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How to Write a Summative Essay – Guide with Example

Published by Jamie Walker at March 18th, 2022 , Revised On October 9, 2023

Summative essays are formal assessments or tests developed to compare and evaluate students and assess their aptitude as compared to other students. Summative essays are used to test the results of learning and knowledge over time and are usually criterion-referenced.

A summative essay is a comprehensive piece of writing and will need quite a lot of class time to revise, complete, instruct, edit and draft. This is not a type of assignment that can be revised or improved by students after grading.

The complexity and length of the summative essay will vary depending upon the academic level of the students. Students must comprehend the style and purpose of the assignment to write an effective summative essay.

The summative essay is usually longer than 5 pages. One page comprises of introduction and the rest of the pages have arguments that support the topic. Like other essay types , it ends with a conclusion and a list of references.

Also read: How to write an academic essay

Types of Summative Writing

Different types of summative writing have unique requirements which must be carefully checked for comprehension before starting the summative assessment. Adequate time must be allocated for clearly comprehending the requirements of the summative writing, drafting, reading, editing, and revising before submitting it for checking or grading.

Here are the six key main types of summative essays

Information/Explanatory

This type of writing is a common choice in most social science curriculums. It is mainly the collection of the main points, key ideas, and domain-specific theocratic ideas taught inside of the unit plan.

Even though the opinions and persuasive arguments are sometimes used interchangeably, they are different from each other. An opinion simply requires you to state your thinking and back it up with facts and logic. Students in this type of writing are expected to show steady improvement throughout their degree programme, so their teachers could evaluate them for grading. Opinion writing is introduced to students in the 5th grade.

Argumentative

Argumentative type of writing needs the establishment and development of a claim made by the student in the introduction which is supported by the details containing resources and information in the main essay body . On the other hand, the opposing claim is used to present the exact opposite and contrasting point of view with supporting evidence.

Also read: How to write an argumentative essay

Compare & Contrast

This type of comparison writing attributes itself to the themes and backgrounds that have various aspects to them including individual personalities and specific geographic locations. The compare and contrast summative essays must be comprised of a set of attributes and qualities that the student can compare and contrast using text and research evidence. They do not ask the writer to prioritize one choice on the other, however, they do requires the writer to demonstrate comprehension of both and make a comparison.

The evaluative type of summative writing asks the writer to take a particular element, idea, or individual discussed during the unit and evaluate it using particular criteria. Students should take a stance on the theme and support it with text evidence and unit materials.

Theorising is a form of writing that gives answers to questions such as “What if?”. A theory is put forth on a particular theme that reflects reality or contrast to reality. The writer is expected to take an event, era or an individual.

Elements of a Good Summative Essay

If you want to write an effective summative essay, the following are the elements that you should consider:

Reliability: The writing delivers alike results throughout settings of classrooms, daily conditions and student groups.

Validity: The writing appropriately reflects what has been taught to students in the period of instruction.

Authenticity: The writing reflects a variety of skills related to the real world that are appropriate outside of the context of the classroom.

Variety: The essay reflects the usage of different words and views. Make sure to use different words and views to bring variety into the essay.

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Tips to Write an Effective Summative Essay

Here are some of the tips while writing a summative essay:

• Look for authentic academic material that is relevant to your essay topic
• Develop an outline before writing an essay.
• Make sure the essay is organised in the form of good paragraphs.
• Before starting the essay, make sure that you have some knowledge about the topic. Do some reading regarding the topic, before initiating the writing.
• Lastly, proofread the essay to avoid grammatical errors

Writing a good introduction: For a good start begin your essay with an introduction . It should briefly provide the general ideas presented in the original text. The introduction should involve the author’s name, some contextual information about the author and work title. While in the paragraphs of the main body write the ideas that you have chosen while reading.

Use the rubric: Rubrics aid in setting a certain standard for the performance of a class on an assignment or test. They outline the key requirements and criteria you will be evaluated against.

Relevant to real-world: When writing a summative essay make sure that you are making it relevant to the real world.

Frequently Asked Questions

How to write a summative essay.

To write a summative essay, start with a clear thesis statement, organize your points logically, support with evidence, and conclude by summarizing key ideas. Edit and proofread for clarity and coherence. Follow the required format and citation style for a polished final draft.

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How to Write a Summative Essay

Published by Boni on November 3, 2022 November 3, 2022

Have you ever been asked to write an essay about a book, movie, article, speech, or other reading material? Perhaps your teacher gave you a prompt and asked you to respond to it in an essay. If so, that was most likely a summative essay. A summative report is a short piece of writing about someone else’s work. It explains the main ideas of the reading material and evaluates them. Such essays are often assigned to test your ability to understand what you read and articulate your thoughts. This post will explore valuable tips for writing a successful summative essay.

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What is a Summative Essay?

A summative essay is an academic paper that requires students to evaluate and synthesize information learned over a unit or semester. It summarizes, describes and evaluates the main ideas of the reading material. A summative essay can be written about almost any topic. It can be based on a book, a speech, an article, or other reading material. To report a good summary essay, you must read the material carefully, take notes, and think about what the author is trying to say.

Then, you should organize your notes and use them to write a summary. A summative essay is not the same as a book review. While both summarize reading material, book reviews focus on quality. They give an evaluation of the book based on a set of criteria.

Types of Summative Writing

There are different types of summative writing a student can handle. Understand that every style is unique and has other requirements. That means you must understand the summative writing asked before handling it. Allocate adequate time to the essays since you have to read, draft, edit and revise the paper before submitting.

Below are the main types of summative writing:

Persuasive and opinions arguments may be used interchangeably. However, you should understand that they are pretty different. In an opinion essay, you have to state your ideology and then back up your side of the story with logic and facts. In this type of summative writing, students should show some improvement throughout their studies for evaluation from the teachers. This type of summative writing is given to students in 5th grade who must write a persuasive speech based on their opinion.

2. Explanatory

This summative essay is quite common in social science curriculums. Here the students focus on the unit plan’s key ideas, main points and domain-specific ideas such as a reaction paper .

3. Argumentative

The argumentative summative essay requires developing and establishing a claim the student makes during the introduction. The claim has to be supported by details such as information and resources in the essay’s body. There should also be an opposing claim where the student should state the contrasting point of view and add supporting evidence.

4. Evaluative

In this summative essay, the writer is supposed to take a given idea, element or individual in the curriculum and evaluate them in a specific criterion. Here students have to have their theme and stand by it using unit materials and text evidence. A good example is a cause and effects essay .

5. Compare & contrast

This essay has diverse attributes to the backgrounds and themes, such as specific geographic locations or individual personalities. These essays comprise a set of qualities and characteristics that students should compare and contrast using research evidence.

These summative essays do not require the student to pick a side. However, they are asked to cover both sides in comprehension and compare them thoroughly.

6. Theorizing

These essays will answer critical “what if” questions. The student is given a theory that contrasts or reflects the society today. The writer should take an individual, era or event to work on.

Elements of a Good Summative Essay

An effective summative essay ought to have the following crucial elements:

• Validity – the report should reflect what the students have learned during the term or semester.
• Reliability – the writing should deliver similar results throughout daily conditions, settings of classrooms and student groups.
• Authenticity – the summative essay should reflect the skills in the real world outside the classroom context.
• Variety – this essay should reflect the usage of different views and words to make the diverse.

Here is a summary essay with a response on how to tame a Wild Tongue that you might be interested in reading.

Format of Summative Essays

The summative essay formats are almost similar to any essay you have written. These essays will typically follow the standard format for writing an essay. An effective summative report must include an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.

• Introduction

The introduction should be clear, interesting, and engaging. It should also be written so that a reader who has never read the material can understand what it is about. A good introduction gives the reader a preview of what you will discuss in the rest of the essay. It hooks the reader and makes them want to read more.

The body is where you discuss the reading material and support your argument with evidence. The body should be well-organized. You can use various strategies to organize your essay, including a chronological order, a compare-and-contrast order, or a topical order.

The conclusion is the final part of the summative essay. The conclusion should restate your main point, summarize the paper, and bring the reader back to the introduction.

A standard essay is usually between five and ten double-spaced pages long. The introduction should be between one and three paragraphs long. The body of the paper should be between two and five paragraphs long. The conclusion should be one paragraph long.

Tips on How to Write a Good Summative Essay

Before writing a summative essay, you should read the reading material carefully. Remember to highlight or take notes while reading so you don’t forget important points. Here are some of the tips to keep in mind when writing this essay:

• Create an outline before you begin writing the essay
• Get authentic academic material and only use that for the essay
• Organize your paper in paragraphs
• Gather more information and knowledge on the topic of discussion
• Proofread the article before submitting it to ensure everything is okay, and there are no grammatical errors
• Curate a superb introduction – your introduction should be catchy and precise. It should invite your readers to keep reading.
• Relevant essay – as you create your summative report, ensure it is relevant and meaningful to the real world. A typical person should resonate with your paper.

A summative essay explains the main ideas of the reading material and evaluates them. To write an excellent summarizing essay, you must read the reading material carefully and take notes. You should also clearly understand the reading material and write your essay based on the material, not your opinion.

Need Help Writing Your Summative Essay?

Writing an summative essay is difficult, especially if you don’t have much experience writing such essays. Even if you read the material carefully and take notes while reading, summarizing it right in your own words may not be straightforward. Supporting your thesis statement with evidence from the reading material can be even more challenging. If you are having trouble writing a summative essay, you could seek professional speech writing help .

