parts of a research introduction

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How to Write a Research Paper Introduction (with Examples)

The research paper introduction section, along with the Title and Abstract, can be considered the face of any research paper. The following article is intended to guide you in organizing and writing the research paper introduction for a quality academic article or dissertation.

The research paper introduction aims to present the topic to the reader. A study will only be accepted for publishing if you can ascertain that the available literature cannot answer your research question. So it is important to ensure that you have read important studies on that particular topic, especially those within the last five to ten years, and that they are properly referenced in this section. 1 What should be included in the research paper introduction is decided by what you want to tell readers about the reason behind the research and how you plan to fill the knowledge gap. The best research paper introduction provides a systemic review of existing work and demonstrates additional work that needs to be done. It needs to be brief, captivating, and well-referenced; a well-drafted research paper introduction will help the researcher win half the battle.

The introduction for a research paper is where you set up your topic and approach for the reader. It has several key goals:

• Present your research topic
• Capture reader interest
• Summarize existing research
• Position your own approach
• Define your specific research problem and problem statement
• Highlight the novelty and contributions of the study
• Give an overview of the paper’s structure

The research paper introduction can vary in size and structure depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or is a review paper. Some research paper introduction examples are only half a page while others are a few pages long. In many cases, the introduction will be shorter than all of the other sections of your paper; its length depends on the size of your paper as a whole.

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Table of Contents

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The introduction in a research paper is placed at the beginning to guide the reader from a broad subject area to the specific topic that your research addresses. They present the following information to the reader

• Scope: The topic covered in the research paper
• Context: Background of your topic
• Importance: Why your research matters in that particular area of research and the industry problem that can be targeted

The research paper introduction conveys a lot of information and can be considered an essential roadmap for the rest of your paper. A good introduction for a research paper is important for the following reasons:

• It stimulates your reader’s interest: A good introduction section can make your readers want to read your paper by capturing their interest. It informs the reader what they are going to learn and helps determine if the topic is of interest to them.
• It helps the reader understand the research background: Without a clear introduction, your readers may feel confused and even struggle when reading your paper. A good research paper introduction will prepare them for the in-depth research to come. It provides you the opportunity to engage with the readers and demonstrate your knowledge and authority on the specific topic.
• It explains why your research paper is worth reading: Your introduction can convey a lot of information to your readers. It introduces the topic, why the topic is important, and how you plan to proceed with your research.
• It helps guide the reader through the rest of the paper: The research paper introduction gives the reader a sense of the nature of the information that will support your arguments and the general organization of the paragraphs that will follow. It offers an overview of what to expect when reading the main body of your paper.

What are the parts of introduction in the research?

A good research paper introduction section should comprise three main elements: 2

• What is known: This sets the stage for your research. It informs the readers of what is known on the subject.
• What is lacking: This is aimed at justifying the reason for carrying out your research. This could involve investigating a new concept or method or building upon previous research.
• What you aim to do: This part briefly states the objectives of your research and its major contributions. Your detailed hypothesis will also form a part of this section.

How to write a research paper introduction?

The first step in writing the research paper introduction is to inform the reader what your topic is and why it’s interesting or important. This is generally accomplished with a strong opening statement. The second step involves establishing the kinds of research that have been done and ending with limitations or gaps in the research that you intend to address. Finally, the research paper introduction clarifies how your own research fits in and what problem it addresses. If your research involved testing hypotheses, these should be stated along with your research question. The hypothesis should be presented in the past tense since it will have been tested by the time you are writing the research paper introduction.

The following key points, with examples, can guide you when writing the research paper introduction section:

• Highlight the importance of the research field or topic
• Describe the background of the topic
• Present an overview of current research on the topic

Example: The inclusion of experiential and competency-based learning has benefitted electronics engineering education. Industry partnerships provide an excellent alternative for students wanting to engage in solving real-world challenges. Industry-academia participation has grown in recent years due to the need for skilled engineers with practical training and specialized expertise. However, from the educational perspective, many activities are needed to incorporate sustainable development goals into the university curricula and consolidate learning innovation in universities.

• Reveal a gap in existing research or oppose an existing assumption
• Formulate the research question

Example: There have been plausible efforts to integrate educational activities in higher education electronics engineering programs. However, very few studies have considered using educational research methods for performance evaluation of competency-based higher engineering education, with a focus on technical and or transversal skills. To remedy the current need for evaluating competencies in STEM fields and providing sustainable development goals in engineering education, in this study, a comparison was drawn between study groups without and with industry partners.

• State the purpose of your study
• Highlight the key characteristics of your study
• Describe important results
• Highlight the novelty of the study.
• Offer a brief overview of the structure of the paper.

Example: The study evaluates the main competency needed in the applied electronics course, which is a fundamental core subject for many electronics engineering undergraduate programs. We compared two groups, without and with an industrial partner, that offered real-world projects to solve during the semester. This comparison can help determine significant differences in both groups in terms of developing subject competency and achieving sustainable development goals.

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Paperpal Copilot is a generative AI-powered academic writing assistant. It’s trained on millions of published scholarly articles and over 20 years of STM experience. Paperpal Copilot helps authors write better and faster with:

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With Paperpal Copilot, create a research paper introduction effortlessly. In this step-by-step guide, we’ll walk you through how Paperpal transforms your initial ideas into a polished and publication-ready introduction.

How to use Paperpal to write the Introduction section

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Step 3: Fill in the specifics, such as your field of study, brief description or details you want to include, which will help the AI generate the outline for your Introduction.

Step 4: Use this outline and sentence suggestions to develop your content, adding citations where needed and modifying it to align with your specific research focus.

Step 5: Turn to Paperpal’s granular language checks to refine your content, tailor it to reflect your personal writing style, and ensure it effectively conveys your message.

You can use the same process to develop each section of your article, and finally your research paper in half the time and without any of the stress.

The purpose of the research paper introduction is to introduce the reader to the problem definition, justify the need for the study, and describe the main theme of the study. The aim is to gain the reader’s attention by providing them with necessary background information and establishing the main purpose and direction of the research.

The length of the research paper introduction can vary across journals and disciplines. While there are no strict word limits for writing the research paper introduction, an ideal length would be one page, with a maximum of 400 words over 1-4 paragraphs. Generally, it is one of the shorter sections of the paper as the reader is assumed to have at least a reasonable knowledge about the topic. 2 For example, for a study evaluating the role of building design in ensuring fire safety, there is no need to discuss definitions and nature of fire in the introduction; you could start by commenting upon the existing practices for fire safety and how your study will add to the existing knowledge and practice.

When deciding what to include in the research paper introduction, the rest of the paper should also be considered. The aim is to introduce the reader smoothly to the topic and facilitate an easy read without much dependency on external sources. 3 Below is a list of elements you can include to prepare a research paper introduction outline and follow it when you are writing the research paper introduction. Topic introduction: This can include key definitions and a brief history of the topic. Research context and background: Offer the readers some general information and then narrow it down to specific aspects. Details of the research you conducted: A brief literature review can be included to support your arguments or line of thought. Rationale for the study: This establishes the relevance of your study and establishes its importance. Importance of your research: The main contributions are highlighted to help establish the novelty of your study Research hypothesis: Introduce your research question and propose an expected outcome. Organization of the paper: Include a short paragraph of 3-4 sentences that highlights your plan for the entire paper

Cite only works that are most relevant to your topic; as a general rule, you can include one to three. Note that readers want to see evidence of original thinking. So it is better to avoid using too many references as it does not leave much room for your personal standpoint to shine through. Citations in your research paper introduction support the key points, and the number of citations depend on the subject matter and the point discussed. If the research paper introduction is too long or overflowing with citations, it is better to cite a few review articles rather than the individual articles summarized in the review. A good point to remember when citing research papers in the introduction section is to include at least one-third of the references in the introduction.

The literature review plays a significant role in the research paper introduction section. A good literature review accomplishes the following: Introduces the topic – Establishes the study’s significance – Provides an overview of the relevant literature – Provides context for the study using literature – Identifies knowledge gaps However, remember to avoid making the following mistakes when writing a research paper introduction: Do not use studies from the literature review to aggressively support your research Avoid direct quoting Do not allow literature review to be the focus of this section. Instead, the literature review should only aid in setting a foundation for the manuscript.

Remember the following key points for writing a good research paper introduction: 4

• Avoid stuffing too much general information: Avoid including what an average reader would know and include only that information related to the problem being addressed in the research paper introduction. For example, when describing a comparative study of non-traditional methods for mechanical design optimization, information related to the traditional methods and differences between traditional and non-traditional methods would not be relevant. In this case, the introduction for the research paper should begin with the state-of-the-art non-traditional methods and methods to evaluate the efficiency of newly developed algorithms.
• Avoid packing too many references: Cite only the required works in your research paper introduction. The other works can be included in the discussion section to strengthen your findings.
• Avoid extensive criticism of previous studies: Avoid being overly critical of earlier studies while setting the rationale for your study. A better place for this would be the Discussion section, where you can highlight the advantages of your method.
• Avoid describing conclusions of the study: When writing a research paper introduction remember not to include the findings of your study. The aim is to let the readers know what question is being answered. The actual answer should only be given in the Results and Discussion section.

To summarize, the research paper introduction section should be brief yet informative. It should convince the reader the need to conduct the study and motivate him to read further. If you’re feeling stuck or unsure, choose trusted AI academic writing assistants like Paperpal to effortlessly craft your research paper introduction and other sections of your research article.

1. Jawaid, S. A., & Jawaid, M. (2019). How to write introduction and discussion. Saudi Journal of Anaesthesia, 13(Suppl 1), S18.

2. Dewan, P., & Gupta, P. (2016). Writing the title, abstract and introduction: Looks matter!. Indian pediatrics, 53, 235-241.

3. Cetin, S., & Hackam, D. J. (2005). An approach to the writing of a scientific Manuscript1. Journal of Surgical Research, 128(2), 165-167.

4. Bavdekar, S. B. (2015). Writing introduction: Laying the foundations of a research paper. Journal of the Association of Physicians of India, 63(7), 44-6.

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• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 4. The Introduction
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

The introduction leads the reader from a general subject area to a particular topic of inquiry. It establishes the scope, context, and significance of the research being conducted by summarizing current understanding and background information about the topic, stating the purpose of the work in the form of the research problem supported by a hypothesis or a set of questions, explaining briefly the methodological approach used to examine the research problem, highlighting the potential outcomes your study can reveal, and outlining the remaining structure and organization of the paper.

Key Elements of the Research Proposal. Prepared under the direction of the Superintendent and by the 2010 Curriculum Design and Writing Team. Baltimore County Public Schools.

Importance of a Good Introduction

Think of the introduction as a mental road map that must answer for the reader these four questions:

• What was I studying?
• Why was this topic important to investigate?
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study?
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding?

According to Reyes, there are three overarching goals of a good introduction: 1) ensure that you summarize prior studies about the topic in a manner that lays a foundation for understanding the research problem; 2) explain how your study specifically addresses gaps in the literature, insufficient consideration of the topic, or other deficiency in the literature; and, 3) note the broader theoretical, empirical, and/or policy contributions and implications of your research.

A well-written introduction is important because, quite simply, you never get a second chance to make a good first impression. The opening paragraphs of your paper will provide your readers with their initial impressions about the logic of your argument, your writing style, the overall quality of your research, and, ultimately, the validity of your findings and conclusions. A vague, disorganized, or error-filled introduction will create a negative impression, whereas, a concise, engaging, and well-written introduction will lead your readers to think highly of your analytical skills, your writing style, and your research approach. All introductions should conclude with a brief paragraph that describes the organization of the rest of the paper.

Hirano, Eliana. “Research Article Introductions in English for Specific Purposes: A Comparison between Brazilian, Portuguese, and English.” English for Specific Purposes 28 (October 2009): 240-250; Samraj, B. “Introductions in Research Articles: Variations Across Disciplines.” English for Specific Purposes 21 (2002): 1–17; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide. Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70; Reyes, Victoria. Demystifying the Journal Article. Inside Higher Education.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Structure and Approach

The introduction is the broad beginning of the paper that answers three important questions for the reader:

• What is this?
• Why should I read it?
• What do you want me to think about / consider doing / react to?

Think of the structure of the introduction as an inverted triangle of information that lays a foundation for understanding the research problem. Organize the information so as to present the more general aspects of the topic early in the introduction, then narrow your analysis to more specific topical information that provides context, finally arriving at your research problem and the rationale for studying it [often written as a series of key questions to be addressed or framed as a hypothesis or set of assumptions to be tested] and, whenever possible, a description of the potential outcomes your study can reveal.

These are general phases associated with writing an introduction: 1.  Establish an area to research by:

• Highlighting the importance of the topic, and/or
• Making general statements about the topic, and/or
• Presenting an overview on current research on the subject.

2.  Identify a research niche by:

• Opposing an existing assumption, and/or
• Revealing a gap in existing research, and/or
• Formulating a research question or problem, and/or
• Continuing a disciplinary tradition.

3.  Place your research within the research niche by:

• Stating the intent of your study,
• Outlining the key characteristics of your study,
• Describing important results, and
• Giving a brief overview of the structure of the paper.

