosViewer, SCI2, HistCite, SciMAT, Gephi, Pajek and CiteSpace (Chen, 2011 , 2017 ; Chen et al., 2012 ).

Among these tools, CiteSpace is known for its powerful literature co-citation analysis, and its algorithms and features are constantly being refined as it continues to evolve. CiteSpace is a citation visual analysis software developed under the background of scientometrics and data visualization to analyze the basics that are included in scientific analysis (Chen, 2017 ; Chen et al., 2012 ). It is specialized designed to satisfy the need for systematic review in rapidly changing complicated areas, particularly with the ability to identify and explain emerging trends and transition patterns (Chen et al., 2014a ). It supports multiple types of bibliometric research, such as collaborative network analysis, co-word analysis, author co-citation analysis, document co-citation analysis, and temporal and spatial visualization (Chen, 2017 ). Currently, CiteSpace has been extensively used in more than 60 fields, including computer science, information science, management and medicine (Abad-Segura et al., 2019 ; Chen, 2017 ).

In this paper, we utilize CiteSpace (5.8.R1) to analyze acquired bibliographies of ecotourism to study emerging trends and developments in this field. From macro to micro, from intuitive to complex, from whole to part and from general to special, the writing ideas are adopted. Figure  1 presented the specific research framework of this study.

The research framework of this study

2.2 Data collection

Typical sources of scientific literature are Web of Science, Scopus and Google Scholar. Considering the quantity and quality of data, the Web of Science database was expected to provide the original data in this research. In order to comprehend the research status and development trends of ecotourism, this study systematically reviewed the ecotourism literature collected on the Web of Science Core Collection. The Web of Science Core Collection facilitates access to the world’s leading scholarly journals, books and proceedings of conferences in the sciences, social sciences, art, and humanities, as well as access to their entire citation network. It mainly includes Science Citation Index Expanded from 2003 to current and Social Sciences Citation Index from 2004 to present. Therefore, the data obtained in this study are from 2003 and were consulted on June 3, 2021.

In the process of data retrieval, it is frequently confronted with the choice between recall rate and precision rate. To address the problem of low recall rate in keyword or topic retrieval, Chen et al. ( 2014a , b ) expanded the retrieval results through ‘citation expansion’ and ‘comprehensive topic search’ strategies. However, when the recall rate is high, the accuracy rate will decrease correspondingly. In practical standpoint, instead of refining and cleaning up the original search results, a simpler and more efficient way is to cluster or skip these unrelated branches. Priority should be placed on ensuring recall rate, and data integrity is more important than data for accuracy. Therefore, two ecotourism documentation datasets, the core dataset and the expanded dataset, were obtained from the Web of Science by using comprehensive topic search and citation expansion method. The latter approach has been proved more robust than using keyword lists only to define fast-growing areas (Chen et al., 2014b ). A key bibliographic landscape is generated based on the core dataset, followed by more thorough research of the expanded dataset.

2.2.1 The core dataset

The core dataset was derived through comprehensive subject retrieval in Web of Science Core Collection. The literature type was selected as an article or review, and the language was English. The period spans 2003 to 2021. The topic search query is composed of three phrases of ecotourism: ‘ ecotour* ’ OR ‘ eco-tour* ’ OR ‘ ecological NEAR/5 tour* ’. The wildcard * is used to capture related variants of words, for example, ecotour, ecotourism, ecotourist and ecotourists. The related records that are requested include finding these terms in the title, abstract or keywords. The query yielded 2991 original unique records.

2.2.2 The expanded dataset

The expanded dataset includes the core dataset and additional records obtained by reference link association founded on the core dataset. The principle of citation expansion is that if an article cites at least one article in the core dataset, we can infer that it is related to the topic (Garfield, 1955 ). The expanded dataset is comprised of 27,172 unique records, including the core dataset and the articles that cited them. Both datasets were used for the following scientometrics analysis.

3 Bibliographic landscape based on the core dataset

The core dataset consists of a total of 2991 literature from 2003 to 2021. This study utilized the core dataset to conduct an overall understanding of the bibliographic landscape in the field of ecotourism.

3.1 Landscape views of core dataset

The distribution of the yearly publication of bibliographic records in the core and expanded datasets is presented in Fig.  2 . It can be observed that the overall number of ecotourism-related publications is on the rise, indicating that the scholarly community is increasingly interested in ecotourism. After 2018, the growth rate increased substantially. And in 2020, the number of publications in the expanded dataset is close to 5000, almost double that of 2017 and 5 times that of 2011. This displays the rapid development of research in the field of ecotourism in recent years, particularly after 2018, more and more researchers began to pay attention to this field, which also echoes the trend of global tourism development and environmental protection. With the increase in personal income, tourism has grown very rapidly, and with it, tourism revenue and tourist numbers, especially in developing states. For instance, the number of domestic tourists in China increased from 2.641 billion in 2011 to 6.06 billion in 2019, and tourism revenue increased from 1930.5 billion RMB in 2011 to 5725.1 billion RMB in 2019 (MCT, 2021 ). However, due to the lack of effective management and frequent human activities, the rapid development of tourism has led to various ecological and environmental problems, which require corresponding solutions (Shasha et al., 2020 ). This has played an active role in promoting the development of ecotourism and triggered a lot of related research. In addition, since 2005, the expanded dataset has contained numerous times as many references as the core dataset, demonstrating the importance of using citation expansion for literature retrieval in scientometric review studies.

The distribution of bibliographic records in core and expanded dataset. Note The data were consulted on June 3, 2021

The data were consulted on June 3, 2021

The dual-map overlay of scientific map literature as Fig.  3 shows, against the background of global scientific map from more than 10,000 journals covered by Web of Science, represents the distribution and connections on research bases and application fields across the entire dataset of the research topics (Chen & Leydesdorff, 2014 ). Colored lines are citation links, and numbered headings are cluster labels. On the left side is the journal distribution which cites literature, regarding the field application of ecotourism, mainly covers multiple disciplines such as 3. Ecology, Earth, Marine, 6. Psychology, Education, Health, 7. Veterinary, Animal Science and 10. Economics, Economic and Political. On the right side is the distribution of journals of cited literature, representing the research basis of ecotourism. As can be observed from the figure, ecotourism research is based on at least five disciplines on the right, including 2. Environmental, Toxicology, Nutrition, 7. Psychology, Education, Social, 8. Molecular, Biology, Genetics, 10. Plant, Ecology, Zoology and 12. Economics, Economic, Political. It can be viewed that the research field of ecotourism spans multiple disciplines and is a comprehensive and complex subject. The dual-map overlay provides a global visualization of literature growth of the discipline level.

A dual-map overlay of ecotourism literature

The total number of papers issued by a country or an institution reflects its academic focus and overall strength, while centrality indicates the degree of academic cooperation with others and the influence of published papers. The top 15 countries and institutions for the number of ecotourism papers published from 2003 to 2021 are provided in Table 1 . Similar to the study of Shasha et al. ( 2020 ), the ranking of the top six countries by the number of publications remains unchanged. As can be seen from the table, the USA ranks first in the world, far ahead in both the number of publications and the centrality. China ranks second in global ecotourism publications, followed by Australia, England, South Africa and Canada. While the latest data show that Taiwan (China), Turkey and South Korea appear on the list. Overall, the top 15 countries with the most publications cover five continents, containing a number of developed and developing, which shows that ecotourism research is receiving global attention. In terms of international academic cooperation and impact of ecotourism, Australia and England share second place, Italy and France share fourth place, followed by South Africa and Spain. China’s centrality is relatively low compared to the number of publications, ranking eighth. Academic cooperation between countries is of great significance. Usually, countries with high academic publishing level cooperate closely due to similar research interests. International academic cooperation has enhanced each other’s research capacity and promoted the development of ecotourism research. Therefore, although some countries have entered this list with the publication number, they should attach importance to increase academic cooperation with other countries and improving the international influence of published papers.

The Chinese Academy of Sciences and its university are the most prolific when it draws to institutions’ performance. It is the most important and influential research institute in China, especially in the field of sustainable development science. Australia has four universities on the list, with Griffith University and James Cook University in second and third place. USA also includes four universities, with the University of Florida in fourth place. South Africa, a developing country, gets three universities, with the University of Cape Town and the University of Johannesburg fifth and sixth, respectively. In comparison with previous studies (Shasha et al., 2020 ), Iran and Mexico each have one university in the ranking, replacing two universities in Greece, which means that the importance and influence of developing countries in the field of ecotourism is gradually rising. Based on the above results, it can be summarized that the USA, China, Australia and South Africa are relatively active countries in the field of ecotourism, and their development is also in a relatively leading position.

3.2 Most active topics

The foam tree map and the pie chart of the focal topics of ecotourism based on the core dataset generated by Carrot2 through the title of each article is illustrated in Fig.  4 . Developing and developed, case study, protected areas, sustainable tourism, tourism development and developing ecotourism are leading topics in the field of ecotourism research, as well as specific articles under the main topics. The lightweight view generated by Carrot2 provides a reference for the research, and then, co-word analysis is employed to more specifically reflect the topics in the research field.

Foam tree map and pie chart of major topics on ecotourism

The topics covered by ecotourism could be exposed by the keywords of the articles in the core dataset. Figure  5 displays the keywords analysis results generated based on the core dataset. From the visualization results in the figure, it can infer that ecotourism, conservation, tourism, management, protected area, impact, biodiversity, sustainability, national park and community are the ten most concerned topics. Distinct colors set out at the time of co-citation keywords first appear, and yellow is generated earlier than red. In addition, Fig.  5 can also reflect the development and emerging topics in the research field, such as China, Mexico, South Africa and other hot countries for ecotourism research; ecosystem service, economic value, climate change, wildlife tourism, rural tourism, forest, marine protected area and other specific research directions; valuation, contingent valuation, choice experiment and other research methods; willingness to pay, preference, benefit, perception, attitude, satisfaction, experience, behavior, motivation, risk, recreation and other specific research issues.

