significance of drinking water essay

Importance of Water Essay for Students and Children

500+ words essay on importance of water.

Water is the basic necessity for the functioning of all life forms that exist on earth . It is safe to say that water is the reason behind earth being the only planet to support life. This universal solvent is one of the major resources we have on this planet . It is impossible for life to function without water. After all, it makes for almost 70% of the earth.

However, despite its vast abundance, water is very much limited. It is a non-renewable resource . In addition, we need to realize the fact that although there is an abundance of water, not all of it is safe to consume. We derive some very essential uses from the water on a daily basis.

Significance of water

If we talk about our personal lives, water is the foundation of our existence. The human body needs water for the day to day survival. We may be able to survive without any food for a whole week but without water, we won’t even survive for 3 days. Moreover, our body itself comprises of 70% water. This, in turn, helps our body to function normally.

Thus, the lack of sufficient water or consumption of contaminated water can cause serious health problems for humans. Therefore, the amount and quality of water which we consume is essential for our physical health plus fitness.

Further, our daily activities are incomplete without water. Whether we talk about getting up in the morning to brush or cooking our food, it is equally important. This domestic use of water makes us very dependent on this transparent chemical.

In addition, on a large scale, the industries consume a lot of water. They need water for almost every step of their process. It essential for the production of the goods we use every day.

If we look beyond human uses, we will realize how water plays a major role in every living beings life. It is the home of aquatic animals. From a tiny insect to a whale, every organism needs water to survive.

Therefore, we see how not only human beings but plants and animals too require water. The earth depends on water to function. We cannot be selfish and use it up for our uses without caring about the environment.

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A world without water

Water is not only required for our survival but for a healthy and happy life as well. Everyone has seen the scenario of water-deprived countries like Africa, where citizens are leading a miserable life. It is time for everyone to wake up and realize the urgency of conserving water.

In other words, a world without water would make the human race impossible to last. The same can be said for all the animals and plants. In fact, the whole earth will suffer without water.

Firstly, the greenery will soon diminish. When earth won’t get water, all the vegetation will die and turn into barren land. The occurrence of different seasons will soon cease. The earth will be caught in one big endless summer.

Furthermore, the home of aquatic animals will be taken from them. That means no fishes and whales for us to see. Most importantly, all forms of living organisms will go extinct if we do not conserve water right away.

In conclusion, unnecessary usage of water must be stopped at once. Every single person must work to conserve water and restore the balance. If not, we all know what the consequences are going to be.

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Why Is Water So Important? Here’s What You Need to Know

How water works in your body, how much water do you need, how to stay hydrated.

Water is a major component of your body, accounting for 50–60% of your total weight. It is vital for many important body functions, from flushing out waste to lubricating your joints.

Your body constantly loses water throughout the day through urinating, sweating, and breathing. You should consume enough water from foods and beverages daily to prevent dehydration .

This article covers research-backed reasons why your body needs water and how much you need each day.

Klaus Vedfelt / Getty Images

All body cells, organs, and tissues require water to function. Generally, a person can only survive without water for a few days.  

It Maintains a Normal Body Temperature

Water regulates our internal temperature by distributing heat throughout the body and cooling it through perspiration (sweat).

When the body becomes too hot, it loses water through sweat . The evaporation of sweat from the skin cools the body, keeping its temperature within a normal range.

If a person becomes dehydrated, they can't produce enough sweat to cool their body. This can cause the body's temperature to reach dangerous levels, leading to heat stroke .

Avoid dehydration by drinking plenty of water if you're working outside or sweating more than usual.

It Protects Your Joints, Spinal Cord, and Other Tissues

Water acts as a lubricant in the mouth (through saliva ) and the eyes (through tears) to help prevent dryness. It's necessary to produce synovial fluid , which lubricates, cushions, and protects the joints.

Water also helps protect the spinal cord and prevents injuries by increasing tissue flexibility and elasticity.

It Transports Nutrients and Gets Rid of Waste

As a major component of blood, water helps transport nutrients and oxygen to cells throughout the body. Water also helps carry waste from the body for excretion through perspiration, urination, and bowel movements.

The kidneys need water to effectively filter waste from the blood and flush it from the body as urine. Staying adequately hydrated helps prevent kidney stones and urinary tract infections (UTIs) , which can harm the kidneys.

Prevents Dehydration

Drinking water daily can help prevent dehydration, a condition that occurs when you lose more fluids than you absorb.

Early signs of dehydration include:

• Feeling thirsty
• Dark-colored urine
• Urinating less than usual

Because water is involved in so many body functions, dehydration can eventually cause life-threatening symptoms, including:

• Rapid breathing
• Rapid heartbeat
• Inability to urinate

People who exercise in the heat, work outdoors, or have certain health conditions that cause them to urinate or sweat more than usual are at a greater risk of dehydration.

It Aids Digestion

Your saliva is primarily made up of water. Saliva is a digestive juice that moistens food, allowing it to move easily through the esophagus into your stomach. Saliva also contains enzymes that help break down starches in food.

As the digestive process continues, water helps break down food, allowing your body to absorb nutrients. Water also makes bowel movements easier.

It Protects Against Chronic Illness and Boosts Longevity

Adequate hydration is linked to healthy aging and longevity. One potential reason for this is that decreased water intake can lead to higher sodium concentrations in the blood, which raises the risk of chronic disease.

Studies suggest that adults who stay hydrated are healthier and less likely to develop chronic diseases, including heart and lung disease . Well-hydrated adults also seem to live longer than adults who don't consume enough fluids.

It Improves Mood and Cognitive Function

Dehydration may cause fatigue and confusion and may be linked to symptoms of anger and depression. In a small study, it was linked to poor cognitive function, potentially affecting attention span and working memory.

One study of young adults looked at the effects of water on cognitive performance and mood after 12 hours of water restriction. Researchers found that 200 milliliters of water improved thirst, anger, fatigue, and overall mood. However, 500 milliliters was optimal, improving mood and cognitive performance.

The amount of water you need depends on several factors, including age, sex, activity level, and health status.

For healthy individuals, the adequate daily water intake is around 11.5 cups for women and about 15.5 cups for men. This includes fluids consumed from all foods and beverages.

Experts estimate that most people get around 20% of their daily water intake from food. This means women should drink about 9 cups of fluid daily, while men should aim for 13 cups to maintain adequate hydration.

People who live in warmer climates, are more physically active, or are experiencing an illness that causes fever and/or diarrhea or vomiting have increased fluid needs.

One easy way to see if you are properly hydrated is to check the color of your urine. If you are drinking enough water, your urine will be pale yellow. If it is dark, you may need to increase your consumption.

Individuals with heart failure or kidney disease may need to limit their fluid intake.

Can You Drink Too Much Water?

Drinking too much water can lead to water intoxication or overhydration, which occurs when the kidneys cannot flush out excess water. This can cause a medical emergency due to decreased sodium concentrations in the blood ( hyponatremia ). To avoid water intoxication, do not drink more than 48 ounces, or six cups, per hour.

If you find it challenging to stay hydrated, here are some helpful tips to keep in mind:

• Keep a reusable water bottle with you and refill it throughout the day
• Choose water or sparkling water instead of sugary beverages
• When you feel thirsty, drink water
• Change things up by squeezing fresh lemon or lime into your water or adding a few berries or cucumber slices
• Snack on water-rich fruits and vegetables , including watermelon, cantaloupe, lettuce, and celery, throughout the day
• Keep track of your water intake by using a water tracker app
• Drink water with all meals

Water is vital for your health. It is necessary for temperature regulation, digestion, nutrient absorption, and body waste removal. Drinking water daily can prevent dehydration, a condition that can cause mood and memory problems, constipation, and kidney stones.

People who work in high temperatures, exercise at high intensities, or are sick are at a greater risk of dehydration. Talk to a healthcare provider or registered dietitian to determine the right amount of water for you.

Zhou HL, Wei MH, Cui Y, et al. Association between water intake and mortality risk-evidence from a national prospective study .  Front Nutr . 2022;9:822119. doi:10.3389/fnut.2022.822119

Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. How much water do you need?

MaineDOT. The importance of hydration .

Johns Hopkins Medicine. Dehydration and heat stroke .

Lorenzo I, Serra-Prat M, Yébenes JC. The role of water homeostasis in muscle function and frailty: a review .  Nutrients . 2019;11(8):1857. doi:10.3390/nu11081857

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Water and healthier drinks .

National Kidney Foundation. 6 tips to be "water wise" for healthy kidneys .

MedlinePlus. Dehydration .

National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Your digestive system & how it works .

National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Eating, diet, & nutrition for constipation .

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Good hydration linked to healthy aging .

Zhang J, Zhang N, He H, et al. Different amounts of water supplementation improved cognitive performance and mood among young adults after 12 h water restriction in Baoding, China: a randomized controlled trial (RCT) .  Int J Environ Res Public Health . 2020;17(21):7792. doi:10.3390/ijerph17217792

National Kidney Foundation. The dos and don'ts of fluid management for kidney disease .

MedlinePlus. Heart failure .

Joo MA, Kim EY. Hyponatremia caused by excessive intake of water as a form of child abuse .  Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab . 2013;18(2):95-98. doi:10.6065/apem.2013.18.2.95

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Heat stress: hydration .

By Lindsey DeSoto, RD, LD Desoto is a registered dietitian specializing in nutrition and health and wellness content.

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• Importance of water

An English Essay on the Importance of Water for the Students

Without water there cannot be life on our planet, that is to say on earth. Because every living organism needs water, and therefore having a good understanding and care for the water is a must for all of us. Hence, students should write an essay discussing the importance of water in the English language.

Writing an essay on such a topic opens a series of good ideas in the mind of the students regarding the role that water plays in our lives, and it can also make the students aware of the importance of water.

Also, if you wish to write an English essay on the topic My aim in life you may find this link helpful My Aim in Life Essay in English for Students | Easy Essay on My Aim in Life (vedantu.com)

Advantages of Writing an Essay on the Importance of Water.

Writing an essay on any topic helps the students be good writers, and the same goes for the topic of, Importance of water, but there are quite a few more advantages to writing the essay.

One of the most important things for everyone is to express oneself, and the practice of doing so must be given to the child from a very young age. And writing an essay helps the students in this very important thing.

For writing a good essay on any topic, the students must have a good understanding of the subject of the essay. And hence, writing an essay on the Importance of water, helps the students in learning about the value of water, not just our lives, which is to say humans, but the life of the whole planet.

In his famous play Hamlet Shakespeare writes, Brevity is the soul of wit, meaning being short or concise is very important in speech, or shortness of words is the essence of intelligence. The same rule applies in writing the essay, and doing as clear an understanding of the topic at hand is required as possible. And hence composing an essay on the importance of water helps the students understand the same.

One of the most important gifts that humans are blessed with is the gift of language, and this gift has to be used effectively. Writing an essay helps the students in learning the methods of using the language in such a manner that it makes everything clear to the reader. A good essay does not only touch the heart of the readers but it opens the mind of the reader, it can move them, that is to say, if a good essay is written on the importance of water it can make the readers aware about the same, and not just aware but also careful about using the water.

Water means Life. Water is a prime natural resource. It is a basic need for humans and a precious asset that living beings have. Water is equally vital for the survival of the plant and animal kingdoms. Soil needs water for sustaining plants. The water cycle is essential for ecological balance too. Though a big portion of the Earth is covered with water, only a small portion of it can be used for various human activities. So we need to be judicious and rational, regarding the usage of water.

Why is water important for our bodies?

Water is important for our body for the following reasons. 

 Above 70% of our body contains water so it is pivotal for the human race to survive. 

Water helps in regulating our body temperature. 

 Water helps in the digestion of solid food. 

It also keeps our skin healthy and hydrated. 

Water helps in excreting waste from our body through sweat, urination, and defecation. So replenishing the water in our body is essential to prevent dehydration.

Drinking water also helps in reducing calories and maintaining body weight because it can increase the rate of metabolism.

Water consumption lubricates the joints, spinal cord, and tissues.

Importance of Water

All living organisms, plants, animals, and human beings contain water. Almost 70% of our body is made up of water. Our body gets water from the liquids we drink and the food we eat. Nobody can survive without water for more than a week. All plants will die if they do not get water. This would lead to the death of all the animals that depend on plants for their food. So the existence of life would come to an end.

Role of Water In Life Processes

Water plays an important role in most of the life processes by acting as a solvent. The absorption of food in our body takes place in solution form with water as the solvent. Also, many waste products are excreted in the form of solutions through urine and perspiration. 

Water helps in regulating our body temperature. In hot weather, we drink a lot of water. This maintains our body temperature. Also, water evaporates from the surface of our body as sweat. This takes away heat and cools the body. 

Water is essential for plants to grow. Plants need water to prepare food. They also absorb dissolved nutrients from the soil through their roots. 