NOTE:   It is often useful to review the introduction late in the writing process. This is appropriate because outcomes are unknown until you've completed the study. After you complete writing the body of the paper, go back and review introductory descriptions of the structure of the paper, the method of data gathering, the reporting and analysis of results, and the conclusion. Reviewing and, if necessary, rewriting the introduction ensures that it correctly matches the overall structure of your final paper.

II.  Delimitations of the Study

Delimitations refer to those characteristics that limit the scope and define the conceptual boundaries of your research . This is determined by the conscious exclusionary and inclusionary decisions you make about how to investigate the research problem. In other words, not only should you tell the reader what it is you are studying and why, but you must also acknowledge why you rejected alternative approaches that could have been used to examine the topic.

Obviously, the first limiting step was the choice of research problem itself. However, implicit are other, related problems that could have been chosen but were rejected. These should be noted in the conclusion of your introduction. For example, a delimitating statement could read, "Although many factors can be understood to impact the likelihood young people will vote, this study will focus on socioeconomic factors related to the need to work full-time while in school." The point is not to document every possible delimiting factor, but to highlight why previously researched issues related to the topic were not addressed.

Examples of delimitating choices would be:

• The key aims and objectives of your study,
• The research questions that you address,
• The variables of interest [i.e., the various factors and features of the phenomenon being studied],
• The method(s) of investigation,
• The time period your study covers, and
• Any relevant alternative theoretical frameworks that could have been adopted.

Review each of these decisions. Not only do you clearly establish what you intend to accomplish in your research, but you should also include a declaration of what the study does not intend to cover. In the latter case, your exclusionary decisions should be based upon criteria understood as, "not interesting"; "not directly relevant"; “too problematic because..."; "not feasible," and the like. Make this reasoning explicit!

NOTE:   Delimitations refer to the initial choices made about the broader, overall design of your study and should not be confused with documenting the limitations of your study discovered after the research has been completed.

ANOTHER NOTE : Do not view delimitating statements as admitting to an inherent failing or shortcoming in your research. They are an accepted element of academic writing intended to keep the reader focused on the research problem by explicitly defining the conceptual boundaries and scope of your study. It addresses any critical questions in the reader's mind of, "Why the hell didn't the author examine this?"

III.  The Narrative Flow

Issues to keep in mind that will help the narrative flow in your introduction :

• Your introduction should clearly identify the subject area of interest . A simple strategy to follow is to use key words from your title in the first few sentences of the introduction. This will help focus the introduction on the topic at the appropriate level and ensures that you get to the subject matter quickly without losing focus, or discussing information that is too general.
• Establish context by providing a brief and balanced review of the pertinent published literature that is available on the subject. The key is to summarize for the reader what is known about the specific research problem before you did your analysis. This part of your introduction should not represent a comprehensive literature review--that comes next. It consists of a general review of the important, foundational research literature [with citations] that establishes a foundation for understanding key elements of the research problem. See the drop-down menu under this tab for " Background Information " regarding types of contexts.
• Clearly state the hypothesis that you investigated . When you are first learning to write in this format it is okay, and actually preferable, to use a past statement like, "The purpose of this study was to...." or "We investigated three possible mechanisms to explain the...."
• Why did you choose this kind of research study or design? Provide a clear statement of the rationale for your approach to the problem studied. This will usually follow your statement of purpose in the last paragraph of the introduction.

IV.  Engaging the Reader

A research problem in the social sciences can come across as dry and uninteresting to anyone unfamiliar with the topic . Therefore, one of the goals of your introduction is to make readers want to read your paper. Here are several strategies you can use to grab the reader's attention:

• Open with a compelling story . Almost all research problems in the social sciences, no matter how obscure or esoteric , are really about the lives of people. Telling a story that humanizes an issue can help illuminate the significance of the problem and help the reader empathize with those affected by the condition being studied.
• Include a strong quotation or a vivid, perhaps unexpected, anecdote . During your review of the literature, make note of any quotes or anecdotes that grab your attention because they can used in your introduction to highlight the research problem in a captivating way.
• Pose a provocative or thought-provoking question . Your research problem should be framed by a set of questions to be addressed or hypotheses to be tested. However, a provocative question can be presented in the beginning of your introduction that challenges an existing assumption or compels the reader to consider an alternative viewpoint that helps establish the significance of your study. 
• Describe a puzzling scenario or incongruity . This involves highlighting an interesting quandary concerning the research problem or describing contradictory findings from prior studies about a topic. Posing what is essentially an unresolved intellectual riddle about the problem can engage the reader's interest in the study.
• Cite a stirring example or case study that illustrates why the research problem is important . Draw upon the findings of others to demonstrate the significance of the problem and to describe how your study builds upon or offers alternatives ways of investigating this prior research.

NOTE:   It is important that you choose only one of the suggested strategies for engaging your readers. This avoids giving an impression that your paper is more flash than substance and does not distract from the substance of your study.

Freedman, Leora  and Jerry Plotnick. Introductions and Conclusions. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Introduction. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Introductions. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Introductions, Body Paragraphs, and Conclusions for an Argument Paper. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide . Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70; Resources for Writers: Introduction Strategies. Program in Writing and Humanistic Studies. Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Sharpling, Gerald. Writing an Introduction. Centre for Applied Linguistics, University of Warwick; Samraj, B. “Introductions in Research Articles: Variations Across Disciplines.” English for Specific Purposes 21 (2002): 1–17; Swales, John and Christine B. Feak. Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Essential Skills and Tasks . 2nd edition. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2004 ; Writing Your Introduction. Department of English Writing Guide. George Mason University.

Writing Tip

Avoid the "Dictionary" Introduction

Giving the dictionary definition of words related to the research problem may appear appropriate because it is important to define specific terminology that readers may be unfamiliar with. However, anyone can look a word up in the dictionary and a general dictionary is not a particularly authoritative source because it doesn't take into account the context of your topic and doesn't offer particularly detailed information. Also, placed in the context of a particular discipline, a term or concept may have a different meaning than what is found in a general dictionary. If you feel that you must seek out an authoritative definition, use a subject specific dictionary or encyclopedia [e.g., if you are a sociology student, search for dictionaries of sociology]. A good database for obtaining definitive definitions of concepts or terms is Credo Reference .

Saba, Robert. The College Research Paper. Florida International University; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.

Another Writing Tip

When Do I Begin?

A common question asked at the start of any paper is, "Where should I begin?" An equally important question to ask yourself is, "When do I begin?" Research problems in the social sciences rarely rest in isolation from history. Therefore, it is important to lay a foundation for understanding the historical context underpinning the research problem. However, this information should be brief and succinct and begin at a point in time that illustrates the study's overall importance. For example, a study that investigates coffee cultivation and export in West Africa as a key stimulus for local economic growth needs to describe the beginning of exporting coffee in the region and establishing why economic growth is important. You do not need to give a long historical explanation about coffee exports in Africa. If a research problem requires a substantial exploration of the historical context, do this in the literature review section. In your introduction, make note of this as part of the "roadmap" [see below] that you use to describe the organization of your paper.

Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide . Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70.

Yet Another Writing Tip

Always End with a Roadmap

The final paragraph or sentences of your introduction should forecast your main arguments and conclusions and provide a brief description of the rest of the paper [the "roadmap"] that let's the reader know where you are going and what to expect. A roadmap is important because it helps the reader place the research problem within the context of their own perspectives about the topic. In addition, concluding your introduction with an explicit roadmap tells the reader that you have a clear understanding of the structural purpose of your paper. In this way, the roadmap acts as a type of promise to yourself and to your readers that you will follow a consistent and coherent approach to addressing the topic of inquiry. Refer to it often to help keep your writing focused and organized.

Cassuto, Leonard. “On the Dissertation: How to Write the Introduction.” The Chronicle of Higher Education , May 28, 2018; Radich, Michael. A Student's Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies . (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Writing n. d.), pp. 35-37.

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How to Write a Research Paper Introduction

Learn how to write a research paper introduction with expert guidance.

Last updated on Mar 13th, 2024

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Table of Contents

We write different types of papers for academic and professional reasons. Research paper is one of the most important papers and it is different from other papers. There are different types of rules for writing a research paper , the first part is the introduction. Through this article, we will try to tell you how to write an introduction for a research paper beautifully.

Introduction

Before starting to write any papers, especially research papers one should know how to write a research paper introduction. The introduction is intended to guide the reader from a general subject to a specific area of study. It establishes the context of the research being conducted by summarizing current understanding and background information on the topic, stating the purpose of the work in the form of a thesis, question, or research problem, Briefly explaining your rationale, your methodological approach, highlight the potential findings your research may reveal, and describe the remaining structure of the paper.

A well-written introduction is imperative since, essentially, you never get a second chance to form a great first impression. The opening passage of your paper will give your audience their introductory impression, almost the rationale of your contention, your composing style, the general quality of your investigation, and, eventually, the legitimacy of your discoveries and conclusions. A vague, disorganized, or error-filled introduction will create a negative impression on the readers. While a brief, engaging, and well-written introduction will begin your readers off considering profoundly your expository abilities, your writing style, and your research approach. 

Tips for Writng an Introduction in Research Paper

Introduce your topic

This is a significant part of how to write an introduction for a research paper. The first task of the introduction is to tell the reader what your topic is and why it is interesting or important. This is usually done with a strong opening hook.

A hook is a strong opening sentence that conveys relevance to your topic. Think of an interesting fact or statistic, a powerful statement, a question, or a brief anecdote that will make readers wonder about your topic.

Describe the context

This introduction varies depending on your approach to your writing. In a more argumentative article, you will explore the general context here. In a more empirical paper, this is a great place to review previous research and determine how your research fits together.

Start briefly, and narrow down

The first thing of a research paper introduction is, to briefly describe your broad parts of research, then narrow in on your specific focus. This will help position your research topic within a broader field, making the work accessible to a wider audience than just experts in your field.

A common mistake when writing a research paper introduction is trying to fit everything in at once. Instead, pace yourself and present each piece of information in the most logical order the reader can understand. Typically, this means starting with the big picture and then gradually getting more specific with the details.

For your research paper introduction, you should first present an overview of the topic and then focus on your specific paper. This “funnel” structure naturally includes all the necessary parts of what should be included in a research paper introduction, from context to appropriate or research gaps and finally to relevance.

State Objective and Importance

Papers abandoned because they “do not demonstrate the importance of the topic” or “lack a clear motivation” often miss this point. Say what you want to achieve and why your readers should want to know whether you achieved it or not.

Quote generously

Once you have focused on the specific topic of your research, you should detail the latest and most relevant literature related to your research. Your literature review should be comprehensive but not too long. Remember, you are not writing a review. If you find your introduction is too long or has too many citations, a possible solution is to cite journal articles, rather than cite all of the individual articles that have been summarised in the journal.

Do not Keep it broad

Try to avoid lengthy introductions. A good target is between 500 and 1,000 words, although checking the magazine’s guidelines and back issues will provide the clearest guidance.

The introduction is not lengthy or detailed; rather, they are initiating actions. Introductions are best when they get to the point: save the details in the body of the document, where they belong.

The most important point of a research paper introduction is that they are clear and easy to understand. Writing at length can be distracting and even make your point harder to understand, so cut out unnecessary words and try to express things in simple terms that everyone understands. understandable.

Check journal condition

Many journals have specific assertions in their author instructions. For example, a maximum of one word may be stated, or instructions may require specific content, such as a supposition statement or a summary of your key findings.

Write the introduction to your research paper at the last moment

Your introduction may appear first in a research paper, but the general advice is to wait to write it until everything else has been written. This makes it easier for you to summarize your article because at this point you know everything you’re going to say. This also eliminates the urge to include everything in the introduction because you don’t want to forget anything.

Additionally, it is especially helpful to write an introduction after your research paper is finished. The introduction and conclusion of a research paper have similar topics and often reflect the structure of each topic. Writing the conclusion is also generally easier thanks to the pace created by writing the rest of the paper, and the conclusion can guide you in writing the introduction.

Make your introduction narrative style

Although not always appropriate for formal writing, using a narrative style in the introduction of your research paper can do a lot to engage readers and engage them emotionally. A 2016 study found that in some articles, using narrative strategies improved how often they were cited in other articles. Narrative style involves making the paper more personal to appeal to the reader’s emotions.

• Use first-person pronouns (I, we, my, our) to show that you are the narrator expressing emotions and feelings in the text setting up the scene. 
• Describe the times and locations of important events to help readers visualize them. 
• Appeal to the reader’s morality, sympathy, or urgency as a persuasive tactic. Again, this style will not be appropriate for all research paper introductions, especially those devoted to scientific research. 

However, for more informal research papers and especially essays, this style can make your writing more interesting or at least interesting, perfect for making readers excited right from the beginning of the article.

Use the CARS model

British scientist John Swales developed a method called the CARS model to “generate a search space” in the introduction. Although intended for scientific papers, this simple three-step structure can be used to outline the introduction to any research paper.

Explain the background of your topic, including previous research. Explain that information is lacking in your topic area or that current research is incomplete.