A landscape view of keywords based on the core dataset

4 Emerging trends and developments based on the expanded dataset

The expanded dataset, consisting of 27,172 records, is approximately nine times larger than the core dataset. This research applies the expanded dataset to profoundly explore the emerging trends and developments of ecotourism.

4.1 Keywords with citation bursts

Detection of citation bursts can indicate both the scientific community’s interest in published articles and burst keywords as an indicator of emerging tendencies. Figure  6 displays the top 30 keywords with the strongest citation bursts in the expanded dataset. Since 2003, a large number of keywords have exploded. Among them, the strongest bursts include ecotourism, bird, disturbance, reserve, Africa, challenge, sustainable development and strategy. Keywords with citation burst after 2017 are experience, challenge, sustainable development, willingness to pay, perspective, strategy, quality and satisfaction, which have continued to this day. The results indicate dynamic development and emerging trends in research hotspots in the field of ecotourism.

Top 30 keywords with the strongest citation bursts

4.2 References with citation bursts

Figure  7 sets out the top 30 references in the expanded dataset with citation bursts. The articles with the fastest growing citations can also contribute to describe the dynamics of a field. References with high values in strength column are important milestones of ecotourism research. The two articles with strong citation bursts prior to 2010 focused on the human impact on the environment and animals. West et al. ( 2006 ) discussed the relationship between parks and human beings and the social impact of protected areas, and Köndgen et al. ( 2008 ) studied the decline of endangered great apes caused by a human pandemic virus. The paper with the strongest citation burst in the entire expanded dataset was released by Fairhead et al. ( 2012 ), which looked at ‘green grabbing,’ the appropriation of land and resources for environmental purposes. Milcu et al. ( 2013 ) conducted a semi-quantitative review of publications dealing with cultural ecosystem services with the second strongest citation burst, which concluded that the improvement of the evaluation method of cultural ecosystem service value, the research on the value of cultural ecosystem service under the background of ecosystem service and the clarification of policy significance were the new themes of cultural ecosystem service research. In addition, many articles with citation burst discussed the evaluation method of ecosystem services value (Costanza et al., 2014 ; Groot et al., 2010 ), the evaluation of cultural ecosystem service value (Plieninger et al., 2013 ) and its role in ecosystem service evaluation (Chan et al., 2012 ; Chan, Guerry, et al., 2012 ; Chan, Satterfield, et al., 2012 ; Chan, Satterfield, et al., 2012 ; Daniel et al., 2012 ). The most fresh literature with strong citation burst is the article of D’Amato et al. ( 2017 ) published in the Journal of Cleaner Production, which compared and analyzed sustainable development avenues such as green, circular and bio economy. In addition, it is worthwhile noting the use of R in ecotourism, with the persuasive citation burst continuing from 2012 to the present, as indicated by the orange arrow in Fig.  7 .

Top 30 references with the strongest citation bursts

4.3 Landscape view of co-citation analysis

The landscape view of co-citation analysis of Fig.  8 is generated based on the expanded dataset. Using g -index ( k  = 25) selection criteria in the latest edition of CiteSpace, an annual citation network was constructed. The final merged network contained 3294 links, 2122 nodes and 262 co-citation clusters. The three largest linked components cover 1748 connected nodes, representing 82% of the entire network. The modularization degree of the synthetic network is 0.8485, which means that co-citation clustering can clearly define each sub-field of ecotourism. Another weighted mean silhouette value of the clustering validity evaluation is 0.9377, indicating that the clustering degree of the network is also very superior. The harmonic mean value amounts to 0.8909.

A landscape view of the co-citation network based on the expanded dataset

In the co-citation network view, the location of clusters and the correlation between clusters can show the intellectual structure in the field of ecotourism, so that readers can obtain an overall understanding of this field. The network falls into 25 co-citation clusters. The tags for each cluster are generated founded on the title, keywords and abstract of the cited article. Color-coded areas represent the time of first appeared co-citation links, with gray indicating earlier and red later. The nodes in the figure with red tree rings are references to citation bursts.

4.4 Timeline view

In order to further understand the time horizon and study process of developing evolution on clusters, after the generation of co-citation cluster map, the Y -axis is cluster number and the year of citation publication is X -axis, so as to obtain the timeline view of the co-citation network, shown as Fig.  9 . Clusters are organized vertically from largest to smallest. The color curve represents co-citation link coupled with corresponding color year, with gray representing earlier and red representing newer. Larger nodes and nodes with red tree rings indicate high citation or citation burst. The three most cited references of the year demonstrate below each node, in vertical order from least to most.

A timeline visualization of the largest clusters

The timeline view provides a reasonably instinctual and insightful reference to understand the evolutionary path of every subdomain. Figure  9 shows 19 clusters ranging from #0 to #18, with #0 being the largest cluster. As can be seen from the figure, the sustainability and activeness of each cluster are contrasting. For example, the largest cluster has been active since 2006, while the gray and purple clusters are no longer active.

4.5 Major clusters

Taking clustering as a unit and analyzing at the level of clustering, specifically selecting large or new type clustering, is the foothold of co-citation analysis, which can help to understand the principal and latest research fields related to ecotourism. Table 2 displays a summary of the foremost 19 clusters, the first nine of which are all over 100 in size. The silhouette score of all clusters is greater than 0.8, indicating that the homogeneity of each cluster is high. The mean year is the average of the publication dates of references in the cluster. By combining the results in Table 2 , Figs.  8 and 9 , it can be observed that the five largest clusters are #0 cultural ecosystem services, #1 large carnivore, #2 human disturbance, #3 whale shark and #4 ecosystem service. A recent topic is cluster #16 COVID-19 pandemic. #11 Ecological footprint and #14 social media are two relatively youthful fields.

The research status of a research field can be demonstrated by its knowledge base and research frontier. The knowledge base consists of a series of scholarly writing cited by the corresponding article, i.e., cited references, while the research frontier is the writing inspired by the knowledge base, i.e., citing articles. Distinct research frontiers may come from the same knowledge base. Consequently, each cluster is analyzed based on cited references and citing articles. The cited references and citing articles of the five largest clusters are shown in Online Appendix A. Fig a) lists the 15 top cited references with the highest Σ (sigma) value in the cluster, where Σ value indicates that the citation is optimal in terms of the comprehensive performance of structural centrality and citation bursts. Fig b) shows the major citing articles of cluster. The citation behavior of these articles determines the grouping of cited literature and thus forms the cluster. The coverage is the proportion of member citations cited by citing articles.

4.6 Phase evolution research

Through the above analysis of the core dataset and the expanded dataset of ecotourism, we can see the development and evolution of the research field of ecotourism. The research process of ecotourism has gone through several stages, and each stage has its strategic research issues. Research starts with thinking about the relationship between humans and nature, moves to study it as a whole ecosystem, and then explores sustainable development. Hence, the evolution of ecotourism can be roughly parted into three phases.

4.6.1 Phase I: Human disturbance research stage (2003–2010)

This phase of research concentrates on the influence of human activities such as ecotourism on the environment and animals. Representative keywords of this period include ecotourism, human disturbance, response, coral reef, bird, disturbance, recreation, reserve, park, South Africa and people. Representative articles are those published by West et al. ( 2006 ) and Köndgen et al. ( 2008 ) of human impact on the environment and animals. The representative clustering is #2 human disturbance, which is the third largest one, consisting of 130 cited references from 1998 to 2012 with the average year of 2004. This cluster has citation bursts between 2002 and 2010 and has been inactive since then. As showed in Fig S3 a) and b), the research base and frontier are mainly around the impact of human disturbances such as ecotourism on biology and the environment (McClung et al., 2004 ). And as showed in Fig.  8 and Fig.  9 , clusters closely related to #2 belong to this phase and are also no longer active, such as #5 off-road vehicle, #6 protected area, #10 poverty reduction and #12 sustainable lifestyle.

4.6.2 Phase II: Ecosystem services research stage (2011–2015)

In this stage, the content of ecotourism research is diversified and exploded. The research is not confined to the relationship between humans and nature, but begins to investigate it as an entire ecosystem. In addition, some specific or extended areas began to receive attention. Typical keywords are abundance, resource, Africa, risk, predation, consequence and science. The most illustrative papers in this stage are Fairhead et al. ( 2012 )’s discussion on green grabbing and Milcu et al. ( 2013 )’s review on cultural ecosystem services. Other representative papers in this period focused on the evaluation methods of ecosystem service value and the role of cultural ecosystem service in the evaluation of ecosystem service value. Most of the larger clusters in the survey erupted at this stage, including #0 cultural ecosystem services, #1 large carnivore, #3 whale shark, #4 ecosystem services. Some related clusters also belong to this stage, such as #7 neoliberal conservation, #8 responsible behavior, #9 tourism development, #13 mangrove forest, #15 volunteer tourism, #17 circular economy and #18 telecoupling framework.

Cluster #0 cultural ecosystem services are the largest cluster in ecotourism research field, containing 157 cited references from 2006 to 2019, with the mean year being 2012. It commenced to have the citation burst in 2009, with high cited continuing until 2019. Cultural ecosystem services are an essential component of ecosystem services, including spiritual, entertainment and cultural benefits. Thus, in Fig.  8 , the overlap with #4 ecosystem services can obviously be seen. In Cluster #0, many highly cited references have discussed the trade-offs between natural and cultural ecosystem services in ecosystem services (Nelson et al., 2009 ; Raudsepp-Hearne et al., 2010 ) and the important role of cultural ecosystem services in the evaluation of ecosystem services value (Burkhard et al., 2012 ; Chan, Guerry, et al., 2012 ; Chan, Satterfield, et al., 2012 ; Fisher et al., 2009 ; Groot et al., 2010 ). As non-market value, how to evaluate and quantify cultural ecosystem services is also an important issue (Hernández-Morcillo et al., 2012 ; Milcu et al., 2013 ; Plieninger et al., 2013 ). Besides, the exploration of the relationship among biodiversity, human beings and ecosystem services is also the focus of this cluster research (Bennett et al., 2015 ; Cardinale et al., 2012 ; Díaz et al., 2015 ; Mace et al., 2012 ). The citing articles of #0 indicate the continued exploration of the connotation of cultural ecosystem services and their value evaluation methods (Dickinson & Hobbs, 2017 ). It is noteworthy that some articles have introduced spatial geographic models (Havinga et al., 2020 ; Hirons et al., 2016 ) and social media methods (Calcagni et al., 2019 ) as novel methods to examine cultural ecosystem services. In addition, the link and overlap between #0 cultural ecosystem service and #17 circular economy cannot be overlooked.