Aquatic plants and animals use the nutrients and oxygen dissolved in water for their survival. 

Uses of Water In Everyday Life

Water is used for drinking, washing, cooking, bathing, cleaning, in our day-to-day life.

It is used to generate electricity in hydroelectric power stations.

Water is used for irrigating fields and in the manufacture of various products. 

Other Uses of Water

Water serves as a means of transportation for goods and people.

It provides a medium for recreational sports such as swimming, boating, and water skiing. 

Water is also used to extinguish fires. 

Importance of Oceans

Oceans are of immense use to man. They are useful in many ways, directly and indirectly. They not only play a significant role in the climate of adjoining countries but also serve mankind in many ways. They are a storehouse of several resources. 

An ocean is a major source of water and forms a major part of the water cycle. Oceans contribute water vapor to the atmosphere and we get the same in the form of precipitation.

The oceans are the biggest storehouse of edible forms of marine food, fish being most important. In addition to food, sea animals provide other products like oil, glue, etc.

Oceans have enormous mineral and chemical wealth. A variety of dissolved salts like sodium chloride (common salt), magnesium chloride, and potassium chloride are found in plenty in the oceans.

Oil and gas are important fuels obtained from oceans.

Importance of Lakes and Rivers

Economic and industrial development

Water storage

Hydroelectric power generation

Agricultural purposes

Modern multipurpose dams

Source of food

Source of minerals

Tourist attractions and health resorts

Rivers provide fresh drinking water

Ports can be built on them as they form good natural harbors 

Major Concerns

Although our planet Earth is covered with 71% percent of water and 29% of the land, the fast-growing contamination of water is affecting both humans as well as marine life. The unequal distribution of water on the Earth and its increasing demand due to the increasing population is becoming a concern for all. 

Water pollution makes it difficult for marine animals to sustain themselves.

Covering over 71% of Earth’s surface, water is undoubtedly the most precious natural resource that exists on our planet. Without the seemingly invaluable compound comprising Hydrogen and Oxygen, life on Earth would be non-existent. 

We are slowly but harming our planet at a very alarming rate.

Characteristics of a Good Essay.

It must be brief: As pointed out earlier, a good essay must be short, and also to the point. So, if students are writing an essay on the importance of water it must only deal with the water, and anything which does not directly serve the purpose must be excluded.

Must cover the whole topic: Though it may seem a little contradicting to the first point, what is meant by covering the whole topic is that the maximum number of aspects dealing with the importance of water must be covered in this essay. For instance, water is important for all living organisms and not just humans, and so the same has to be covered in one or the other way in the essay on the importance of the water.

Must be to the point: The essay must remain true to the central idea of the topic, which is the importance of water in this case. Hence, almost all the sentences written in the essay must serve the main topic in one or another way. And also, writing should not be vague or ambiguous, or illogical.

Human beings should realize how important and precious water is. At the individual level, you can be more responsible and avoid wasting water so that our future generation can make the best use of this natural resource abundantly.

FAQs on Importance of water

1. Why is water important?

Water is important because it sustains all living organisms on Earth.

2. How is ocean water useful to Mankind?

Ocean water is useful to mankind in the following ways.

Oceans are a major source of water through the water cycle. 

Oceans have direct control over the climate.

Oceans are the biggest storehouse of marine food.

Oceans have enormous mineral and chemical wealth.

3. How is water important for our Body?

Water helps to carry nutrients and oxygen to each and every cell of our body. It helps in digestion. It keeps our skin healthy and hydrated. Water consumption lubricates the joints, spinal cord, and tissues.

4. What are the uses of water in our Daily Life?

Water is used for drinking, bathing, cooking, cleaning, and irrigation of crops and manufacturing various products.

5. Why should I use the essay provided by Vedantu on the Importance of water?

The essay that Vedantu provides on the topic of the Importance of water is prepared by expert teachers, for the students of the English language. And hence this essay can be used by the students as an outline or an example of the essay on the Importance of water, it does not necessarily mean that the students have to copy it completely, but it serves the purpose of guiding the students in attempting the essay. Furthermore, the essay is completely free for download for all the students and also it is available in a PDF file format.

Home — Essay Samples — Environment — Water — The Importance of Water: The Vital Essence

The Importance of Water: The Vital Essence

• Categories: Nutrition Water

About this sample

Words: 652 |

Published: Sep 7, 2023

Words: 652 | Page: 1 | 4 min read

Table of contents

Water and human health, environmental balance, agriculture and food security, industrial and economic significance, challenges of water scarcity and pollution, responsible water management.

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Why is water important?

We're often told that we need to drink more water, but exactly why is water important?

Why do we need to drink water?

What happens if you don’t drink enough water, what effect does water have on the body, drinking enough water.

If you’ve been pondering the question ‘why is water important?’ rest assured, you’re not alone. While it probably won’t come as a surprise to hear that everyone needs to drink water to survive, most of us invest in one of the best water bottles and commit to guzzling down our daily water intake without really understanding what makes water so vital.

There are quite a few things that make water necessary to the human body, from cellular functions, to aiding digestion, and even improving concentration and exercise performance. You’ve probably even heard the recommendation to drink a certain amount of water every day (usually about 8 glasses or so), but where does that number come from? And what happens if you don’t drink enough?

This article will tackle everything and anything you would need to know about why water is important, including why we need to drink water, what happens when we don’t get enough and the effect water has on our body. Let’s dive in!

Knowing how to stay hydrated with water is super important. Why? Well, largely because the human body is about 60% water and because we are continuously losing water through urine, sweat and even just breathing, we need to ensure we’re replacing that fluid so that our cells, tissues and organs can all function optimally.

Water is a solvent, which means that other substances can dissolve in it, which allows for their transportation between cells in the body. Substances like glucose (the body’s preferred fuel source) and amino acids (the building blocks of protein) dissolve very effectively in water, and use water as a carrier for them throughout the body. 

Water also carries vitamins and minerals to and from the cells, and is vital in removing waste products from individual cells, as shown by research in the Biochemical Journal . Further, water consumption ensures appropriate blood volume, viscosity, and circulation, which is vital for the proper function of all organs and tissues of the body, according to a paper in Nutrition Reviews .

Water is also vitally important for regulating body temperature. It has a great capacity to store heat, preventing large, rapid drops in internal temperature, and through sweating, water has arguably the most efficient avenue to lose heat when environmental temperature is higher than body temperature, as per an article in Military Medicine .

Finally, water is essential to form many bodily fluids: tears, saliva, sweat, urine, and blood, amongst others. Water is also a highly effective lubricant for joints helping to produce synovial fluid and cartilage, which help keep joints healthy through smooth movements. Water also helps with joint health by maintaining cells’ shapes, acting as a shock absorber during impacting activities like walking or running, which even protects the brain and spinal cord, according to a review article in Nature . 

Not drinking enough water can lead to dehydration very quickly, and it’s more common than we think. According to a 2020 paper in StatPearls , between 28% and 75% of adults in the US are dehydrated at any given moment. This is

attributed to a number of factors, notably overconsumption of caffeinated drinks like coffee and soft drinks, which a 2018 study in Nutrients lists as common replacements for water that act as a diuretic that cause the body to lose even more water. 

Even ‘mild’ dehydration (a loss of water corresponding to 1-2% of body weight) can lead to significant impairments in cognitive function, concentration, alertness, memory, physical performance, sport-specific skills, and physical endurance, according to research in Nutrition Reviews .

According to a study in the Journal of Applied Physiology , larger losses in water corresponding to 4% of body weight (which research still considers ‘mild’) can lead to poor cardiovascular function as blood plasma volume drops which causes an increase in heart rate and stroke volume (the amount of blood the heart perfuses per beat). Dehydration of this level can also cause decreases in skin blood flow and sweating, which leads to an increase in body temperature, which can complicate any heat-induced dehydration, as per another study from the Journal of Applied Physiology . 

As you may be able to tell, drinking water will have more or less the opposite effect to not drinking water, for all the reasons outlined earlier in the article. In an ideal world, we would all stay hydrated by drinking water regularly, and so we may never notice the effect that drinking water has because we’d never be dehydrated. However, we know that not to be the case. 

Given the host of cognitive problems that dehydration can have on the body, drinking water can often improve your ability to focus, concentrate, and retain information. A lot of people also ask the question ‘does drinking water help you to lose weight?’ and evidence suggests that it absolutely can. Not only that, it aids in digestion, due to its role in nutrient absorption, and creation of digestive fluids and enzymes like hydrochloric acid. Drinking water can also reduce joint pain or wear and tear, due to its role in joint cushioning and maintenance of synovial fluid and cartilage.

Clearly, drinking water is utterly vital for a whole host of reasons, and unfortunately, just drinking water when thirsty isn’t going to be enough. Thirst is only triggered when water losses correspond to 1-3% body weight, which is enough to lead to mental and physical impairments. Plus, the issue with only drinking when thirsty is that thirst can be quenched before proper hydration is achieved, according to Nature . 

The U.S. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine recommend drinking 92 fluid ounces (11.5 cups) per day for women, and 124 fluid ounces (15.5 cups) of water per day for men. However, many factors can affect how much water someone needs to drink: warmer environments increase sweating and water loss, drinking caffeinated drinks leads to a diuretic affect, and when exercising, sweat and respiration-induced water losses can reach 65 fluid ounces per hour according to a paper in the Journal of the American College of Nutrition .

It’s important to adjust your water intake appropriately to get all of its benefits, and avoid the potential downfalls of dehydration. If you’re keen to find new and novel ways to increase your water intake, check out our guide to how to drink more water.

HÄUSSINGER, D. (1996). The role of cellular hydration in the regulation of cell function. Biochemical Journal, 313(3), 697–710. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8611144/

Jéquier, E., & Constant, F. (2009). Water as an essential nutrient: the physiological basis of hydration. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 64(2), 115–123. https://www.nature.com/articles/ejcn2009111

José, G. A., Mora-Rodríguez, R., Below, P. R., & Coyle, E. F. (1997). Dehydration markedly impairs cardiovascular function in hyperthermic endurance athletes during exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology, 82(4), 1229–1236. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9104860/

Montain, S. J., Latzka, W. A., & Sawka, M. N. (1999). Fluid Replacement Recommendations for Training in Hot Weather. Military Medicine, 164(7), 502–508. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10414066/

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Ritz, P., & Berrut, G. (2005). The Importance of Good Hydration for Day-to-Day Health. Nutrition Reviews, 63, S6–S13. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16028567/

Water: How much should you drink every day? (2020, October 14). Mayo Clinic. Retrieved April 14, 2022, from https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/in-depth/water/art-20044256?reDate=14042022

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Will McAuley is a London-based Personal Trainer and Nutrition Coach who’s writing has appeared in Men’s Fitness and GQ magazine, covering exercise, nutrition and health. He has a Master’s degree in Strength & Conditioning from Middlesex University in London, is a published scientific author in the Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, and holds a Bachelor’s degree in Linguistics from Trinity College Dublin. 

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Essay on Importance of Water in Our Life

Students are often asked to write an essay on Importance of Water in Our Life in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Importance of Water in Our Life

Introduction.

Water is a vital component of life. It’s everywhere, from the food we eat to the air we breathe.

Health Benefits

Water keeps our bodies running. It helps transport nutrients, regulate body temperature, and remove waste.

Role in Nature

Water is crucial for plants and animals. It helps plants grow and provides a habitat for aquatic life.

Water is essential for life and our wellbeing. We must value and conserve it for a sustainable future.

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• Paragraph on Importance of Water in Our Life

250 Words Essay on Importance of Water in Our Life

The essence of life.

Water, a simple molecule consisting of two hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen atom, plays an indispensable role in our lives. It is the lifeblood of the environment, essential for the survival of all living organisms.

The Biological Significance

Water makes up approximately 60% of the human body, serving as a medium for biochemical reactions, aiding in digestion, and regulating body temperature. It transports nutrients and oxygen to cells, lubricates joints, and protects sensitive tissues. Without water, these vital processes would cease, leading to life-threatening consequences.

Environmental Impact

Beyond individual organisms, water is integral to ecosystems. It supports biodiversity, with different species adapted to various aquatic environments. Rivers, lakes, and oceans are teeming with life, each contributing to the balance of nature. The water cycle also plays a key role in weather patterns and climate regulation.

Societal Implications

Water is a critical resource for societal development. It is used in agriculture for food production, in industries for manufacturing goods, and in homes for daily chores. Clean drinking water is a fundamental human right, yet many regions still struggle with water scarcity, emphasizing the need for sustainable water management.

In conclusion, water’s importance extends far beyond its simple molecular structure. It is a vital component of life, environment, and society. The challenge lies in ensuring its sustainable use and equitable distribution, to safeguard our future and the planet’s biodiversity. Recognizing the value of water is the first step towards this goal.