Explain how your research “fills in” missing information about your topic. 

the research findings and providing an overview of the structure of the rest of the paper, although this does not apply to all research papers, especially those Unofficial documents.

Six Essential Elements of How to Write a Research Paper Introduction

1. topic overview.

Start with a general overview of your topic. Refine your outline until you address the specific topic of your article. Next, mention any questions or concerns you have about the case. Note that you will address these in the article.

2. Previous research

Your introduction is the perfect place to review other findings about your topic. Includes both old and modern scholars. This general information shows that you are aware of previous research. It also presents previous findings to those who may not have that expertise.

3. A justification for your article

Explain why your topic needs to be discussed now. If possible, connect it to current issues. Additionally, you can point out problems with old theories or reveal gaps in current research. No matter how you do it, a good reason will keep readers interested and demonstrate why they should read the rest of your article.

4. Describe the method you used

Tell about your processes to make your writing more trustworthy. Identify your goals and the questions you will answer. Reveal how you conducted the research and describe how you measured the results. Also, explain why you made the important choices.

5. A thesis statement

Your main introduction should end with a thesis statement. This statement summarises the ideas that will run throughout your entire research paper. It must be simple and clear.

6. An outline

It is an adequate idea of how to write an introduction for a research paper. 

The introduction usually ends with an overview. Your layout should quickly present what you plan to cover in the following sections. Think of it as a road map, guiding readers to the end of your article.

What is the purpose of the introduction in a research paper, and why is it considered crucial?

The purpose of the introduction in a research paper is to guide the reader from a general subject to a specific area of study. It establishes the context of the research by summarizing current understanding, stating the purpose of the work, explaining the rationale and methodological approach, highlighting potential findings, and describing the paper’s structure. It’s considered crucial because it forms the reader’s first impression and sets the tone for the rest of the paper.

How can I effectively use a hook to engage readers in my research paper introduction?

Using a hook, such as an interesting fact, a powerful statement, a question, or a brief anecdote, can effectively engage readers in your research paper introduction. A hook captures the reader’s attention and makes them curious about your topic, encouraging them to continue reading.

How long the introduction should be in a research paper?

While there’s no strict word count, a good target for a research paper introduction is between 500 and 1,000 words, although you should check the specific guidelines provided by the journal you’re submitting to. It’s recommended to write the introduction after the rest of the paper has been completed. This way, you have a comprehensive understanding of your research, making it easier to summarize and guide your readers effectively.

Conclusion 

These are the important tips and tricks on how to write an introduction for a research paper properly. If you maintain these rules we believe that you will be able to write an excellent introduction in your research paper. 

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• Mar 13th, 2024
• Oct 14th, 2023

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How to Write a Research Introduction

Last Updated: December 6, 2023 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Megan Morgan, PhD . Megan Morgan is a Graduate Program Academic Advisor in the School of Public & International Affairs at the University of Georgia. She earned her PhD in English from the University of Georgia in 2015. There are 7 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 2,652,003 times.

The introduction to a research paper can be the most challenging part of the paper to write. The length of the introduction will vary depending on the type of research paper you are writing. An introduction should announce your topic, provide context and a rationale for your work, before stating your research questions and hypothesis. Well-written introductions set the tone for the paper, catch the reader's interest, and communicate the hypothesis or thesis statement.

Introducing the Topic of the Paper

• In scientific papers this is sometimes known as an "inverted triangle", where you start with the broadest material at the start, before zooming in on the specifics. [2] X Research source
• The sentence "Throughout the 20th century, our views of life on other planets have drastically changed" introduces a topic, but does so in broad terms.
• It provides the reader with an indication of the content of the essay and encourages them to read on.

• For example, if you were writing a paper about the behaviour of mice when exposed to a particular substance, you would include the word "mice", and the scientific name of the relevant compound in the first sentences.
• If you were writing a history paper about the impact of the First World War on gender relations in Britain, you should mention those key words in your first few lines.

• This is especially important if you are attempting to develop a new conceptualization that uses language and terminology your readers may be unfamiliar with.

• If you use an anecdote ensure that is short and highly relevant for your research. It has to function in the same way as an alternative opening, namely to announce the topic of your research paper to your reader.
• For example, if you were writing a sociology paper about re-offending rates among young offenders, you could include a brief story of one person whose story reflects and introduces your topic.
• This kind of approach is generally not appropriate for the introduction to a natural or physical sciences research paper where the writing conventions are different.

Establishing the Context for Your Paper

• It is important to be concise in the introduction, so provide an overview on recent developments in the primary research rather than a lengthy discussion.
• You can follow the "inverted triangle" principle to focus in from the broader themes to those to which you are making a direct contribution with your paper.
• A strong literature review presents important background information to your own research and indicates the importance of the field.

• By making clear reference to existing work you can demonstrate explicitly the specific contribution you are making to move the field forward.
• You can identify a gap in the existing scholarship and explain how you are addressing it and moving understanding forward.

• For example, if you are writing a scientific paper you could stress the merits of the experimental approach or models you have used.
• Stress what is novel in your research and the significance of your new approach, but don't give too much detail in the introduction.
• A stated rationale could be something like: "the study evaluates the previously unknown anti-inflammatory effects of a topical compound in order to evaluate its potential clinical uses".

Specifying Your Research Questions and Hypothesis

• The research question or questions generally come towards the end of the introduction, and should be concise and closely focused.
• The research question might recall some of the key words established in the first few sentences and the title of your paper.
• An example of a research question could be "what were the consequences of the North American Free Trade Agreement on the Mexican export economy?"
• This could be honed further to be specific by referring to a particular element of the Free Trade Agreement and the impact on a particular industry in Mexico, such as clothing manufacture.
• A good research question should shape a problem into a testable hypothesis.

• If possible try to avoid using the word "hypothesis" and rather make this implicit in your writing. This can make your writing appear less formulaic.
• In a scientific paper, giving a clear one-sentence overview of your results and their relation to your hypothesis makes the information clear and accessible. [10] X Trustworthy Source PubMed Central Journal archive from the U.S. National Institutes of Health Go to source
• An example of a hypothesis could be "mice deprived of food for the duration of the study were expected to become more lethargic than those fed normally".

• This is not always necessary and you should pay attention to the writing conventions in your discipline.
• In a natural sciences paper, for example, there is a fairly rigid structure which you will be following.
• A humanities or social science paper will most likely present more opportunities to deviate in how you structure your paper.

Research Introduction Help

Community Q&A

• Use your research papers' outline to help you decide what information to include when writing an introduction. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 1
• Consider drafting your introduction after you have already completed the rest of your research paper. Writing introductions last can help ensure that you don't leave out any major points. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

• Avoid emotional or sensational introductions; these can create distrust in the reader. Thanks Helpful 50 Not Helpful 12
• Generally avoid using personal pronouns in your introduction, such as "I," "me," "we," "us," "my," "mine," or "our." Thanks Helpful 31 Not Helpful 7
• Don't overwhelm the reader with an over-abundance of information. Keep the introduction as concise as possible by saving specific details for the body of your paper. Thanks Helpful 24 Not Helpful 14

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185916
• ↑ https://www.aresearchguide.com/inverted-pyramid-structure-in-writing.html
• ↑ https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/introduction
• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/PlanResearchPaper.html
• ↑ https://dept.writing.wisc.edu/wac/writing-an-introduction-for-a-scientific-paper/
• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/planresearchpaper/
• ↑ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3178846/

About This Article

To introduce your research paper, use the first 1-2 sentences to describe your general topic, such as “women in World War I.” Include and define keywords, such as “gender relations,” to show your reader where you’re going. Mention previous research into the topic with a phrase like, “Others have studied…”, then transition into what your contribution will be and why it’s necessary. Finally, state the questions that your paper will address and propose your “answer” to them as your thesis statement. For more information from our English Ph.D. co-author about how to craft a strong hypothesis and thesis, keep reading! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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How to Write a Research Paper: Parts of the Paper

• Choosing Your Topic
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Parts of the Research Paper Papers should have a beginning, a middle, and an end. Your introductory paragraph should grab the reader's attention, state your main idea, and indicate how you will support it. The body of the paper should expand on what you have stated in the introduction. Finally, the conclusion restates the paper's thesis and should explain what you have learned, giving a wrap up of your main ideas.

1. The Title The title should be specific and indicate the theme of the research and what ideas it addresses. Use keywords that help explain your paper's topic to the reader. Try to avoid abbreviations and jargon. Think about keywords that people would use to search for your paper and include them in your title.

2. The Abstract The abstract is used by readers to get a quick overview of your paper. Typically, they are about 200 words in length (120 words minimum to  250 words maximum). The abstract should introduce the topic and thesis, and should provide a general statement about what you have found in your research. The abstract allows you to mention each major aspect of your topic and helps readers decide whether they want to read the rest of the paper. Because it is a summary of the entire research paper, it is often written last. 

3. The Introduction The introduction should be designed to attract the reader's attention and explain the focus of the research. You will introduce your overview of the topic,  your main points of information, and why this subject is important. You can introduce the current understanding and background information about the topic. Toward the end of the introduction, you add your thesis statement, and explain how you will provide information to support your research questions. This provides the purpose and focus for the rest of the paper.

4. Thesis Statement Most papers will have a thesis statement or main idea and supporting facts/ideas/arguments. State your main idea (something of interest or something to be proven or argued for or against) as your thesis statement, and then provide your supporting facts and arguments. A thesis statement is a declarative sentence that asserts the position a paper will be taking. It also points toward the paper's development. This statement should be both specific and arguable. Generally, the thesis statement will be placed at the end of the first paragraph of your paper. The remainder of your paper will support this thesis.

Students often learn to write a thesis as a first step in the writing process, but often, after research, a writer's viewpoint may change. Therefore a thesis statement may be one of the final steps in writing. 

Examples of Thesis Statements from Purdue OWL

5. The Literature Review The purpose of the literature review is to describe past important research and how it specifically relates to the research thesis. It should be a synthesis of the previous literature and the new idea being researched. The review should examine the major theories related to the topic to date and their contributors. It should include all relevant findings from credible sources, such as academic books and peer-reviewed journal articles. You will want  to:

• Explain how the literature helps the researcher understand the topic.
• Try to show connections and any disparities between the literature.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
• Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.

More about writing a literature review. . .

6. The Discussion ​The purpose of the discussion is to interpret and describe what you have learned from your research. Make the reader understand why your topic is important. The discussion should always demonstrate what you have learned from your readings (and viewings) and how that learning has made the topic evolve, especially from the short description of main points in the introduction.Explain any new understanding or insights you have had after reading your articles and/or books. Paragraphs should use transitioning sentences to develop how one paragraph idea leads to the next. The discussion will always connect to the introduction, your thesis statement, and the literature you reviewed, but it does not simply repeat or rearrange the introduction. You want to: 

• Demonstrate critical thinking, not just reporting back facts that you gathered.
• If possible, tell how the topic has evolved over the past and give it's implications for the future.
• Fully explain your main ideas with supporting information.
• Explain why your thesis is correct giving arguments to counter points.

7. The Conclusion A concluding paragraph is a brief summary of your main ideas and restates the paper's main thesis, giving the reader the sense that the stated goal of the paper has been accomplished. What have you learned by doing this research that you didn't know before? What conclusions have you drawn? You may also want to suggest further areas of study, improvement of research possibilities, etc. to demonstrate your critical thinking regarding your research.

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How to write an introduction for a research paper

Learn how to write a strong and efficient research paper introduction by following the suitable structure and avoiding typical errors.

An introduction to any type of paper is sometimes misunderstood as the beginning; yet, an introduction is actually intended to present your chosen subject to the audience in a way that makes it more appealing and leaves your readers thirsty for more information. After the title and abstract, your audience will read the introduction, thus it’s critical to get off to a solid start.  

This article includes instructions on how to write an introduction for a research paper that engages the reader in your research. You can produce a strong opening for your research paper if you stick to the format and a few basic principles.

What is an introduction to a research paper?

An introduction is the opening section of a research paper and the section that a reader is likely to read first, in which the objective and goals of the subsequent writing are stated. 

The introduction serves numerous purposes. It provides context for your research, explains your topic and objectives, and provides an outline of the work. A solid introduction will establish the tone for the remainder of your paper, enticing readers to continue reading through the methodology, findings, and discussion. 

Even though introductions are generally presented at the beginning of a document, we must distinguish an introduction from the beginning of your research. An introduction, as the name implies, is supposed to introduce your subject without extending it. All relevant information and facts should be placed in the body and conclusion, not the introduction.

Structure of an introduction

Before explaining how to write an introduction for a research paper , it’s necessary to comprehend a structure that will make your introduction stronger and more straightforward.

A good hook

A hook is one of the most effective research introduction openers. A hook’s objective is to stimulate the reader’s interest to read the research paper.  There are various approaches you may take to generate a strong hook:  startling facts, a question, a brief overview, or even a quotation. 

Broad overview

Following an excellent hook, you should present a wide overview of your major issue and some background information on your research. If you’re unsure about how to begin an essay introduction, the best approach is to offer a basic explanation of your topic before delving into specific issues. Simply said, you should begin with general information and then narrow it down to your relevant topics.

