criminology research paper example

Criminological Research

Before criminology became a part of the justice system, there was a chasm between targeting the root of criminality and the cat-and-mouse chase between the police officers and the criminals. What law enforcers fail to consider for most of history is that these elements themselves are also victims of a flawed system. By disregarding the root of the problem, we are only exhausting our resources on an endless chase. Criminology research plays a pivotal role in bridging the gap and improving law enforcement. When we understand why crimes happen, we can provide better interventions.

Criminology research is a means of understanding criminality to improve criminal justice and law enforcement. Several criminology research are exploratory research . The researchers collect and analyze data of a crime, policy, or approach in which little is known. The researchers may also propose changes and amendments for future reference. The research can also be descriptive , wherein we elaborate observations about a crime or our response to one. Explanatory research can expound on the nature of the crime in relation to the offender, nature or psychology of the criminal, as well as other behaviors that affect law enforcement. We can also apply the findings in applied research in deciding if a policy or intervention is effective.

Imprint on Reality

Crime prevention starts with crime reduction. How do we reduce crimes? We can build tall gates around our houses and subdivisions. We can saturate our community with the police force and security personnel . We can set up security cameras at every corner of every street. We may do these, but we don’t have the power and resources to sustain them for long-term, country-wide implementation. Aside from feasibility, there are other concerns with the approach. A controlled living environment will eventually dent individual rights and liberties. We need research to find the best solutions. We have witnessed an overhaul in criminal justice and law enforcement, owing to criminological research that challenged the norms.

Challenge the status quo

People viewed police visibility as an effective crime deterrent. It had been a belief since the 13th century, and everyone just went along with the idea. So the government spent billions to maintain the practice, despite the lack of scientific evidence supporting the theory. The idea was challenged a few times before. A comprehensive study by the Kansas City Police Department showed that routine preventive patrol had no difference in crime rates in the city. This research showed that previously held beliefs could be wrong. With research, we can manage our resources better with more effective ways of preventing crime than stick with the baseless convention.

Marriage of research and politics

Criminal justice used to be “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth.” This treatment of crimes leaves the decision for the penalty in the hands of the offended party. Revenge justice is unreliable because the gravity of the crime may be disproportionate with the punishment exacted to the offender. Research is focal to our acknowledgment of the inhumane effect of the archaic justice system. The integration of criminological research in policy proposals  helped us understand the nature of criminality. The policies are becoming more responsive to what we have learned from the findings. We have abandoned the cruel punishments and moved on to measures that respect the person.

Fulcrum of Modern Justice System

Justice isn’t just about punishing the guilty and vindicating the innocent. We also have to monitor the system if its policies and programs are at par with the need of the community. There is no one-size-fits-all solution, so justice agencies have to assess their performance and if the results reflect the ideal outcomes. Research not only plays a role in crime prevention, but it can also evaluate the performance of existing practices. The following are examples of research papers that remodeled the United States criminal justice system.

1. Investigation Research Example

2. Crime Prevention Research

Size: 306 KB

3. Research on Threat Handling

Size: 82 KB

4. Research on Career Criminals

Size: 497 KB

5. Study on Case Attrition

6. Research on Court Bail Policy

Size: 86 Kb

7. Research on Sentencing Policy

Size: 923 KB

8. Research on Treatment of Offenders

Size: 127 KB

9. Study on Policy Evaluation

Size: 945 KB

10. Research on Effects of Abuse

Size: 34 KB

11. Sample Criminology Research

Size: 251 KB

Reinforcing the revolution

Research has done much for the US criminal justice system. As an agent of justice, you are not exempted from the responsibility to contribute to this growth. The studies that redefined justice and its derivatives started from an idea. Here is how you begin with your study.

1. Know what you want

Any undertaking requires time and resources. And when you’re using the public’s or an organization’s money, any expense should be justified by results of equal value. You have to have an idea on what you want to accomplish with your study. This is your research goal, and this influences the totality of your research design, from methodology to data presentation. What do you want to find out? Are you exploring a new idea? Are you describing the efficiency of a present intervention? Decide on what you want for this research. It will keep you from going astray in the middle of work.