500 Words Essay on Importance of Water in Our Life

Water is a fundamental resource that is intricately woven into every facet of human life. It is a life-sustaining element, vital for the survival of all organisms on Earth. Its importance extends beyond quenching thirst and facilitating hygiene, to societal and developmental realms, contributing significantly to the global economy and food security.

Water as a Life-Sustaining Element

The human body is composed of about 60% water, serving as a medium for various biochemical reactions. It aids in digestion, absorption of nutrients, regulation of body temperature, and excretion of waste substances. Dehydration can lead to serious health problems, highlighting the importance of regular water intake.

Water in Agriculture and Food Security

Agriculture is the largest consumer of freshwater, accounting for nearly 70% of all water withdrawals globally. Water is essential for crop growth and livestock rearing, playing a pivotal role in ensuring food security. With climate change exacerbating water scarcity, efficient water management strategies in agriculture are crucial for sustainable development.

Economic Significance of Water

Water is a key driver of economic prosperity. Industries such as tourism, fisheries, energy, and manufacturing heavily rely on water. Hydroelectric power plants, for instance, use water to generate electricity, contributing significantly to the energy sector. Thus, water is not just a commodity, but a critical economic resource.

Societal and Cultural Importance of Water

Water has profound societal and cultural significance. It is central to many religious rituals and ceremonies, symbolizing purity and life. Moreover, water bodies have shaped human settlements, with many ancient civilizations flourishing around rivers and coasts. Today, they continue to influence urban planning and architecture.

Water and the Environment

Water plays a crucial role in maintaining the Earth’s climate system. It regulates global temperatures via ocean currents and the water cycle. Wetlands, which are rich in biodiversity, act as natural water filters, reducing pollution and mitigating climate change impacts.

In conclusion, water is a versatile and indispensable resource, underpinning various aspects of human life. Its importance is multifaceted, spanning health, food security, economic prosperity, societal norms, and environmental sustainability. As we face increasing water scarcity due to climate change and overexploitation, it is imperative to recognize the value of water and strive for its sustainable management. The future of our planet and the survival of future generations hinge on our ability to conserve and wisely use this precious resource.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

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• Essay on Conserve Water Conserve Life
• Essay on Drinking Water
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The importance of hydration

Drinking enough water each day is crucial for many reasons: to regulate body temperature, keep joints lubricated, prevent infections, deliver nutrients to cells, and keep organs functioning properly. Being well-hydrated also improves sleep quality, cognition, and mood.

Experts recommend drinking roughly 11 cups of water per day for the average woman and 16 for men. And not all of those cups have to come from plain water; for example, some can come from water flavored with fruit or vegetables (lemons, berries, or orange or cucumber slices), or from coffee or tea.

But it’s best to stay away from sugar-sweetened beverages when trying to stay hydrated, says Walter Willett , professor of epidemiology and nutrition at Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. In a September 28, 2017 CNN article, Willett said that Americans are “conditioned to expect high levels of sweetness in everything…. You might say we are malhydrated, because we drink so much soda and fruit juice and other sugar-sweetened beverages, and by that I mean we drink beverages that harm our health. Even energy drinks and vitamin waters, most are loaded with sugar and not worth the use.”

Read the CNN article: Benefits of water: Are you getting enough fluids to stay healthy?

Healthy Drinks (The Nutrition Source)

Healthy Beverage Guidelines (The Nutrition Source)

Essay on Importance of Water

Water is often called the “elixir of life,” and for a good reason. It’s not just a liquid; it’s the key to our survival and well-being. In this essay, we will explore the incredible significance of water in our lives, from sustaining our bodies to preserving our environment.

The Foundation of Life

Water is essential for all living things on Earth. In fact, the human body is about 60% water, and it plays a crucial role in our daily functioning. It helps regulate body temperature, cushions our joints, and carries nutrients and oxygen to cells.

According to Dr. Jane Smith, a leading expert in human physiology, staying hydrated is essential for our health. Without enough water, our bodies can’t function properly, leading to dehydration and various health problems.

Water for Hydration

One of the most obvious roles of water is keeping us hydrated. When we drink water, it replenishes the fluids we lose through activities like sweating and breathing. Proper hydration is essential for maintaining our energy levels and concentration.

Studies by the World Health Organization (WHO) have shown that even mild dehydration can impair cognitive functions and physical performance. This means that drinking enough water is not just a choice; it’s a necessity for staying focused and alert.

Water and Agriculture

Water is also crucial for growing the food we eat. Agriculture relies on water for irrigation, and without it, crops can wither and die. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), agriculture accounts for about 70% of global water use.

Water scarcity in certain regions can lead to food shortages and increased food prices. Ensuring access to water for farming is essential for global food security, and sustainable farming practices help conserve this precious resource.

Water for Ecosystems

Water doesn’t only benefit humans; it’s vital for all ecosystems. Freshwater ecosystems, like rivers and lakes, are home to a diverse range of plants and animals. They provide habitats, food, and oxygen for aquatic life.

When we pollute or misuse water, we harm these delicate ecosystems. Dr. Sarah Adams, an environmental scientist, warns that pollution and water scarcity can lead to the loss of biodiversity and disrupt the balance of nature.

Water and Sustainability

Water is also central to environmental sustainability. It plays a key role in generating clean energy through hydropower. Furthermore, it’s used in industries to manufacture products and generate electricity.

By conserving water and using it efficiently, we can reduce our environmental footprint. Sustainable water practices, such as recycling and reducing water waste, are crucial for preserving this valuable resource for future generations.

Conclusion of Essay on Importance of Water

In conclusion, water is not just a liquid; it’s a life-sustaining force that affects every aspect of our existence. From keeping us healthy and hydrated to supporting agriculture, ecosystems, and sustainability, water is truly indispensable.

As we reflect on the importance of water, let us remember that it’s our responsibility to use this precious resource wisely. By staying mindful of our water consumption and taking steps to protect our water sources, we can ensure that this vital element continues to nourish and sustain life on Earth. Water is more than just a necessity; it’s a treasure that we must cherish and protect.

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The Value of Water and Its Essential Role in Supporting Sustainable Development

About the author, kelly ann naylor, michela miletto and richard connor.

Kelly Ann Naylor is Vice-Chair, UN-Water and Associate Director for Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH), United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF).

Michela Miletto is Coordinator, World Water Assessment Programme, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and Director, UNESCO Programme Office on Global Water Assessment.

Richard Connor is Editor-in-Chief, United Nations World Water Development Report, UNESCO World Water Assessment Programme.

18 March 2021

W hile everyone recognizes that water is “essential to all life”, including humans, it is often taken for granted, at least by those who have easy and affordable access to a safe and abundant water supply. As a result, it is frequently misused, polluted or wasted. Giving “value” to water is a way to better recognize its importance—to us as individuals, but also to societies and the environment from which it comes and to which ultimately returns.

But what does “value” mean in this context? What is water “worth”? These are the main questions addressed in the 2021 edition of the United Nations World Water Development Report (WWDR 2021). 1

The current status of water resources highlights the need for improved water resources management. Recognizing, measuring and expressing water’s worth, and incorporating it into decision-making, are fundamental to achieving sustainable and equitable water resources management and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

While the term “value” and the process of valuation are well defined, there are several different views and perspectives on what value specifically means to various user groups and stakeholders. So, the question “value to whom?” is also a critical one. There are different methods for calculating value and different metrics to express it. The question of how value can be determined thus becomes fundamental. As described throughout WWDR 2021, the terms “price”, “cost” and “value” are by no means synonymous. Whereas the first two are easily quantifiable from a primarily economic, monetary-based perspective, the notion of value encompasses a much broader set of often intangible benefits. While monetary valuation is arguably easier than most other approaches, and has the advantage of using a common metric by which values of different uses can be quantitatively compared, it can lead to the undervaluation or exclusion of benefits that are more difficult to monetize.

WWDR 2021 groups current methodologies and approaches to the valuation of water into five interrelated perspectives: valuing water sources , in situ water resources and ecosystems; valuing water infrastructure for water storage, use, reuse or supply augmentation; valuing water services , mainly drinking water, sanitation and related human health aspects; valuing water as an input to production and socioeconomic activity , such as food and agriculture, energy and industry, business and employment; and other sociocultural values of water , including recreational, cultural and spiritual attributes.

Differences in the way water is valued not only exist between stakeholder groups but are widespread within them. These divergent perspectives on water value and the best ways to calculate and express it, coupled with limited knowledge of the actual resource, present a challenging landscape for rapid improvements in valuing water. It is, for example, practically impossible to quantitatively compare the value of water for domestic use, the human right to water, customary or religious beliefs, and the value of maintaining flows to preserve biodiversity. None of these should be sacrificed for the sake of achieving consistent valuation methodologies. While the often-intangible nature of some sociocultural values attributed to water regularly defies any attempt at quantification, such values can nevertheless be regarded among the highest ones.

Furthermore, efforts to value water are likely to suffer from some level of bias, even when unintentional, on the part of those directly involved in valuation processes, as the perception of the values attributed to water and its related benefits can be highly subjective. The fundamental question about value is then (as mentioned above) "value to whom?". Valuations often tend to target specific beneficiaries, while other stakeholders may benefit less or even be negatively impacted.

As described in WWDR 2021, good water governance recognizes multiple values and the active participation of a varied set of actors. The use of multi-value approaches to water governance entails acknowledging the role of values in driving key water resources management decisions as well as a call for the active participation of a more diverse set of actors, leading to better integrated and equitable decision-making.

The political will to consider all value sets for water, and to then act on that basis, is critical, necessitating the transformation of political processes and a redistribution of power and voice through the building of public awareness and pressure for change. Addressing conflicting views and overseeing potential trade-offs are among the greatest challenges to water management. Various water use sectors, from water supply, sanitation and hygiene, to agriculture, energy, industry and the environment, stand to benefit over the longer term from an improved integration of the values of water across the full development cycle, from planning through to improved efficiencies, adaptive management and monitoring. But in the near term, there will be trade-offs and a need for adjustments through a set of controls and incentives for certain sectors to use water more efficiently in particular instances. The initial phases of water resources planning and infrastructure design present considerable but underused opportunities for introducing various aspects of water’s value.

Once identified through stakeholder processes of engagement and empowerment, acknowledging the various aspects of water’s value can help ensure their equitable treatment in subsequent stages of water management. Similar opportunities to further address trade-offs exist in later stages of decision-making. In the short term, not all sectors will benefit every time, and some sectors, if not all, will need to adapt in response to the different values of water.

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development emphasizes the integrated nature of development and the need to balance economic, social and environmental considerations, as well as the need to mitigate trade-offs and maximize synergies between the SDGs and their policy domains. Recognizing and embracing water’s multiple values is essential to finding mutually supportive solutions across the majority of the Goals.

1 The United Nations World Water Development Report is the UN-Water flagship report on water and sanitation issues, focusing on a different theme each year. The report is published by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) on behalf of UN-Water, and its production is coordinated by the UNESCO World Water Assessment Programme. The report gives insight on the main trends concerning the state, use and management of freshwater and sanitation, based on work done by the members and partners of UN-Water. Launched in conjunction with World Water Day (22 March), the report provides decision-makers with knowledge and tools to formulate and implement sustainable water policies. It also offers best practices and in-depth analyses to stimulate ideas and actions for better stewardship in the water sector and beyond.

The UN Chronicle  is not an official record. It is privileged to host senior United Nations officials as well as distinguished contributors from outside the United Nations system whose views are not necessarily those of the United Nations. Similarly, the boundaries and names shown, and the designations used, in maps or articles do not necessarily imply endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.

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Dehydration and Importance of Water Essay

Introduction, importance of water in health maintenance, functions of water in the body, what happens to the body when there isn’t enough water, how different electrolytes function in the body, effects of alcohol and caffeine on hydration levels in the body, steps to be taken to ensure that one does not become dehydrated.

Water is a chemical compound that exists as a liquid in the body. It is a crucial part of the body systems and has even been called ‘the liquid of life.’

Water has been known to prevent a number of illnesses hence restoring ones health. Most of these illnesses are; cancer of the colon, breast and the lungs. Drinking water may not necessarily eliminate the possibility of getting these cancers; it simply reduces the probability of their occurrence.

Due to the crucial role played by water, lack of it causes some immediate symptoms. First of all, one experiences headaches and fatigue. Subsequently, one may loose part of their memory and may have trouble remembering small things. Water ensures that one does not have trouble concentrating because it is said that absence of water reduces one’s concentration span. (Kent, 1997)

Constipation is prevented by water. This is done through easing digestion by providing a solvent in which the toxins can dissolve.

Water is said to be the perfect moisturizer for our skin and prevents patchiness. It is also used to control one’s emotions.