After offering some background information regarding your research’s main topic, go on to give readers a better understanding of what you’ll be covering throughout your research. In this section of your introduction, you should swiftly clarify your important topics in the sequence in which they will be addressed later, gradually introducing your thesis statement. You can use some  The following are some critical questions to address in this section of your introduction: Who? What? Where? When? How? And why is that?

Thesis statement

The thesis statement, which must be stated in the beginning clause of your research since your entire research revolves around it, is the most important component of your research.

A thesis statement presents your audience with a quick overview of the research’s main assertion. In the body section of your work, your key argument is what you will expose or debate about it. An excellent thesis statement is usually very succinct, accurate, explicit, clear, and focused. Typically, your thesis should be at the conclusion of your introductory paragraph/section.

Tips for writing a strong introduction

Aside from the good structure, here are a few tips to make your introduction strong and accurate:

• Keep in mind the aim of your research and make sure your introduction supports it.
• Use an appealing and relevant hook that catches the reader’s attention right away.
• Make it obvious to your readers what your stance is.
• Demonstrate your knowledge of your subject.
• Provide your reader with a road map to help them understand what you will address throughout the research.
• Be succinct – it is advised that your opening introduction consists of around 8-9 percent of the overall amount of words in your article (for example, 160 words for a 2000 words essay). 
• Make a strong and unambiguous thesis statement.
• Explain why the article is significant in 1-2 sentences.
• Remember to keep it interesting.

Mistakes to avoid in your introduction

Check out what not to do and what to avoid now that you know the structure and how to write an introduction for a research paper .

• Lacking a feeling of direction or purpose.
• Giving out too much.
• Creating lengthy paragraphs.
• Excessive or insufficient background, literature, and theory.
• Including material that should be placed in the body and conclusion.
• Not writing enough or writing excessively.
• Using too many quotes.

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How to write an introduction section of a scientific article?

An article primarily includes the following sections: introduction, materials and methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Before writing the introduction, the main steps, the heading and the familiarity level of the readers should be considered. Writing should begin when the experimental system and the equipment are available. The introduction section comprises the first portion of the manuscript, and it should be written using the simple present tense. Additionally, abbreviations and explanations are included in this section. The main goal of the introduction is to convey basic information to the readers without obligating them to investigate previous publications and to provide clues as to the results of the present study. To do this, the subject of the article should be thoroughly reviewed, and the aim of the study should be clearly stated immediately after discussing the basic references. In this review, we aim to convey the principles of writing the introduction section of a manuscript to residents and young investigators who have just begun to write a manuscript.

Introduction

When entering a gate of a magnificent city we can make a prediction about the splendor, pomposity, history, and civilization we will encounter in the city. Occasionally, gates do not give even a glimpse of the city, and it can mislead the visitors about inner sections of the city. Introduction sections of the articles are like gates of a city. It is a presentation aiming at introducing itself to the readers, and attracting their attention. Attractiveness, clarity, piquancy, and analytical capacity of the presentation will urge the reader to read the subsequent sections of the article. On the other hand as is understood from the motto of antique Greek poet Euripides “a bad beginning makes a bad ending”, ‘Introduction’ section of a scientific article is important in that it can reveal the conclusion of the article. [ 1 ]

It is useful to analyze the issues to be considered in the ‘Introduction’ section under 3 headings. Firstly, information should be provided about the general topic of the article in the light of the current literature which paves the way for the disclosure of the objective of the manuscript. Then the specific subject matter, and the issue to be focused on should be dealt with, the problem should be brought forth, and fundamental references related to the topic should be discussed. Finally, our recommendations for solution should be described, in other words our aim should be communicated. When these steps are followed in that order, the reader can track the problem, and its solution from his/her own perspective under the light of current literature. Otherwise, even a perfect study presented in a non-systematized, confused design will lose the chance of reading. Indeed inadequate information, inability to clarify the problem, and sometimes concealing the solution will keep the reader who has a desire to attain new information away from reading the manuscript. [ 1 – 3 ]

First of all, explanation of the topic in the light of the current literature should be made in clear, and precise terms as if the reader is completely ignorant of the subject. In this section, establishment of a warm rapport between the reader, and the manuscript is aimed. Since frantic plunging into the problem or the solution will push the reader into the dilemma of either screening the literature about the subject matter or refraining from reading the article. Updated, and robust information should be presented in the ‘Introduction’ section.

Then main topic of our manuscript, and the encountered problem should be analyzed in the light of the current literature following a short instance of brain exercise. At this point the problems should be reduced to one issue as far as possible. Of course, there might be more than one problem, however this new issue, and its solution should be the subject matter of another article. Problems should be expressed clearly. If targets are more numerous, and complex, solutions will be more than one, and confusing.

Finally, the last paragraphs of the ‘Introduction’ section should include the solution in which we will describe the information we generated, and related data. Our sentences which arouse curiosity in the readers should not be left unanswered. The reader who thinks to obtain the most effective information in no time while reading a scientific article should not be smothered with mysterious sentences, and word plays, and the readers should not be left alone to arrive at a conclusion by themselves. If we have contrary expectations, then we might write an article which won’t have any reader. A clearly expressed or recommended solutions to an explicitly revealed problem is also very important for the integrity of the ‘Introduction’ section. [ 1 – 5 ]

We can summarize our arguments with the following example ( Figure 1 ). The introduction section of the exemplary article is written in simple present tense which includes abbreviations, acronyms, and their explanations. Based on our statements above we can divide the introduction section into 3 parts. In the first paragraph, miniaturization, and evolvement of pediatric endourological instruments, and competitions among PNL, ESWL, and URS in the treatment of urinary system stone disease are described, in other words the background is prepared. In the second paragraph, a newly defined system which facilitates intrarenal access in PNL procedure has been described. Besides basic references related to the subject matter have been given, and their outcomes have been indicated. In other words, fundamental references concerning main subject have been discussed. In the last paragraph the aim of the researchers to investigate the outcomes, and safety of the application of this new method in the light of current information has been indicated.

An exemplary introduction section of an article

Apart from the abovementioned information about the introduction section of a scientific article we will summarize a few major issues in brief headings

Important points which one should take heed of:

• Abbreviations should be given following their explanations in the ‘Introduction’ section (their explanations in the summary does not count)
• Simple present tense should be used.
• References should be selected from updated publication with a higher impact factor, and prestigous source books.
• Avoid mysterious, and confounding expressions, construct clear sentences aiming at problematic issues, and their solutions.
• The sentences should be attractive, tempting, and comjprehensible.
• Firstly general, then subject-specific information should be given. Finally our aim should be clearly explained.

The 5 Parts of an Introduction: A Comprehensive Guide

• by Richard Edwards
• October 8, 2023

Welcome to our blog post on the five essential parts of an introduction! Whether you’re writing an essay, a research paper, or even a thesis, the introduction sets the stage for your reader and provides a roadmap for what’s to come.

In this guide, we’ll explore the key components that make up a strong introduction, answering questions such as how to write a compelling opening, how many sentences should be in an introduction, and what should be included in the first chapter of a research paper. We’ll also touch upon attention-getters and the crucial role they play in engaging your audience right from the start.

So, if you’re ready to master the art of introductions and captivate your readers from the get-go, let’s dive in and discover the five vital parts that will make your writing shine. Remember, a well-crafted introduction can make all the difference in hooking your readers’ attention and setting the stage for a successful piece of writing.

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What are the 5 Parts of an Introduction?

The hook: start with a bang.

When it comes to writing introductions, you need to grab your reader’s attention right from the start. Think of it as a fishing hook—your goal is to reel them in! So, ditch the boring cliches and instead, surprise them with an unexpected fact or a captivating anecdote. For example, did you know that in 2023, people are more likely to read a blog post if it has a touch of humor? True story!

Background Information: Set the Stage

After hooking your readers, it’s time to provide them with some context. Give them a brief overview of the topic you’re about to dive into. But hold on, don’t go all Wikipedia on them! Keep it concise and focus on the essential details. Imagine you’re explaining it to a friend who has zero background knowledge but possesses a sense of humor as sharp as a New York City cab driver’s wit.

Thesis Statement: Make Your Point

Now that your readers are intrigued and have a basic understanding of the topic, it’s time to unveil your main argument. This is your chance to shine! Craft a clear and concise thesis statement that encapsulates the purpose of your blog post. Think of it as the trailer that makes people want to watch the movie. Make it so compelling that readers can’t help but continue reading to see how you’ll support your point.

Scope and Outline: Map it Out

Before diving into the meaty paragraphs, briefly outline what you’ll cover in your blog post. It’s like performing a magic trick, but instead of a rabbit, you’re pulling out the promise of valuable information. Break down your subtopics into logical sections and give your readers a sneak peek into what they can expect. This way, they’ll know they’re in good hands and won’t click away in search of a more organized read.

Transition: Smooth Sailing Ahead

You’ve now set the stage, reeled them in with your hook, provided some background information , stated your thesis, and outlined what’s to come. It’s time to wrap up the introduction with a smooth transition that seamlessly guides your readers into the main body of your blog post. Think of it as passing the baton in a relay race. You want your readers to move forward effortlessly, eager to explore the depths of your captivating content.

And there you have it, the 5 parts of an introduction. Now, buckle up because we’re about to dive into the heart of this blog post. Prepare yourself for a rollercoaster ride of knowledge, humor, and maybe even a sprinkle of GIFs. Let’s get started!

Frequently Asked Questions about the Five Parts of an Introduction

How do you write a 5 paragraph essay outline.

Writing a 5-paragraph essay outline is not as intimidating as it may seem. Here is a step-by-step guide to help you out:

Step 1: Introduction

Begin with an attention-grabbing hook that captivates your readers. Then provide some background information about your topic, leading up to your thesis statement.

Step 2: Body Paragraphs

Devote one paragraph to each supporting point that you mentioned in your thesis statement. Start each paragraph with a topic sentence, followed by relevant evidence and examples to support your claim.

Step 3: Conclusion

In this final paragraph, summarize your main points and restate your thesis statement. Leave your readers with a thought-provoking statement or call-to-action.

How many sentences are in an introduction

The number of sentences in an introduction can vary depending on the complexity of the topic and the length of your essay. Typically, it is recommended to have around 3-5 sentences in an introduction. However, keep in mind that the focus should be on conveying the necessary information effectively rather than obsessing over the exact number of sentences.

What are the five parts of Chapter 1 in research

When conducting research, Chapter 1 often sets the stage for the entire study. It typically consists of the following five parts:

1. Introduction

This part provides an overview of the research topic, its significance, and the purpose of the study.

2. Theoretical Framework

Here, the researcher explains the theories, concepts, or frameworks that form the foundation of the study.

3. Research Problem or Research Questions

This section highlights the specific problem or questions that the study aims to address, presenting the rationale behind them.

4. Research Methodology

In this part, the researcher outlines the approach, methods, and techniques used to gather and analyze data.

5. Significance of the Study

Finally, the researcher explains the potential impact and contribution of the study to the field, emphasizing its relevance.

What are the five parts of a paragraph

A well-structured paragraph typically consists of the following five parts:

1. Topic Sentence

The topic sentence introduces the main idea or the central focus of the paragraph.

2. Supporting Sentences

These sentences provide evidence, examples, or explanations to strengthen the topic sentence and develop the main idea.

3. Transitional Sentence

A transitional sentence smoothly connects the current paragraph to the next one, ensuring a logical flow of ideas.

4. Concluding Sentence

The concluding sentence wraps up the paragraph, summarizing the main points or leaving the reader with a thought to ponder.

5. Unity and Coherence

To ensure the paragraph flows smoothly, it should have unity (all sentences should relate to the main idea) and coherence (ideas should be organized in a logical manner).

What is an introduction and example

An introduction, as the word suggests, introduces the topic and provides readers with an overview of what to expect in the rest of the content. Let’s consider an example to illustrate this:

Suppose you’re writing a blog post about the benefits of yoga. In the introduction, you might start with a captivating hook like, “Picture yourself on a serene beach, feeling the gentle breeze as your body becomes one with the harmonious practice of yoga.” After establishing the setting and engaging the reader’s imagination, you can proceed to provide a brief overview of yoga’s origins, health benefits, and its positive impact on mental well-being. This introduction sets the stage for the rest of the content, enticing readers to continue exploring the topic.

What are the five types of attention getters

In writing, attention getters are techniques used to capture readers’ interest. Here are five types of attention getters you can employ:

1. Anecdotes

Engage your audience by sharing a short, relevant anecdote or story that relates to your topic.

Introduce your topic with a compelling quote from a renowned individual or a thought-provoking statement.

3. Shocking Facts or Statistics

Present surprising data or statistics that highlight the significance of your topic.

4. Rhetorical Questions

Pose a thought-provoking question that sparks curiosity and encourages readers to continue reading for the answer.

Injecting a touch of humor can instantly grab readers’ attention and set a lighthearted tone for your content.