Ecosystem services relate to all the benefits that humans receive from ecosystems, including supply services, regulatory services, cultural services and support services. Research on cultural ecosystem services is based on the research of ecosystem services. It can be viewed in Fig.  9 that the research and citation burst in #4 was all slightly earlier than #0. Cluster #4 includes 118 references from 2005 to 2019, with an average year of 2011. In its research and development, how to integrate ecosystem services into the market and the payment scheme to protect the natural environment is a significant research topic (Gómez-Baggethun et al., 2010 ). In Cluster #4, the most influential literature provides an overview of the payment of ecosystem services (PES) from theory to practice by Engel et al. ( 2008 ). Many highly cited references have discussed PES (Kosoy & Corbera, 2010 ; Muradian et al., 2010 ), including the effectiveness of evaluation (Naeem et al., 2015 ), social equity matters (Pascual et al., 2014 ), the suitability and challenge (Muradian et al., 2013 ), and how to contribute to saving nature (Redford & Adams, 2009 ). The cluster also includes studies on impact assessment of protected areas (Oldekop et al., 2016 ), protected areas and poverty (Brockington & Wilkie, 2015 ; Ferraro & Hanauer, 2014 ), public perceptions (Bennett, 2016 ; Bennett & Dearden, 2014 ) and forest ecosystem services (Hansen et al., 2013 ). The foremost citing articles confirm the dominant theme of ecosystem services, especially the in-depth study and discussion of PES (Muniz & Cruz, 2015 ). In addition, #4 is highly correlated with #7 neoliberal protection, and Fairhead et al. ( 2012 ), a representative article of this stage, belongs to this cluster.

As the second largest cluster, Cluster #1 contains 131 references from 2008 to 2019, with the median year of 2014. As Fig S2 a) shows, the highly cited literature has mainly studied the status and protection of large carnivores (Mace, 2014 ; Ripple et al., 2014 ), including the situation of reduction (Craigie et al., 2010 ), downgrade (Estes et al., 2011 ) and even extinction (Dirzo et al., 2014 ; Pimm et al., 2014 ), and the reasons for such results, such as tourist visits (Balmford et al., 2015 ; Geffroy et al., 2015 ) and the increase in population at the edge of the protected areas (Wittemyer et al., 2008 ). The conservation effects of protected areas on wildlife biodiversity (Watson et al., 2014 ) and the implications of tourist preference heterogeneity for conservation and management (Minin et al., 2013 ) have also received attention. It is worth noting that the high citation rate of a paper using R to estimate the linear mixed-effects model (Bates et al., 2015 ) and the use of R in this cluster. The relationship between biodiversity and ecotourism is highlighted by the representative citing articles in research frontier of this cluster (Chung et al., 2018 ).

Cluster #3 refers to marine predator, and as shown in Fig.  8 , which has a strong correlation with #1. A total of 125 references were cited from 2002 to 2018, with an average year of 2011. References with high citation in #3 mainly studied the extinction and protection of marine life such as sharks (Dulvy et al., 2014 ), as well as the economic value and ecological impact of shark ecotourism (Clua et al., 2010 ; Gallagher & Hammerschlag, 2011 ; Gallagher et al., 2015 ). The paper published by Gallagher et al. ( 2015 ) is both the highly cited reference and main citing article, mainly focusing on the impact of shark ecotourism. It is also noteworthy that #6 protected area, #13 mangrove forest and #29 Mediterranean areas are highly correlated with these two clusters (Fig.  8 ).

Moreover, some clusters are not highly correlated with other clusters, but cannot be neglected at this stage of research. Cluster #8 responsible behavior includes 107 citations with the average year 2013, and mainly studied environmentally responsible behaviors in ecotourism (Chiu et al., 2014 ). Cluster #9 tourism development contains 97 cited references with mean year of 2015, focusing on the impact of such factors as residents’ perception on tourism development (Sharpley, 2014 ). Cluster #15 volunteer tourism consists of 52 citations, with an average year of 2011, which mainly considers the role of volunteer tourism in tourism development and sustainable tourism (Wearing & McGehee, 2013 ). Cluster #18 telecoupling framework has 26 cited references with the mean year being 2015, and the application of the new integrated framework of telecoupling Footnote 1 in ecotourism can be seen (Liu et al., 2015 ).

At this stage, it can be seen that the research field of ecotourism begins to develop in the direction of diversification, including the value evaluation and related research of ecosystem services and cultural ecosystem services, as well as the exploration of wild animals and plants, marine animals and plants and biodiversity. Neoliberal conservation, tourists’ responsible behavior, tourism development, volunteer tourism and circular economy are all explored. Some new research methods have also brought fresh air to this field, such as the introduction of spatial geographic models and social media methods, the discussion of economic value evaluation methods, the widespread use of R and the exploration of telecoupling framework. Therefore, from this stage, research in the field of ecotourism has entered the second stage of scientific discipline development (Shneider, 2009 ), featured by the use and evolution of research tools that can be used to investigate potential phenomena.

4.6.3 Phase III: Sustainable development research stage (2016 to present)

This stage of research continues to explore a series of topics of the preceding phase and further extends the research field on this basis. The keywords at this stage are politics, marine protected area and valuation. Some other keywords are still very active today, such as experience, challenge, sustainable development, willingness to pay, perspective, strategy, quality and satisfaction. The representative article is about sustainable development published by D'Amato et al. ( 2017 ), as shown in Fig.  8 belonging to #17 circular economy. The emerging clusters in this period are #11 ecological footprint, #14 social media and #16 COVID-19 pandemic. Cluster #11 contains 70 cited references from 2013 to 2020 with the mean year 2017. This clustering study mainly used the ecological footprint as an environmental indicator and socioeconomic indicators such as tourism to investigate the hypothesis of environmental Kuznets curve (Ozturk et al., 2016 ; Ulucak & Bilgili, 2018 ). Cluster #14 includes 52 cited references, with an average year of 2016. It can be seen that the introduction of social media data has added new color to research in the field of ecotourism, such as using social media data to quantify landscape value (Zanten et al., 2016 ) and to understand tourists’ preferences for the experience of protected areas (Hausmann et al., 2018 ), as well as from a spatial perspective using social media geo-tagged photos as indicators for evaluating cultural ecosystem services (Richards & Friess, 2015 ). As the latest and most concerned topic, cluster #16 contains 48 cited references, with mean year of 2018. This cluster mainly cites research on over-tourism (Seraphin et al., 2018 ) and sustainable tourism (Higgins-Desbiolles, 2018 ) and explores the impact of pandemics such as COVID-19 on global tourism (Gössling et al., 2021 ).

These emerging clusters at this phase bring fresh thinking to the research of ecotourism. First of all, the analysis of ecological footprint provides a tool for measuring the degree of sustainability and helps to monitor the effectiveness of sustainable programs (Kharrazi et al., 2014 ). Research and exploration of ecological footprint in ecotourism expresses the idea of sustainable development and puts forward reasonable planning and suggestions by comparing the demand of ecological footprint with the carrying capacity of natural ecosystem. Secondly, the use of social media data brings a new perspective of data acquisition to ecotourism research. Such large-scale data acquisition can make up for the limitations of sample size and data sampling bias faced by survey data users and provide a new way to understand and explore tourist behavior and market (Li et al., 2018 ). Finally, the sudden impact of COVID-19 in 2020 and its long-term sustainability has dealt a huge blow to the tourism industry. COVID-19 has highlighted the great need and value of tourism, while fundamentally changing the way destinations, business and visitors plan, manage and experience tourism (CREST, 2020 ). However, the stagnation of tourism caused by the pandemic is not enough to meet the challenges posed by the environment and the climate crisis. Therefore, how to sustain the development of tourism in this context to meet the challenges of the environment and climate change remains an important issue in the coming period of time. These emerging clusters are pushing the boundaries of ecotourism research and the exploration of sustainable development in terms of research methods, data collection and emerging topics.

Despite the fact that the research topics in this stage are richer and more diversified, the core goal of research is still committed to the sustainable development of ecotourism. The introduction of new technologies and the productive results have led to a much-improved understanding of research issues. All this commemorates the entrance of research into the third stage of the development of scientific disciplines (Shneider, 2009 ). In addition to continuing the current research topics, the future development of the field of ecotourism will continue to focus on the goal of sustainable development and will be more diversified and interdisciplinary.

5 Conclusion

This paper uses scientometrics to make a comprehensive visual domain analysis of ecotourism. The aim is to take advantage of this method to conduct an in-depth systematic review of research and development in the field of ecotourism. We have enriched the process of systematic reviews of knowledge domains with features from the latest CiteSpace software. Compared with previous studies, this study not only updated the database, but also extended the dataset with citation expansion, so as to more comprehensively identify the rapidly developing research field. The research not only identifies the main clusters and their advance in ecotourism research based on high impact citations and research frontiers formed by citations, but also presents readers with new insights through intuitive visual images. Through this study, readers can swiftly understand the progress of ecotourism, and on the basis of this study, they can use this method to conduct in-depth analysis of the field they are interested in.