Water has numerous bodily functions. Perhaps its most important is the fact that it is a constituent of most cells, organs and systems in the body. It is a fact that water makes up about 90% of the lungs, over ninety percent of the brain and about eighty percent of blood. There are plenty of fluids in the body that mainly consist of water; one of these is saliva.

Water is used to protect the interior organs from external shock. One such organ is the heart. In line with this role, water makes up most of the fluid that is found in between joints, as such, it is used as a lubricant to ease bodily movements.

Transportation in the body is mainly done by water. It transports waste products from their areas of production such as the kidneys to the external environment. It therefore gets rid of toxins from the body. Water also transports oxygen from the lungs to other parts of the body that are in need of it. Nutrients are also transported by water from the digestive system to muscles and other body parts in need of it.

Temperature regulation is another very important function of water. It acts as a kind of thermostat in the body. When body temperature exceeds optimum levels, the body sweats. Sweat mainly consists of water which normally leaves with a lot of heat when it evaporates thus cooling the body. This property of water is called high latent heat of vaporization.

Water is used for detoxification purposes by getting rid of wastes that are carried by the intestinal tract. As such it ensures that the body is in great health.

Lack of water in the body causes thirst. This is incase the amount of water under consideration is a small amount. The thirst then graduates to a more uncomfortable symptom; fatigue. One’s body feels restless and inactive. Eventually, headaches set in as the brain is now complaining. If the condition persists, then dizziness sets in and eventually one complains of feeling heaviness in their head. These are all signs of dehydration.

When the body is constantly denied access to water, reverse osmosis occurs. Instead of water leaving the body and getting filtered into the brain cells, the opposite occurs. Water leaves the cells and enters the system. This means that the body develops an elevated blood pressure since it is going against the norm. High blood pressure can be disastrous if allowed to continue without checking it.

There are some emotional manifestations of a lack of water in the body. One who has not had a lot of water is normally quite irritable and moody. They are quick to anger and are full of impatience.

Constant dehydration also causes a number of illnesses that may be fatal. Some of these include; weak immunity, hypertension and the very dangerous diabetes.

Sodium is mostly obtained from salt which is a compound made of both sodium and chlorine. It is put to use in the nervous systems during transportation of a message from one part of the body to another or from the external environment to the body. These messages may include; pain, heat and electric shock. There is a need for proper electrolyte balance within the body for any stimulant to be recorded well by the body.

Potassium is used to control the sodium balance within the body to ensure that metabolic systems function well. Chlorine serves to neutralize sodium because it is negatively charged while sodium is a positively charged ion. The two complement each other and thus chlorine maintains adequate balance in the body.

There’s a hormone in the body that is responsible for absorption of water back from the kidneys. It is called vasopressin. This hormone helps the body to maintain a balance of water thus preventing excessive loss. Consumption of alcohol causes a depression of Vasopressin meaning that plenty of water will not be reabsorbed and most of it will go to waste as urine. (Ellen, 1980)

Alcohol also causes severe loss in nutrients that are quite important to the body. These nutrients include; calcium, zinc, potassium and sodium. This in turn affects the body’s nervous system and balance of fluids.

It causes prolonged dehydration; this was shown in a research where people’s blood was tested. Most of them were found to have thicker blood especially due to frequent urination.

Caffeine also lowers levels of hydration. This happens by dieresis which is the process of excess absorption of water from blood in the kidneys. Caffeine also inhibits the reabsorption of sodium hence interrupting the hydration process.

The first step is to drink plenty of water. Doctors advise us to take about 8 glasses of water per day. This will ensure proper physical and psychological health.

One should avoid alcohol and caffeinated drinks. This is because the latter mentioned substances enhance the loss of water through the kidneys and must be kept at a minimum or avoided altogether (Barbara, 2004).

If one engages in heavy activities, then one should not wear heavy clothes because they increase the rate at which a body is sweating. The more one sweats, the more the fluid they loose from the body and the more the chances of dehydration.

There are some tell – tale signs that come with hydration. Individuals must learn to recognize them as soon as possible and to do something about them. These include; patchy or dry lips, thick urine, heavy eyes and mild headaches.

Individuals must also protect themselves from excessive sunshine which brings about sweatiness hence water loss from the body. They can do this by standing under a shade when exposed.

• Barbara, K. (2004): Anatomy and Physiology the Easy Way; Barron’s Educational Series
• Ellen. E. (1980): Basic physiology and anatomy; Lippincott
• Kent, M. (1997): Schaum’s outline of theory and problems of human anatomy and physiology; McGraw-Hill Professional
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Importance Of Water – 10 Lines, Short And Long Essay For Children

Key Points To Note: Essay On Importance Of Water For Lower Primary Classes

10 lines on the importance of water for kids, a paragraph on the importance of water, short essay on the importance of water for kids, long essay on the importance of water for children, interesting facts about water for children, what will your child learn from this essay.

There will be no living beings on this planet without water. Since each living organism requires water to survive, we should always take care to make sure that this resource is available. This is why children are made to write an essay in English about the importance of water in classes 1, 2 and 3.

Essay writing is a crucial skill. It helps improve children’s vocabulary and writing skills. This article can assist children who’ve been searching for details on water in English. Crafting an essay on such a topic allows kids to be open to the importance of water in their minds, and it will make them respect the key resource on our planet.

Writing an essay on the significance of water is not a very tough task. Make sure you remember the below-mentioned points while writing an essay:

• Start by explaining why water is vital to everyone.
• Discuss some fascinating water facts.
• Explain why it is important to preserve water.
• Talk about ways you can preserve water. Mention the easy tips and ideas that people can follow.
• Also, don’t forget to end on a positive note.

We must learn the true value of water while writing an essay on water in English. Below are 10 points on the importance of water:

• Water is essential for all flora and fauna on this planet.
• If there’s no water, life on this planet would be impossible.
• Water accounts for about 60% of a human’s weight.
• Water is used for showering, cleaning, cooking, etc.
• The two categories of water on our planet are salty and fresh water.
• Water covers about 71% of the Earth’s surface.
• For consumption, we solely utilise fresh water.
• We should not misuse water because the scarcity of drinking water is a major issue worldwide.
• We must save water by preserving and utilising rainwater, among other things.
• We must prevent water pollution by participating in a water management initiative.

When kids write about the importance of water, it generates a flood of fantastic ideas in their heads, and they learn a lot from it. Usually, this is a common essay for classes 1 & 2.

Water is an extremely important element for the survival of all living organisms on our planet. The significance of water is crucial in more than one way. Furthermore, there’s no substitute for water. Regardless of the huge amount of water on the planet, usable and drinking water is very limited. Even though water covers 71% of the earth’s crust, just around 3% of it is suitable for human use. However, we waste water and pollute it, which has created issues like water scarcity for all. There is a continuous depletion of groundwater as well.

A hungry person can stay without eating food, but a thirsty one cannot go on without water since living without fluids is impossible. This essay on water for class 3 will help kids learn about the importance of water.

Everyone, including humans and plants, requires water. People, creatures, and flora all need water. Life cannot exist without water; everyone and everything will perish if no water is available. Water helps in maintaining our body temperature and aids in digestion too. Aquatic animals use oxygen and nutrients present in water for their survival.

There are two kinds of water available on our planet – fresh water and salt water, and the ocean is all salt water. Humankind uses most water for irrigation, home, and business purposes. The quantity of drinkable or fresh water on earth is diminishing daily; therefore, we must save it. We should store water and then use it wisely. We must not leave the tap running or wash our automobiles with water pipes for long hours.

FEATURE IMAGE SSID: (1931142059) (ALT<(Essay On Importance of Water – 10 Lines, Short and Long Essay for Children>)

Water represents life. Water is a precious resource, a fundamental human requirement, and a valuable asset that all living things possess. Every child should understand the importance of water in daily life.

There are many reasons why water is considered one of the most important and valuable resources on our planet. Let us look at this in a more detailed manner.

Significance Of Water

Water is the cornerstone of human survival when it comes to life. A human body requires water every single day. We might be capable of not eating for seven days; however, we won’t last even three days without drinking water. Furthermore, approximately 60% of human bodies are made up of water which aids our body’s normal functioning. As a result, ingesting impure water will cause major health issues in humans. Therefore, the amount and quality of water we drink are critical to everyone’s physical health and wellness.

Furthermore, our everyday activities would be incomplete without water, like brushing our teeth or preparing meals. Also, many companies use water on a massive scale as almost every single activity of their procedure requires water.

Water has an important function in the lives of all living organisms. From the tiniest insect to the largest whale, each life requires water to stay alive. Water is not just a human need but also flora and fauna. Water is necessary for the planet’s life to function. We should not be self-centred and utilise it for our purposes without caring for the consequences.

Water For Life Processes

• Water plays a crucial part in most biological functions as a solvent. Several waste materials are also eliminated as a solution via urination and sweat.
• Water aids in maintaining body temperature. We take plenty of fluids when it’s hot outside, which keeps the body temperature stable. Water also escapes from the body’s surface as sweat, which removes heat from the body and gets to normal temperature.
• Water is required for plants to make food.

Uses Of Water

• In our daily lives, water is utilised for drinking, dishwashing, baking, showering, and wiping.
• We need water daily for our home gardens too.
• A hydroelectric power plant uses water to create energy.
• Water is being used to irrigate crops and create a variety of items.
• Many water sports include swimming, sailing, kayaking, etc.
• Water can also be used to put out fires.
• Water is necessary for the correct operation of farmed fish, dairies, and many other non-farm operations.
• The majority of fresh water is frozen.
• The oceans contain just about all the water on the planet.
• The salt content of salty water fluctuates.
• One single drop could hold a great deal of life.
• Comets might have also provided some water in the earth’s history. 

Your child will learn how to improve their writing and creative abilities. They will also discover how important water is for their bodies and the ecosystem and the various ways they might use it. They will learn about the importance of water on this planet, not just for humans but for all living things. Last but not least, students will learn about several water-related facts.

1. What Will Happen If Water Vanishes?

Complete vegetation would die rapidly without water, making the earth brown instead of greenish-blue. As clouds will fail to develop and there will be no rainfall, the climate will be dominated entirely by atmospheric circulation. Life as we know it would cease to exist. 

2. Why Should We Not Waste Water?

Water is scarce, despite its abundance, and cannot be regenerated. We must utilise it with caution.

To summarise, water is indeed the foundation of all living things on the planet. Recognising fresh water’s importance and educating people about it is necessary.

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Article Contents

Introduction, physiological effects of dehydration, hydration and chronic diseases, water consumption and requirements and relationships to total energy intake, water requirements: evaluation of the adequacy of water intake, acknowledgments, water, hydration, and health.

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Barry M Popkin, Kristen E D'Anci, Irwin H Rosenberg, Water, hydration, and health, Nutrition Reviews , Volume 68, Issue 8, 1 August 2010, Pages 439–458, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.2010.00304.x

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This review examines the current knowledge of water intake as it pertains to human health, including overall patterns of intake and some factors linked with intake, the complex mechanisms behind water homeostasis, and the effects of variation in water intake on health and energy intake, weight, and human performance and functioning. Water represents a critical nutrient, the absence of which will be lethal within days. Water's importance for the prevention of nutrition-related noncommunicable diseases has received more attention recently because of the shift toward consumption of large proportions of fluids as caloric beverages. Despite this focus, there are major gaps in knowledge related to the measurement of total fluid intake and hydration status at the population level; there are also few longer-term systematic interventions and no published randomized, controlled longer-term trials. This review provides suggestions for ways to examine water requirements and encourages more dialogue on this important topic.

Water is essential for life. From the time that primeval species ventured from the oceans to live on land, a major key to survival has been the prevention of dehydration. The critical adaptations cross an array of species, including man. Without water, humans can survive only for days. Water comprises from 75% body weight in infants to 55% in the elderly and is essential for cellular homeostasis and life. 1 Nevertheless, there are many unanswered questions about this most essential component of our body and our diet. This review attempts to provide some sense of our current knowledge of water, including overall patterns of intake and some factors linked with intake, the complex mechanisms behind water homeostasis, the effects of variation in water intake on health and energy intake, weight, and human performance and functioning.

Recent statements on water requirements have been based on retrospective recall of water intake from food and beverages among healthy, noninstitutionalized individuals. Provided here are examples of water intake assessment in populations to clarify the need for experimental studies. Beyond these circumstances of dehydration, it is not fully understood how hydration affects health and well-being, even the impact of water intakes on chronic diseases. Recently, Jéquier and Constant 2 addressed this question based on human physiology, but more knowledge is required about the extent to which water intake might be important for disease prevention and health promotion.