What are the four or five components of an introduction

An introduction typically consists of four or five components, depending on the complexity and length of the content. These components include:

1. Hook or Attention Grabber

The hook is the opening statement designed to capture the reader’s attention and entice them to continue reading.

2. Background Information

Provide relevant context or background information to give readers a clear understanding of the topic.

3. Thesis Statement

The thesis statement states the main argument or central idea of the content, guiding the focus of the entire piece.

4. Scope and Outline

Briefly outline the main points or subtopics that will be covered in the body of the content, giving readers an overview of what’s to come.

5. Transition

In longer pieces, a transition sentence or paragraph may be included to smoothly lead readers from the introduction to the main body.

What is the most important part of an introduction

The most important part of an introduction is the thesis statement. The thesis statement clarifies the purpose and direction of the content, serving as the backbone of the entire piece. It should be concise, specific, and thought-provoking, providing readers with a clear idea of what to expect and enticing them to continue reading.

What are the five chapters of a thesis

A typical thesis consists of five chapters, each serving a specific purpose:

This chapter provides an overview of the research topic, highlights its significance, and introduces the study’s objectives.

2. Literature Review

Here, the researcher critically examines existing studies, theories, and publications related to the research topic.

3. Methodology

The methodology chapter outlines the research design, methods, and procedures employed to collect and analyze data.

In this chapter, the researcher presents and discusses the findings obtained through the research methods.

5. Conclusion

The final chapter summarizes the main findings, discusses their implications, and suggests areas for future research.

What four things should an introduction do

An introduction should accomplish four key things:

1. Captivate the Reader

Ensure your introduction has a compelling hook that grabs the reader’s attention and entices them to continue reading.

2. Provide Background Information

Offer relevant context and background information to establish the foundation and set the stage for the topic.

3. Present the Thesis Statement

Clearly state the main argument or central idea of the content, guiding the reader’s understanding and expectations.

4. Engage and Motivate

Create a sense of curiosity and engagement, motivating readers to explore the rest of the content and delve deeper into the subject matter.

What are the five parts of research

A research study generally consists of five essential parts:

The introduction provides an overview of the research topic, its significance, and the research’s purpose and objectives.

This section involves an in-depth analysis of existing studies and research related to the topic to establish a broader context.

In this part, the researcher outlines the research design, data collection methods, and any other procedures used in the study.

The results section presents the findings obtained from the research, often including statistical analysis and data representation.

Finally, the conclusion summarizes the key findings, discusses their implications, and provides recommendations for future research or action.

What are the parts of an introduction

An introduction typically consists of the following parts:

The hook grabs the reader’s attention and sparks interest in the topic.

Provide relevant context and background information to give readers a foundation to understand the topic.

The thesis statement succinctly states the main argument or central idea of the content.

Offer a brief overview of the main points or sections that will be addressed in the body of the content.

5. Transition (in longer pieces)

In longer pieces, a transition sentence or paragraph may be included to smoothly guide readers from the introduction to the main body.

What is important in a good introduction

A good introduction sets the tone and foundation for the rest of the content. It should accomplish the following:

• Capture readers’ attention with an engaging hook.
• Provide relevant background information to establish context.
• Clearly state the thesis statement to guide readers’ understanding.
• Give readers an overview of what to expect in the content.
• Establish a smooth transition into the main body of the piece.

How do you write a good introduction

Writing a good introduction is essential to engage readers and set the stage for the rest of the content. Here are some tips:

• Start with an attention-grabbing hook or intriguing statement to captivate readers.
• Provide relevant background information or context to give readers a clear understanding of the topic.
• Craft a concise and impactful thesis statement that clearly states the main argument or central idea.
• Give a brief overview of the main points or sections that will be covered in the body of the content.
• Ensure a smooth transition from the introduction to the main body by using transitional words or sentences.

What is the content of an introduction in a thesis

In a thesis, the introduction aims to establish the context, set the objectives, and present the main argument. The key components of an introduction in a thesis include:

• Background information about the research topic.
• Explanation of the problem or rationale behind the study.
• Scope and limitations of the research.
• Research objectives or questions.
• Significance and potential impact of the research.
• Brief overview of the research methodology.

What are the parts of an introduction in research

In a research paper, the introduction typically includes the following parts:

1. Background Information

Provide relevant context and background information to establish the foundation for the research.

2. Research Problem or Question

Clearly state the specific problem or research question that the study aims to address, explaining its significance.

3. Objective and Scope

Present the research objectives or the scope of the study, outlining what will be covered and what will be excluded.

4. Rationale or Justification

Discuss the reasons behind choosing the research topic and explain its relevance or potential impact.

5. Methodology (briefly)

Provide a brief overview of the research methodology, explaining the approach or methods used.

How do you write a 5-page essay

Writing a 5-page essay may seem like a daunting task, but with the right approach, it becomes manageable. Here’s a step-by-step guide:

Plan your essay: Outline the main points or arguments you want to cover in each paragraph.

Introduction (approximately half a page): Start with a catchy hook, provide background information, and end with a thesis statement.

Body paragraphs (about three pages): Dedicate one paragraph to each main point or argument. Start with a topic sentence, provide supporting evidence, and explain how it relates to your thesis.

Counterargument/refutation (half a page): Address potential counterarguments and refute them with evidence.

Conclusion (half a page): Summarize the main points, restate the thesis, and leave the reader with a compelling closing thought.

Proofread and revise: Review your essay for clarity, coherence, and errors in grammar and punctuation.

How do you write a thesis introduction

Writing a thesis introduction involves the following components and steps:

Start with a hook or attention-grabbing statement to capture the reader’s interest.

Provide background information that establishes the context and relevance of your research.

Clearly state the research problem or question your thesis aims to address.

Present the objectives and scope of your research, specifying its significance and potential contributions.

Provide an overview of the research methodology and explain why it is appropriate for your study.

Establish the organization and structure of your thesis, briefly outlining each chapter or section.

Remember to keep your introduction concise, engaging, and focused on setting the stage for your thesis.

What are the sections of a thesis

A thesis typically includes the following sections:

1. Title Page

This page provides the title of your thesis, your name, the degree you are pursuing, the institution’s name, and the year of submission.

2. Abstract

The abstract offers a concise summary of the thesis, highlighting the research question, methodology, and main findings.

3. Table of Contents

The table of contents lists all the main sections and subsections of your thesis, including page numbers.

4. Introduction

The introduction establishes the background, objectives, scope, and significance of your research.

5. Literature Review

This section critically analyzes relevant studies, theories, and literature related to your research topic.

6. Methodology

The methodology section describes the research design, data collection methods, and analysis techniques employed.

Here, you present and discuss the findings obtained from your research, often including tables, graphs, or charts.

8. Discussion

The discussion section interprets the results, compares them to previous studies, and explains their implications.

9. Conclusion

The conclusion summarizes the main findings, discusses their broader implications, and suggests areas for future research.

10. References

This section lists all the sources cited or consulted during your research, following the appropriate citation style.

11. Appendices

Appendices include any additional information or supporting documents that are too extensive to include in the main body.

What is included in an introduction paragraph

An introduction paragraph usually includes the following elements:

• Hook or attention-grabbing statement.
• Background information or context about the topic.
• Thesis statement or main argument.
• Brief overview of the main points or sections that will be covered in the body.

These elements work together to engage the reader, provide necessary information, and set the stage for the rest of the content.

What are the parts of a thesis

• background information
• brief overview
• entire study
• essential parts
• introduction
• research paper
• topic sentence

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Organizing Academic Research Papers: 4. The Introduction

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• How to Manage Group Projects
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Acknowledgements

The introduction serves the purpose of leading the reader from a general subject area to a particular field of research. It establishes the context of the research being conducted by summarizing current understanding and background information about the topic, stating the purpose of the work in the form of the hypothesis, question, or research problem, briefly explaining your rationale, methodological approach, highlighting the potential outcomes your study can reveal, and describing the remaining structure of the paper.

Key Elements of the Research Proposal. Prepared under the direction of the Superintendent and by the 2010 Curriculum Design and Writing Team. Baltimore County Public Schools.

Importance of a Good Introduction

Think of the introduction as a mental road map that must answer for the reader these four questions:

• What was I studying?
• Why was this topic important to investigate?
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study?
• How will this study advance our knowledge?

A well-written introduction is important because, quite simply, you never get a second chance to make a good first impression. The opening paragraph of your paper will provide your readers with their initial impressions about the logic of your argument, your writing style, the overall quality of your research, and, ultimately, the validity of your findings and conclusions. A vague, disorganized, or error-filled introduction will create a negative impression, whereas, a concise, engaging, and well-written introduction will start your readers off thinking highly of your analytical skills, your writing style, and your research approach.

Introductions . The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.

Structure and Writing Style

I. Structure and Approach

The introduction is the broad beginning of the paper that answers three important questions for the reader:

• What is this?
• Why am I reading it?
• What do you want me to think about / consider doing / react to?

Think of the structure of the introduction as an inverted triangle of information. Organize the information so as to present the more general aspects of the topic early in the introduction, then narrow toward the more specific topical information that provides context, finally arriving at your statement of purpose and rationale and, whenever possible, the potential outcomes your study can reveal.

These are general phases associated with writing an introduction:

• Highlighting the importance of the topic, and/or
• Making general statements about the topic, and/or
• Presenting an overview on current research on the subject.
• Opposing an existing assumption, and/or
• Revealing a gap in existing research, and/or
• Formulating a research question or problem, and/or
• Continuing a disciplinary tradition.
• Stating the intent of your study,
• Outlining the key characteristics of your study,
• Describing important results, and
• Giving a brief overview of the structure of the paper.

NOTE: Even though the introduction is the first main section of a research paper, it is often useful to finish the introduction very late in the writing process because the structure of the paper, the reporting and analysis of results, and the conclusion will have been completed and it ensures that your introduction matches the overall structure of your paper.

II.  Delimitations of the Study

Delimitations refer to those characteristics that limit the scope and define the conceptual boundaries of your study . This is determined by the conscious exclusionary and inclusionary decisions you make about how to investigate the research problem. In other words, not only should you tell the reader what it is you are studying and why, but you must also acknowledge why you rejected alternative approaches that could have been used to examine the research problem.

Obviously, the first limiting step was the choice of research problem itself. However, implicit are other, related problems that could have been chosen but were rejected. These should be noted in the conclusion of your introduction.

Examples of delimitating choices would be:

• The key aims and objectives of your study,
• The research questions that you address,
• The variables of interest [i.e., the various factors and features of the phenomenon being studied],
• The method(s) of investigation, and
• Any relevant alternative theoretical frameworks that could have been adopted.

Review each of these decisions. You need to not only clearly establish what you intend to accomplish, but to also include a declaration of what the study does not intend to cover. In the latter case, your exclusionary decisions should be based upon criteria stated as, "not interesting"; "not directly relevant"; “too problematic because..."; "not feasible," and the like. Make this reasoning explicit!

NOTE: Delimitations refer to the initial choices made about the broader, overall design of your study and should not be confused with documenting the limitations of your study discovered after the research has been completed.

III. The Narrative Flow

Issues to keep in mind that will help the narrative flow in your introduction :

• Your introduction should clearly identify the subject area of interest . A simple strategy to follow is to use key words from your title in the first few sentences of the introduction. This will help focus the introduction on the topic at the appropriate level and ensures that you get to the primary subject matter quickly without losing focus, or discussing information that is too general.
• Establish context by providing a brief and balanced review of the pertinent published literature that is available on the subject. The key is to summarize for the reader what is known about the specific research problem before you did your analysis. This part of your introduction should not represent a comprehensive literature review but consists of a general review of the important, foundational research literature (with citations) that lays a foundation for understanding key elements of the research problem. See the drop-down tab for "Background Information" for types of contexts.
• Clearly state the hypothesis that you investigated . When you are first learning to write in this format it is okay, and actually preferable, to use a past statement like, "The purpose of this study was to...." or "We investigated three possible mechanisms to explain the...."
• Why did you choose this kind of research study or design? Provide a clear statement of the rationale for your approach to the problem studied. This will usually follow your statement of purpose in the last paragraph of the introduction.

IV. Engaging the Reader

The overarching goal of your introduction is to make your readers want to read your paper. The introduction should grab your reader's attention. Strategies for doing this can be to:

• Open with a compelling story,
• Include a strong quotation or a vivid, perhaps unexpected anecdote,
• Pose a provocative or thought-provoking question,
• Describe a puzzling scenario or incongruity, or
• Cite a stirring example or case study that illustrates why the research problem is important.

NOTE:   Only choose one strategy for engaging your readers; avoid giving an impression that your paper is more flash than substance.

Freedman, Leora  and Jerry Plotnick. Introductions and Conclusions . University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Introduction . The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Introductions . The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Introductions . The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Introductions, Body Paragraphs, and Conclusions for an Argument Paper. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Resources for Writers: Introduction Strategies . Program in Writing and Humanistic Studies. Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Sharpling, Gerald. Writing an Introduction . Centre for Applied Linguistics, University of Warwick; Writing Your Introduction. Department of English Writing Guide. George Mason University.