Our research shows that ecotourism has developed rapidly in recent years, with the number of published articles increasing year by year, and this trend has become more pronounced after 2018. The research field of ecotourism spans many disciplines and is a comprehensive interdisciplinary subject. Ecotourism also attracts the attention of numerous developed and developing countries and institutions. The USA, China, Australia and South Africa are in a relatively leading position in the research and development of ecotourism. Foam tree map and pie chart of major topics, and the landscape view of keywords provide the hotspot issues of the research field. The development trend of ecotourism is preliminarily understood by detecting the citation bursts of the keywords and published articles. Co-citation analysis generates the main clusters of ecotourism research, and the timeline visualization of these clusters provides a clearer view for understanding the development dynamics of the research field. Building on all the above results, the research and development of ecotourism can be roughly divided into three stages: human disturbance, ecosystem services and sustainable development. Through the study of keywords, representative literature and main clusters in each stage, the development characteristics and context of each stage are clarified. From the current research results, we can catch sight that the application of methods and software in ecotourism research and the development of cross-field. Supported by the Shneider’s four-stage theory of scientific discipline (Shneider, 2009 ), it can be thought that ecotourism is in the third stage. Research tools and methods have become more potent and convenient, and research perspectives have become more diverse.

Based on the overall situation, research hotspots and development tendency of ecotourism research, it can be seen that the sustainable development of ecotourism is the core issue of current ecotourism research and also an important goal for future development. In the context of the current pandemic, the tourism industry is in crisis, but crisis often breeds innovation, and we must take time to reconsider the way forward. As we look forward to the future of tourism, we must adopt the rigor and dedication required to adapt to the pandemic, adhering to the principles of sustainable development while emphasizing economic reliability, environmental suitability and cultural acceptance. Post-COVID, the competitive landscape of travel and tourism will change profoundly, with preventive and effective risk management, adaptation and resilience, and decarbonization laying the foundation for future competitiveness and relevance (CREST, 2020 ).

In addition, as can be seen from the research and development of ecotourism, the exploration of sustainable development increasingly needs to absorb research methods from diverse fields to guide the formulation of policy. First of all, how to evaluate and quantify ecotourism reasonably and scientifically is an essential problem to be solved in the development of ecotourism. Some scholars choose contingent valuation method (CVM) and choice experiment (CE) in environmental economics to evaluate the economic value of ecotourism, especially non-market value. In addition, the introduction of spatial econometrics and the use of geographic information system (GIS) provide spatial scale analysis methods and results presentation for the sustainable development of ecotourism. The use of social media data implies the application of big data technology in the field of ecotourism, where machine learning methods such as artificial neural networks (ANN) and linear discriminant analysis (LDA) are increasingly being applied (Talebi et al., 2021 ). The measurement of ecological footprint and the use of telecoupling framework provide a reliable way to measure sustainable development and the interaction between multiple systems. These approaches all have expanded the methodological boundaries of ecotourism research. It is worth noting that R, as an open source and powerful software, is favored by scholars in the field of ecotourism. This programming language for statistical computation is now widely used in statistical analysis, data mining, data processing and mapping of ecotourism research.

The scientometrics method used in this study is mainly guided by the citation model in the literature retrieval dataset. The range of data retrieval exercises restraint by the source of retrieval and the query method utilized. While current methods can meet the requirements, iterative query optimization can also serve to advance in the quality of the data. To achieve higher data accuracy, the concept tree function in the new version of CiteSpace can also serve to clarify the research content of each clustering (Chen, 2017 ). In addition, the structural variation analysis in the new edition is also an interesting study, which can show the citation footprints of typical high-yielding authors and judge the influence of the author on the variability of network structure through the analysis of the citation footprints (Chen, 2017 ).

Availability of data and material

The data that support the findings of this study are available from Web of Science.

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This study is funded by Education Department of Heilongjiang Province (1451MSYYB013) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.71874026 and No.71171044).

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In this study, LX proposed the research topic, designed the research methodology and framework, and made the data analysis. She was the major contributor in writing the manuscript. CA contributed to the design of the whole paper, including the research topic and methodology, and also participated in the writing and revision of the manuscript. BL and ZC were involved in data collection and analysis. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Xu, L., Ao, C., Liu, B. et al. Ecotourism and sustainable development: a scientometric review of global research trends. Environ Dev Sustain 25 , 2977–3003 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02190-0

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Ecotourism is a type of tourism to conserve and improve natural, rural areas. So this is quite different from a typical tour to a place. Instead, this type of tourism includes a keen focus on learning and developing that area and the people residing there.

Around 1980, the concept of ecotourism took place officially in the Oxford Dictionary. The word ecotour was included in 1973. However, there’s still confusion about the classification of the proper ecotourists. Generally, it’s based on the sustainability and economic contribution of the place while maintaining its basic identity and natural properties.

This article will discuss Ecotourism in the context of the IAS Exam .

The candidates can go through the relevant topics useful for their upcoming exams from the links provided below:

How ecotourism is different from regular tourism?

• Entertainment vs Education: Conventional tourism focuses more on travellers and their purposes. On the other hand, ecotourism is concerned about a particular place, its well-being, and its development.
• Exploration vs Observation: Normal tourism is planned to explore a place, its local features, and culture. Ecotourism is based on observing the nature and people of the place with a vision to develop the condition.
• Relaxation vs Sustainability: Travelling is intended to relax and take a break from a regular schedule. But ecotourism has a certain aim to visit rural natural areas with sustainable means.
• Travelling vs contribution to nature: The key difference between conventional travelling and ecotour is the contribution to nature. As the name suggests, there is room for economic development through travelling in ecotour, unlike regular travelling.

Importance of Ecotourism

• Through ecotourism, it’s easier to reach out to the rural settlements and observe their conditions from close quarters. The significance of ecotourism lies in the interaction with the people, understanding their culture, and helping them develop their overall living conditions.
• Conserving the environment is another important application of ecotourism. Various sensitive natural areas require particular attention and effective management. Without the right observation and analysis, it is not possible to initiate the required operation.
• Similarly, for the well-being of the residents in the natural areas, it’s crucial to understand their community culture and lifestyle. That’s how systematic development can be done in all such areas.
• Also, ecotourism encourages a better understanding of the environment and the importance of its conservation.

How popular is ecotourism?

• Ecotourism has been gaining potential popularity in recent years, and every year, 10% of ecotourists are increasing. Mainly, there are two reasons for this popularity.
• Firstly, people want to go to a natural place and explore its typical life in the hectic modern city life.
• Secondly, with the anxiety of destroying natural resources, people want to conserve them as much as possible out of awareness and concern.
• As ecotourism fulfils the fundamental demand to visit a new place along with a positive aim to make sustained contributions, the idea is gaining more popularity.

Ecotourism examples in India

India has been widely supporting the concept of ecotourism. A few spots in the country include:

• Honey Hills- Thenmala Eco-tourism, Kerala
• Bandipur National Park, Karnataka
• Sunderbans National Park, West Bengal
• Tribal excursion in Chhattisgarh

Impact on society

• Ecotourism is spreading a positive impact on society with the notion to observe natural places to develop their overall condition, maintaining their natural essence. Here, travellers are getting an opportunity to know more about sensitive places while travelling. Places like Nepal, Madagascar, and Ecuador are some of the beautiful natural places in improvised countries.
• Even after so many positive sides of ecotourism, there is some negative effect on the environment. The environmentalists want to promote ecotourism to upgrade the rural community and conserve nature. On the contrary, the tourism industry uses ecotourism as a business model to attract tourists.
• As a result, the rural places are getting congested, and the natural beauty is compromised gradually. So, instead of solely developing the area and community culture, it’s becoming a general tourist spot.

Furthermore, candidates can learn more about the detailed UPSC Syllabus and exam pattern for the preliminary and mains phase of the examination in the linked article. Analysing the syllabus will help candidates accordingly schedule a study plan.

Also, all government exam aspirants can check the best Preparation Strategy for Competitive Exams in the linked article.

Frequently Asked Questions on Ecotourism

What is ecotourism in simple words.

Ecotourism is travelling where the main goal is to explore understated places to develop their economic standards. It is quite different from travelling in a forest, as many people consider it with the word ‘eco’.

Is ecotourism adopted in foreign countries?

Yes, foreign countries have adapted ecotourism very integrally. Costa Rica, Madagascar, Kenya, and Ecuador are a few such countries.

How ecotourism is helping the environment?

Ecotourism is focused on conserving and developing natural places. With proper observation, the ecotourists find a way to develop the well-being of the residents and the area.

For more information about upcoming Government Exams , visit the linked article. More exam-related preparation materials will be found through the links given below:

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Ecotourism and sustainable development: a scientometric review of global research trends

1 Department of Management Science and Engineering, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030 China

2 Faculty of Economic and Management, Mudanjiang Normal University, Mudanjiang, 157011 China

Changlin Ao

3 College of Engineering, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030 China

Associated Data

The data that support the findings of this study are available from Web of Science.

With the increasing attention and awareness of the ecological environment, ecotourism is becoming ever more popular, but it still brings problems and challenges to the sustainable development of the environment. To solve such challenges, it is necessary to review literature in the field of ecotourism and determine the key research issues and future research directions. This paper uses scientometrics implemented by CiteSpace to conduct an in-depth systematic review of research and development in the field of ecotourism. Two bibliographic datasets were obtained from the Web of Science, including a core dataset and an expanded dataset, containing articles published between 2003 and 2021. Our research shows that ecotourism has been developing rapidly in recent years. The research field of ecotourism spans many disciplines and is a comprehensive interdisciplinary subject. According to the research results, the evolution of ecotourism can be roughly divided into three phases: human disturbance, ecosystem services and sustainable development. It could be concluded that it has entered the third stage of Shneider’s four-stage theory of scientific discipline. The research not only identifies the main clusters and their advance in ecotourism research based on high impact citations and research frontier formed by citations, but also presents readers with new insights through intuitive visual images.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10668-022-02190-0.

Introduction

Ecotourism, which has appeared in academic literature since the late 1980s, is a special form of nature-based tourism that maintains the well-being of the local community while protecting the environment and provides tourists with a satisfying nature experience and enjoyment (Ceballos-Lascuráin, 1996 ; Higgins, 1996 ; Orams, 1995 ). With years of research and development, ecotourism has risen to be a subject of investigation in the field of tourism research (Weaver & Lawton, 2007 ). In 2002, the United Nations declared it the International Year of Ecotourism (IYE), and the professional Journal of Ecotourism was established in the same year.