As noted later in the text, few countries have developed water requirements and those that exist are based on weak population-level measures of water intake and urine osmolality. 3 , 4 The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) was recently asked to revise existing recommended intakes of essential substances with a physiological effect, including water since this nutrient is essential for life and health. 5

The US Dietary Recommendations for water are based on median water intakes with no use of measurements of the dehydration status of the population to assist. One-time collection of blood samples for the analysis of serum osmolality has been used by the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey program. At the population level, there is no accepted method of assessing hydration status, and one measure some scholars use, hypertonicity, is not even linked with hydration in the same direction for all age groups. 6 Urine indices are used often but these reflect the recent volume of fluid consumed rather than a state of hydration. 7 Many scholars use urine osmolality to measure recent hydration status. 8 , – 12 Deuterium dilution techniques (isotopic dilution with D 2 O, or deuterium oxide) allow measurement of total body water but not water balance status. 13 Currently, there are no completely adequate biomarkers to measure hydration status at the population level.

In discussing water, the focus is first and foremost on all types of water, whether it be soft or hard, spring or well, carbonated or distilled. Furthermore, water is not only consumed directly as a beverage; it is also obtained from food and to a very small extent from oxidation of macronutrients (metabolic water). The proportion of water that comes from beverages and food varies according to the proportion of fruits and vegetables in the diet. The ranges of water content in various foods are presented in Table 1 . In the United States it is estimated that about 22% of water intake comes from food while the percentages are much higher in European countries, particularly a country like Greece with its higher intake of fruits and vegetables, or in South Korea. 3 , – 15 The only in-depth study performed in the United States of water use and water intrinsic to food found a 20.7% contribution from food water; 16 , 17 however, as shown below, this research was dependent on poor overall assessment of water intake.

Ranges of water content for selected foods.

Data from the USDA national nutrient database for standard reference, release 21, as provided in Altman. 126

This review considers water requirements in the context of recent efforts to assess water intake in US populations. The relationship between water and calorie intake is explored both for insights into the possible displacement of calories from sweetened beverages by water and to examine the possibility that water requirements would be better expressed in relation to calorie/energy requirements with the dependence of the latter on age, size, gender, and physical activity level. Current understanding of the exquisitely complex and sensitive system that protects land animals against dehydration is covered and commentary is provided on the complications of acute and chronic dehydration in man, against which a better expression of water requirements might complement the physiological control of thirst. Indeed, the fine intrinsic regulation of hydration and water intake in individuals mitigates prevalent underhydration in populations and its effects on function and disease.

Regulation of fluid intake

To prevent dehydration, reptiles, birds, vertebrates, and all land animals have evolved an exquisitely sensitive network of physiological controls to maintain body water and fluid intake by thirst. Humans may drink for various reasons, particularly for hedonic ones, but drinking is most often due to water deficiency that triggers the so-called regulatory or physiological thirst. The mechanism of thirst is quite well understood today and the reason nonregulatory drinking is often encountered is related to the large capacity of the kidneys to rapidly eliminate excesses of water or to reduce urine secretion to temporarily economize on water. 1 But this excretory process can only postpone the necessity of drinking or of ceasing to drink an excess of water. Nonregulatory drinking is often confusing, particularly in wealthy societies that have highly palatable drinks or fluids that contain other substances the drinker seeks. The most common of these are sweeteners or alcohol for which water is used as a vehicle. Drinking these beverages is not due to excessive thirst or hyperdipsia, as can be shown by offering pure water to individuals instead and finding out that the same drinker is in fact hypodipsic (characterized by abnormally diminished thirst). 1

Fluid balance of the two compartments

Maintaining a constant water and mineral balance requires the coordination of sensitive detectors at different sites in the body linked by neural pathways with integrative centers in the brain that process this information. These centers are also sensitive to humoral factors (neurohormones) produced for the adjustment of diuresis, natriuresis, and blood pressure (angiotensin mineralocorticoids, vasopressin, atrial natriuretic factor). Instructions from the integrative centers to the “executive organs” (kidney, sweat glands, and salivary glands) and to the part of the brain responsible for corrective actions such as drinking are conveyed by certain nerves in addition to the above-mentioned substances. 1

Most of the components of fluid balance are controlled by homeostatic mechanisms responding to the state of body water. These mechanisms are sensitive and precise, and are activated with deficits or excesses of water amounting to only a few hundred milliliters. A water deficit produces an increase in the ionic concentration of the extracellular compartment, which takes water from the intracellular compartment causing cells to shrink. This shrinkage is detected by two types of brain sensors, one controlling drinking and the other controlling the excretion of urine by sending a message to the kidneys, mainly via the antidiuretic hormone vasopressin to produce a smaller volume of more concentrated urine. 18 When the body contains an excess of water, the reverse processes occur: the lower ionic concentration of body fluids allows more water to reach the intracellular compartment. The cells imbibe, drinking is inhibited, and the kidneys excrete more water.

The kidneys thus play a key role in regulating fluid balance. As discussed later, the kidneys function more efficiently in the presence of an abundant water supply. If the kidneys economize on water and produce more concentrated urine, they expend a greater amount of energy and incur more wear on their tissues. This is especially likely to occur when the kidneys are under stress, e.g., when the diet contains excessive amounts of salt or toxic substances that need to be eliminated. Consequently, drinking a sufficient amount of water helps protect this vital organ.

Regulatory drinking

Most drinking occurs in response to signals of water deficit. Apart from urinary excretion, the other main fluid regulatory process is drinking, which is mediated through the sensation of thirst. There are two distinct mechanisms of physiological thirst: the intracellular and the extracellular mechanisms. When water alone is lost, ionic concentration increases. As a result, the intracellular space yields some of its water to the extracellular compartment. Once again, the resulting shrinkage of cells is detected by brain receptors that send hormonal messages to induce drinking. This association with receptors that govern extracellular volume is accompanied by an enhancement of appetite for salt. Thus, people who have been sweating copiously prefer drinks that are relatively rich in Na+ salts rather than pure water. When excessive sweating is experienced, it is also important to supplement drinks with additional salt.

The brain's decision to start or stop drinking and to choose the appropriate drink is made before the ingested fluid can reach the intra- and extracellular compartments. The taste buds in the mouth send messages to the brain about the nature, and especially the salt content, of the ingested fluid, and neuronal responses are triggered as if the incoming water had already reached the bloodstream. These are the so-called anticipatory reflexes: they cannot be entirely “cephalic reflexes” because they arise from the gut as well as the mouth. 1

The anterior hypothalamus and pre-optic area are equipped with osmoreceptors related to drinking. Neurons in these regions show enhanced firing when the inner milieu gets hyperosmotic. Their firing decreases when water is loaded in the carotid artery that irrigates the neurons. It is remarkable that the same decrease in firing in the same neurons takes place when the water load is applied on the tongue instead of being injected into the carotid artery. This anticipatory drop in firing is due to communication from neural pathways that depart from the mouth and converge onto neurons that simultaneously sense the blood's inner milieu.

Nonregulatory drinking

Although everyone experiences thirst from time to time, it plays little role in the day-to-day control of water intake in healthy people living in temperate climates. In these regions, people generally consume fluids not to quench thirst, but as components of everyday foods (e.g., soup, milk), as beverages used as mild stimulants (tea, coffee), and for pure pleasure. A common example is alcohol consumption, which can increase individual pleasure and stimulate social interaction. Drinks are also consumed for their energy content, as in soft drinks and milk, and are used in warm weather for cooling and in cold weather for warming. Such drinking seems to also be mediated through the taste buds, which communicate with the brain in a kind of “reward system”, the mechanisms of which are just beginning to be understood. This bias in the way human beings rehydrate themselves may be advantageous because it allows water losses to be replaced before thirst-producing dehydration takes place. Unfortunately, this bias also carries some disadvantages. Drinking fluids other than water can contribute to an intake of caloric nutrients in excess of requirements, or in alcohol consumption that, in some people, may insidiously bring about dependence. For example, total fluid intake increased from 79 fluid ounces in 1989 to 100 fluid ounces in 2002 among US adults, with the difference representing intake of caloric beverages. 19

Effects of aging on fluid intake regulation

The thirst and fluid ingestion responses of older persons to a number of stimuli have been compared to those of younger persons. 20 Following water deprivation, older individuals are less thirsty and drink less fluid compared to younger persons. 21 , 22 The decrease in fluid consumption is predominantly due to a decrease in thirst, as the relationship between thirst and fluid intake is the same in young and old persons. Older persons drink insufficient amounts of water following fluid deprivation to replenish their body water deficit. 23 When dehydrated older persons are offered a highly palatable selection of drinks, this also fails to result in increased fluid intake. 23 The effects of increased thirst in response to an osmotic load have yielded variable responses, with one group reporting reduced osmotic thirst in older individuals 24 and one failing to find a difference. In a third study, young individuals ingested almost twice as much fluid as old persons, even though the older subjects had a much higher serum osmolality. 25

Overall, these studies support small changes in the regulation of thirst and fluid intake with aging. Defects in both osmoreceptors and baroreceptors appear to exist as do changes in the central regulatory mechanisms mediated by opioid receptors. 26 Because the elderly have low water reserves, it may be prudent for them to learn to drink regularly when not thirsty and to moderately increase their salt intake when they sweat. Better education on these principles may help prevent sudden hypotension and stroke or abnormal fatigue, which can lead to a vicious circle and eventually hospitalization.

Thermoregulation

Hydration status is critical to the body's process of temperature control. Body water loss through sweat is an important cooling mechanism in hot climates and in periods of physical activity. Sweat production is dependent upon environmental temperature and humidity, activity levels, and type of clothing worn. Water losses via skin (both insensible perspiration and sweating) can range from 0.3 L/h in sedentary conditions to 2.0 L/h in high activity in the heat, and intake requirements range from 2.5 to just over 3 L/day in adults under normal conditions, and can reach 6 L/day with high extremes of heat and activity. 27 , 28 Evaporation of sweat from the body results in cooling of the skin. However, if sweat loss is not compensated for with fluid intake, especially during vigorous physical activity, a hypohydrated state can occur with concomitant increases in core body temperature. Hypohydration from sweating results in a loss of electrolytes, as well as a reduction in plasma volume, and this can lead to increased plasma osmolality. During this state of reduced plasma volume and increased plasma osmolality, sweat output becomes insufficient to offset increases in core temperature. When fluids are given to maintain euhydration, sweating remains an effective compensation for increased core temperatures. With repeated exposure to hot environments, the body adapts to heat stress and cardiac output and stroke volume return to normal, sodium loss is conserved, and the risk for heat-stress-related illness is reduced. 29 Increasing water intake during this process of heat acclimatization will not shorten the time needed to adapt to the heat, but mild dehydration during this time may be of concern and is associated with elevations in cortisol, increased sweating, and electrolyte imbalances. 29

Children and the elderly have differing responses to ambient temperature and different thermoregulatory concerns than healthy adults. Children in warm climates may be more susceptible to heat illness than adults due to their greater surface area to body mass ratio, lower rate of sweating, and slower rate of acclimatization to heat. 30 , 31 Children may respond to hypohydration during activity with a higher relative increase in core temperature than adults, 32 and with a lower propensity to sweat, thus losing some of the benefits of evaporative cooling. However, it has been argued that children can dissipate a greater proportion of body heat via dry heat loss, and the concomitant lack of sweating provides a beneficial means of conserving water under heat stress. 30 Elders, in response to cold stress, show impairments in thermoregulatory vasoconstriction, and body water is shunted from plasma into the interstitial and intracellular compartments. 33 , 34 With respect to heat stress, water lost through sweating decreases the water content of plasma, and the elderly are less able to compensate for increased blood viscosity. 33 Not only do they have a physiological hypodipsia, but this can be exaggerated by central nervous system disease 35 and by dementia. 36 In addition, illness and limitations in daily living activities can further limit fluid intake. When reduced fluid intake is coupled with advancing age, there is a decrease in total body water. Older individuals have impaired renal fluid conservation mechanisms and, as noted above, have impaired responses to heat and cold stress. 33 , 34 All of these factors contribute to an increased risk of hypohydration and dehydration in the elderly.

With regard to physiology, the role of water in health is generally characterized in terms of deviations from an ideal hydrated state, generally in comparison to dehydration. The concept of dehydration encompasses both the process of losing body water and the state of dehydration. Much of the research on water and physical or mental functioning compares a euhydrated state, usually achieved by provision of water sufficient to overcome water loss, to a dehydrated state, which is achieved via withholding of fluids over time and during periods of heat stress or high activity. In general, provision of water is beneficial in individuals with a water deficit, but little research supports the notion that additional water in adequately hydrated individuals confers any benefit.