Writing Tip

Avoid the "Dictionary" Introduction

Giving the dictionary definition of words related to the research problem may appear appropriate because it is important to define specific words or phrases with which readers may be unfamiliar. However, anyone can look a word up in the dictionary and a general dictionary is not a particularly authoritative source. It doesn't take into account the context of your topic and doesn't offer particularly detailed information. Also, placed in the context of a particular discipline, a term may have a different meaning than what is found in a general dictionary. If you feel that you must seek out an authoritative definition, try to find one that is from subject specific dictionaries or encyclopedias [e.g., if you are a sociology student, search for dictionaries of sociology].

Saba, Robert. The College Research Paper . Florida International University; Introductions . The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.

Another Writing Tip

When Do I Begin?

A common question asked at the start of any paper is, "where should I begin?" An equally important question to ask yourself is, "When do I begin?" Research problems in the social sciences rarely rest in isolation from the history of the issue being investigated. It is, therefore, important to lay a foundation for understanding the historical context underpinning the research problem. However, this information should be brief and succinct and begin at a point in time that best informs the reader of study's overall importance. For example, a study about coffee cultivation and export in West Africa as a key stimulus for local economic growth needs to describe the beginning of exporting coffee in the region and establishing why economic growth is important. You do not need to give a long historical explanation about coffee exportation in Africa. If a research problem demands a substantial exploration of historical context, do this in the literature review section; note in the introduction as part of your "roadmap" [see below] that you covering this in the literature review.

Yet Another Writing Tip

Always End with a Roadmap

The final paragraph or sentences of your introduction should forecast your main arguments and conclusions and provide a description of the rest of the paper [a "roadmap"] that let's the reader know where you are going and what to expect.

• << Previous: Executive Summary
• Next: Background Information >>
• Last Updated: Jul 18, 2023 11:58 AM
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Writing Research Papers

• Research Paper Structure

Whether you are writing a B.S. Degree Research Paper or completing a research report for a Psychology course, it is highly likely that you will need to organize your research paper in accordance with American Psychological Association (APA) guidelines.  Here we discuss the structure of research papers according to APA style.

Major Sections of a Research Paper in APA Style

A complete research paper in APA style that is reporting on experimental research will typically contain a Title page, Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion, and References sections. 1  Many will also contain Figures and Tables and some will have an Appendix or Appendices.  These sections are detailed as follows (for a more in-depth guide, please refer to " How to Write a Research Paper in APA Style ”, a comprehensive guide developed by Prof. Emma Geller). 2

What is this paper called and who wrote it? – the first page of the paper; this includes the name of the paper, a “running head”, authors, and institutional affiliation of the authors.  The institutional affiliation is usually listed in an Author Note that is placed towards the bottom of the title page.  In some cases, the Author Note also contains an acknowledgment of any funding support and of any individuals that assisted with the research project.

One-paragraph summary of the entire study – typically no more than 250 words in length (and in many cases it is well shorter than that), the Abstract provides an overview of the study.

Introduction

What is the topic and why is it worth studying? – the first major section of text in the paper, the Introduction commonly describes the topic under investigation, summarizes or discusses relevant prior research (for related details, please see the Writing Literature Reviews section of this website), identifies unresolved issues that the current research will address, and provides an overview of the research that is to be described in greater detail in the sections to follow.

What did you do? – a section which details how the research was performed.  It typically features a description of the participants/subjects that were involved, the study design, the materials that were used, and the study procedure.  If there were multiple experiments, then each experiment may require a separate Methods section.  A rule of thumb is that the Methods section should be sufficiently detailed for another researcher to duplicate your research.

What did you find? – a section which describes the data that was collected and the results of any statistical tests that were performed.  It may also be prefaced by a description of the analysis procedure that was used. If there were multiple experiments, then each experiment may require a separate Results section.

What is the significance of your results? – the final major section of text in the paper.  The Discussion commonly features a summary of the results that were obtained in the study, describes how those results address the topic under investigation and/or the issues that the research was designed to address, and may expand upon the implications of those findings.  Limitations and directions for future research are also commonly addressed.

List of articles and any books cited – an alphabetized list of the sources that are cited in the paper (by last name of the first author of each source).  Each reference should follow specific APA guidelines regarding author names, dates, article titles, journal titles, journal volume numbers, page numbers, book publishers, publisher locations, websites, and so on (for more information, please see the Citing References in APA Style page of this website).

Tables and Figures

Graphs and data (optional in some cases) – depending on the type of research being performed, there may be Tables and/or Figures (however, in some cases, there may be neither).  In APA style, each Table and each Figure is placed on a separate page and all Tables and Figures are included after the References.   Tables are included first, followed by Figures.   However, for some journals and undergraduate research papers (such as the B.S. Research Paper or Honors Thesis), Tables and Figures may be embedded in the text (depending on the instructor’s or editor’s policies; for more details, see "Deviations from APA Style" below).

Supplementary information (optional) – in some cases, additional information that is not critical to understanding the research paper, such as a list of experiment stimuli, details of a secondary analysis, or programming code, is provided.  This is often placed in an Appendix.

Variations of Research Papers in APA Style

Although the major sections described above are common to most research papers written in APA style, there are variations on that pattern.  These variations include: 

• Literature reviews – when a paper is reviewing prior published research and not presenting new empirical research itself (such as in a review article, and particularly a qualitative review), then the authors may forgo any Methods and Results sections. Instead, there is a different structure such as an Introduction section followed by sections for each of the different aspects of the body of research being reviewed, and then perhaps a Discussion section. 
• Multi-experiment papers – when there are multiple experiments, it is common to follow the Introduction with an Experiment 1 section, itself containing Methods, Results, and Discussion subsections. Then there is an Experiment 2 section with a similar structure, an Experiment 3 section with a similar structure, and so on until all experiments are covered.  Towards the end of the paper there is a General Discussion section followed by References.  Additionally, in multi-experiment papers, it is common for the Results and Discussion subsections for individual experiments to be combined into single “Results and Discussion” sections.

Departures from APA Style

In some cases, official APA style might not be followed (however, be sure to check with your editor, instructor, or other sources before deviating from standards of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association).  Such deviations may include:

• Placement of Tables and Figures  – in some cases, to make reading through the paper easier, Tables and/or Figures are embedded in the text (for example, having a bar graph placed in the relevant Results section). The embedding of Tables and/or Figures in the text is one of the most common deviations from APA style (and is commonly allowed in B.S. Degree Research Papers and Honors Theses; however you should check with your instructor, supervisor, or editor first). 
• Incomplete research – sometimes a B.S. Degree Research Paper in this department is written about research that is currently being planned or is in progress. In those circumstances, sometimes only an Introduction and Methods section, followed by References, is included (that is, in cases where the research itself has not formally begun).  In other cases, preliminary results are presented and noted as such in the Results section (such as in cases where the study is underway but not complete), and the Discussion section includes caveats about the in-progress nature of the research.  Again, you should check with your instructor, supervisor, or editor first.
• Class assignments – in some classes in this department, an assignment must be written in APA style but is not exactly a traditional research paper (for instance, a student asked to write about an article that they read, and to write that report in APA style). In that case, the structure of the paper might approximate the typical sections of a research paper in APA style, but not entirely.  You should check with your instructor for further guidelines.

Workshops and Downloadable Resources

• For in-person discussion of the process of writing research papers, please consider attending this department’s “Writing Research Papers” workshop (for dates and times, please check the undergraduate workshops calendar).

Downloadable Resources

• How to Write APA Style Research Papers (a comprehensive guide) [ PDF ]
• Tips for Writing APA Style Research Papers (a brief summary) [ PDF ]
• Example APA Style Research Paper (for B.S. Degree – empirical research) [ PDF ]
• Example APA Style Research Paper (for B.S. Degree – literature review) [ PDF ]

Further Resources

How-To Videos     

• Writing Research Paper Videos

APA Journal Article Reporting Guidelines

• Appelbaum, M., Cooper, H., Kline, R. B., Mayo-Wilson, E., Nezu, A. M., & Rao, S. M. (2018). Journal article reporting standards for quantitative research in psychology: The APA Publications and Communications Board task force report . American Psychologist , 73 (1), 3.
• Levitt, H. M., Bamberg, M., Creswell, J. W., Frost, D. M., Josselson, R., & Suárez-Orozco, C. (2018). Journal article reporting standards for qualitative primary, qualitative meta-analytic, and mixed methods research in psychology: The APA Publications and Communications Board task force report . American Psychologist , 73 (1), 26.  

External Resources

• Formatting APA Style Papers in Microsoft Word
• How to Write an APA Style Research Paper from Hamilton University
• WikiHow Guide to Writing APA Research Papers
• Sample APA Formatted Paper with Comments
• Sample APA Formatted Paper
• Tips for Writing a Paper in APA Style

1 VandenBos, G. R. (Ed). (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.) (pp. 41-60).  Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

2 geller, e. (2018).  how to write an apa-style research report . [instructional materials]. , prepared by s. c. pan for ucsd psychology.

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Parts of a Research Paper

One of the most important aspects of science is ensuring that you get all the parts of the written research paper in the right order.

This article is a part of the guide:

• Outline Examples
• Example of a Paper
• Write a Hypothesis
• Introduction

Browse Full Outline

• 1 Write a Research Paper
• 2 Writing a Paper
• 3.1 Write an Outline
• 3.2 Outline Examples
• 4.1 Thesis Statement
• 4.2 Write a Hypothesis
• 5.2 Abstract
• 5.3 Introduction
• 5.4 Methods
• 5.5 Results
• 5.6 Discussion
• 5.7 Conclusion
• 5.8 Bibliography
• 6.1 Table of Contents
• 6.2 Acknowledgements
• 6.3 Appendix
• 7.1 In Text Citations
• 7.2 Footnotes
• 7.3.1 Floating Blocks
• 7.4 Example of a Paper
• 7.5 Example of a Paper 2
• 7.6.1 Citations
• 7.7.1 Writing Style
• 7.7.2 Citations
• 8.1.1 Sham Peer Review
• 8.1.2 Advantages
• 8.1.3 Disadvantages
• 8.2 Publication Bias
• 8.3.1 Journal Rejection
• 9.1 Article Writing
• 9.2 Ideas for Topics

You may have finished the best research project on earth but, if you do not write an interesting and well laid out paper, then nobody is going to take your findings seriously.

The main thing to remember with any research paper is that it is based on an hourglass structure. It begins with general information and undertaking a literature review , and becomes more specific as you nail down a research problem and hypothesis .

Finally, it again becomes more general as you try to apply your findings to the world at general.

Whilst there are a few differences between the various disciplines, with some fields placing more emphasis on certain parts than others, there is a basic underlying structure.

These steps are the building blocks of constructing a good research paper. This section outline how to lay out the parts of a research paper, including the various experimental methods and designs.

The principles for literature review and essays of all types follow the same basic principles.

Reference List

For many students, writing the introduction is the first part of the process, setting down the direction of the paper and laying out exactly what the research paper is trying to achieve.

For others, the introduction is the last thing written, acting as a quick summary of the paper. As long as you have planned a good structure for the parts of a research paper, both approaches are acceptable and it is a matter of preference.

A good introduction generally consists of three distinct parts:

• You should first give a general presentation of the research problem.
• You should then lay out exactly what you are trying to achieve with this particular research project.
• You should then state your own position.

Ideally, you should try to give each section its own paragraph, but this will vary given the overall length of the paper.

1) General Presentation

Look at the benefits to be gained by the research or why the problem has not been solved yet. Perhaps nobody has thought about it, or maybe previous research threw up some interesting leads that the previous researchers did not follow up.

Another researcher may have uncovered some interesting trends, but did not manage to reach the significance level , due to experimental error or small sample sizes .

2) Purpose of the Paper

The research problem does not have to be a statement, but must at least imply what you are trying to find.

Many writers prefer to place the thesis statement or hypothesis here, which is perfectly acceptable, but most include it in the last sentences of the introduction, to give the reader a fuller picture.

3) A Statement of Intent From the Writer

The idea is that somebody will be able to gain an overall view of the paper without needing to read the whole thing. Literature reviews are time-consuming enough, so give the reader a concise idea of your intention before they commit to wading through pages of background.

In this section, you look to give a context to the research, including any relevant information learned during your literature review. You are also trying to explain why you chose this area of research, attempting to highlight why it is necessary. The second part should state the purpose of the experiment and should include the research problem. The third part should give the reader a quick summary of the form that the parts of the research paper is going to take and should include a condensed version of the discussion.

This should be the easiest part of the paper to write, as it is a run-down of the exact design and methodology used to perform the research. Obviously, the exact methodology varies depending upon the exact field and type of experiment .

There is a big methodological difference between the apparatus based research of the physical sciences and the methods and observation methods of social sciences. However, the key is to ensure that another researcher would be able to replicate the experiment to match yours as closely as possible, but still keeping the section concise.

You can assume that anybody reading your paper is familiar with the basic methods, so try not to explain every last detail. For example, an organic chemist or biochemist will be familiar with chromatography, so you only need to highlight the type of equipment used rather than explaining the whole process in detail.

In the case of a survey , if you have too many questions to cover in the method, you can always include a copy of the questionnaire in the appendix . In this case, make sure that you refer to it.