Most students do not have enough time to complete their essays, and that is where the speech writing help comes in. These services are efficient since they use professional writers and tools to produce high-quality papers. You could talk to us at Gudwriter, and we will help you with the summative report.

Explore the best tips on how to write an explication essay .

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Writing a Summative Essay - A Guide with Tips and Examples

Summative essays are among the most common ones academic tutors and lecturers use to assess their students' analytical and learning abilities. This type of essay is normally used to examine the students’ comprehension and knowledge of certain concepts or course material. And just like other essays, summative essays have three main sections: the introduction, body, and conclusion.

Summative assessments synthesize students’ understanding and learning of specific academic content and are often administered at the end of an academic year or term. These assessments usually establish the overall comprehension and proficiency of the evaluated topic.

This, however, leaves a lot of students uncertain of where to begin and what to do. But do not fuss! You do not need to panic; this comprehensive guide will break down everything you need about summative essays.  That said, keep on scrolling to find out more.

What is a Summative Essay?

Summative essays require students to assess and synthesize the information learned and knowledge gained over a semester or a particular unit.

A summative essay is often written at the conclusion of a semester or unit, permitting learners to display the knowledge gained over that duration.

To write an excellent summative essay, you should be able to identify the most important points from your coursework and arrange them into a rational argument.

Note that summative essays often assume the form of argumentative essays, whereby you should take a position on the issue being discussed and then support these claims using relevant proof.

Nonetheless, summative essays can also assume other forms like explanatory essays, personal narratives, and compare-and-contrast essays. No matter what form they assume, summative essays offer great opportunities for students to ponder on their learning and display their comprehension of the course material.

Remember that the length and complexity of a summative essay depend on the student’s academic level. The students must have a great understanding of the style and aim of the assessment to come up with an effective summative essay.

Types of Summative Essays

There are different types of summative essays. Below are the main types of summative essays.

Explanatory/ Information

This is the most common type in social science programs. It primarily collects key ideas, main arguments, and domain-specific hypothetical ideas taught within the unit plan.

Opinion essays require students to state their thinking and then support it with logic and facts.

The evaluative kind of summative writing usually requires you to take a specific idea or element discussed during the unit and evaluate or assess it using a particular criterion. For such essays, you should take a stance on the chosen theme and back it with unit materials and textual evidence.

Argumentative

This kind of writing requires establishing and developing a claim made in the introduction of the essay, and reputable resources should support this claim in the essay’s main body. Conversely, the opposing claim illustrates the opposing point of view with relevant supporting proof.

Theorizing is a type of writing that answers questions like “what if? “Here, a theory is presented on a certain theme that depicts or contrasts with reality.

Compare and Contrast

Compare and contrast summative essays comprise qualities and attributes the student could compare and contrast using text and research evidence. They do not require the student to prioritize one choice over another, and it, however, does require you to display an understanding of both and then make a comparison.

Structure of a Summative Essay

A summative essay takes shape and structure of the typical academic essay with an introduction, body paragraphs, and concluding paragraphs.

The Introduction

The introduction is among the most critical parts of the paper, given that it offers a brief overview of its topic and main argument. It should immediately grab the reader's attention and give them a general feel of the remainder of the paper. And if you struggle to develop a good introduction for your essay, try using an anecdote or hook to engage the reader from the word go. The thesis statement , where necessary, is also included here.

The Main Body Paragraphs

For this section, it is vital to concentrate on key points and provide proof to support your thesis. Every paragraph should focus on an individual point. In addition, each paragraph should conclude in a sentence that links it back to the thesis.

By concentrating on different key arguments and providing relevant proof to support your thesis, you can effectively convey your position to the reader. Also, concluding all your body paragraphs with a sentence that links back to your thesis will remind your reader of your essay’s overall argument.

Related Reading: Parts of a body paragraph .

The Conclusion

The conclusion of a summative essay briefly summarizes the main points and clarifies how they support the overall argument. Additionally, the conclusion should offer the reader a sense of closure by answering any pending queries or concerns that might have surfaced in the essay.

A brief and precise summary of your essay’s main points ensures your reader completely comprehends your standpoint. In addition, tackling lingering concerns or questions gives your essay a sense of conclusiveness. All in all, the aim of your essay conclusion should be to provide your readers with a proper understanding of your argument.

Steps for Writing a Summative Essay

Here is a simple step-by-step guide on how to write an excellent summative essay.

Step one: Know your essay topic

Though this appears to be the most straightforward process, many people often disregard it. Many writers look at different topics and then pick one because it seems to be the simplest or has found enough content.

Having some level of understanding for your lecturer’s or tutor’s opinion is vital here. What do they expect and want from you? This is an important step in producing relevant content for your summative essay. If you are somewhat confused about the topic, you can discuss it with your professor or colleagues.

Step two: Conduct research for the relevant content

Now that you clearly understand your summative essay’s topic, you can go through your lecture notes or any available academic sources. Skim over the most important points. You can even refresh your brain with your course syllabus or study material.

And if you are lucky enough to have attended a workshop, seminar, or training course on the chosen topic, you’ll have ample knowledge to put down.

Step three: Prepare an Outline

While going through relevant material, you can divide the literature into small paragraphs, giving you a quick overview of the literature. Most importantly, when skimming through the material, have the essay topic at the back of your head to note any valuable and relevant information.

Take note of any critical points that you feel may support your essay. Make sure you re-read all paragraphs and highlight all vital points. Mark those areas that you will want to refer to in your essay and those points you do not wish to include.

Step four: Come Up With A Thesis Statement for Your Essay

A thesis statement is simply a brief statement that recaps your essay’s main argument. Your thesis statement should be brief and precise. It should also be specific enough that it is easily supportable by evidence from your research.

Step five: Write the Introduction

Your essay’s introduction should quickly introduce the reader to your essay’s main points. Also, remember to keep the intro short, not more than seven sentences. The thesis statement should be the final remark of your introduction.

The best sentence starters for summative essays include present tense verbs that adopt an active voice. For instance, “the aim of this essay is to” or “this paper will argue that.” You develop an engaging and livelier writing style by opening your sentences using an active voice and in the present tense.

Moreover, good sentence openers for summative essays can also incorporate strong statements or rhetorical questions. For example, you can start your summative essay with a question like “What’s the real value of friendship?” or a sentence like “It is the little things in life that matter.” Opening your essay with such attention-capturing sentences ensures that the reader is hooked from the start.

Step six: Write the Body Paragraphs

Each body paragraph should highlight one main point that should be stated clearly in the first sentence. Use the rest of the paragraph to support the main point with proof from your previous research. Ensure all sources are referenced using the appropriate format (APA, MLA, Harvard).

End each body paragraph with a statement summarizing the main point and supporting your arguments.

Step Seven: Write the Conclusion

Your conclusion should briefly summarize the main points of your essay and have a strong conclusion sentence that leaves the reader with something to think about after reading your paper. Once again, this should not be too long; five to six sentences are enough.

The Outline Format for a Summative Essay

Below is what a five-paragraph summative essay outline looks like, together with the critical elements that it features:

Paragraph one: Introduction

• Hook sentence (attention grabber).
• Concise background information to give the reader a small preview of what is being discussed in the rest of the essay.
• Thesis statement.

Paragraph two: Body paragraph one

• Topic sentence: The first main idea of your essay clarifies the topic.
• Support proof.
• Analysis of the proof.
• Final remarks and then moving to the next point.

Paragraph three: Body paragraph two

• Topic sentence: It is the essay’s second main idea.
• Supporting proof.

Paragraph four: Body paragraph three

• Topic sentence: It is the essay’s third main point.
• Final remarks.

Paragraph five: Conclusion

• Restate your thesis statement.
• A summary of the entire essay.
• Address unanswered questions or lingering concerns.
• Call to action.

Example Outline for a Summative Essay

Below is an example of an explanatory summative essay outline that discusses how modern technological improvements have transformed human behavior and facilitated progress.

• Improvements in technology have transformed the universe into a global village.
• Background information on the low productivity levels before the improvements in technology.
• Thesis statement: Technological advancement enhanced human learning, thus paving the way for reformation.

Paragraph two: Situation before technological improvements

• Describe the low productivity levels before advancements in technology.
• Discuss how technology has impacted infrastructure, economies, education, and communication.
• Illustrate how this has promoted global change.

Paragraph three: Development and spread of technology

• Discuss the foundation of algebra and how this has helped to transform the technological world today.
• Demonstrate the consequences of this new technology on transport and production.
• Discuss the quick spread of technological advancements.
• Link this information to reformation.

Paragraph four: Impact of technology on reformation

• Discuss how ease of access to information globally has helped individuals.
• Discuss how technology has aided humans during the reformation period.
• Discuss the significant impacts these technological advancements have had on the planet.
• Restate the thesis statement: Technological advancement enhanced human learning, thus paving the way for reformation.
• Provide a summary of the main points in the paper.
• Highlight the value of technological improvements to the world today.

Sample Summative Essay

A compare and contrast summative essay comparing the economic system of Canada and that of the USA.

Both Canada and the USA are capitalist countries with a capitalist economic system. While these two North American countries use the same economic system, there are several differences in their approach to capitalism. Canada’s capitalist economic system is highly regulated compared to the American one. There is more state intervention in Canada to ensure the citizenry has access to crucial services like education and healthcare. In contrast, the USA’s capitalist economic system is more laissez-faire, and the government plays a relatively smaller role in the market.