Physical performance

The role of water and hydration in physical activity, particularly in athletes and in the military, has been of considerable interest and is well-described in the scientific literature. 37 , – 39 During challenging athletic events, it is not uncommon for athletes to lose 6–10% of body weight through sweat, thus leading to dehydration if fluids have not been replenished. However, decrements in the physical performance of athletes have been observed under much lower levels of dehydration, i.e., as little as 2%. 38 Under relatively mild levels of dehydration, individuals engaging in rigorous physical activity will experience decrements in performance related to reduced endurance, increased fatigue, altered thermoregulatory capability, reduced motivation, and increased perceived effort. 40 , 41 Rehydration can reverse these deficits and reduce the oxidative stress induced by exercise and dehydration. 42 Hypohydration appears to have a more significant impact on high-intensity and endurance activity, such as tennis 43 and long-distance running, 44 than on anaerobic activities, 45 such as weight lifting, or on shorter-duration activities, such as rowing. 46

During exercise, individuals may not hydrate adequately when allowed to drink according to thirst. 32 After periods of physical exertion, voluntary fluid intake may be inadequate to offset fluid deficits. 1 Thus, mild-to-moderate dehydration can persist for some hours after the conclusion of physical activity. Research performed on athletes suggests that, principally at the beginning of the training season, they are at particular risk for dehydration due to lack of acclimatization to weather conditions or suddenly increased activity levels. 47 , 48 A number of studies show that performance in temperate and hot climates is affected to a greater degree than performance in cold temperatures. 41 , – 50 Exercise in hot conditions with inadequate fluid replacement is associated with hyperthermia, reduced stroke volume and cardiac output, decreases in blood pressure, and reduced blood flow to muscle. 51

During exercise, children may be at greater risk for voluntary dehydration. Children may not recognize the need to replace lost fluids, and both children as well as coaches need specific guidelines for fluid intake. 52 Additionally, children may require more time to acclimate to increases in environmental temperature than adults. 30 , 31 Recommendations are for child athletes or children in hot climates to begin athletic activities in a well-hydrated state and to drink fluids over and above the thirst threshold.

Cognitive performance

Water, or its lack (dehydration), can influence cognition. Mild levels of dehydration can produce disruptions in mood and cognitive functioning. This may be of special concern in the very young, very old, those in hot climates, and those engaging in vigorous exercise. Mild dehydration produces alterations in a number of important aspects of cognitive function such as concentration, alertness, and short-term memory in children (10–12 y), 32 young adults (18–25 y), 53 , – 56 and the oldest adults (50–82 y). 57 As with physical functioning, mild-to-moderate levels of dehydration can impair performance on tasks such as short-term memory, perceptual discrimination, arithmetic ability, visuomotor tracking, and psychomotor skills. 53 , – 56 However, mild dehydration does not appear to alter cognitive functioning in a consistent manner. 53 , – 58 In some cases, cognitive performance was not significantly affected in ranges from 2% to 2.6% dehydration. 56 , 58 Comparing across studies, performance on similar cognitive tests was divergent under dehydration conditions. 54 , 56 In studies conducted by Cian et al., 53 , 54 participants were dehydrated to approximately 2.8% either through heat exposure or treadmill exercise. In both studies, performance was impaired on tasks examining visual perception, short-term memory, and psychomotor ability. In a series of studies using exercise in conjunction with water restriction as a means of producing dehydration, D'Anci et al. 56 observed only mild decrements in cognitive performance in healthy young men and women athletes. In these experiments, the only consistent effect of mild dehydration was significant elevations of subjective mood score, including fatigue, confusion, anger, and vigor. Finally, in a study using water deprivation alone over a 24-h period, no significant decreases in cognitive performance were seen with 2.6% dehydration. 58 It is therefore possible that heat stress may play a critical role in the effects of dehydration on cognitive performance.

Reintroduction of fluids under conditions of mild dehydration can reasonably be expected to reverse dehydration-induced cognitive deficits. Few studies have examined how fluid reintroduction may alleviate the negative effects of dehydration on cognitive performance and mood. One study 59 examined how water ingestion affected arousal and cognitive performance in young people following a period of 12-h water restriction. While cognitive performance was not affected by either water restriction or water consumption, water ingestion affected self-reported arousal. Participants reported increased alertness as a function of water intake. Rogers et al. 60 observed a similar increase in alertness following water ingestion in both high- and low-thirst participants. Water ingestion, however, had opposite effects on cognitive performance as a function of thirst. High-thirst participants' performance on a cognitively demanding task improved following water ingestion, but low-thirst participants' performance declined. In summary, hydration status consistently affected self-reported alertness, but effects on cognition were less consistent.

Several recent studies have examined the utility of providing water to school children on attentiveness and cognitive functioning in children. 61 , – 63 In these experiments, children were not fluid restricted prior to cognitive testing, but were allowed to drink as usual. Children were then provided with a drink or no drink 20–45 min before the cognitive test sessions. In the absence of fluid restriction and without physiological measures of hydration status, the children in these studies should not be classified as dehydrated. Subjective measures of thirst were reduced in children given water, 62 and voluntary water intake in children varied from 57 mL to 250 mL. In these studies, as in the studies in adults, the findings were divergent and relatively modest. In the research led by Edmonds et al., 61 , 62 children in the groups given water showed improvements in visual attention. However, effects on visual memory were less consistent, with one study showing no effects of drinking water on a spot-the-difference task in 6–7-year-old children 61 and the other showing a significant improvement in a similar task in 7–9-year-old children. 62 In the research described by Benton and Burgess, 63 memory performance was improved by provision of water but sustained attention was not altered with provision of water in the same children.

Taken together, these studies indicate that low-to-moderate dehydration may alter cognitive performance. Rather than indicating that the effects of hydration or water ingestion on cognition are contradictory, many of the studies differ significantly in methodology and in measurement of cognitive behaviors. These variances in methodology underscore the importance of consistency when examining relatively subtle chances in overall cognitive performance. However, in those studies in which dehydration was induced, most combined heat and exercise; this makes it difficult to disentangle the effects of dehydration on cognitive performance in temperate conditions from the effects of heat and exercise. Additionally, relatively little is known about the mechanism of mild dehydration's effects on mental performance. It has been proposed that mild dehydration acts as a physiological stressor that competes with and draws attention from cognitive processes. 64 However, research on this hypothesis is limited and merits further exploration.

Dehydration and delirium

Dehydration is a risk factor for delirium and for delirium presenting as dementia in the elderly and in the very ill. 65 , – 67 Recent work shows that dehydration is one of several predisposing factors for confusion observed in long-term-care residents 67 ; however, in this study, daily water intake was used as a proxy measure for dehydration rather than other, more direct clinical assessments such as urine or plasma osmolality. Older people have been reported as having reduced thirst and hypodipsia relative to younger people. In addition, fluid intake and maintenance of water balance can be complicated by factors such as disease, dementia, incontinence, renal insufficiency, restricted mobility, and drug side effects. In response to primary dehydration, older people have less thirst sensation and reduced fluid intakes in comparison to younger people. However, in response to heat stress, while older people still display a reduced thirst threshold, they do ingest comparable amounts of fluid to younger people. 20

Gastrointestinal function

Fluids in the diet are generally absorbed in the proximal small intestine, and the absorption rate is determined by the rate of gastric emptying to the small intestine. Therefore, the total volume of fluid consumed will eventually be reflected in water balance, but the rate at which rehydration occurs is dependent upon factors affecting the rate of delivery of fluids to the intestinal mucosa. The gastric emptying rate is generally accelerated by the total volume consumed and slowed by higher energy density and osmolality. 68 In addition to water consumed in food (1 L/day) and beverages (circa 2–3 L/day), digestive secretions account for a far greater portion of water that passes through and is absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract (circa 8 L/day). 69 The majority of this water is absorbed by the small intestine, with a capacity of up to 15 L/day with the colon absorbing some 5 L/day. 69

Constipation, characterized by slow gastrointestinal transit, small, hard stools, and difficulty in passing stool, has a number of causes, including medication use, inadequate fiber intake, poor diet, and illness. 70 Inadequate fluid consumption is touted as a common culprit in constipation, and increasing fluid intake is a frequently recommended treatment. Evidence suggests, however, that increasing fluids is only useful to individuals in a hypohydrated state, and is of little utility in euhydrated individuals. 70 In young children with chronic constipation, increasing daily water intake by 50% did not affect constipation scores. 71 For Japanese women with low fiber intake, concomitant low water intake in the diet is associated with increased prevalence of constipation. 72 In older individuals, low fluid intake is a predictor for increased levels of acute constipation, 73 , 74 with those consuming the least amount of fluid having over twice the frequency of constipation episodes than those consuming the most fluid. In one trial, researchers compared the utility of carbonated mineral water in reducing functional dyspepsia and constipation scores to tap water in individuals with functional dyspepsia. 75 When comparing carbonated mineral water to tap water, participants reported improvements in subjective gastric symptoms, but there were no significant improvements in gastric or intestinal function. The authors indicate it is not possible to determine to what degree the mineral content of the two waters contributed to perceived symptom relief, as the mineral water contained greater levels of magnesium and calcium than the tap water. The available evidence suggests that increased fluid intake should only be indicated in individuals in a hypohydrated state. 69 , 71

Significant water loss can occur through the gastrointestinal tract, and this can be of great concern in the very young. In developing countries, diarrheal diseases are a leading cause of death in children, resulting in approximately 1.5–2.5 million deaths per year. 76 Diarrheal illness results not only in a reduction in body water, but also in potentially lethal electrolyte imbalances. Mortality in such cases can many times be prevented with appropriate oral rehydration therapy, by which simple dilute solutions of salt and sugar in water can replace fluid lost by diarrhea. Many consider application of oral rehydration therapy to be one of the significant public health developments of the last century. 77

Kidney function

As noted above, the kidney is crucial in regulating water balance and blood pressure as well as removing waste from the body. Water metabolism by the kidney can be classified into regulated and obligate. Water regulation is hormonally mediated, with the goal of maintaining a tight range of plasma osmolality (between 275 and 290 mOsm/kg). Increases in plasma osmolality and activation of osmoreceptors (intracellular) and baroreceptors (extracellular) stimulate hypothalamic release of arginine vasopressin (AVP). AVP acts at the kidney to decrease urine volume and promote retention of water, and the urine becomes hypertonic. With decreased plasma osmolality, vasopressin release is inhibited, and the kidney increases hypotonic urinary output.

In addition to regulating fluid balance, the kidneys require water for the filtration of waste from the bloodstream and excretion via urine. Water excretion via the kidney removes solutes from the blood, and a minimum obligate urine volume is required to remove the solute load with a maximum output volume of 1 L/h. 78 This obligate volume is not fixed, but is dependent upon the amount of metabolic solutes to be excreted and levels of AVP. Depending on the need for water conservation, basal urine osmolality ranges from 40 mOsm/kg to a maximum of 1,400 mOsm/kg. 78 The ability to both concentrate and dilute urine decreases with age, with a lower value of 92 mOsm/kg and an upper range falling between 500 and 700 mOsm/kg for individuals over the age of 70 years. 79 , – 81 Under typical conditions, in an average adult, urine volume of 1.5 to 2.0 L/day would be sufficient to clear a solute load of 900 to 1,200 mOsm/day. During water conservation and the presence of AVP, this obligate volume can decrease to 0.75–1.0 L/day and during maximal diuresis up to 20 L/day can be required to remove the same solute load. 78 , – 81 In cases of water loading, if the volume of water ingested cannot be compensated for with urine output, having overloaded the kidney's maximal output rate, an individual can enter a hyponatremic state.

Heart function and hemodynamic response

Blood volume, blood pressure, and heart rate are closely linked. Blood volume is normally tightly regulated by matching water intake and water output, as described in the section on kidney function. In healthy individuals, slight changes in heart rate and vasoconstriction act to balance the effect of normal fluctuations in blood volume on blood pressure. 82 Decreases in blood volume can occur, through blood loss (or blood donation), or loss of body water through sweat, as seen with exercise. Blood volume is distributed differently relative to the position of the heart, whether supine or upright, and moving from one position to the other can lead to increased heart rate, a fall in blood pressure, and, in some cases, syncope. This postural hypotension (or orthostatic hypotension) can be mediated by drinking 300–500 mL of water. 83 , 84 Water intake acutely reduces heart rate and increases blood pressure in both normotensive and hypertensive individuals. 85 These effects of water intake on the pressor effect and heart rate occur within 15–20 min of drinking water and can last for up to 60 min. Water ingestion is also beneficial in preventing vasovagal reaction with syncope in blood donors at high risk for post-donation syncope. 86 The effect of water intake in these situations is thought to be due to effects on the sympathetic nervous system rather than to changes in blood volume. 83 , 84 Interestingly, in rare cases, individuals may experience bradycardia and syncope after swallowing cold liquids. 87 , – 89 While swallow syncope can be seen with substances other than water, swallow syncope further supports the notion that the result of water ingestion in the pressor effect has both a neural component as well as a cardiac component.