With the progress and maturity of ecotourism as an academic research field, countless scholars have put forward standards and definitions for ecotourism (Sirakaya et al., 1999 ; Wight, 1993 ). The main objectives of ecotourism emphasize long-term sustainable development (Whitelaw et al., 2014 ), including the conservation of natural resources, the generation of economic income, education, local participation and the promotion of social benefits such as local economic development and infrastructure (Ardoin et al., 2015 ; Coria & Calfucura, 2012 ; Krüger, 2005 ; Oladeji et al., 2021 ; Ross & Wall, 1999 ; Valdivieso et al., 2015 ). It can also boost rural economies and alleviate poverty in developing countries (Snyman, 2017 ; Zhong & Liu, 2017 ).

With unrestricted increasing attention to the ecological environment and the improvement of environmental awareness, ecotourism is becoming ever more prevalent, and the demand for tourism is increasing year by year (CREST, 2019 ). This increase, however, leads to a number of environmental, social and economic challenges in the development of ecotourism. For example, due to the low public awareness of ecotourism, the increase in tourists has brought a series of negative impacts on the local ecological environment, culture and economy, including disrespect for local culture and environmental protection, as well as more infrastructure construction and economic burden to meet the needs of tourists (Ahmad et al., 2018 ; Chiu et al., 2014 ; Shasha et al., 2020 ; Xu et al., 2020 ). Such challenges and contradictions are urgent problems to be tackled by the sustainable development of ecotourism. Especially against the backdrop of the current pandemic, tourism has experienced a severe blow, but climate change and other environmental issues have not been improved (CREST, 2020 ). In this context, facing these challenges and difficulties, it is essential to re-examine the future development path of ecotourism, to explore how government agencies can formulate appropriate management policies while preserving the environment and natural resources to support sustainable tourism development. Accordingly, it is necessary to consult literature in the field of ecotourism to understand the research progress and fundamental research issues, to identify challenges, suitable methods and future research direction of ecotourism.

Some previous reviews of ecotourism offer a preview of research trends in this rapidly developing area. Weaver and Lawton ( 2007 ) provide a comprehensive assessment of the current state and future progress of contemporary ecotourism research, starting with the supply and demand dichotomy of ecotourism, as well as fundamental areas such as quality control, industry, external environment and institutions. Ardoin et al. ( 2015 ) conducted a literature review, analyzing the influence of nature tourism on ecological knowledge, attitudes, behavior and potential research into the future. Niñerola et al. ( 2019 ) used the bibliometric method and VOSviewer to study the papers on sustainable development of tourism in Scopus from 1987 to 2018, including literature landscape and development trends. Shasha et al. ( 2020 ) used bibliometrics and social network analysis to review the research progress of ecotourism from 2001 to 2018 based on the Web of Science database using BibExcel and Gephi and explored the current hot spots and methods of ecotourism research. These reviews have provided useful information for ecotourism research at that time, but cannot reflect the latest research trends and emerging development of ecotourism either of timeliness, data integrity, research themes or methods.

This study aims to reveal the theme pattern, landmark articles and emerging trends in ecotourism knowledge landscape research from macro- to micro-perspectives. Unlike previous literature surveys, from timeliness, our dataset contains articles published between 2003 and 2021, and it will reveal more of the trends that have emerged over the last 3 years. Updating the rapidly developing literature is important as recent discoveries from different areas can fundamentally change collective knowledge (Chen et al., 2012 , 2014a ). To ensure data integrity, two bibliographic datasets were generated from Web of Science, including a core dataset using the topic search and an expanded dataset using the citation expansion method, which is more robust than defining rapidly growing fields using only keyword lists (Chen et al., 2014b ). And from the research theme and method, our review focuses on the area of ecotourism and is instructed by a scientometric method conducted by CiteSpace, an analysis system for visualizing newly developing trends and key changes in scientific literature (Chen et al., 2012 ). Emerging trends are detected based on metrics calculated by CiteSpace, without human intervention or working knowledge of the subject matter (Chen et al., 2012 ). Choosing this approach can cover a more extensive and diverse range of related topics and ensure repeatability of analysis with updated data (Chen et al., 2014b ).

In addition, Shneider’s four-stage theory will be used to interpret the results in this review. According to Shneider’s four-stage theory of scientific discipline (Shneider, 2009 ), the development of a scientific discipline is divided into four stages. Stage I is the conceptualization stage, in which the objects and phenomena of a new discipline or research are established. Stage II is characterized by the development of research techniques and methods that allow researchers to investigate potential phenomena. As a result of methodological advances, there is a further understanding of objects and phenomena in the field of new subjects at this stage. Once the techniques and methods for specific purposes are available, the research enters Stage III, where the investigation is based primarily on the application of the new research method. This stage is productive, in which the research results have considerably enhanced the researchers’ understanding of the research issues and disclosed some unknown phenomena, leading to interdisciplinary convergence or the emergence of new research directions or specialties. The last stage is Stage IV, whose particularity is to transform tacit knowledge into conditional knowledge and generalized knowledge, so as to maintain and transfer the scientific knowledge generated in the first three stages.

The structure of this paper is construed as follows. The second part describes the research methods employed, the scientometric approach and CiteSpace, as well as the data collection. In the third part, the bibliographic landscape of the core dataset is expounded from the macroscopic to the microscopic angle. The fourth part explores the developments and emerging trends in the field of ecotourism based on the expanded dataset and discusses the evolution phase of ecotourism. The final part is the conclusion of this study. Future research of ecotourism is prospected, and the limitations of this study are discussed.

Methods and data collection

Scientometric analyses and citespace.

Scientometrics is a branch of informatics that involves quantitative analysis of scientific literature in order to capture emerging trends and knowledge structures in a particular area of study (Chen et al., 2012 ). Science mapping tools generate interactive visual representations of complex structures by feeding a set of scientific literature through scientometrics and visual analysis tools to highlight potentially important patterns and trends for statistical analysis and visualization exploration (Chen, 2017 ). At present, scientometrics is widely used in many fields of research, and there are also many kinds of scientific mapping software widely used by researchers and analysts, such as VosViewer, SCI2, HistCite, SciMAT, Gephi, Pajek and CiteSpace (Chen, 2011 , 2017 ; Chen et al., 2012 ).

Among these tools, CiteSpace is known for its powerful literature co-citation analysis, and its algorithms and features are constantly being refined as it continues to evolve. CiteSpace is a citation visual analysis software developed under the background of scientometrics and data visualization to analyze the basics that are included in scientific analysis (Chen, 2017 ; Chen et al., 2012 ). It is specialized designed to satisfy the need for systematic review in rapidly changing complicated areas, particularly with the ability to identify and explain emerging trends and transition patterns (Chen et al., 2014a ). It supports multiple types of bibliometric research, such as collaborative network analysis, co-word analysis, author co-citation analysis, document co-citation analysis, and temporal and spatial visualization (Chen, 2017 ). Currently, CiteSpace has been extensively used in more than 60 fields, including computer science, information science, management and medicine (Abad-Segura et al., 2019 ; Chen, 2017 ).

In this paper, we utilize CiteSpace (5.8.R1) to analyze acquired bibliographies of ecotourism to study emerging trends and developments in this field. From macro to micro, from intuitive to complex, from whole to part and from general to special, the writing ideas are adopted. Figure  1 presented the specific research framework of this study.

The research framework of this study

Data collection

Typical sources of scientific literature are Web of Science, Scopus and Google Scholar. Considering the quantity and quality of data, the Web of Science database was expected to provide the original data in this research. In order to comprehend the research status and development trends of ecotourism, this study systematically reviewed the ecotourism literature collected on the Web of Science Core Collection. The Web of Science Core Collection facilitates access to the world’s leading scholarly journals, books and proceedings of conferences in the sciences, social sciences, art, and humanities, as well as access to their entire citation network. It mainly includes Science Citation Index Expanded from 2003 to current and Social Sciences Citation Index from 2004 to present. Therefore, the data obtained in this study are from 2003 and were consulted on June 3, 2021.

In the process of data retrieval, it is frequently confronted with the choice between recall rate and precision rate. To address the problem of low recall rate in keyword or topic retrieval, Chen et al. ( 2014a , b ) expanded the retrieval results through ‘citation expansion’ and ‘comprehensive topic search’ strategies. However, when the recall rate is high, the accuracy rate will decrease correspondingly. In practical standpoint, instead of refining and cleaning up the original search results, a simpler and more efficient way is to cluster or skip these unrelated branches. Priority should be placed on ensuring recall rate, and data integrity is more important than data for accuracy. Therefore, two ecotourism documentation datasets, the core dataset and the expanded dataset, were obtained from the Web of Science by using comprehensive topic search and citation expansion method. The latter approach has been proved more robust than using keyword lists only to define fast-growing areas (Chen et al., 2014b ). A key bibliographic landscape is generated based on the core dataset, followed by more thorough research of the expanded dataset.

The core dataset

The core dataset was derived through comprehensive subject retrieval in Web of Science Core Collection. The literature type was selected as an article or review, and the language was English. The period spans 2003 to 2021. The topic search query is composed of three phrases of ecotourism: ‘ ecotour* ’ OR ‘ eco-tour* ’ OR ‘ ecological NEAR/5 tour* ’. The wildcard * is used to capture related variants of words, for example, ecotour, ecotourism, ecotourist and ecotourists. The related records that are requested include finding these terms in the title, abstract or keywords. The query yielded 2991 original unique records.

The expanded dataset

The expanded dataset includes the core dataset and additional records obtained by reference link association founded on the core dataset. The principle of citation expansion is that if an article cites at least one article in the core dataset, we can infer that it is related to the topic (Garfield, 1955 ). The expanded dataset is comprised of 27,172 unique records, including the core dataset and the articles that cited them. Both datasets were used for the following scientometrics analysis.

Bibliographic landscape based on the core dataset

The core dataset consists of a total of 2991 literature from 2003 to 2021. This study utilized the core dataset to conduct an overall understanding of the bibliographic landscape in the field of ecotourism.