This is probably the most variable part of any research paper, and depends on the results and aims of the experiment.

For quantitative research , it is a presentation of the numerical results and data, whereas for qualitative research it should be a broader discussion of trends, without going into too much detail.

For research generating a lot of results , then it is better to include tables or graphs of the analyzed data and leave the raw data in the appendix, so that a researcher can follow up and check your calculations.

A commentary is essential to linking the results together, rather than just displaying isolated and unconnected charts and figures.

It can be quite difficult to find a good balance between the results and the discussion section, because some findings, especially in a quantitative or descriptive experiment , will fall into a grey area. Try to avoid repeating yourself too often.

It is best to try to find a middle path, where you give a general overview of the data and then expand on it in the discussion - you should try to keep your own opinions and interpretations out of the results section, saving that for the discussion later on.

This is where you elaborate on your findings, and explain what you found, adding your own personal interpretations.

Ideally, you should link the discussion back to the introduction, addressing each point individually.

It’s important to make sure that every piece of information in your discussion is directly related to the thesis statement , or you risk cluttering your findings. In keeping with the hourglass principle, you can expand on the topic later in the conclusion .

The conclusion is where you build on your discussion and try to relate your findings to other research and to the world at large.

In a short research paper, it may be a paragraph or two, or even a few lines.

In a dissertation, it may well be the most important part of the entire paper - not only does it describe the results and discussion in detail, it emphasizes the importance of the results in the field, and ties it in with the previous research.

Some research papers require a recommendations section, postulating the further directions of the research, as well as highlighting how any flaws affected the results. In this case, you should suggest any improvements that could be made to the research design .

No paper is complete without a reference list , documenting all the sources that you used for your research. This should be laid out according to APA , MLA or other specified format, allowing any interested researcher to follow up on the research.

One habit that is becoming more common, especially with online papers, is to include a reference to your own paper on the final page. Lay this out in MLA, APA and Chicago format, allowing anybody referencing your paper to copy and paste it.

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• Open access
• Published: 20 April 2024

Interpretable machine learning in predicting drug-induced liver injury among tuberculosis patients: model development and validation study

• Yue Xiao 1 ,
• Yanfei Chen 1 ,
• Ruijian Huang 1 ,
• Feng Jiang 1 ,
• Jifang Zhou 1   na1 &
• Tianchi Yang 2   na1  

BMC Medical Research Methodology volume  24 , Article number:  92 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

10 Accesses

Metrics details

The objective of this research was to create and validate an interpretable prediction model for drug-induced liver injury (DILI) during tuberculosis (TB) treatment.

A dataset of TB patients from Ningbo City was used to develop models employing the eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost), random forest (RF), and the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) logistic algorithms. The model's performance was evaluated through various metrics, including the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUROC) and the area under the precision recall curve (AUPR) alongside the decision curve. The Shapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) method was used to interpret the variable contributions of the superior model.

A total of 7,071 TB patients were identified from the regional healthcare dataset. The study cohort consisted of individuals with a median age of 47 years, 68.0% of whom were male, and 16.3% developed DILI. We utilized part of the high dimensional propensity score (HDPS) method to identify relevant variables and obtained a total of 424 variables. From these, 37 variables were selected for inclusion in a logistic model using LASSO. The dataset was then split into training and validation sets according to a 7:3 ratio. In the validation dataset, the XGBoost model displayed improved overall performance, with an AUROC of 0.89, an AUPR of 0.75, an F1 score of 0.57, and a Brier score of 0.07. Both SHAP analysis and XGBoost model highlighted the contribution of baseline liver-related ailments such as DILI, drug-induced hepatitis (DIH), and fatty liver disease (FLD). Age, alanine transaminase (ALT), and total bilirubin (Tbil) were also linked to DILI status.

XGBoost demonstrates improved predictive performance compared to RF and LASSO logistic in this study. Moreover, the introduction of the SHAP method enhances the clinical understanding and potential application of the model. For further research, external validation and more detailed feature integration are necessary.

Peer Review reports

Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) presents significant challenges in the context of tuberculosis (TB) treatment. Anti-TB drugs exhibit noteworthy involvement in the occurrence of DILI [ 1 , 2 ], and the lack of certain early-detection biomarkers [ 3 ] further poses challenges to the timely diagnosis and management of DILI. This absence of early detection may result in treatment interruptions and failures amongst TB patients [ 4 , 5 ], impeding global TB eradication efforts [ 6 ]. In China, the elevated incidence rates of DILI in comparison to western nations highlight the potential involvement of traditional Chinese medicines (TCM) and herbal medicines in the development of DILI [ 7 ]. This requires addressing various challenges and complexities associated with DILI assessment in a comprehensive and objective manner. Therefore, the primary objective of this study is to develop an optimal predictive model for assessing DILI status, with a specific focus on TB patients within the Chinese context.

The emergence of machine learning (ML) algorithms presents an exciting opportunity to enhance DILI prediction models [ 8 ]. Among these, eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) [ 9 ] and random forest (RF) [ 10 ] stand out as two widely-used ensemble learning techniques, each distinguished by its algorithmic approach and features. Selecting the most suitable option between them hinges on the particular characteristics of the data and the prediction objective. Therefore, it is often advisable to conduct experiments with both models to compare their performance.

Nevertheless, one of the primary challenges in implementing ML algorithms in clinical settings is interpreting the outcomes of the models [ 11 , 12 ]. The Shapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) framework [ 13 ] provides insights into the influence of various features on model predictions and the effect of these features on the DILI status in individuals, thus bridging the interpretability gap.

This study focuses on the development and validation of a prediction model for DILI in the context of TB treatment by using advanced ML algorithms with SHAP interpretability. Through this endeavor, we aim to achieve a balance between accurate prediction and the interpretability of the model, which is crucial for its clinical application.

Data source

The study participants comprised individuals diagnosed with TB at specified hospitals in Ningbo from 1st January 2015 to 2nd January 2020, initially referred by the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) [ 14 ]. Thereafter, they were connected to administrative records obtained from the electronic health records (EHR) system employed by the local government [ 15 ]. The merged dataset comprised demographic information, hospitalization records (both inpatient and outpatient), laboratory tests, and medication profiles.

Exclusion criteria

To ensure consistency in the identification of covariates, individuals with only one health care encounter during the study period were excluded. Furthermore, individuals without ethnicity information and those under 18 years old at diagnosis were not included in the study. The exclusion criteria also filtered out misdiagnosed cases of DILI and liver injuries attributed to known factors like alcohol-related liver disease, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and viral hepatitis unrelated to drug-induced causes. The detailed flowchart is presented in Fig.  1 .

Study schema for subject selection. Abbreviations: EHR, Electronic healthcare record; CDC, Center for Disease Control and Prevention

Baseline laboratory result collection

For patients included in the study, we defined the baseline period for collecting laboratory test results as from January 1, 2015, to the day before the index diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis, as shown in Supplemental Fig.  1 . Additionally, liver function test indicators such as alanine transaminase (ALT) or alkaline phosphatase (ALP) were simultaneously examined.

To address the issue of varied baseline definitions in laboratory testing, we utilized two main strategies. Firstly, we employed a binary variable approach to categorize laboratory testing indicators as abnormal or normal, by comparing their values with predefined normal ranges. Secondly, we utilized ratio-based representation to quantify indicator abnormalities, such as calculating ALT multiples relative to the upper limit of the normal (ULN) range.

Factor identification

In our research, we followed the initial steps outlined in the high dimensional propensity score (HDPS) methodology by Schneeweiss et al. [ 16 ]. First, we identified 24 common factors, such as age and gender, to integrate into our models. We then categorized our data into four dimensions: outpatient records, inpatient records, laboratory test records, and medication records. Following the approach of Chen et al. [ 17 ], we identified the top 500 most prevalent codes within each dimension. Next, we evaluated code recurrence, classifying codes into three binary variables based on their frequency of occurrence over a 12-month baseline period. This yielded a total of 4*500*3 binary factors. Using a multiplicative model considering binary factor and DILI status, we prioritized covariates and selected the top 400 for inclusion in our final model based on an arbitrary cutoff recommendation [ 18 , 19 ]. Finally, considering the previously specified 24 variables, our model training ultimately involved incorporating a total of 424 factors.

DILI diagnostic process

The determination of DILI outcomes followed the revised criteria set forth by the Chinese Society of Hepatology (CSH) DILI consensus, as outlined in Supplemental Table  1 [ 20 ].

Extraction of features used in prediction model

The LASSO regression method, aimed at reducing the number of variables and preventing overfitting [ 21 ], was applied to extract significant features for constructing the logistic model. Additionally, both the XGBoost and RF algorithms come equipped with their own feature selection techniques tailored to enhance their respective models.

Statistical analysis

The study reported the features of both the non-DILI and DILI groups by mean and standard deviation (SD) or as numbers and percentages whenever necessary. Laboratory variables were represented in median and quartiles [ 22 ]. The Kruskal–Wallis rank sum test was used for continuous variables, while the chi-square test was used for categorical variables. These analyses were conducted using the statistical software packages SAS 9.4 and R 4.0.3. A statistically significant result was determined with a two-sided P -value below 0.05.

Data splitting

In order to create training and validation sets, a stratified random function in R randomly assigned records at a 7:3 ratio, following conventional practices.

Parameter optimization

To optimize the parameters of the XGBoost and RF models, a ten-fold cross-validation process combined with grid search [ 23 ] was employed. This approach entailed identifying the hyperparameter set that yielded the maximum receiver operating characteristic (ROC). A detailed breakdown of the grid search particulars and optimal results can be found in Supplemental Table 2 .

Model evaluation and interpretation

To assess the model's capacity to differentiate between positive and negative cases, we computed both the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUROC) and the area under the precision recall curve (AUPR) [ 24 ]. Calibration was examined through reliability diagrams and Brier scores. Furthermore, the model's clinical utility was evaluated using decision curve analysis. The SHAP technique was utilized to delve deeper into variable contributions. A comprehensive overview of the workflow can be found in Supplemental Fig. 2 .

Participant and factor identification

The preliminary linkage of data yielded 12,087 instances. Following the application of exclusion criteria, a total of 7,071 subjects were identified as suitable for inclusion in the study.

During a one-year baseline period, we identified the 500 most prevalent codes across each data dimension (outpatient, inpatient, medication, and laboratory test) using the International Classification of Diseases-Tenth Revision (ICD-10), Current Procedural Terminology (CPT), and generic drug names. These items were then categorized into three binary variables: "ever occurring", "sporadically occurring", and "frequently occurring", indicating their recurrence. This process resulted in a total of 6,000 variables, from which the top 400 binary empirical variables were chosen based on their highest risk ratios associated with DILI status. Additionally, the final model incorporated 24 predefined baseline variables, such as gender, age, education level, medication, and maximum ratio of ULN for ALT, ALP, and Tbil, etc. Out of an initial pool of 424 features, 37 were selected for logistic model development using LASSO. The factors included in the LASSO logistic model are detailed in Supplemental Table 3 .

Epidemiology of DILI

The incidence of DILI was observed to be 16.3% overall, with a slightly higher observed in female patients (17.3% vs. 15.8%, p  = 0.134). Detailed demographics and clinical information are outlined in Table  1 . Compared to non-DILI individuals, those with DILI demonstrated lower educational attainment and a higher incidence of abnormal baseline levels in ALT and ALP [ALT: 91 (7.9%) vs. 273 (4.6%), p  < 0.001; ALP: 100 (8.7%) vs. 400 (6.8%), p  = 0.023]. Individuals of middle age, females, and those with pre-existing chronic liver conditions were found to have a higher susceptibility to DILI. Significant associations with DILI were identified for certain drugs, including pyrazinamide (PZA), isoniazid (INH), traditional Chinese medicines (TCM), and hepatoprotective agents such as silymarin and glycyrrhetinic acid.

Model development and validation

The XGBoost and RF models were constructed using optimal parameters obtained through the previously mentioned GridSearchCV method. The LASSO logistic model was constructed with the aforementioned variables. Internal validation was conducted by partitioning validation sets, resulting in a comparison of model performance among the three models showcased in Table 2 . The XGBoost model exhibited slightly superior discriminatory ability when compared with the RF and LASSO logistic model, with AUROC values of 0.89 versus 0.88/0.85 and AUPR values of 0.75 versus 0.73/0.67, respectively, as shown in Figs. 2 and 3 . The RF model demonstrated increased recall with a score of 0.78, while the XGBoost model achieved the highest F1-score of 0.57. Calibration was evaluated through ten predictive probability-based bins and verified by the reliability diagram presented in Fig. 4 , supported by a Brier score of 0.08, indicating the impressive alignment in calibration between the XGBoost and LASSO logistic models. Extensive analysis of the decision curve revealed positive net benefits for all models. Notably, XGBoost models outperformed both the RF and LASSO logistic models within the threshold range of approximately 0.2 to 0.5, as demonstrated in Fig.  5 .