Both capitalist economic systems have their advantages and disadvantages. Canada's highly regulated economic system ensures that most citizens get high-quality and affordable education and healthcare services from the public. However, the system also tends to lead to greater government bureaucracy. On the other hand, the laissez-faire approach employed by the USA ensures more innovation and private sector investments. Nevertheless, it also leads to increased inequality as it puts more money in the pockets of the rich.

While both economic systems have advantages and disadvantages, Canada's highly-regulated approach to capitalism is better than the American system. This is because it ensures the public enjoys high-quality and affordable essential services.

How to start a summative essay?

Summative essays are short. While they are short, an introduction is still necessary. And the introduction better contains everything you would expect in a typical introduction for it to be considered complete. A typical essay introduction starts with an attention-grabbing statement, followed by background information, and then a thesis statement. Ensure your summative essay introduction has all these things if you want it to be considered complete.

How to end a Summative Essay?

A summative essay ends with a conclusion. The perfect way to write a conclusion for a summative essay is to start with a restatement of the thesis and then provide a summary of the main points. If the essay is too short (less than 250 words), nobody will expect you to dwell on restating the thesis or summarizing the main points. A short concluding sentence will suffice. Nevertheless, you must restate the thesis and the main points for a proper conclusion. You also need to finish a powerful concluding statement that captures what you hope the impact of your research will be.

Tips for writing the best Summative Essay

Follow the tips below to become an expert summative essay writer.

• Brainstorm after reading instructions. After reading the instructions provided by your instructor for your summative essay, you should brainstorm; you should think about what the instructor wants for a couple of minutes. Doing this will help you to settle on a good topic. It will also help you to decide early what you want to do or to prove in your paper. Of course, this will make it easier for you to conduct research.
• Always use an outline. Before you start writing any essay, you should always create an outline. An outline is very important because it gives an essay structure and flow. Writing your summative essay without an outline may miss good structure and flow, resulting in a low or average grade.
• Credible sources only. It is absolutely crucial to use only credible sources in your research. Because if you don’t, you can easily be misled in your essay. Furthermore, you can get an average or low grade. Instructors do not like learners who use non-credible sources such as blogs, random websites, and social media, as they think it is lazy and non-professional. So ensure you strictly use credible sources if you want a high grade on your essay.
• Do not forget to proofread your work. You must proofread your work when you are done. Nobody writes a perfect essay in their first draft. Therefore, it is vital to proofread your work after you finish it. Proofread it to eliminate grammar errors, typos, sentence errors, and so on. Ensuring it is flawless will increase your chances of getting a high grade in your final exams.
• Cite your sources. An essay without cited sources is not a complete essay. You will not get top marks in an essay if you don’t provide in-text citations and reference page references. You are a learner, so when you are asked to write an essay, you are essentially being tested on your ability to find the correct information from experts and analyze it. Do not make the mistake of presenting a paper without references, and you will be penalized.

And with all that, what next?

Summative essays are fun to write, and you have everything you need to know to write a brilliant summative essay. The ball is in your court. If you have an assignment, it is now time to put what you have learned into practice.

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How to Write a Summative Essay

Most students struggle to write a good essay. It’s even more difficult for them to write an excellent summative essay and get that stellar grade. A summative essay is the among most important essays you’ll write in college. And if you want an “A,” you need to make sure that you follow the correct format and have a good thesis statement.

So how can you write a good summative essay? Before knowing how to ace it, you first need to understand the essay’s features, characteristics, and format. This then clears the clouds for you to get it right.

Continue reading this blog to understand how to become one of the best summative essay writers.

What is a Summative Essay?

A summative essay is a short written piece, particularly an article that describes, summarizes, or evaluates a more extended passage. Because of its brevity, a short essay needs an exciting topic to capture the reader’s attention. It typically begins with an introduction and ends with a conclusion summarizing the main points covered.

On the other hand, summative assessment is the process your academic institution uses to determine your performance, understanding, and knowledge vis a vis the course.

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Learning institutions give these essays to test a student’s understanding of a topic, concept, or aptitude.

There are different types of summative writings. Each has a unique requirement, and you must understand these to nail them. The types are

These types derive their name from the word theory. A theory is given, which may be a reality or in contrast to reality, and you have to answer the question.

Evaluative essays require you to take a specific character, idea, or issue from the course work and evaluate it. You have to support your evaluation with texts and other evidence from the coursework materials.

Compare and Contrast

As the name suggests, these writings require you to contrast two characters, ideas, or elements from the course.

Argumentative

Argumentative writing pieces establish a claim in the introduction, and you build upon it with evidence. Afterward, you take a contrasting idea and explain it still with support from the coursework.

Opinionated

Opinionated essays are essays you write to show your clear standing and thoughts on an issue or topic. Sometimes, people call them persuasive essays, although slight differences exist between them. In the former, you state your stand, while in the latter, you state your perspective and ask people to support or follow it.

Information/Explanatory

This type of writing is the most common in your curriculum. The paper requires you to summarize a concept or topic you have covered in your own words.

Format of Summative Essays

Summative essays are structured into three parts. However, depending on the essay type, this structure may slightly change. Nevertheless, you can follow this basic structure

1.      Introduction

The introduction gives background information about your topic.

2.      Body

The body contains several paragraphs covering a different point of your essay topic.

3.      Conclusion

The conclusion summarizes the points you made in the body.

This format is consistent with APA guidelines for research papers and academic writing in general, so it’s easy to apply to summative essays if you’re already familiar with that.

Additionally, summative essays have an abstract if you follow the APA guidelines. An abstract provides a concise overview of the main points of a paper or report, including its purpose, results (if applicable), and conclusions.

It should be no more than 250 words and should be able to stand alone from the rest of your paper or report due to its length limitations. Use short sentences and simple vocabulary when drafting your abstract since people reading it will likely not have read through your whole paper yet.

Tips for Writing a Good Summative Essay

To stand out in your summative essay writing, you should consider the following elements

1.      Develop an Outline

Developing an outline will help you write a good summative essay quickly and effectively. Your outline should not deviate from the format discussed above. But if your instructor gives a specific form, you should follow it.

2.      Have a strong introduction

As you begin writing your summative essay, make sure it starts with a strong introduction. It’s essential to have a short introduction that clearly introduces the paper’s topic. In addition, this is where you’ll want to put your thesis statement.

You might also want to provide some background information and use exciting language that will help draw in your reader. Finally, one of the primary purposes of this section is to provide an overview of the rest of the essay.

3.      Include a thesis statement and provide a brief outline of the essay’s structure

Your thesis statement should respond to the essay question and provide a brief outline of how you will structure your essay. Make sure that your thesis statement is consistent with your essay structure.

Your body paragraphs should each address one point from the thesis statement and develop it with examples, evidence, and/or analysis. Finally, the conclusion should restate the answer you have arrived at through your analysis of the evidence presented in the essay’s body.

4.      Ensure each paragraph has a main idea or topic sentence that identifies the central message

This helps you present your ideas and arguments concisely. Some considerations to follow here include.

• Focus on one idea per paragraph to make it easier for you to support your point of view with evidence and examples, and avoid offering too much detail at once.
• Connect the topic sentence to your thesis statement. The reader should always be able to see clearly how each paragraph in the body of the essay contributes to the development and support of the thesis statement.
• Avoid long paragraphs. Paragraphs over five sentences tend to contain extraneous information and digressions rather than stick closely to the main point

5.      Proofread your work

After finishing your essay, you should go through it once more to remove any grammatical errors. A vital tip in proofreading is to leave your work for some hours before coming back to proofread it. If your deadline is far, you can even leave it for days.

Summative essays may seem challenging to write if you do not know what they entail and their different types. However, this post has taken you through them, and now you know how to write one. Further, it would help if you went through your coursework to help you write about the given topic.

Additionally, your summative essay should follow your school’s rubric because each institution may prefer specific guidelines that may differ from the general rules.

• Our Process

Writing a Summative Essay in 6 Simple Steps

Published by Ellie Cross at March 21st, 2022 , Revised On April 24, 2024

Writing a summative essay is a common way used by academic tutors to assess students’ learning and analytical abilities. Summative essays are used to evaluate students’ knowledge and understanding of an extensive concept or course content. Like other essay types, it comprises an introduction , main body and a concluding section.

A summative assessment synthesizes students’ learning and understanding of a particular academic source and almost always takes place at the end of term or a complete academic year. Such assessments determine the overall understanding or proficiency of the assessed topic .

However, this leaves many students unsure of what to do or where to begin. But don’t worry! We assume that students do not need to panic as long as we guide them on how to write an excellent summary essay.

Here are six simple steps that can help you compose a first-class summative essay paper.

1۔ Know Your Exact Summative Essay Topic

Even though this seems to be the simplest part of the process, it is often disregarded. Most people look at specific topics and select one because it appears to be the easiest or they have found sufficient material to work on it.

Understanding your professor’s opinion is essential here. What exactly does he expect from you? It is a significant step to produce good content for your summative essay. If you are confused about the topic, discuss it with your professor, friends, or colleagues.

Or our experts can provide a unique topic for your summative essay for free.

2. Search for the Relevant Material

Now that you have a clear picture of the topic of your summative essay, the next thing to do is to start reading the lectures notes or the academic sources available on the topic. Skim over the important points. Refresh your mind with your study material or course syllabus.

If you have ever attended a training course, seminar, or workshop on the topic, you will have a good amount of knowledge to write down as it will help you get a handle on some of the more complicated issues on the topic.

3. Make an Outline

While reading the relevant materials, split the literature into small paragraphs. This way, you can quickly get an overview of the literature. When reading the material, remember the essay topic you are writing so you can extract and note down useful information.