Landscape views of core dataset

The distribution of the yearly publication of bibliographic records in the core and expanded datasets is presented in Fig.  2 . It can be observed that the overall number of ecotourism-related publications is on the rise, indicating that the scholarly community is increasingly interested in ecotourism. After 2018, the growth rate increased substantially. And in 2020, the number of publications in the expanded dataset is close to 5000, almost double that of 2017 and 5 times that of 2011. This displays the rapid development of research in the field of ecotourism in recent years, particularly after 2018, more and more researchers began to pay attention to this field, which also echoes the trend of global tourism development and environmental protection. With the increase in personal income, tourism has grown very rapidly, and with it, tourism revenue and tourist numbers, especially in developing states. For instance, the number of domestic tourists in China increased from 2.641 billion in 2011 to 6.06 billion in 2019, and tourism revenue increased from 1930.5 billion RMB in 2011 to 5725.1 billion RMB in 2019 (MCT, 2021 ). However, due to the lack of effective management and frequent human activities, the rapid development of tourism has led to various ecological and environmental problems, which require corresponding solutions (Shasha et al., 2020 ). This has played an active role in promoting the development of ecotourism and triggered a lot of related research. In addition, since 2005, the expanded dataset has contained numerous times as many references as the core dataset, demonstrating the importance of using citation expansion for literature retrieval in scientometric review studies.The data were consulted on June 3, 2021

The distribution of bibliographic records in core and expanded dataset. Note The data were consulted on June 3, 2021

The dual-map overlay of scientific map literature as Fig.  3 shows, against the background of global scientific map from more than 10,000 journals covered by Web of Science, represents the distribution and connections on research bases and application fields across the entire dataset of the research topics (Chen & Leydesdorff, 2014 ). Colored lines are citation links, and numbered headings are cluster labels. On the left side is the journal distribution which cites literature, regarding the field application of ecotourism, mainly covers multiple disciplines such as 3. Ecology, Earth, Marine, 6. Psychology, Education, Health, 7. Veterinary, Animal Science and 10. Economics, Economic and Political. On the right side is the distribution of journals of cited literature, representing the research basis of ecotourism. As can be observed from the figure, ecotourism research is based on at least five disciplines on the right, including 2. Environmental, Toxicology, Nutrition, 7. Psychology, Education, Social, 8. Molecular, Biology, Genetics, 10. Plant, Ecology, Zoology and 12. Economics, Economic, Political. It can be viewed that the research field of ecotourism spans multiple disciplines and is a comprehensive and complex subject. The dual-map overlay provides a global visualization of literature growth of the discipline level.

A dual-map overlay of ecotourism literature

The total number of papers issued by a country or an institution reflects its academic focus and overall strength, while centrality indicates the degree of academic cooperation with others and the influence of published papers. The top 15 countries and institutions for the number of ecotourism papers published from 2003 to 2021 are provided in Table ​ Table1. 1 . Similar to the study of Shasha et al. ( 2020 ), the ranking of the top six countries by the number of publications remains unchanged. As can be seen from the table, the USA ranks first in the world, far ahead in both the number of publications and the centrality. China ranks second in global ecotourism publications, followed by Australia, England, South Africa and Canada. While the latest data show that Taiwan (China), Turkey and South Korea appear on the list. Overall, the top 15 countries with the most publications cover five continents, containing a number of developed and developing, which shows that ecotourism research is receiving global attention. In terms of international academic cooperation and impact of ecotourism, Australia and England share second place, Italy and France share fourth place, followed by South Africa and Spain. China’s centrality is relatively low compared to the number of publications, ranking eighth. Academic cooperation between countries is of great significance. Usually, countries with high academic publishing level cooperate closely due to similar research interests. International academic cooperation has enhanced each other’s research capacity and promoted the development of ecotourism research. Therefore, although some countries have entered this list with the publication number, they should attach importance to increase academic cooperation with other countries and improving the international influence of published papers.

The top 15 most productive countries and institutions on ecotourism

The Chinese Academy of Sciences and its university are the most prolific when it draws to institutions’ performance. It is the most important and influential research institute in China, especially in the field of sustainable development science. Australia has four universities on the list, with Griffith University and James Cook University in second and third place. USA also includes four universities, with the University of Florida in fourth place. South Africa, a developing country, gets three universities, with the University of Cape Town and the University of Johannesburg fifth and sixth, respectively. In comparison with previous studies (Shasha et al., 2020 ), Iran and Mexico each have one university in the ranking, replacing two universities in Greece, which means that the importance and influence of developing countries in the field of ecotourism is gradually rising. Based on the above results, it can be summarized that the USA, China, Australia and South Africa are relatively active countries in the field of ecotourism, and their development is also in a relatively leading position.

Most active topics

The foam tree map and the pie chart of the focal topics of ecotourism based on the core dataset generated by Carrot2 through the title of each article is illustrated in Fig.  4 . Developing and developed, case study, protected areas, sustainable tourism, tourism development and developing ecotourism are leading topics in the field of ecotourism research, as well as specific articles under the main topics. The lightweight view generated by Carrot2 provides a reference for the research, and then, co-word analysis is employed to more specifically reflect the topics in the research field.

Foam tree map and pie chart of major topics on ecotourism

The topics covered by ecotourism could be exposed by the keywords of the articles in the core dataset. Figure  5 displays the keywords analysis results generated based on the core dataset. From the visualization results in the figure, it can infer that ecotourism, conservation, tourism, management, protected area, impact, biodiversity, sustainability, national park and community are the ten most concerned topics. Distinct colors set out at the time of co-citation keywords first appear, and yellow is generated earlier than red. In addition, Fig.  5 can also reflect the development and emerging topics in the research field, such as China, Mexico, South Africa and other hot countries for ecotourism research; ecosystem service, economic value, climate change, wildlife tourism, rural tourism, forest, marine protected area and other specific research directions; valuation, contingent valuation, choice experiment and other research methods; willingness to pay, preference, benefit, perception, attitude, satisfaction, experience, behavior, motivation, risk, recreation and other specific research issues.

A landscape view of keywords based on the core dataset

Emerging trends and developments based on the expanded dataset

The expanded dataset, consisting of 27,172 records, is approximately nine times larger than the core dataset. This research applies the expanded dataset to profoundly explore the emerging trends and developments of ecotourism.

Keywords with citation bursts

Detection of citation bursts can indicate both the scientific community’s interest in published articles and burst keywords as an indicator of emerging tendencies. Figure  6 displays the top 30 keywords with the strongest citation bursts in the expanded dataset. Since 2003, a large number of keywords have exploded. Among them, the strongest bursts include ecotourism, bird, disturbance, reserve, Africa, challenge, sustainable development and strategy. Keywords with citation burst after 2017 are experience, challenge, sustainable development, willingness to pay, perspective, strategy, quality and satisfaction, which have continued to this day. The results indicate dynamic development and emerging trends in research hotspots in the field of ecotourism.

Top 30 keywords with the strongest citation bursts

References with citation bursts

Figure  7 sets out the top 30 references in the expanded dataset with citation bursts. The articles with the fastest growing citations can also contribute to describe the dynamics of a field. References with high values in strength column are important milestones of ecotourism research. The two articles with strong citation bursts prior to 2010 focused on the human impact on the environment and animals. West et al. ( 2006 ) discussed the relationship between parks and human beings and the social impact of protected areas, and Köndgen et al. ( 2008 ) studied the decline of endangered great apes caused by a human pandemic virus. The paper with the strongest citation burst in the entire expanded dataset was released by Fairhead et al. ( 2012 ), which looked at ‘green grabbing,’ the appropriation of land and resources for environmental purposes. Milcu et al. ( 2013 ) conducted a semi-quantitative review of publications dealing with cultural ecosystem services with the second strongest citation burst, which concluded that the improvement of the evaluation method of cultural ecosystem service value, the research on the value of cultural ecosystem service under the background of ecosystem service and the clarification of policy significance were the new themes of cultural ecosystem service research. In addition, many articles with citation burst discussed the evaluation method of ecosystem services value (Costanza et al., 2014 ; Groot et al., 2010 ), the evaluation of cultural ecosystem service value (Plieninger et al., 2013 ) and its role in ecosystem service evaluation (Chan et al., 2012 ; Chan, Guerry, et al., 2012 ; Chan, Satterfield, et al., 2012 ; Chan, Satterfield, et al., 2012 ; Daniel et al., 2012 ). The most fresh literature with strong citation burst is the article of D’Amato et al. ( 2017 ) published in the Journal of Cleaner Production, which compared and analyzed sustainable development avenues such as green, circular and bio economy. In addition, it is worthwhile noting the use of R in ecotourism, with the persuasive citation burst continuing from 2012 to the present, as indicated by the orange arrow in Fig.  7 .

Top 30 references with the strongest citation bursts

Landscape view of co-citation analysis

The landscape view of co-citation analysis of Fig.  8 is generated based on the expanded dataset. Using g -index ( k  = 25) selection criteria in the latest edition of CiteSpace, an annual citation network was constructed. The final merged network contained 3294 links, 2122 nodes and 262 co-citation clusters. The three largest linked components cover 1748 connected nodes, representing 82% of the entire network. The modularization degree of the synthetic network is 0.8485, which means that co-citation clustering can clearly define each sub-field of ecotourism. Another weighted mean silhouette value of the clustering validity evaluation is 0.9377, indicating that the clustering degree of the network is also very superior. The harmonic mean value amounts to 0.8909.

A landscape view of the co-citation network based on the expanded dataset

In the co-citation network view, the location of clusters and the correlation between clusters can show the intellectual structure in the field of ecotourism, so that readers can obtain an overall understanding of this field. The network falls into 25 co-citation clusters. The tags for each cluster are generated founded on the title, keywords and abstract of the cited article. Color-coded areas represent the time of first appeared co-citation links, with gray indicating earlier and red later. The nodes in the figure with red tree rings are references to citation bursts.