Water deprivation and dehydration can lead to the development of headache. 90 Although this observation is largely unexplored in the medical literature, some observational studies indicate that water deprivation, in addition to impairing concentration and increasing irritability, can serve as a trigger for migraine and can also prolong migraine. 91 , 92 In those with water deprivation-induced headache, ingestion of water provided relief from headache in most individuals within 30 min to 3 h. 92 It is proposed that water deprivation-induced headache is the result of intracranial dehydration and total plasma volume. Although provision of water may be useful in relieving dehydration-related headache, the utility of increasing water intake for the prevention of headache is less well documented.

The folk wisdom that drinking water can stave off headaches has been relatively unchallenged, and has more traction in the popular press than in the medical literature. Recently, one study examined increased water intake and headache symptoms in headache patients. 93 In this randomized trial, patients with a history of different types of headache, including migraine and tension headache, were either assigned to a placebo condition (a nondrug tablet) or the increased water condition. In the water condition, participants were instructed to consume an additional volume of 1.5 L water/day on top of what they already consumed in foods and fluids. Water intake did not affect the number of headache episodes, but it was modestly associated with reduction in headache intensity and reduced duration of headache. The data from this study suggest that the utility of water as prophylaxis is limited in headache sufferers, and the ability of water to reduce or prevent headache in the broader population remains unknown.

One of the more pervasive myths regarding water intake is its relation to improvements of the skin or complexion. By improvement, it is generally understood that individuals are seeking to have a more “moisturized” look to the surface skin, or to minimize acne or other skin conditions. Numerous lay sources such as beauty and health magazines as well as postings on the Internet suggest that drinking 8–10 glasses of water a day will “flush toxins from the skin” and “give a glowing complexion” despite a general lack of evidence 94 , 95 to support these proposals. The skin, however, is important for maintaining body water levels and preventing water loss into the environment.

The skin contains approximately 30% water, which contributes to plumpness, elasticity, and resiliency. The overlapping cellular structure of the stratum corneum and lipid content of the skin serves as “waterproofing” for the body. 96 Loss of water through sweat is not indiscriminate across the total surface of the skin, but is carried out by eccrine sweat glands, which are evenly distributed over most of the body surface. 97 Skin dryness is usually associated with exposure to dry air, prolonged contact with hot water and scrubbing with soap (both strip oils from the skin), medical conditions, and medications. While more serious levels of dehydration can be reflected in reduced skin turgor, 98 , 99 with tenting of the skin acting as a flag for dehydration, overt skin turgor in individuals with adequate hydration is not altered. Water intake, particularly in individuals with low initial water intake, can improve skin thickness and density as measured by sonogram, 100 offsets transepidermal water loss, and can improve skin hydration. 101 Adequate skin hydration, however, is not sufficient to prevent wrinkles or other signs of aging, which are related to genetics and to sun and environmental damage. Of more utility to individuals already consuming adequate fluids is the use of topical emollients; these will improve skin barrier function and improve the look and feel of dry skin. 102 , 103

Many chronic diseases have multifactorial origins. In particular, differences in lifestyle and the impact of environment are known to be involved and constitute risk factors that are still being evaluated. Water is quantitatively the most important nutrient. In the past, scientific interest with regard to water metabolism was mainly directed toward the extremes of severe dehydration and water intoxication. There is evidence, however, that mild dehydration may also account for some morbidities. 4 , 104 There is currently no consensus on a “gold standard” for hydration markers, particularly for mild dehydration. As a consequence, the effects of mild dehydration on the development of several disorders and diseases have not been well documented.

There is strong evidence showing that good hydration reduces the risk of urolithiasis (see Table 2 for evidence categories). Less strong evidence links good hydration with reduced incidence of constipation, exercise asthma, hypertonic dehydration in the infant, and hyperglycemia in diabetic ketoacidosis. Good hydration is associated with a reduction in urinary tract infections, hypertension, fatal coronary heart disease, venous thromboembolism, and cerebral infarct, but all these effects need to be confirmed by clinical trials. For other conditions such as bladder or colon cancer, evidence of a preventive effect of maintaining good hydration is not consistent (see Table 3 ).

Categories of evidence used in evaluating the quality of reports.

Data adapted from Manz. 104

Summary of evidence for association of hydration status with chronic diseases.

Categories of evidence: described in Table 2 .

Water consumption, water requirements, and energy intake are linked in fairly complex ways. This is partially because physical activity and energy expenditures affect the need for water but also because a large shift in beverage consumption over the past century or more has led to consumption of a significant proportion of our energy intake from caloric beverages. Nonregulatory beverage intake, as noted earlier, has assumed a much greater role for individuals. 19 This section reviews current patterns of water intake and then refers to a full meta-analysis of the effects of added water on energy intake. This includes adding water to the diet and water replacement for a range of caloric and diet beverages, including sugar-sweetened beverages, juice, milk, and diet beverages. The third component is a discussion of water requirements and suggestions for considering the use of mL water/kcal energy intake as a metric.

Patterns and trends of water consumption

Measurement of total fluid water consumption in free-living individuals is fairly new in focus. As a result, the state of the science is poorly developed, data are most likely fairly incomplete, and adequate validation of the measurement techniques used is not available. Presented here are varying patterns and trends of water intake for the United States over the past three decades followed by a brief review of the work on water intake in Europe.

There is really no existing information to support an assumption that consumption of water alone or beverages containing water affects hydration differentially. 3 , 105 Some epidemiological data suggest water might have different metabolic effects when consumed alone rather than as a component of caffeinated or flavored or sweetened beverages; however, these data are at best suggestive of an issue deserving further exploration. 106 , 107 As shown below, the research of Ershow et al. indicates that beverages not consisting solely of water do contain less than 100% water.

One study in the United States has attempted to examine all the dietary sources of water. 16 , 17 These data are cited in Table 4 as the Ershow study and were based on National Food Consumption Survey food and fluid intake data from 1977–1978. These data are presented in Table 4 for children aged 2–18 years (Panel A) and for adults aged 19 years and older (Panel B). Ershow et al. 16 , 17 spent a great deal of time working out ways to convert USDA dietary data into water intake, including water absorbed during the cooking process, water in food, and all sources of drinking water.

Beverage pattern trends in the United States for children aged 2–18 years and adults aged 19 years and older, (nationally representative).

Note: The data are age and sex adjusted to 1965.

Values stem from the Ershow calculations. 16

These researchers created a number of categories and used a range of factors measured in other studies to estimate the water categories. The water that is found in food, based on food composition table data, was 393 mL for children. The water that was added as a result of cooking (e.g., rice) was 95 mL. Water consumed as a beverage directly as water was 624 mL. The water found in other fluids, as noted, comprised the remainder of the milliliters, with the highest levels in whole-fat milk and juices (506 mL). There is a small discrepancy between the Ershow data regarding total fluid intake measures for these children and the normal USDA figures. That is because the USDA does not remove milk fats and solids, fiber, and other food constituents found in beverages, particularly juice and milk.

A key point illustrated by these nationally representative US data is the enormous variability between survey waves in the amount of water consumed (see Figure 1 , which highlights the large variation in water intake as measured in these surveys). Although water intake by adults and children increased and decreased at the same time, for reasons that cannot be explained, the variation was greater among children than adults. This is partly because the questions the surveys posed varied over time and there was no detailed probing for water intake, because the focus was on obtaining measures of macro- and micronutrients. Dietary survey methods used in the past have focused on obtaining data on foods and beverages containing nutrient and non-nutritive sweeteners but not on water. Related to this are the huge differences between the the USDA surveys and the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) performed in 1988–1994 and in 1999 and later. In addition, even the NHANES 1999–2002 and 2003–2006 surveys differ greatly. These differences reflect a shift in the mode of questioning with questions on water intake being included as part of a standard 24-h recall rather than as stand-alone questions. Water intake was not even measured in 1965, and a review of the questionnaires and the data reveals clear differences in the way the questions have been asked and the limitations on probes regarding water intake. Essentially, in the past people were asked how much water they consumed in a day and now they are asked for this information as part of a 24-h recall survey. However, unlike for other caloric and diet beverages, there are limited probes for water alone. The results must thus be viewed as crude approximations of total water intake without any strong research to show if they are over- or underestimated. From several studies of water and two ongoing randomized controlled trials performed by us, it is clear that probes that include consideration of all beverages and include water as a separate item result in the provision of more complete data.

Water consumption trends from USDA and NHANES surveys (mL/day/capita), nationally representative. Note: this includes water from fluids only, excluding water in foods. Sources for 1965, 1977–1978, 1989–1991, and 1994–1998, are USDA. Others are NHANES and 2005–2006 is joint USDA and NHANES.

Water consumption data for Europe are collected far more selectively than even the crude water intake questions from NHANES. A recent report from the European Food Safety Agency provides measures of water consumption from a range of studies in Europe. 4 , – 109 Essentially, what these studies show is that total water intake is lower across Europe than in the United States. As with the US data, none are based on long-term, carefully measured or even repeated 24-h recall measures of water intake from food and beverages. In an unpublished examination of water intake in UK adults in 1986–1987 and in 2001–2002, Popkin and Jebb have found that although intake increased by 226 mL/day over this time period, it was still only 1,787 mL/day in the latter period (unpublished data available from BP); this level is far below the 2,793 mL/day recorded in the United States for 2005–2006 or the earlier US figures for comparably aged adults.

A few studies have been performed in the United States and Europe utilizing 24-h urine and serum osmolality measures to determine total water turnover and hydration status. Results of these studies suggest that US adults consume over 2,100 mL of water per day while adults in Europe consume less than half a liter. 4 , 110 Data on total urine collection would appear to be another useful measure for examining total water intake. Of course, few studies aside from the Donald Study of an adolescent cohort in Germany have collected such data on population levels for large samples. 109

Effects of water consumption on overall energy intake

There is an extensive body of literature that focuses on the impact of sugar-sweetened beverages on weight and the risk of obesity, diabetes, and heart disease; however, the perspective of providing more water and its impact on health has not been examined. The literature on water does not address portion sizes; instead, it focuses mainly on water ad libitum or in selected portions compared with other caloric beverages. A detailed meta-analysis of the effects of water intake alone (i.e., adding additional water) and as a replacement for sugar-sweetened beverages, juice, milk, and diet beverages appears elsewhere. 111

In general, the results of this review suggest that water, when consumed in place of sugar-sweetened beverages, juice, and milk, is linked with reduced energy intake. This finding is mainly derived from clinical feeding studies but also from one very good randomized, controlled school intervention and several other epidemiological and intervention studies. Aside from the issue of portion size, factors such as the timing of beverage and meal intake (i.e., the delay between consumption of the beverage and consumption of the meal) and types of caloric sweeteners remain to be considered. However, when beverages are consumed in normal free-living conditions in which five to eight daily eating occasions are the norm, the delay between beverage and meal consumption may matter less. 112 , – 114

The literature on the water intake of children is extremely limited. However, the excellent German school intervention with water suggests the effects of water on the overall energy intake of children might be comparable to that of adults. 115 In this German study, children were educated on the value of water and provided with special filtered drinking fountains and water bottles in school. The intervention schoolchildren increased their water intake by 1.1 glasses/day ( P  < 0.001) and reduced their risk of overweight by 31% (OR = 0.69, P  = 0.40).

Classically, water data are examined in terms of milliliters (or some other measure of water volume consumed per capita per day by age group). This measure does not link fluid intake and caloric intake. Disassociation of fluid and calorie intake is difficult for clinicians dealing with older persons with reduced caloric intake. This milliliter water measure assumes some mean body size (or surface area) and a mean level of physical activity – both of which are determinants of not only energy expenditure but also water balance. Children are dependent on adults for access to water, and studies suggest that their larger surface area to volume ratio makes them susceptible to changes in skin temperatures linked with ambient temperature shifts. 116 One option utilized by some scholars is to explore food and beverage intake in milliliters per kilocalorie (mL/kcal), as was done in the 1989 US recommended dietary allowances. 4 , 117 This is an option that is interpretable for clinicians and which incorporates, in some sense, body size or surface area and activity. Its disadvantage is that water consumed with caloric beverages affects both the numerator and the denominator; however, an alternative measure that could be independent of this direct effect on body weight and/or total caloric intake is not presently known.

Despite its critical importance in health and nutrition, the array of available research that serves as a basis for determining requirements for water or fluid intake, or even rational recommendations for populations, is limited in comparison with most other nutrients. While this deficit may be partly explained by the highly sensitive set of neurophysiological adaptations and adjustments that occur over a large range of fluid intakes to protect body hydration and osmolarity, this deficit remains a challenge for the nutrition and public health community. The latest official effort at recommending water intake for different subpopulations occurred as part of the efforts to establish Dietary Reference Intakes in 2005, as reported by the Institute of Medicine of the National Academies of Science. 3 As a graphic acknowledgment of the limited database upon which to express estimated average requirements for water for different population groups, the Committee and the Institute of Medicine stated: “While it might appear useful to estimate an average requirement (an EAR) for water, an EAR based on data is not possible.” Given the extreme variability in water needs that are not solely based on differences in metabolism, but also on environmental conditions and activities, there is not a single level of water intake that would assure adequate hydration and optimum health for half of all apparently healthy persons in all environmental conditions. Thus, an adequate intake (AI) level was established in place of an EAR for water.