Jot down notes on any argument that you think might support the title of your essay. Then re-read each paragraph , and highlight all crucial points. Mark the areas you want to refer to in your summative essay and the points you do not wish to include.

Read: How to write an essay outline

4. Writing an Introduction

The introduction of your summative essay should briefly explain the main idea of the original paper, and provide the name of the author, the title of the paper, and the basic background information. Try to keep everything precise. As a rule, 250-300 words are sufficient for the introduction. Also, add the thesis statement as you will have to conclude your essay with reference to the thesis statement.

5. Writing the Main Body

Divide the essay into 2-4 themes in the main body, which you can argue and support in detail—elaborate these themes with one or more examples from the original paper. Include only necessary information and avoid irrelevant things.

6. Conclusion

A concluding paragraph is only required if your professor asks for it. Otherwise, it is not necessary.

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Important Points to Consider

• One of the most important points to remember when writing a summative essay is to keep it related to the source.
• Remember that your interpretations of the source may mislead your readers, so the text should be clear enough to give the reader an idea about the original work.
• Proofread your essay and revise it when it is finished. Do not rush to submit the first draft as it is. There is always room for new additions. You may discover a useful quote to include. Read the essay thoroughly. Check for spelling mistakes. Pay special attention to the sentence structure.
• If it’s feasible for you, rewrite a few sentences or whole paragraphs using an advanced article rewriter . It can revamp the text and give a whole new look to your essay.
• Delete every unnecessary information. Keep your content short and meaningful.
• Ask your friend or colleague to read to see if they can comprehend the main idea of the original source after reading your summative essay.
• Now that you have been introduced to the basic tips and rules for writing a summative essay, its time to give yourself a try to select any interesting topic and write your essay!!

Frequently Asked Questions

What is a summative essay.

A summative essay is a type of assessment that evaluates a student’s understanding, knowledge, and skills at the end of a course or academic period. It typically requires students to demonstrate comprehensive knowledge and critical thinking through a formal written essay, which is assessed for its overall quality and achievement of learning outcomes.

What are the 6 steps involve in writing a summative essay?

• Know Your Exact Summative Essay Topic
• Search for the Relevant Material
• Make an Outline
• Writing an Introduction
• Writing the Main Body
• Writing Conclusion

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The word rhetoric means persuasive speaking and writing. The speaker or writer chooses compositional techniques, words, and figures of speech to create an impressive effect on the audience or readers.

A thesis statement is a single comprehensive sentence that describes the main idea of your essay. Everything else in the essay will connect back to the thesis statement that acts as the essay’s central theme.

Persuasive essays are of four kinds; they are: Discursive, Argumentative, Exegetical, and Expository. This article presents differences and similarities between the different types of persuasive essays.

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Beyond the essay, iii.

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Summative Assignments: Authentic Alternatives to the Essay

Metaphor Maps ||  Student Anthologies ||  Poster Presentations

The essay is often the go-to assignment in humanities courses, and rightfully so. Especially in the text-based disciplines, the craft of the essay is highly valued as part of practicing the work of the field. More broadly, developing effective writing skills is a universal learning objective in higher education and, to varying degrees, is often dependent on these humanities classes. There are, however, alternative assignments in which students can rigorously but creatively perform their understandings in summative projects to be rigorously assessed, while still practicing–and even calling attention to–the habits of mind of the discipline.

Metaphor Maps

Students synthesize and unify multiple themes or concepts through metaphors, and then explicate their own thinking

This assignment encourages students to practice and perform a variety of ways of thinking:

• think creatively about a text, concept, or unit (or several) by thinking metaphorically,
• synthesize varied pieces of a complex concept or text, and
• articulate their thinking in new and self-authored ways.

It involves two parts:  first, students draw an image of a single metaphor they use to make sense of a concept, text, or unit (or several), and then–more importantly–they explicate their drawing. Sample instructions are in the box to the right.

Ultimately, metaphor maps are less about the drawing and more about how students synthesize and unify complex, multidimensional thinking around a single metaphor–and how clearly and effectively they explain these ideas. This strategy stretches them beyond the typical modes of learning and challenges them to organize their thoughts in a new way.

Some suggested criteria for assessing metaphor maps include the following:

• Comprehensiveness
• Unity & Synthesis

Each is further developed in the box to the right.

• In “ Using ‘Frameworks’ To Enhance Teaching and Learning ” (2012), Patrice W. Hallock describes an assignment in which her students draw their thinking about how they make sense of course content. One student used the metaphor of a camera (right). Although her assignment doesn’t include an essay explication, this student-generated and -drawn metaphor for a concept is the beginning of a metaphor map.
• In a philosophy class, a sample metaphor for critical thinking is a ship at sea surrounded by ethical mountains (below, right; Pierce).

• In a multicultural literature class, a student drew a baseball field in the final inning. The teams represented two of the cultures he’d read about in the class, the baseball field represented the All-American setting where they were at conflict, and the final inning suggested a time of crisis.
• These “ Minimalist Fairy Tales ” drawings offer great examples of a slight alternative to metaphor maps. Students can be asked to draw a simple image from the text that captures the essential meaning of the whole text. Synecdoche Maps!

Student Anthologies

Students perform the work of editors or curators

A significant genre in the humanities is the anthology, collections of poems, stories, essays, artwork, etc, selected, researched, and annotated by an editor.  Students can take on this role of editor, acting as curator and commentator as they establish a sense of authority and ownership over the material (Chick, 2002). They make intentional decisions about which pieces to include, what contexts to provide in their editorial notes, and even what paper, binding, font, and illustrations to use. If the pieces are short enough, as in a poetry anthology, students can be required to write or type the pieces themselves “to engage with every letter, every punctuation mark, every capital or lower-case letter, and every line break, and to consider the meanings of these choices by the poet” (p. 420). They include a title page, table of contents, prologue, and epilogue framing their anthology.

Giving students guidance for their editorial responses to each selection is helpful.  Some possibilities include the following:

• Argue for its significance
• Interpret its meaning
• Describe its historical and cultural context
• Write a biographical headnote using details most relevant to the selection
• Explain how it illustrates an important disciplinary theory or concept

Ultimately, students are “defining their own aesthetics” and becoming “aware of the ramifications of making aesthetic choices” by creating their anthologies (p. 422). This analysis can then be connected to the formation of the canon, revealing the subjective nature of “what they may have thought were universal or unquestioned notions” of quality and significance in the field. Resource

• “ Anthologizing Transformation: Breaking Down Students’ ‘Private Theories’ about Poetry ” (2002) explains the rationale and process for student anthologies in greater detail.

Poster Presentations

Students visually showcase their learning and present it to wider audiences

Le e Shulman, President Emeritus of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, has written of the importance of engaging with our teaching as we do our research–as “‘ community property ”: “We close the classroom doors and experience pedagogical solitude, whereas in our life as scholars, we are members of active communities: communities of conversation, communities of evaluation, communities in which we gather with others in our invisible colleges to exchange our findings, our methods, and our excuses” (2004, p. 140). What if we asked our students to do the same with their learning–as fellow citizens of the university, emerging scholars and researchers and producers of their own knowledge?  In this model of making learning community property, the audience for student learning extends beyond the instructor and often even classmates–reaching out to a larger community that remains authentic to disciplinary and learning goals.

The genre of the academic poster is a staple in the natural and social sciences, displayed at conferences and other meetings to share research findings with peers, and students in these fields begin practicing these ways of going public fairly early.  As Hess, Tosney, and Liegel demonstrate in “ Creating Effective Poster Presentations ” (2013), these visual representations of knowledge “operate on multiple levels”: “source of information, conversation starter, advertisement of your work, and summary of your work.” Poster sessions can be lively sites of conversations about new and interesting work in the field, but few (if any) disciplines in the humanities use this genre. In this way, assigning posters may feel inauthentic; however, the genre’s attention to sharing content in a concise, visual, and public format can be adapted to more closely reflect the meaning-making in the humanities. In fact, given many humanities disciplines’ appreciation of form reflecting content, the poster can make visible specific rhetorical moves, encouraging students to think not only about their ideas but also how they form their ideas.

It’s important to note that the poster is a conversation starter : it doesn’t have to present the project in its entirety. Instead, it can highlight part of the project, which the presenter uses to begin an oral explanation of the rest of the project.

• “ Rethinking the Design of Presentation Slides: The Assertion-Evidence Structure ” similarly re-envisions what slides can do for engineers and scientists. (The rhetorical move of making an assertion and supporting it with evidence is of course used in the humanities as well.) The focus of that work is PowerPoint slides for presentations, but the framework can be applied to a single slide for a poster by stating the assertion and then illustrating it with visual images (or text boxes).
• The infographic on Maria Popova’s “ The Lives of 10 Famous Painters, Visualized as Minimalist Infographic Biographies ” illustrates additional possibilities, although they’re made with more sophisticated software than PowerPoint. Using them as examples, though, will inspire some students to go further than the simpler models described above.
• There are plenty of websites with step-by-step instructions on how to make academic posters using the traditional scientific poster model. (Simply Google “academic posters.”) For our purposes, though, most of their instructions don’t apply–except for their useful explanations for using PowerPoint .
• Chick, Nancy L. (2002). Anthologizing transformation: breaking down students’ ‘private theories’ about poetry . Teaching English in the Two-Year College , 29 .4. 418-423.
• Hallock, Patrice W. (Sept 17, 2012). Using ‘frameworks’ to enhance teaching and learning. Faculty Focus. Magna Publications.
• Hess, George, Tosney, Kathryn, and Liegel, Leon. (2013). Creating effective poster presentations . North Carolina State University.
• Pierce, K. (2013).  Concept maps in philosophy courses. In Socrates’ Wake: A Blog about Teaching Philosophy.
• Shulman, Lee S. (2004). Teaching as community property: Putting an end to pedagogical solitude . Teaching as Community Property: Essays on Higher Education . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 140-144.