Timeline view

In order to further understand the time horizon and study process of developing evolution on clusters, after the generation of co-citation cluster map, the Y -axis is cluster number and the year of citation publication is X -axis, so as to obtain the timeline view of the co-citation network, shown as Fig.  9 . Clusters are organized vertically from largest to smallest. The color curve represents co-citation link coupled with corresponding color year, with gray representing earlier and red representing newer. Larger nodes and nodes with red tree rings indicate high citation or citation burst. The three most cited references of the year demonstrate below each node, in vertical order from least to most.

A timeline visualization of the largest clusters

The timeline view provides a reasonably instinctual and insightful reference to understand the evolutionary path of every subdomain. Figure  9 shows 19 clusters ranging from #0 to #18, with #0 being the largest cluster. As can be seen from the figure, the sustainability and activeness of each cluster are contrasting. For example, the largest cluster has been active since 2006, while the gray and purple clusters are no longer active.

Major clusters

Taking clustering as a unit and analyzing at the level of clustering, specifically selecting large or new type clustering, is the foothold of co-citation analysis, which can help to understand the principal and latest research fields related to ecotourism. Table ​ Table2 2 displays a summary of the foremost 19 clusters, the first nine of which are all over 100 in size. The silhouette score of all clusters is greater than 0.8, indicating that the homogeneity of each cluster is high. The mean year is the average of the publication dates of references in the cluster. By combining the results in Table ​ Table2, 2 , Figs.  8 and ​ and9, 9 , it can be observed that the five largest clusters are #0 cultural ecosystem services, #1 large carnivore, #2 human disturbance, #3 whale shark and #4 ecosystem service. A recent topic is cluster #16 COVID-19 pandemic. #11 Ecological footprint and #14 social media are two relatively youthful fields.

Summary of major clusters

* LLR refers to Log-Likelihood Ratio

The research status of a research field can be demonstrated by its knowledge base and research frontier. The knowledge base consists of a series of scholarly writing cited by the corresponding article, i.e., cited references, while the research frontier is the writing inspired by the knowledge base, i.e., citing articles. Distinct research frontiers may come from the same knowledge base. Consequently, each cluster is analyzed based on cited references and citing articles. The cited references and citing articles of the five largest clusters are shown in Online Appendix A. Fig a) lists the 15 top cited references with the highest Σ (sigma) value in the cluster, where Σ value indicates that the citation is optimal in terms of the comprehensive performance of structural centrality and citation bursts. Fig b) shows the major citing articles of cluster. The citation behavior of these articles determines the grouping of cited literature and thus forms the cluster. The coverage is the proportion of member citations cited by citing articles.

Phase evolution research

Through the above analysis of the core dataset and the expanded dataset of ecotourism, we can see the development and evolution of the research field of ecotourism. The research process of ecotourism has gone through several stages, and each stage has its strategic research issues. Research starts with thinking about the relationship between humans and nature, moves to study it as a whole ecosystem, and then explores sustainable development. Hence, the evolution of ecotourism can be roughly parted into three phases.

Phase I: Human disturbance research stage (2003–2010)

This phase of research concentrates on the influence of human activities such as ecotourism on the environment and animals. Representative keywords of this period include ecotourism, human disturbance, response, coral reef, bird, disturbance, recreation, reserve, park, South Africa and people. Representative articles are those published by West et al. ( 2006 ) and Köndgen et al. ( 2008 ) of human impact on the environment and animals. The representative clustering is #2 human disturbance, which is the third largest one, consisting of 130 cited references from 1998 to 2012 with the average year of 2004. This cluster has citation bursts between 2002 and 2010 and has been inactive since then. As showed in Fig S3 a) and b), the research base and frontier are mainly around the impact of human disturbances such as ecotourism on biology and the environment (McClung et al., 2004 ). And as showed in Fig.  8 and Fig.  9 , clusters closely related to #2 belong to this phase and are also no longer active, such as #5 off-road vehicle, #6 protected area, #10 poverty reduction and #12 sustainable lifestyle.

Phase II: Ecosystem services research stage (2011–2015)

In this stage, the content of ecotourism research is diversified and exploded. The research is not confined to the relationship between humans and nature, but begins to investigate it as an entire ecosystem. In addition, some specific or extended areas began to receive attention. Typical keywords are abundance, resource, Africa, risk, predation, consequence and science. The most illustrative papers in this stage are Fairhead et al. ( 2012 )’s discussion on green grabbing and Milcu et al. ( 2013 )’s review on cultural ecosystem services. Other representative papers in this period focused on the evaluation methods of ecosystem service value and the role of cultural ecosystem service in the evaluation of ecosystem service value. Most of the larger clusters in the survey erupted at this stage, including #0 cultural ecosystem services, #1 large carnivore, #3 whale shark, #4 ecosystem services. Some related clusters also belong to this stage, such as #7 neoliberal conservation, #8 responsible behavior, #9 tourism development, #13 mangrove forest, #15 volunteer tourism, #17 circular economy and #18 telecoupling framework.

Cluster #0 cultural ecosystem services are the largest cluster in ecotourism research field, containing 157 cited references from 2006 to 2019, with the mean year being 2012. It commenced to have the citation burst in 2009, with high cited continuing until 2019. Cultural ecosystem services are an essential component of ecosystem services, including spiritual, entertainment and cultural benefits. Thus, in Fig.  8 , the overlap with #4 ecosystem services can obviously be seen. In Cluster #0, many highly cited references have discussed the trade-offs between natural and cultural ecosystem services in ecosystem services (Nelson et al., 2009 ; Raudsepp-Hearne et al., 2010 ) and the important role of cultural ecosystem services in the evaluation of ecosystem services value (Burkhard et al., 2012 ; Chan, Guerry, et al., 2012 ; Chan, Satterfield, et al., 2012 ; Fisher et al., 2009 ; Groot et al., 2010 ). As non-market value, how to evaluate and quantify cultural ecosystem services is also an important issue (Hernández-Morcillo et al., 2012 ; Milcu et al., 2013 ; Plieninger et al., 2013 ). Besides, the exploration of the relationship among biodiversity, human beings and ecosystem services is also the focus of this cluster research (Bennett et al., 2015 ; Cardinale et al., 2012 ; Díaz et al., 2015 ; Mace et al., 2012 ). The citing articles of #0 indicate the continued exploration of the connotation of cultural ecosystem services and their value evaluation methods (Dickinson & Hobbs, 2017 ). It is noteworthy that some articles have introduced spatial geographic models (Havinga et al., 2020 ; Hirons et al., 2016 ) and social media methods (Calcagni et al., 2019 ) as novel methods to examine cultural ecosystem services. In addition, the link and overlap between #0 cultural ecosystem service and #17 circular economy cannot be overlooked.

Ecosystem services relate to all the benefits that humans receive from ecosystems, including supply services, regulatory services, cultural services and support services. Research on cultural ecosystem services is based on the research of ecosystem services. It can be viewed in Fig.  9 that the research and citation burst in #4 was all slightly earlier than #0. Cluster #4 includes 118 references from 2005 to 2019, with an average year of 2011. In its research and development, how to integrate ecosystem services into the market and the payment scheme to protect the natural environment is a significant research topic (Gómez-Baggethun et al., 2010 ). In Cluster #4, the most influential literature provides an overview of the payment of ecosystem services (PES) from theory to practice by Engel et al. ( 2008 ). Many highly cited references have discussed PES (Kosoy & Corbera, 2010 ; Muradian et al., 2010 ), including the effectiveness of evaluation (Naeem et al., 2015 ), social equity matters (Pascual et al., 2014 ), the suitability and challenge (Muradian et al., 2013 ), and how to contribute to saving nature (Redford & Adams, 2009 ). The cluster also includes studies on impact assessment of protected areas (Oldekop et al., 2016 ), protected areas and poverty (Brockington & Wilkie, 2015 ; Ferraro & Hanauer, 2014 ), public perceptions (Bennett, 2016 ; Bennett & Dearden, 2014 ) and forest ecosystem services (Hansen et al., 2013 ). The foremost citing articles confirm the dominant theme of ecosystem services, especially the in-depth study and discussion of PES (Muniz & Cruz, 2015 ). In addition, #4 is highly correlated with #7 neoliberal protection, and Fairhead et al. ( 2012 ), a representative article of this stage, belongs to this cluster.

As the second largest cluster, Cluster #1 contains 131 references from 2008 to 2019, with the median year of 2014. As Fig S2 a) shows, the highly cited literature has mainly studied the status and protection of large carnivores (Mace, 2014 ; Ripple et al., 2014 ), including the situation of reduction (Craigie et al., 2010 ), downgrade (Estes et al., 2011 ) and even extinction (Dirzo et al., 2014 ; Pimm et al., 2014 ), and the reasons for such results, such as tourist visits (Balmford et al., 2015 ; Geffroy et al., 2015 ) and the increase in population at the edge of the protected areas (Wittemyer et al., 2008 ). The conservation effects of protected areas on wildlife biodiversity (Watson et al., 2014 ) and the implications of tourist preference heterogeneity for conservation and management (Minin et al., 2013 ) have also received attention. It is worth noting that the high citation rate of a paper using R to estimate the linear mixed-effects model (Bates et al., 2015 ) and the use of R in this cluster. The relationship between biodiversity and ecotourism is highlighted by the representative citing articles in research frontier of this cluster (Chung et al., 2018 ).

Cluster #3 refers to marine predator, and as shown in Fig.  8 , which has a strong correlation with #1. A total of 125 references were cited from 2002 to 2018, with an average year of 2011. References with high citation in #3 mainly studied the extinction and protection of marine life such as sharks (Dulvy et al., 2014 ), as well as the economic value and ecological impact of shark ecotourism (Clua et al., 2010 ; Gallagher & Hammerschlag, 2011 ; Gallagher et al., 2015 ). The paper published by Gallagher et al. ( 2015 ) is both the highly cited reference and main citing article, mainly focusing on the impact of shark ecotourism. It is also noteworthy that #6 protected area, #13 mangrove forest and #29 Mediterranean areas are highly correlated with these two clusters (Fig.  8 ).