Comparison of the AUROC of the XGBoost, logistic and random forest in the validation set

Comparison of the AUPR of the XGBoost, logistic and random forest in the validation set

Comparison of the calibration curve of the XGBoost, logistic and random forest in the validation set

The decision curve of the XGBoost, logistic and random forest in the validation set

Model interpretation

Revealing the factors that influenced the outperformed model's predictions, Fig.  6 laid out the most paramount features of XGBoost (with feature importance > 0.01). Of note, historical occurrences of DILI, DIH, and fatty liver disease (FLD) during the baseline phase were consistently highlighted. Moreover, the ULN for ALT, ALP and Tbil were also identified as critical factors. The SHAP values calculated for the XGBoost model, as shown in Supplemental Fig. 3 , indicate that individuals who had chronic liver disease during baseline were more likely to be in DILI status. Interestingly, we found that those with a lower educational level were more susceptible to DILI status. To gain a deeper understanding of the underlying mechanism and the effects of features in the XGBoost model, we randomly selected two typical patients from the dataset. Furthermore, we created force plots to visualize their decision process, as illustrated in Supplemental Fig.  4 and Supplemental Fig.  5 . The average SHAP value was 0.168, where yellow indicates a positive impact and purple represents a negative impact. In Supplemental Fig.  4 , the identified patient with a SHAP value of 1.06, surpassing the average, is likely to develop DILI. The significant influencing factor is being diagnosed with DILI or DIH at least once during the baseline period. The same rationale applies to the identified patient as depicted in Supplemental Fig.  5 . Additionally, Supplemental Fig.  6 presents a force plot that captures the aggregate effect in the validation set.

Top important features selected by XGBoost (> 0.01). Abbreviations: ODILIO, outpatient drug-induced liver injury, once occurring; ODIHO, outpatient drug induced hepatitis, once occurring; ODIHS, outpatient drug induced hepatitis, sporadically occurring; IDIHO, inpatient drug induced hepatitis, once occurring; ODILIS, outpatient drug induced liver injury, sporadically occurring; IDIHF, inpatient drug induced hepatitis, frequently occurring; IDILIO, inpatient drug induced liver injury, once occurring; ODILIF, outpatient drug induced liver injury, frequently occurring; TBIL, total bilirubin; ALP, alkaline phosphatase; IDILIS, inpatient drug induced liver injury, sporadically occurring; ALT, alanine aminotransferase; FLD, fatty liver disease

To our knowledge, this study represents the initial attempt to evaluate the prediction for DILI in an Asian population, predominantly of Han ethnicity, with TB using regional electronic health records. We observed slightly enhanced discrimination abilities in ML models compared to the logistic model. While logistic regression offers better clinical generalizability, it struggles with overfitting and handling missing variables, resulting in overall weaker performance than anticipated. In contrast, both XGBoost and RF employ more advanced techniques. XGBoost utilizes gradient boosting, progressively building weak learners and effectively capturing non-linear relationships with built-in regularization. On the other hand, RF, a bagging ensemble method, constructs independent decision trees on random subsets of data, resulting in robust averaging but with less explicit regularization. XGBoost excels in capturing intricate non-linear patterns, making it suitable for tasks involving complex and dynamic interactions like predicting DILI during TB treatment. Its training efficiency is also evident when handling large datasets. RF, with its robust averaging, is well-suited for further application in diverse datasets but may encounter challenges in effectively capturing subtle non-linear patterns among multiple explanatory variables.

Several prior studies have identified risk factors associated with DILI during TB treatment, involving chronic liver disease, specific drug combinations, age, and various demographic characteristics [ 25 , 26 , 27 ]. Lammert et al. [ 28 ] suggested an increased risk of DILI in patients with chronic liver disease indicative of NAFLD. Chang et al. [ 29 ] indicated a significant rise in hepatotoxicity risk associated with adding PZA to INH and RIF. Hosford et al. [ 30 ] established a notable elevation in hepatotoxicity risk among individuals over 60 years of age through a systematic literature review. Abbara et al. [ 2 ] found low patient weight, HIV-1 co-infection, higher baseline ALP levels, and alcohol intake were risk factors. Thus, in our model, we predefined enzyme levels, utilization of anti-TB drugs such as PZA, INH, and RIF, hepatoprotective agents such as silymarin and glycyrrhetinic acid, alcohol intake, and demographic variables such as age, gender, education level, ethnicity, profession as predictors. In the ultimate XGBoost model, the contribution weights for chronic liver disease, ULN of ALT, ALP, Tbil, and age surpass 0.01, consistent with earlier research discoveries.

Currently, a range of predictive models for DILI primarily operates at the molecular level in preclinical settings [ 31 ], utilizing diverse artificial intelligence assisted algorithms [ 32 ]. Minerali et al. [ 33 ] employed the Bayesian ML method, resulting in an AUROC of 0.81, 74% sensitivity, 76% specificity, and 75% accuracy. Xu et al. [ 34 ] proposed a deep learning model, achieving 87% accuracy, 83% sensitivity, 93% specificity, and an AUROC of 0.96. Dominic et al.'s Bayesian prediction model [ 35 ] demonstrated balanced performance with 86% accuracy, 87% sensitivity, 85% specificity, 92% positive predictive value, and 78% negative predictive value. In the clinical stage, only Zhong et al. introduced a single tree XGBoost model with 90% precision, 74% recall, and 76% classification accuracy for DILI prediction, using a clinical sample of 743 TB cases [ 36 ]. In our study, we leveraged regional healthcare data and employed the XGBoost algorithm. The model exhibited 76% recall, 82% specificity, and 81% accuracy in predicting DILI status. Our approach was proven robust, as evidenced by a mean AUROC of 0.89 and AUPR of 0.75 upon tenfold cross validation. During the clinical treatment stage, our model exhibited high levels of accuracy and interpretability.

The choice of a cutoff in a DILI prediction model is crucial and depends on specific study goals and requirements. Various studies have investigated optimal cutoff values in DILI prediction models to enhance understanding and prediction accuracy. For instance, in a study focused on drug-induced liver tumors, the maximum Youden index was utilized to determine the ideal cutoff point [ 37 ]. Another study, aimed at predicting DILI and cardiotoxicity, determined 0.4 as the optimal cutoff value using chemical structure and in vitro assay data [ 38 ]. Similarly, a system named DILIps, designed to predict DILI in drug safety, utilized the ROC curve to select the best cutoff value [ 39 ]. Given the imbalanced dataset in our study, we found the precision recall curve method seemed to be more appropriate. Additionally, considering the severe consequences of DILI, prioritizing the detection of DILI suggests choosing a lower cutoff to maximize sensitivity. Thus, in our study, we opted for the maximum Youden index as the best cutoff.

However, the acceptability of ML in the medical community faces a significant hurdle regarding interpretability, particularly in settings where clinical decisions are paramount. Our research employed SHAP strategies to illuminate the complex mechanisms of the XGBoost model.

Strengths and limitations

The study utilized a large dataset of over 7,000 TB patients to develop a robust model and comprehensively included clinical, demographic, and biochemical variables to improve predictive accuracy. Furthermore, the model incorporates SHAP analysis to improve interpretability. However, as we embark on the integration of ML into clinical settings, a vital concern persists regarding the generalizability of models [ 40 ]. While our model demonstrates enhanced predictive accuracy, it's important to recognize the inherent limitations stemming from the lack of external validation. Patient characteristics [ 41 ] and drug interactions [ 42 ] may differ widely across populations. This underscores the importance of validating models on diverse patient cohorts and geographical regions. Moreover, the study's reliance on a data-driven approach and the inherent complexity of integrating ML models into clinical practice present additional limitations [ 43 ]. Additionally, the dependence on clinical diagnosis for DILI and the potential influence of unmeasured variables on model accuracy are acknowledged. While the study's findings offer valuable insights, careful consideration is warranted when interpreting them.

Conclusions

XGBoost shows improved predictive performance compared to RF and LASSO logistics in this study. Moreover, introducing the SHAP method enhances the clinical understanding and potential application of the model. For further research, external validation and more detailed feature integration are necessary.

Code availability statement

To enhance reproducibility and facilitate peer review, we uploaded the code used for model fitting. The source code associated with this research is available on the GitHub repository ( https://github.com/cpu-pharmacoepi/TB-DILI ). For inquiries or assistance related to the code, please contact 1,020,202,[email protected].

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Data cannot be shared publicly because of privacy and confidentially of the TB patients in Ningbo, Zhejiang, China.

Abbreviations

Alkaline phosphatase

Alanine transaminase

Area under the precision recall curve

Area under the receiver operating characteristic curve

Center for Disease Control and Prevention

Current procedural terminology

Chinese Society of Hepatology

Drug-induced hepatitis

• Drug-induced liver injury

Electronic healthcare record

Fatty liver disease

High dimensional propensity score

International Classification of Diseases-Tenth Revision

International normalized ratio

Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator

• Machine learning

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease

Pyrazinamide

Random Forest

Receiver operating characteristic

Standard deviation

Shapley Additive exPlanations

Standardized mean difference

• Tuberculosis

Total serum bilirubin

Traditional Chinese medicine

Upper limit of normal

EXtreme Gradient Boosting

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank all staff of the tuberculosis control centers, designated hospitals, community health service centers, and township health centers in ten counties/districts from Ningbo for their hard work and help in collecting clinical data. We also thank our colleagues from Ningbo Health Information Center for providing clinically relevant data for this study.

Disclosure of AI tools

We hereby disclose that generative AI tools were not utilized in the preparation or analysis of data presented in this manuscript. All methodologies and analyses were conducted utilizing established statistical and machine learning techniques as outlined in the Method section.

This research was supported by Zhejiang Medical Research Project(2018KY733) and Natural Science Foundation of Ningbo (2019A610386, 2019A610385). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the funding agencies.

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Jifang Zhou and Tianchi Yang are both authors contributed equally to this work and shared corresponding authorship.

Authors and Affiliations

School of International Pharmaceutical Business, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China

Yue Xiao, Yanfei Chen, Ruijian Huang, Feng Jiang & Jifang Zhou

Institute of Tuberculosis Prevention and Control, Ningbo Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, No.237, Yongfeng Road, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China

Tianchi Yang

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All authors were involved in the design of the study, FJ and RH cleaned data and constructed the cohort; YC was involved in conceptualizing the study; YX and JZ were responsible for the analysis of the data and interpretation of the results.; YX, JZ and TY contributed to the drafting of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Jifang Zhou or Tianchi Yang .

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All aspects of this study, including research methods were conducted in strict accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. This study was conducted in compliance with the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. All patient data in the database were de-identified, and this study was determined to be exempt by the Institutional Review Board of the Ningbo Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Written informed consent was waived for the present study. The institutional Review Board of the Ningbo Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention waived the need for informed consent.

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Xiao, Y., Chen, Y., Huang, R. et al. Interpretable machine learning in predicting drug-induced liver injury among tuberculosis patients: model development and validation study. BMC Med Res Methodol 24 , 92 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-024-02214-5

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Definitive screening design for mechanical properties enhancement in extrusion-based additive manufacturing of carbon fiber-reinforced PLA composite

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• Muhammad Abas   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9294-2964 1 ,
• Tufail Habib 1 ,
• Imran Khan 2 &
• Sahar Noor 1  

In the realm of material extrusion additive manufacturing, fused deposition modeling (FDM)/ fused filament fabrication (FFF) has gained widespread recognition for its cost-effective approach to producing engineering components with precise net-shapes. This study systematically investigates the influence of various FDM process parameters on the mechanical properties of printed parts of carbon fiber-reinforced poly-lactic acid (PLA-CF), specifically focusing on tensile strength (TS), flexural strength (FS), and impact strength (IS). Utilizing definitive screening design, nonlinear and quadratic regression models were developed to establish robust relationships between printing parameters and strength characteristics. Statistical evaluation confirmed the models’ efficacy in explaining observed variations and predicting responses. Contour plots further visually depicted the parameter impact on each strength aspect. For TS, FS and IS, crucial factors included layer height, followed by number of contours, infill density and fill angle. For multi-response optimization an integrated approach of grey relational analysis (GRA) and entropy were applied. Optimal parameter levels obtained were, a layer height of 0.1 mm, six contours, 50% infill density, 0° fill angle, 60 mm/s printing speed, 220 °C nozzle temperature, 90 °C bed temperature, and 0° part orientation. These parameters led to improved tensile strength (45.56 MPa), flexural strength (64.87 MPa), and impact strength (6.52 kJ/m 2 ). This research provides important insights for enhancing FDM-printed part mechanical properties of PLA-CF and also offering a systematic methodology for process optimization and parameter selection in additive manufacturing.

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This work was supported by Pakistan Science Foundation with project funding (Grant numbers PSF/CRP/KPK-UET/T-Helix (126)).

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Muhammad Abas, Tufail Habib & Sahar Noor

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Abas, M., Habib, T., Khan, I. et al. Definitive screening design for mechanical properties enhancement in extrusion-based additive manufacturing of carbon fiber-reinforced PLA composite. Prog Addit Manuf (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40964-024-00610-3

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Received : 25 November 2023

Accepted : 19 March 2024

Published : 21 April 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s40964-024-00610-3

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