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Teaching excellence & educational innovation, what is the difference between formative and summative assessment, formative assessment.

The goal of formative assessment is to monitor student learning to provide ongoing feedback that can be used by instructors to improve their teaching and by students to improve their learning. More specifically, formative assessments:

• help students identify their strengths and weaknesses and target areas that need work
• help faculty recognize where students are struggling and address problems immediately

Formative assessments are generally low stakes , which means that they have low or no point value. Examples of formative assessments include asking students to:

• draw a concept map in class to represent their understanding of a topic
• submit one or two sentences identifying the main point of a lecture
• turn in a research proposal for early feedback

Summative assessment

The goal of summative assessment is to evaluate student learning at the end of an instructional unit by comparing it against some standard or benchmark.

Summative assessments are often high stakes , which means that they have a high point value. Examples of summative assessments include:

• a midterm exam
• a final project
• a senior recital

Information from summative assessments can be used formatively when students or faculty use it to guide their efforts and activities in subsequent courses.

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Summative Assessment and Feedback

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Summative assessments are given to students at the end of a course and should measure the skills and knowledge a student has gained over the entire instructional period. Summative feedback is aimed at helping students understand how well they have done in meeting the overall learning goals of the course.

Effective summative assessments

Effective summative assessments provide students a structured way to demonstrate that they have met a range of key learning objectives and to receive useful feedback on their overall learning. They should align with the course learning goals and build upon prior formative assessments. These assessments will address how well the student is able to synthesize and connect the elements of learning from the entirety of the course into a holistic understanding and provide an opportunity to provide rich summative feedback.

The value of summative feedback

Summative feedback is essential for students to understand how far they have come in meeting the learning goals of the course, what they need further work on, and what they should study next. This can affect later choices that students make, particularly in contemplating and pursuing their major fields of study. Summative feedback can also influence how students regard themselves and their academic disciplines after graduation.

Use rubrics to provide consistency and transparency

A rubric is a grading guide for evaluating how well students have met a learning outcome. A rubric consists of performance criteria, a rating scale, and indicators for the different rating levels. They are typically in a chart or table format. 

Instructors often use rubrics for both formative and summative feedback to ensure consistency of assessment across different students. Rubrics also can make grading faster and help to create consistency between multiple graders and across assignments.

Students might be given access to the rubric before working on an assignment. No criteria or metric within a summative assessment should come as a surprise to the students. Transparency with students on exactly what is being assessed can help them more effectively demonstrate how much they have learned.  

Types of  summative assessments

Different summative assessments are better suited to measuring different kinds of learning. 

Examinations

Examinations are useful for evaluating student learning in terms of remembering information, and understanding and applying concepts and ideas. However, exams may be less suited to evaluating how well students are able to analyze, evaluate, or create things related to what they've learned.

Presentation

A presentation tasks the student with teaching others what they have learned typically by speaking, presenting visual materials, and interacting with their audience. This can be useful for assessing a student's ability to critically analyze and evaluate a topic or content.

With projects, students will create something, such as a plan, document, artifact, or object, usually over a sustained period of time, that demonstrates skills or understanding of the topic of learning. They are useful for evaluating learning objectives that require high levels of critical thinking, creativity, and coordination. Projects are good opportunities to provide summative feedback because they often build on prior formative assessments and feedback. 

With a portfolio, students create and curate a collection of documents, objects, and artifacts that collectively demonstrate their learning over a wide range of learning goals. Portfolios usually include the student's reflections and metacognitive analysis of their own learning. Portfolios are typically completed over a sustained period of time and are usually done by individual students as opposed to groups. 

Portfolios are particularly useful for evaluating how students' learning, attitudes, beliefs, and creativity grow over the span of the course. The reflective component of portfolios can be a rich form of self-feedback for students. Generally, portfolios tend to be more holistic and are often now done using ePortfolios .

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Formative and summative assessments.

Assessment allows both instructor and student to monitor progress towards achieving learning objectives, and can be approached in a variety of ways. Formative assessment refers to tools that identify misconceptions, struggles, and learning gaps along the way and assess how to close those gaps. It includes effective tools for helping to shape learning, and can even bolster students’ abilities to take ownership of their learning when they understand that the goal is to improve learning, not apply final marks (Trumbull and Lash, 2013). It can include students assessing themselves, peers, or even the instructor, through writing, quizzes, conversation, and more. In short, formative assessment occurs throughout a class or course, and seeks to improve student achievement of learning objectives through approaches that can support specific student needs (Theal and Franklin, 2010, p. 151). 

In contrast, summative assessments evaluate student learning, knowledge, proficiency, or success at the conclusion of an instructional period, like a unit, course, or program. Summative assessments are almost always formally graded and often heavily weighted (though they do not need to be). Summative assessment can be used to great effect in conjunction and alignment with formative assessment, and instructors can consider a variety of ways to combine these approaches. 

Examples of Formative and Summative Assessments

Both forms of assessment can vary across several dimensions (Trumbull and Lash, 2013): 

• Informal / formal
• Immediate / delayed feedback
• Embedded in lesson plan / stand-alone
• Spontaneous / planned
• Individual / group
• Verbal / nonverbal
• Oral / written
• Graded / ungraded
• Open-ended response / closed/constrained response
• Teacher initiated/controlled / student initiated/controlled
• Teacher and student(s) / peers
• Process-oriented / product-oriented
• Brief / extended
• Scaffolded (teacher supported) / independently performed 

Recommendations

Formative Assessment   Ideally, formative assessment strategies improve teaching and learning simultaneously. Instructors can help students grow as learners by actively encouraging them to self-assess their own skills and knowledge retention, and by giving clear instructions and feedback. Seven principles (adapted from Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick, 2007 with additions) can guide instructor strategies:

• Keep clear criteria for what defines good performance - Instructors can explain criteria for A-F graded papers, and encourage student discussion and reflection about these criteria (this can be accomplished though office hours, rubrics, post-grade peer review, or exam / assignment wrappers ). Instructors may also hold class-wide conversations on performance criteria at strategic moments throughout a term.
• Encourage students’ self-reflection - Instructors can ask students to utilize course criteria to evaluate their own or a peer’s work, and to share what kinds of feedback they find most valuable. In addition, instructors can ask students to describe the qualities of their best work, either through writing or group discussion.
• Give students detailed, actionable feedback - Instructors can consistently provide specific feedback tied to predefined criteria, with opportunities to revise or apply feedback before final submission. Feedback may be corrective and forward-looking, rather than just evaluative. Examples include comments on multiple paper drafts, criterion discussions during 1-on-1 conferences, and regular online quizzes.
• Encourage teacher and peer dialogue around learning - Instructors can invite students to discuss the formative learning process together. This practice primarily revolves around mid-semester feedback and small group feedback sessions , where students reflect on the course and instructors respond to student concerns. Students can also identify examples of feedback comments they found useful and explain how they helped. A particularly useful strategy, instructors can invite students to discuss learning goals and assignment criteria, and weave student hopes into the syllabus.
• Promote positive motivational beliefs and self-esteem - Students will be more motivated and engaged when they are assured that an instructor cares for their development. Instructors can allow for rewrites/resubmissions to signal that an assignment is designed to promote development of learning. These rewrites might utilize low-stakes assessments, or even automated online testing that is anonymous, and (if appropriate) allows for unlimited resubmissions.
• Provide opportunities to close the gap between current and desired performance - Related to the above, instructors can improve student motivation and engagement by making visible any opportunities to close gaps between current and desired performance. Examples include opportunities for resubmission, specific action points for writing or task-based assignments, and sharing study or process strategies that an instructor would use in order to succeed.  
• Collect information which can be used to help shape teaching - Instructors can feel free to collect useful information from students in order to provide targeted feedback and instruction. Students can identify where they are having difficulties, either on an assignment or test, or in written submissions. This approach also promotes metacognition , as students are asked to think about their own learning. Poorvu Center staff can also perform a classroom observation or conduct a small group feedback session that can provide instructors with potential student struggles. 

Instructors can find a variety of other formative assessment techniques through Angelo and Cross (1993), Classroom Assessment Techniques (list of techniques available here ).

Summative Assessment   Because summative assessments are usually higher-stakes than formative assessments, it is especially important to ensure that the assessment aligns with the goals and expected outcomes of the instruction.  

• Use a Rubric or Table of Specifications - Instructors can use a rubric to lay out expected performance criteria for a range of grades. Rubrics will describe what an ideal assignment looks like, and “summarize” expected performance at the beginning of term, providing students with a trajectory and sense of completion. 
• Design Clear, Effective Questions - If designing essay questions, instructors can ensure that questions meet criteria while allowing students freedom to express their knowledge creatively and in ways that honor how they digested, constructed, or mastered meaning. Instructors can read about ways to design effective multiple choice questions .
• Assess Comprehensiveness - Effective summative assessments provide an opportunity for students to consider the totality of a course’s content, making broad connections, demonstrating synthesized skills, and exploring deeper concepts that drive or found a course’s ideas and content. 
• Make Parameters Clear - When approaching a final assessment, instructors can ensure that parameters are well defined (length of assessment, depth of response, time and date, grading standards); knowledge assessed relates clearly to content covered in course; and students with disabilities are provided required space and support.
• Consider Blind Grading - Instructors may wish to know whose work they grade, in order to provide feedback that speaks to a student’s term-long trajectory. If instructors wish to provide truly unbiased summative assessment, they can also consider a variety of blind grading techniques .