Moreover, some clusters are not highly correlated with other clusters, but cannot be neglected at this stage of research. Cluster #8 responsible behavior includes 107 citations with the average year 2013, and mainly studied environmentally responsible behaviors in ecotourism (Chiu et al., 2014 ). Cluster #9 tourism development contains 97 cited references with mean year of 2015, focusing on the impact of such factors as residents’ perception on tourism development (Sharpley, 2014 ). Cluster #15 volunteer tourism consists of 52 citations, with an average year of 2011, which mainly considers the role of volunteer tourism in tourism development and sustainable tourism (Wearing & McGehee, 2013 ). Cluster #18 telecoupling framework has 26 cited references with the mean year being 2015, and the application of the new integrated framework of telecoupling 1 in ecotourism can be seen (Liu et al., 2015 ).

At this stage, it can be seen that the research field of ecotourism begins to develop in the direction of diversification, including the value evaluation and related research of ecosystem services and cultural ecosystem services, as well as the exploration of wild animals and plants, marine animals and plants and biodiversity. Neoliberal conservation, tourists’ responsible behavior, tourism development, volunteer tourism and circular economy are all explored. Some new research methods have also brought fresh air to this field, such as the introduction of spatial geographic models and social media methods, the discussion of economic value evaluation methods, the widespread use of R and the exploration of telecoupling framework. Therefore, from this stage, research in the field of ecotourism has entered the second stage of scientific discipline development (Shneider, 2009 ), featured by the use and evolution of research tools that can be used to investigate potential phenomena.

Phase III: Sustainable development research stage (2016 to present)

This stage of research continues to explore a series of topics of the preceding phase and further extends the research field on this basis. The keywords at this stage are politics, marine protected area and valuation. Some other keywords are still very active today, such as experience, challenge, sustainable development, willingness to pay, perspective, strategy, quality and satisfaction. The representative article is about sustainable development published by D'Amato et al. ( 2017 ), as shown in Fig.  8 belonging to #17 circular economy. The emerging clusters in this period are #11 ecological footprint, #14 social media and #16 COVID-19 pandemic. Cluster #11 contains 70 cited references from 2013 to 2020 with the mean year 2017. This clustering study mainly used the ecological footprint as an environmental indicator and socioeconomic indicators such as tourism to investigate the hypothesis of environmental Kuznets curve (Ozturk et al., 2016 ; Ulucak & Bilgili, 2018 ). Cluster #14 includes 52 cited references, with an average year of 2016. It can be seen that the introduction of social media data has added new color to research in the field of ecotourism, such as using social media data to quantify landscape value (Zanten et al., 2016 ) and to understand tourists’ preferences for the experience of protected areas (Hausmann et al., 2018 ), as well as from a spatial perspective using social media geo-tagged photos as indicators for evaluating cultural ecosystem services (Richards & Friess, 2015 ). As the latest and most concerned topic, cluster #16 contains 48 cited references, with mean year of 2018. This cluster mainly cites research on over-tourism (Seraphin et al., 2018 ) and sustainable tourism (Higgins-Desbiolles, 2018 ) and explores the impact of pandemics such as COVID-19 on global tourism (Gössling et al., 2021 ).

These emerging clusters at this phase bring fresh thinking to the research of ecotourism. First of all, the analysis of ecological footprint provides a tool for measuring the degree of sustainability and helps to monitor the effectiveness of sustainable programs (Kharrazi et al., 2014 ). Research and exploration of ecological footprint in ecotourism expresses the idea of sustainable development and puts forward reasonable planning and suggestions by comparing the demand of ecological footprint with the carrying capacity of natural ecosystem. Secondly, the use of social media data brings a new perspective of data acquisition to ecotourism research. Such large-scale data acquisition can make up for the limitations of sample size and data sampling bias faced by survey data users and provide a new way to understand and explore tourist behavior and market (Li et al., 2018 ). Finally, the sudden impact of COVID-19 in 2020 and its long-term sustainability has dealt a huge blow to the tourism industry. COVID-19 has highlighted the great need and value of tourism, while fundamentally changing the way destinations, business and visitors plan, manage and experience tourism (CREST, 2020 ). However, the stagnation of tourism caused by the pandemic is not enough to meet the challenges posed by the environment and the climate crisis. Therefore, how to sustain the development of tourism in this context to meet the challenges of the environment and climate change remains an important issue in the coming period of time. These emerging clusters are pushing the boundaries of ecotourism research and the exploration of sustainable development in terms of research methods, data collection and emerging topics.

Despite the fact that the research topics in this stage are richer and more diversified, the core goal of research is still committed to the sustainable development of ecotourism. The introduction of new technologies and the productive results have led to a much-improved understanding of research issues. All this commemorates the entrance of research into the third stage of the development of scientific disciplines (Shneider, 2009 ). In addition to continuing the current research topics, the future development of the field of ecotourism will continue to focus on the goal of sustainable development and will be more diversified and interdisciplinary.

This paper uses scientometrics to make a comprehensive visual domain analysis of ecotourism. The aim is to take advantage of this method to conduct an in-depth systematic review of research and development in the field of ecotourism. We have enriched the process of systematic reviews of knowledge domains with features from the latest CiteSpace software. Compared with previous studies, this study not only updated the database, but also extended the dataset with citation expansion, so as to more comprehensively identify the rapidly developing research field. The research not only identifies the main clusters and their advance in ecotourism research based on high impact citations and research frontiers formed by citations, but also presents readers with new insights through intuitive visual images. Through this study, readers can swiftly understand the progress of ecotourism, and on the basis of this study, they can use this method to conduct in-depth analysis of the field they are interested in.

Our research shows that ecotourism has developed rapidly in recent years, with the number of published articles increasing year by year, and this trend has become more pronounced after 2018. The research field of ecotourism spans many disciplines and is a comprehensive interdisciplinary subject. Ecotourism also attracts the attention of numerous developed and developing countries and institutions. The USA, China, Australia and South Africa are in a relatively leading position in the research and development of ecotourism. Foam tree map and pie chart of major topics, and the landscape view of keywords provide the hotspot issues of the research field. The development trend of ecotourism is preliminarily understood by detecting the citation bursts of the keywords and published articles. Co-citation analysis generates the main clusters of ecotourism research, and the timeline visualization of these clusters provides a clearer view for understanding the development dynamics of the research field. Building on all the above results, the research and development of ecotourism can be roughly divided into three stages: human disturbance, ecosystem services and sustainable development. Through the study of keywords, representative literature and main clusters in each stage, the development characteristics and context of each stage are clarified. From the current research results, we can catch sight that the application of methods and software in ecotourism research and the development of cross-field. Supported by the Shneider’s four-stage theory of scientific discipline (Shneider, 2009 ), it can be thought that ecotourism is in the third stage. Research tools and methods have become more potent and convenient, and research perspectives have become more diverse.

Based on the overall situation, research hotspots and development tendency of ecotourism research, it can be seen that the sustainable development of ecotourism is the core issue of current ecotourism research and also an important goal for future development. In the context of the current pandemic, the tourism industry is in crisis, but crisis often breeds innovation, and we must take time to reconsider the way forward. As we look forward to the future of tourism, we must adopt the rigor and dedication required to adapt to the pandemic, adhering to the principles of sustainable development while emphasizing economic reliability, environmental suitability and cultural acceptance. Post-COVID, the competitive landscape of travel and tourism will change profoundly, with preventive and effective risk management, adaptation and resilience, and decarbonization laying the foundation for future competitiveness and relevance (CREST, 2020 ).

In addition, as can be seen from the research and development of ecotourism, the exploration of sustainable development increasingly needs to absorb research methods from diverse fields to guide the formulation of policy. First of all, how to evaluate and quantify ecotourism reasonably and scientifically is an essential problem to be solved in the development of ecotourism. Some scholars choose contingent valuation method (CVM) and choice experiment (CE) in environmental economics to evaluate the economic value of ecotourism, especially non-market value. In addition, the introduction of spatial econometrics and the use of geographic information system (GIS) provide spatial scale analysis methods and results presentation for the sustainable development of ecotourism. The use of social media data implies the application of big data technology in the field of ecotourism, where machine learning methods such as artificial neural networks (ANN) and linear discriminant analysis (LDA) are increasingly being applied (Talebi et al., 2021 ). The measurement of ecological footprint and the use of telecoupling framework provide a reliable way to measure sustainable development and the interaction between multiple systems. These approaches all have expanded the methodological boundaries of ecotourism research. It is worth noting that R, as an open source and powerful software, is favored by scholars in the field of ecotourism. This programming language for statistical computation is now widely used in statistical analysis, data mining, data processing and mapping of ecotourism research.

The scientometrics method used in this study is mainly guided by the citation model in the literature retrieval dataset. The range of data retrieval exercises restraint by the source of retrieval and the query method utilized. While current methods can meet the requirements, iterative query optimization can also serve to advance in the quality of the data. To achieve higher data accuracy, the concept tree function in the new version of CiteSpace can also serve to clarify the research content of each clustering (Chen, 2017 ). In addition, the structural variation analysis in the new edition is also an interesting study, which can show the citation footprints of typical high-yielding authors and judge the influence of the author on the variability of network structure through the analysis of the citation footprints (Chen, 2017 ).

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Acknowledgements

This study is funded by Education Department of Heilongjiang Province (1451MSYYB013) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.71874026 and No.71171044).

Authors’ contributions

In this study, LX proposed the research topic, designed the research methodology and framework, and made the data analysis. She was the major contributor in writing the manuscript. CA contributed to the design of the whole paper, including the research topic and methodology, and also participated in the writing and revision of the manuscript. BL and ZC were involved in data collection and analysis. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Availability of data and material

Declarations.

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interest or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Not applicable.

Liu, J., Hull, V., Batistella, M., DeFries, R., Dietz, T., Fu, F.,... Zhu, C. (2013). Framing Sustainability in a Telecoupled World. Ecology and Society , 18 (2), 26. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-05873-180226

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Contributor Information

Lishan Xu, Email: nc.ude.unjdm@0104102 .

Changlin Ao, Email: nc.ude.uaen@nilgnahcoa .

Baoqi Liu, Email: moc.qq@457115825 .

Zhenyu Cai, Email: moc.qq@697833194 .

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