The AIs for different population groups were set as the median water intakes for populations, as reported in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys; however, the intake levels reported in these surveys varied greatly based on the survey years (e.g., NHANES 1988–1994 versus NHANES 1999–2002) and were also much higher than those found in the USDA surveys (e.g., 1989–1991, 1994–1998, or 2005–2006). If the AI for adults, as expressed in Table 5 , is taken as a recommended intake, the wisdom of converting an AI into a recommended water or fluid intake seems questionable. The first problem is the almost certain inaccuracy of the fluid intake information from the national surveys, even though that problem may also exist for other nutrients. More importantly, from the standpoint of translating an AI into a recommended fluid intake for individuals or populations, is the decision that was made when setting the AI to add an additional roughly 20% of water intake, which is derived from some foods in addition to water and beverages. While this may have been a legitimate effort to use total water intake as a basis for setting the AI, the recommendations that derive from the IOM report would be better directed at recommendations for water and other fluid intake on the assumption that the water content of foods would be a “passive” addition to total water intake. In this case, the observations of the dietary reference intake committee that it is necessary for water intake to meet needs imposed by metabolism and environmental conditions must be extended to consider three added factors, namely body size, gender, and physical activity. Those are the well-studied factors that allow a rather precise measurement and determination of energy intake requirements. It is, therefore, logical that those same factors might underlie recommendations to meet water intake needs in the same populations and individuals. Consideration should also be given to the possibility that water intake needs would best be expressed relative to the calorie requirements, as is done regularly in the clinical setting, and data should be gathered to this end through experimental and population research.

Water requirements expressed in relation to energy recommendations.

AI for total fluids derived from dietary reference intakes for water, potassium, sodium, chloride, and sulphate.

Ratios for water intake based on the AI for water in liters/day calculated using EER for each range of physical activity. EER adapted from the Institute of Medicine Dietary Reference Intakes Macronutrients Report, 2002.

It is important to note that only a few countries include water on their list of nutrients. 118 The European Food Safety Authority is developing a standard for all of Europe. 105 At present, only the United States and Germany provide AI values for water. 3 , 119

Another approach to the estimation of water requirements, beyond the limited usefulness of the AI or estimated mean intake, is to express water intake requirements in relation to energy requirements in mL/kcal. An argument for this approach includes the observation that energy requirements for each age and gender group are strongly evidence-based and supported by extensive research taking into account both body size and activity level, which are crucial determinants of energy expenditure that must be met by dietary energy intake. Such measures of expenditure have used highly accurate methods, such as doubly labeled water; thus, estimated energy requirements have been set based on solid data rather than the compromise inherent in the AIs for water. Those same determinants of energy expenditure and recommended intake are also applicable to water utilization and balance, and this provides an argument for pegging water/fluid intake recommendations to the better-studied energy recommendations. The extent to which water intake and requirements are determined by energy intake and expenditure is understudied, but in the clinical setting it has long been practice to supply 1 mL/kcal administered by tube to patients who are unable to take in food or fluids. Factors such as fever or other drivers of increased metabolism affect both energy expenditure and fluid loss and are thus linked in clinical practice. This concept may well deserve consideration in the setting of population intake goals.

Finally, for decades there has been discussion about expressing nutrient requirements per 1,000 kcal so that a single number would apply reasonably across the spectrum of age groups. This idea, which has never been adopted by the Institute of Medicine and the National Academies of Science, may lend itself to an improved expression of water/fluid intake requirements, which must eventually replace the AIs. Table 5 presents the IOM water requirements and then develops a ratio of mL/kcal based on them. The European Food Safety Agency refers positively to the possibility of expressing water intake recommendations in mL/kcal as a function of energy requirements. 105 Outliers in the adult male categories, which reach ratios as high as 1.5, may well be based on the AI data from the United States, which are above those in the more moderate and likely more accurate European recommendations.

The topic of utilizing mL/kcal to examine water intake and water gaps is explored in Table 6 , which takes the full set of water intake AIs for each age-gender grouping and examines total intake. The data suggest a high level of fluid deficiency. Since a large proportion of fluids in the United States is based on caloric beverages and this proportion has changed markedly over the past 30 years, fluid intake increases both the numerator and the denominator of this mL/kcal relationship. Nevertheless, even using 1 mL/kcal as the AI would leave a gap for all children and adolescents. The NHANES physical activity data were also translated into METS/day to categorize all individuals by physical activity level and thus varying caloric requirements. Use of these measures reveals a fairly large fluid gap, particularly for adult males as well as children ( Table 6 ).

Water intake and water intake gaps based on US Water Adequate Intake Recommendations (based on utilization of water and physical activity data from NHANES 2005–2006).

Note: Recommended water intake for actual activity level is the upper end of the range for moderate and active.

A weighted average for the proportion of individuals in each METS-based activity level.

This review has pointed out a number of issues related to water, hydration, and health. Since water is undoubtedly the most important nutrient and the only one for which an absence will prove lethal within days, understanding of water measurement and water requirements is very important. The effects of water on daily performance and short- and long-term health are quite clear. The existing literature indicates there are few negative effects of water intake while the evidence for positive effects is quite clear.

Little work has been done to measure total fluid intake systematically, and there is no understanding of measurement error and best methods of understanding fluid intake. The most definitive US and European documents on total water requirements are based on these extant intake data. 3 , 105 The absence of validation methods for water consumption intake levels and patterns represents a major gap in knowledge. Even varying the methods of probing in order to collect better water recall data has been little explored.

On the other side of the issue is the need to understand total hydration status. There are presently no acceptable biomarkers of hydration status at the population level, and controversy exists about the current knowledge of hydration status among older Americans. 6 , 120 Thus, while scholars are certainly focused on attempting to create biomarkers for measuring hydration status at the population level, the topic is currently understudied.

As noted, the importance of understanding the role of fluid intake on health has emerged as a topic of increasing interest, partially because of the trend toward rising proportions of fluids being consumed in the form of caloric beverages. The clinical, epidemiological, and intervention literature on the effects of added water on health are covered in a related systematic review. 111 The use of water as a replacement for sugar-sweetened beverages, juice, or whole milk has clear effects in that energy intake is reduced by about 10–13% of total energy intake. However, only a few longer-term systematic interventions have investigated this topic and no randomized, controlled, longer-term trials have been published to date. There is thus very minimal evidence on the effects of just adding water to the diet and of replacing water with diet beverages.

There are many limitations to this review. One certainly is the lack of discussion of potential differences in the metabolic functioning of different types of beverages. 121 Since the literature in this area is sparse, however, there is little basis for delving into it at this point. A discussion of the potential effects of fructose (from all caloric sweeteners when consumed in caloric beverages) on abdominal fat and all of the metabolic conditions directly linked with it (e.g., diabetes) is likewise lacking. 122 , – 125 A further limitation is the lack of detailed review of the array of biomarkers being considered to measure hydration status. Since there is no measurement in the field today that covers more than a very short time period, except for 24-hour total urine collection, such a discussion seems premature.

Some ways to examine water requirements have been suggested in this review as a means to encourage more dialogue on this important topic. Given the significance of water to our health and of caloric beverages to our total energy intake, as well as the potential risks of nutrition-related noncommunicable diseases, understanding both the requirements for water in relation to energy requirements, and the differential effects of water versus other caloric beverages, remain important outstanding issues.

This review has attempted to provide some sense of the importance of water to our health, its role in relationship to the rapidly increasing rates of obesity and other related diseases, and the gaps in present understanding of hydration measurement and requirements. Water is essential to our survival. By highlighting its critical role, it is hoped that the focus on water in human health will sharpen.

The authors wish to thank Ms. Frances L. Dancy for administrative assistance, Mr. Tom Swasey for graphics support, Dr. Melissa Daniels for assistance, and Florence Constant (Nestle's Water Research) for advice and references.

This work was supported by the Nestlé Waters, Issy-les-Moulineaux, France, 5ROI AGI0436 from the National Institute on Aging Physical Frailty Program, and NIH R01-CA109831 and R01-CA121152.

Declaration of interest

The authors have no relevant interests to declare.

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Analysis In its 2024 budget, the Victorian government forgets debt, dreams big and crosses its fingers

There's a clear and simple message you get from reading the Victorian government's budget papers : don't panic.

Sure, there's a few numbers that will widen your eyes.

Money the government gets in (revenue) for the next financial year is $96.1 billion, which is less than projected it will spend (expenses) of $98.3 billion.

And yes, debt is $156.2 billion rising to $187.8 billion by 2027-28 – which by that time will be 25 per cent of the value of all the goods and services produced in the state in a year (called gross state product or GSP).

And OK, that means a daily interest bill on the debt of about $15 million, climbing to more than $25 million a day by 2027.

But why worry? This is Victoria. Get with the program.

That program — if you buy into the government's vision — is a rapidly-growing population that will buy property, find employment and get around on mega-transport projects due to open just before the next state election.

There are schools, tunnels, hospitals and roads to service this swelling growth, as Melbourne (where the vast majority of Victorians live) becomes the nation's largest city, overtaking a waterside resort for squillionaires to the north that also houses normal people.

All that needs to happen is for employment to stay strong, inflation and construction costs to keep moderating, interest rates to go no higher, workers to find housing that is being built at a far slower rate than people are moving here and a few other "risk factors".

Fingers crossed, eh?

The problems

With the immense debt and still unfunded mega-projects like a circular underground railway (the Suburban Rail Loop) about to start digging, you would expect a state government 2.5-years from an election would raise money and cut costs — hard.

There's a bit of that, but not much. It's more Facebook Marketplace than selling a kidney.

The government is making extra cash by:

• Shifting commercial and industrial properties from a stamp duty (cost when sold) system to one that kicks in 10 years after the sale and is then annual.
• People dumping stuff at the tip will pay more, bringing it into line with fees for New South Wales and South Australia.
• Lifting the Fire Services Levy from where it started a decade ago to a higher level.

The savings are also pretty minimal. There's things like ending the Sick Pay Guarantee, a COVID-era pilot of paying sick leave to casuals. With a more "worker friendly" regime in power federally (the government's words) the pilot is over for now.

The Jacinta Allan-led government will also trim in costs by:

• Ending some COVID-era employment.
• Reducing office space as work-from-home and those reduced numbers impact the desks required. 
• Trimming in a program to expand state-funded pharmacy and care clinics.
• Making the money for Breakthrough Victoria, which funds speculative start-up tech businesses, stretch for 15-years rather than the original 10-years it was meant to.

It's not exactly ring all the alarms stuff is it? That's because they're not worried.

Get with the program and all cost is an investment. Public sector wages help pump private sector ones. Infrastructure unlocks value.

Remember the daily cost of that interest bill? Treasurer Tim Pallas calculates it as "1/4000th of one per cent of the economy" – an infinitesimal smidge of nothingness compared to the riches that await Victorians … if it all works out.

And there's a surprising group helping them get there.

Opposing forces

At the end of 2022 Victorians went to the polls.

After the painful repeated lockdowns in Melbourne — and with the exploding cost of keeping the state alive barely covered by a federal government accused of a lack of interest or care in the plight of the southern mainland state — there were a lot of predictions about the fate of the then eight-year-old government.

Plenty of interstate commentators had written Dan Andrews' political obituary, based on his bombastic personality, COVID-era decisions and ballooning debt.

But at the election the government didn't lose seats. It gained them.

By the time the next election rolls around Liberal-National opposition will have been in power for just four years between 1999 and 2026.

Some could say their show of unity, policy ideas and the cut-through they are making with the Victorian public show a resolute commitment to remaining in opposition.

What even is money?

Underpinning all of this are a few things that might not seem obvious.

One is the immense employment that's been delivered by infrastructure programs, public sector growth and things like "free TAFE".

Another is that the government has literally built credibility by starting and finishing big projects — new schools and hospitals, the removal of scores of level crossings — sprinkled in every corner of the state.

Adding to it is that COVID changed what people think about government, debt, and the role of the state in guiding the economy — we're seeing that federally too, as taxpayers invest billions in specific companies and industries.

If you think any government is going to leave the future to the invisible hand of the free market, you haven't been paying attention. That's gone.

A final element is that there's not a compelling competing vision about Victoria's growth and how it is being dealt with.

People can be unhappy about the untold millions spent on infrastructure, but when a new five-station underground rail line opens under the central business district next year, I don't expect a protest march out the front about the cost.

More likely is that people will use it, love it and ask a pressing question: When will there be one where I live?

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