Considerations for Online Assessments

Effectively implementing assessments in an online teaching environment can be particularly challenging. The Poorvu Center shares these  recommendations .

Nicol, D.J. and Macfarlane-Dick, D. (2006) Formative assessment and self‐regulated learning: a model and seven principles of good feedback practice. Studies in Higher Education 31(2): 2-19.

Theall, M. and Franklin J.L. (2010). Assessing Teaching Practices and Effectiveness for Formative Purposes. In: A Guide to Faculty Development. KJ Gillespie and DL Robertson (Eds). Jossey Bass: San Francisco, CA.

Trumbull, E., & Lash, A. (2013). Understanding formative assessment: Insights from learning theory and measurement theory. San Francisco: WestEd.

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Sarah Schaible

November 23rd, 2021, how to approach formative essays at lse.

0 comments | 3 shares

Estimated reading time: 10 minutes

As teachers will tell you, formative essays are the best opportunity to get feedback on your work. This is particularly important if you are studying a qualitative subject. Quantitative courses have more frequent homework assessments, but for any other modules, you only get the opportunity to submit your own work once or twice a term.

Having made the general importance of formatives clear, here are my pieces of advice:

1. Start early

By this, I don’t mean to start writing weeks before the deadline. However, I have found that it pays off to think about the topic early, perhaps once you receive the assignment prompt. This allows you to think about the topic in classes in the back of your head and might give you good ideas later on. Besides, this also means you will be able to clarify any questions.

2. Be strategic

Continuing about topic selection, it is worth thinking about the summative assignment when choosing your topic. This matters especially when your graded assignment is based on coursework, meaning you will submit an extended essay. Often, you will be able to draw and expand on the research you already did during the term. In my Master’s for instance, I submitted outlines and topic proposals for summative essays.

Being strategic also matters when the final assessment takes place in form of a timed exam. Most exams will require you to be strategic and choose topics to specialise in. Therefore, if you find something interesting during the term, you will be able to save yourself a lot of time later if you’ve already written an essay on it.

3. Plan ahead

To avoid stress just before the deadline of the formative, make sure to make a rough plan of when you are going to write your essay. I tend to do readings and then choose a day to sit down and write the essay. This doubles as practice for exams.

4. Prioritise

It often gets to week six or seven of the term and suddenly you have to fit in several assignments with your usual weekly tasks. This is undeniably stressful. To avoid burning out, it is worth considering whether you want to prioritise some tasks over others. Not everything needs to get done at once. It’s okay to do one thing at a time and plan on catching up on other tasks later in the term.

5. Implement feedback

The last step is key in making the most of your assignment. Look at the feedback that is given to you and try to take steps to implement it for future essays. You could, for example, go back to your notes and make changes. If you still have open questions, go to office hours or email your professors. This has often helped me to get an even better understanding.

These strategies have helped me to manage the increased workload in the middle of term. The most important thing to keep in mind: assignment season is temporary. Once your essays are submitted, there will be time to catch up on readings and enjoy more free time again. While making a start on an essay is always daunting, in my experience, completing it is very rewarding.

About the author

Hi, I'm Sarah! I am an LSE BA Anthropology and Law graduate and a current LLM student.

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The recent Gonski report argues Australia needs assessment and reporting models that capture both achievement progress and long-term learning progress. This, according to the review panel, involves low-stakes, low-key, and regular formative assessments to support learning progressions. The report used international evidence on individualised teaching to demonstrate ongoing formative assessment and feedback is fundamental to supporting students to do better in school.

The NSW Education Minister, Rob Stokes, has called for NAPLAN to be replaced in “haste” with less high stakes tests. Mark Scott, the secretary of the NSW Department of Education, echoed Stokes’ remarks. He stated :

I think [NAPLAN] will become obsolete because the kinds of information that the new assessment schemes will give us will be richer and deeper and more meaningful for teachers, for parents and for education systems.

So, what’s the difference between formative and summative assessment? And when should each be used? Formative and summative assessment have different purposes and both have an important role to play in a balanced assessment program.

Formative assessment

Formative assessment includes a range of strategies such as classroom discussions and quizzes designed to generate feedback on student performance. This is done so teachers can make changes in teaching and learning based on what students need.

It involves finding out what students know and do not know, and continually monitoring student progress during learning. Both teachers and students are involved in decisions about the next steps in learning.

Read more: Marking answers with a tick or cross won't enhance learning

Teachers use the feedback from formative tasks to identify what students are struggling with and adjust instruction appropriately. This could involve re-teaching key concepts, changing how they teach or modifying teaching resources to provide students with additional support. Students also use feedback from formative tasks to reflect on and improve their own work.

Regular classroom tasks, whether formal (for example, traditional pen and paper tests) or informal (such as classroom discussions), can be adapted into effective formative tasks by:

making students aware of the learning goals/success criteria using rubrics and carefully tracking student progress against them

including clear instructions to guide students through a series of activities to demonstrate the success criteria. A teacher might, for example, design a series of activities to guide students through an inquiry or research process in science

providing regular opportunities for feedback from the teacher, other students or parents (this feedback may be face-to face, written, or online)

making sure students have opportunities to reflect on and make use of feedback to improve their work. This may involve asking students to write a short reflection about the feedback on their draft essay and using this to improve their final version.

There are many advantages of formative assessment:

feedback from formative assessment helps students become aware of any gaps between their goal and their current knowledge, understanding, or skill

tasks guide students through the actions necessary to hit learning goals

tasks encourage students to focus their attention on the task (such as undertaking an inquiry or research process) rather than on simply getting the right answer

students and teachers receive ongoing feedback about student progress towards learning goals, which enables teachers to adjust their instructional approach in response to what students need

students build their self-regulation skills by setting learning goals and monitoring their progress towards them

results of formative assessments can also be used for grading and reporting.

Summative assessment

This includes end of unit examinations and the NSW Higher School Certificate (HSC) examination.

Summative assessment provides students, teachers and parents with an understanding of the pupil’s overall learning. Most commonly thought of as formal, time-specific exams, these assessments may include major essays, projects, presentations, art works, creative portfolios, reports or research experiments. These assessments are designed to measure the student’s achievement relative to the subject’s overall learning goals as set out in the relevant curriculum standards.

The design and goals of summative assessments are generally standardised so they can be applied to large numbers of students, multiple cohorts and time periods. Data collected on individual student, cohort, school or system performance provides schools and principals with a tool to evaluate student knowledge relative to the learning objectives. They can also compare them with previous cohorts and other schools.

Read more: Evidence-based education needs standardised assessment

The measurement and evaluation of student achievement this way gives us necessary information about how we can continuously improve learning and teaching.

There are a number of limitations of summative assessment. While formative assessments usually provide feedback for the student to review and develop their learning, summative assessments are rarely returned to students. When assessments provide only a numerical grade and little or no feedback, as the NSW HSC does, it’s hard for students and teachers to pinpoint learning needs and determine the way forward.

Additionally, being a form of “high stakes” assessment, results may be perceived as a way of ranking students. For high achieving students there is recognition and reward, while for the lower performing students there is potential embarrassment and shame. Neither of these things should be associated with an equal opportunity education system.

The author would like to acknowledge the work of David McDonald, a PhD student at Macquarie University in assessment, in writing this article.

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Definition of summative

Examples of summative in a sentence.

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'summative.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

1881, in the meaning defined above

Dictionary Entries Near summative

summation tone

Cite this Entry

“Summative.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/summative. Accessed 19 May. 2024.

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• Summative Assessment: Definition + [Examples & Types]

From end-of-term examinations to teacher-designed quizzes , summative assessment is one of the most effective ways to grade a student’s performance. It typically involves assessing students’ knowledge of the course material using specific criteria. 

Summative assessment requires a considerable investment of time, both from students and instructors. In this article, we will discuss the major characteristics of summative assessment and show you how to conduct a summative assessment with Formplus. 

What is a Summative Assessment?  

Summative assessment is a type of course evaluation that happens at the end of a training or program. It is the process of assessing the student’s knowledge, proficiency, and performance by comparing what they know with what they should have learned.

Unlike formative assessment which evaluates the student as he or she engages in the learning process, summative assessment is all about measuring outcomes using predefined standards or benchmarks. Summative evaluation only directly monitors the student’s ability but does not pay attention to how the student uses knowledge to solve practical problems. 

One of the most common examples of summative assessment is the end-of-semester college examinations. For these examinations, the college professors select questions that touch on different topics in the course curriculum. Students are asked to respond to these questions within a specific period of time. 

The structure of summative assessment makes it difficult for the instructor to provide one-on-one feedback on the student’s performance. Summative assessment methods are high stakes which means they have a high point value. The results are usually defining; for instance, it can determine whether a student passes the course, gets a promotion, or secures an admission. 

Characteristics of Summative Assessment  

Summative assessment measures a student’s competence in a specific subject matter in line with the learning goals and objectives of the course or training. For instance, a science course will use experiments and other practical tests to evaluate a student’s knowledge at the end of the course.

• Reliability

Summative evaluation is a standardized method of knowledge-based assessments. It has well-defined processes that reveal the student’s competence in a field. These processes produce accurate and consistent results when they are used in similar contexts.

• Practicality

Summative evaluation has a flexible process that is practical and scalable. It is well-aligned and this makes it easy for the instructor to implement it as part of training.

Summative assessment respects clear teaching and learning boundaries. Before the instructor implements any summative assessment methods in the classroom, he/she must obtain informed consent from the students.

• Easily reported

Since the key element of summative assessment is to evaluate what someone has learned up to that point in time, it always ends in having a concise summary of the outcomes of the assessment. This allows the teacher to compare the student’s current performance with past performances, external standards, and other learners.

Summative evaluation prompts students to exhibit skills and demonstrate knowledge in different ways.

Other things you should have in mind when it comes to summative assessment are: 

• It takes place at the end of a defined learning period such as a training or program.
• It is limited to the information that was shared during the course or training. Summative assessment does not test students on what they have not been taught.
• Summative assessment aligns with the learning goals and objectives of the course.
• Summative assessment certifies a student’s competence in a specific subject matter.
• It is used for one clearly identified purpose.

Examples of Summative Assessment  

• End-of-term Examination

A final examination or assessment is one of the most common methods of classroom evaluation. Examinations have a simple framework—the teacher curates relevant questions and the students respond to these questions within a timeframe.

Instructors conduct examinations as some sort of final knowledge review of the program. Examinations test the student’s knowledge of the subject matter and they produce quantitative results that help you to grade your students and know how well they have performed. 

To eliminate the workload that comes with paper assessment, you conduct the evaluation via an online test platform, examination software, or create a quiz on Formplus. The examination questions can be close-ended, open-ended, or a mixture of both; depending on the type of data you want to gather in the end. 

• In-class Chapter Tests

These are mini-examinations that happen at the end of a topic or section of a training. They are used to determine how well a student understands key chapter concepts and help them prepare for the final examination at the end of the course. Quizzes, midterm assessments, and practice tests are common examples of chapter tests.

• Standardized Admission Tests

These tests qualify candidates for a specific program; for instance, IELTS and TOEFL are standardized English proficiency exams that demonstrate a candidate’s competency in the use of the language. These tests are organized on a large scale and they make use of explicit scoring criteria for grading.

Create Computer Based Tests for free with Formplus. Get started now

• Creative Portfolio

Instead of an end-of-term examination, ask students to build a creative portfolio. A creative portfolio showcases the student’s creativity, knowledge of the coursework, and how they have uniquely applied that knowledge.

Depending on the learning areas, a student’s portfolio can include images, infographics, and small to medium-length texts like essays or one-pagers. As the learners build their portfolios, they also have the opportunity to reflect on how much they have learned. 

Add the file upload field to your Formplus form to receive portfolio submissions from your students. Students can submit files of any type and size including images, multiple document formats, and spreadsheets, in the file upload field. 

Oral summative assessments are used to get real-time and spontaneous responses from learners at the end of a course. The instructor can embrace structured, semi-structured, or unstructured interview methods to grade the students and evaluate their overall performance. Students may also partake in oral classroom presentations.

The type of interview method you choose determines the kinds of questions you will ask during the process. A structured interview follows a defined conversational sequence that dictates its questions and structure. 

Semi-structured and unstructured interviews embrace flexibility. In a semi-structured interview, the instructor can veer off the conversational sequence and ask spontaneous questions. Unstructured interviews do not follow a defined conversational sequence—the instructor can ask questions as they come, within the course’s context. 

• Hands-on Performance Tasks

These simple and creative tasks allow students to put their knowledge to work. Hands-on performance tasks are practical, and straightforward and help the instructor to assess the students’ abilities directly.

The instructor can ask students to solve a jigsaw puzzle and as they do this, she observes how they put a specific skill to work in the tasks. If you want to assess your students’ counting and pattern skills, you may observe how they play around with colored bricks or cotton balls. 

• Group Projects

Getting students to execute tasks within small groups is a great way to test their knowledge. After a training on teamwork and conflict resolution, for instance, you should group the students, assign a task and watch how they create frameworks and solve a specific problem.

• Book Reports

Book reports are creative summaries that demonstrate a student’s literary skills. These reports show how students highlight the main points of a book using the reading and analytical skills discussed in the training or program.

Students do not have to submit their summaries using paper forms. Create a Formplus online submission form and send out a prefilled link to everyone. This way, you can receive and organize submissions without worrying about too much paper. 

• Formal Essays

Formal essays allow students to demonstrate their level of knowledge about a subject matter. Essay writing is a useful skill that communicates one’s idea and understanding of a concept. Ask your students to write essays on the core topics and themes discussed in class.

Students can explain a concept, argue for or against a subject matter or simply narrate their learning experience as descriptive prose. 

If you want to reduce the clutter that comes with stacking lots of papers, use Formplus to collect the essays. Ask learners to turn in their essays as file uploads in your online submission form or they can write the essays right in the form’s long-text field. 

• Observation

This is a common method of summative assessment used in early childhood education. The instructor incorporates 1 or more standard activities into the students’ playtime and then observes how the learners engage in the activity.

Observing students’ behaviors during playtime gives you a birds-eye view of how well they have assimilated knowledge from a previous lesson or class session. As you observe them, you need to make notes on any changes you notice. Write your observations down on a piece of paper or list them in a spreadsheet. 

The complete observer method and participant-as-observer method are the common types of observation used for summative evaluation. In the complete observer method, the teacher observes the students from a distance; removing the instructor from the participants’ environment. 

The participant-by-observer method is what you’ll find in many classrooms and learning contexts. The teacher already has a relationship with the students and she interacts with them as they demonstrate their knowledge. 

How to Use Formplus to Conduct Summative Assessment  

To conduct a summative assessment with Formplus, you need to use the Formplus builder to create and customize an online form. This online form should serve your unique needs in terms of what you want to achieve and the type of summative assessment method you plan to execute. 

Follow this step-by-step guide to create your online summative assessment form with Formplus. 

• Visit www.formpl.us to log in to your Formplus account or to sign up for a free Formplus account. Once you sign up and confirm your email, you get automatic access to your Formplus dashboard.
• Click on the ‘create new form’ button on your Formplus dashboard. This button is at the top-left side of your dashboard and it takes you to the form builder.
• The Formplus builder has different sections including the customization and form sharing sections. On the far-left side of the builder, you will find the form fields section.

• Drag and drop preferred form fields from the form fields section into your form. There are more than 30 form fields you can add to your form including text fields and advanced fields like date-time validation.
• Edit each field by clicking on the small pencil icon beside each one. You can add questions, options and also make the fields read-only or required.

• Click on the “save” icon to save all the changes you have made to the form.

• By now, you will be in the builder’s customization section. This is where you can tweak the look and feel of your form based on your unique needs and preferences.

You can choose a new theme for your form or create a custom theme. You can also change the form’s background, add background images, modify the form font and font size or stylize the form using your custom CSS. 

• Use the form-sharing options to share the form with your students. You can copy the form link and share or send out prefilled links via email invitations.

Formplus has different features that make data collection seamless for you including unlimited file uploads, mobile-friendly forms, and prefilled forms. With the mobile-friendly feature, you can conduct summative assessments using your smartphone. You can also collect data the way you like using more than 30 available form fields. 

• Mobile-friendly Forms

With our mobile-responsive feature, you can create an online form for summative assessments using your smartphone or other internet-enabled devices. Students can also complete surveys, and quizzes and make file submissions using their smartphones, without pinching in or zooming out of their screens.

• File Uploads

Students can submit their creative portfolio in different file formats in your Formplus form and they do not have to bother about the file size. All file uploads are automatically saved to your preferred cloud storage including Google Drive, DropBox, and OneDrive.

• Prefilled Forms

Prefilled forms are easy to fill as your students do not need to repeat recurring information. Sending out prefilled forms allows you to retrieve existing data from your records and pre-populate form fields with these pieces of information.

• Form Templates

You do not have to build your form from scratch; simply choose any of our ready-to-use templates. Formplus has more than 200 existing form templates that can be tweaked to suit your unique needs and preferences in the form builder.

• Offline Data Collection

Students can fill out and submit the online assessment form; even when they have poor or no internet access. All form responses are automatically updated on our servers or your preferred cloud storage system when the internet connectivity is restored.

• Export Data

You can export form responses and reports in multiple file formats like PDF and CSV. Formplus also allows you to directly export form data to Google sheets to help you collate results and share them with your team.

Advantages of Summative Assessment  

• The summative assessment determines the effectiveness of a course and the teaching method. This is measured in terms of how well the student mirrors his knowledge in his or her responses to the questions.
• It is a standard method of tracking a student’s academic performance over a period of time.
• Summative assessment is an important part of the formal grading system. The results from summative assessments are often used to determine whether a student moves from one academic level to the next.
• It helps the instructor to identify and address learning gaps. Summative assessment reveals the student’s weakness and this gives the teacher enough context and information to review their methods.
• It boosts self-evaluation because the students reflect on their goals as they take part in summative assessments.
• Summative assessment improves the teaching and learning environment. It helps the students and instructions to align their goals and achieve desired outcomes.

Disadvantages of Summative Assessment  

• Measuring a student’s performance against a standard benchmark can trigger demotivation and low self-esteem. This happens when the student’s performance isn’t up to par with the benchmark.
• It does not provide an accurate reflection of the student’s knowledge or learning.
• Students can develop anxiety as they prepare for the single year that can make or mar their academic progress. Anxiety, fear, and nervousness affect the student’s performance.

In this article, we have looked at the characteristics of effective summative assessments plus common examples you can adopt for student evaluation in the classroom. Summative assessment is best described as a diagnostic evaluation method used at the end of an instructional unit. 

Summative assessment is a great way to ensure that students have a full grasp of the different ideas discussed in a course or program. When combined with other methods of course evaluation like formative assessment, it creates a balanced evaluation of both progress and performance. 

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Summative Assessment

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Summative Assessment refers to a method of evaluating student learning at the conclusion of an instructional period, typically at the end of a project, unit, course, semester, program, or school year. Summative assessments are often high stakes, which means they have a high point value and the results are used to make important decisions about student grades, placement, and advancement. Unlike formative assessments, which provide ongoing feedback to monitor and improve learning while it is still occurring, summative assessments aim to measure the extent of learning at the end of an instructional period by comparing it against some standard or benchmark.

What is Summative Assessment?

Summative assessment is a method of evaluating student learning at the conclusion of an instructional period, typically at the end of a project, unit, course, semester, or academic year. This type of assessment is used to determine if students have met the learning objectives and how much they have learned by comparing their performance against a standard or benchmark.

Summative assessments are essential for assessing learning objectives . Learning outcomes describe what students should learn and be able to do after taking a course or program. The summative assessment determines a course’s final grade. Summative assessment helps instructors determine whether students have learned enough to pass a course or program. statistics reports  like this are essential for determining effective classroom management plan  success and planning.

Examples of Formative and Summative Assessments

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Research on Classroom Summative Assessment

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Authentic Summative Assessment

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Reading Comprehension Summative Assessment

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Characteristics of Summative Assessment

• Evaluative : Summative assessments are primarily used to evaluate the quality and effectiveness of learning, measuring student comprehension of material against a standard or benchmark.
• Cumulative : They serve to summarize what students have learned, not to diagnose or guide future instruction as formative assessments do.
• Formal : These assessments are structured and are often administered through tests, exams, final projects, or papers that are meant to account for a large portion of a student’s grade.

Types of Summative Assessment

• Standardized Tests : These are tests administered and scored in a consistent manner across various schools or districts. They are designed to measure students’ performance against established standards at a state or national level, such as the SAT or ACT.
• Final Exams : Often given at the end of a semester or course, final exams are comprehensive tests covering a wide range of material studied throughout the period. These exams can significantly impact a student’s final grade.
• End-of-Unit or Chapter Tests : These tests are used to assess student understanding after a specific unit or chapter has been completed, helping to ensure that key concepts and skills have been successfully learned.
• Research Papers : A research paper requires a student to investigate a topic, synthesize information, and present it in an organized, written format. This type of assessment tests a student’s ability to conduct thorough research, their understanding of the topic, and their academic writing skills.
• Project Presentations : In this format, students are often asked to create a project or presentation as a way to demonstrate their understanding of the subject matter. This can involve individual or group work and typically requires a combination of research, design, problem-solving, and presentation skills.
• Portfolios : A portfolio is a collection of a student’s work over time which shows their progress, achievements, and abilities in certain areas. Portfolios can be used to assess a range of skills and integrations of multiple types of learning.
• Performance Assessments : These require students to perform a task rather than take a test. Performance assessments can include hands-on tasks, simulations, or role-plays that demonstrate practical application of learned skills and knowledge.
• Cumulative Reviews : These activities involve comprehensive review sessions that help reinforce all the key concepts covered during a semester or year, culminating in a significant assessment or project that encapsulates all learned material.

Benefits of Summative Assessment Practices 

• Measuring Achievement : Summative assessments provide a clear, objective measure of student achievement at the end of a course or unit. This helps educators determine whether students have mastered specific content and met learning objectives.
• Accountability : These assessments encourage accountability among students, teachers, and schools. For students, the assessments signal the importance of learning and the consequences associated with their performance. For educators and schools, these assessments can highlight areas where teaching strategies may need improvement.
• Standardization : Summative assessments often follow standardized methods to ensure fairness and comparability across different students, classrooms, or schools. This can be particularly important in large educational systems where equity in education is a priority.
• Informing Policy : The data from summative assessments can inform educational policy and decision-making. This includes resource allocation, curriculum adjustments, and the implementation of support programs to enhance student learning outcomes.
• Motivation : For many students, the knowledge that their understanding will be tested at the end of a unit or course is a strong motivator to consolidate and revise their learning materials, which can improve their educational outcomes.
• Credentialing and Progression : Summative assessments often play a critical role in decisions regarding student progression, graduation, and entry into higher levels of education. They can serve as key qualifiers for advancing to the next stage of education or entering a particular career path.
• Feedback for Improvement : While primarily focused on grading and evaluation, the results of summative assessments can provide valuable feedback to students and educators about areas of strength and areas needing improvement. This can guide subsequent instructional strategies and personal development plans.
• Benchmarks for Excellence : They help establish and reinforce high standards of achievement, pushing both educators and learners towards excellence in education.

Limitations of Summative Assessment

While summative assessments are crucial in many educational systems, they also have several limitations that can impact their effectiveness and the educational experience. Here are some of the primary concerns associated with summative assessments:

• Stress and Anxiety : Summative assessments can cause significant stress and anxiety among students, particularly when high stakes are involved, such as final grades or qualifications for future opportunities. This pressure can affect performance and well-being.
• Narrow Focus : These assessments often focus on a limited range of knowledge and skills, typically those that are easiest to measure, such as recall of information. This can neglect broader educational goals like critical thinking, creativity, and interpersonal skills.
• Teaching to the Test : When teachers focus heavily on preparing students for summative assessments, there can be a tendency to “teach to the test” — prioritizing content and skills that are likely to appear on the exam over a more comprehensive educational experience.
• Lack of Timely Feedback : Summative assessments typically occur at the end of a learning period, which means feedback is not immediate. This delay can limit the ability of students to use this feedback effectively to improve their learning.
• Equity Issues : Standardized tests may not be fair to all student groups, especially those from different cultural, linguistic, or socioeconomic backgrounds. Differences in test performance can sometimes reflect these disparities rather than true differences in knowledge or skills.
• Inflexibility : Summative assessments are often inflexible, not accommodating different learning styles or the needs of diverse learners. This can disadvantage students who do not perform well in traditional testing environments.
• Resource Intensive : Designing, administering, and grading summative assessments can be time-consuming and resource-intensive. This can detract from instructional time and reduce the resources available for other educational activities.
• Overemphasis on Quantitative Data : Summative assessments typically result in quantitative data (scores, grades), which may overshadow qualitative insights about a student’s learning journey, understanding, and potential.

How to do a Summative Assessment

Step 1: define the learning outcomes.

The first step is to identify the learning outcomes that you want to assess. Learning outcomes should be specific, measurable, and aligned with the goals of the course or program.

Step 2: Select the assessment methods

Choose assessment methods that are appropriate for the learning outcomes and the level of knowledge and skills that you want to assess. Common assessment methods include written tests, projects, portfolios, and presentations.

Step 3: Create the assessment

Design the assessment by creating clear instructions and criteria for evaluation. Ensure that the assessment aligns with the learning outcomes and the assessment methods selected.

Step 4: Administer the assessment

Administer the assessment to students, making sure that they understand the instructions and requirements. Provide any necessary support or accommodations to students with special needs.

Step 5: Evaluate the assessment

Evaluate student performance using the established criteria and assess the extent to which they have achieved the learning outcomes. Use grading rubrics to ensure consistency and fairness in the evaluation process.

Step 6: Provide feedback

Provide feedback to students on their performance and offer suggestions for improvement. Use the assessment results to identify areas of strength and weakness in the course or program and make informed decisions about future instructional practices.

Step 7: Use the assessment results

Use the assessment results to make decisions about student grades, program effectiveness, and future curriculum development. Communicate the results to students, parents, and other stakeholders as appropriate.

What are the types of summative assessments?

The types of summative assessments include written written safety plan tests , group project reports , project portfolios , characteristics of your presentations, and exams.

How is summative assessment different from formative assessment?

Formative assessment is an ongoing evaluation method that is used to provide positive feedback  and support to students throughout a course or program. Summative assessment, on the other hand, is a final evaluation that is given at the end of a course or program.

Can summative assessment be used for all subjects?

Yes, summative assessment can be used for all subjects, including math, science, language arts, social studies, and the arts. The assessment method and criteria may vary depending on the subject and level of education.

In conclusion, summative assessment plays a critical role in evaluating student learning and measuring the achievement of learning outcomes at the end of a course or program. By providing a comprehensive evaluation of a student’s knowledge and skills, summative assessment enables educators to make informed decisions about future instructional practices and identify areas for improvement. Effective summative assessment requires careful planning and the selection of appropriate assessment methods that align with learning outcomes. Overall, summative assessment is an essential component of the assessment process and contributes significantly to the quality of education.

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First class undergraduate essay on borders, statehood and freedom

Subject: Government and politics

Age range: 16+

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Warwick’s PO301 is a final year 30 CAT course available to those with some specialism in politics or political theory - most notably, those taking PPE, PPL, EPP, EPAIS, PAIS, or History & Politics.

This essay was a summative submission and covered the module on freedom and borders. It rejects the argument made by Wellman (2008) that supports the right to exclude.

Wellman’s arguments are also covered in other courses, such as the final-year PPE/PPL course Political Economy of Philosophy and Politics.

The essay achieved a first. Use it as a source of ideas but don’t copy it - not least for reasons around plagiarism - but also because independent thought is what matters, not so much the content of the argument itself.

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