2. Move the wheel forward

You can spin a wheel and say there is movement. However, that doesn’t get you away from where you stand. Similarly, rehashed ideas will stagnate a field. The progress in criminal justice is brought about by researchers putting forth new ideas to the table. When you are planning a research , you have to read related literature on what has been done about the subject. As you go through the articles, ask yourself what you can do. You can gain insights on how the researchers went with their investigation. With the introduction of new information, the onward momentum of the domain is maintained.

3. Gain green light

Unless you’re an affluent person who can support the cost of extensive research, you are likely to need the approval of a board or panel to proceed with your study. People submit research proposals , either for study grants or permission to start a project. In the document, you will justify the need for such an investigation. Since you will be persuading the people to support your endeavor, you have to outline your concrete plan and show that you are capable of the task. Preparedness and knowledgeability show in sections like data collection and analysis method and the project timeline .

4. Get the ball rolling

Now that you have a vision on what your research will focus on and how you will address the objectives, the next thing to do is to conduct the study. Gather relevant data that will help answer your research questions and perform the appropriate data treatment. In data analysis , graphical illustrations are better at helping you see patterns and trends that aren’t apparent in the raw data. However, all this effort would be put to waste if you keep your findings to yourself. Research in criminology remodeled the justice system because they were relayed to the appropriate channels.

To inflict harm unto others for the sake of doing harm isn’t natural for us. That is why we have to understand what pushes a person to cross moral lines. When we learn what drove and will drive people to the dark side, we can offer the specific help that each person needs and effective preventive measures. Full hostility towards lawless elements didn’t stop crimes more than it harmed individual liberties. In addressing criminality, we need more than brawn.

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Digital Commons @ USF > College of Behavioral and Community Sciences > Criminology > Theses and Dissertations

Criminology Theses and Dissertations

Theses/dissertations from 2023 2023.

Efficacy of Online Social Movements for Sparking Change: The Case of the Missing Murdered and Indigenous Women Movement (#MMIW) , Kacy A. Bleeker

An Examination of Racial Disparities in Arrest Across Florida Counties, 1998-2018: A Test of the Racial Threat and Political Representation Hypotheses , Xavier D. Burch

The Invisible Victims of Commercial Sexual Exploitation: Boys and Their Barriers to Access to Services , Amanda L. Connella

Damned & Damned: Examining Vexatious Litigation and the Vexatious Litigant Statute in Florida Courts , Sarah L. Harper

The Contributions of Mental Health Issues, Traumatic Brain Injury, and Adverse Childhood Experiences to Recidivism Among Rural Jail Incarcerees , Lauren N. Miley

Assessing the Relationship Between True Crime Documentary and Podcast Consumption, Fear of Crime, and Protective Behaviors , Lauren A. Tremblay

Police Officers’ Perceptions of Gunshot Detection Technology , Courtney L. Weber

Theses/Dissertations from 2022 2022

A Macro Social Examination of the Relationship Between Disabilities and Crime Using Neighborhood and County Level Data , Natasha A. Baloch

Racial Differences in Perceptions of Sanction Severity , Sarah L. Franklin

Juvenile Homicide Offenders: A Life-Course Perspective , Norair Khachatryan

Exploring the Effectiveness of a Life-Skills Program in a Florida Prison Through a Social Bond and General Strain Theory Perspective , Danielle M. Thomas

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

Clean Water for All: Examining Safe Drinking Water Act Violations of Water Systems and Community Characteristics , Junghwan Bae

Morality and Offender Decision-Making: Testing the Empirical Relationship and Examining Methodological Implications , Jacquelyn Burckley

The Ring of Gyges 2.0: How Anonymity Providing Behaviors Affect Willingness to Participate in Online Deviance , Cassandra E. Dodge

A Macro Analysis of Illegal Hunting and Fishing Across Texas Counties: Using an Economic Structural Approach , Leo J. Genco Jr.

Self-Protection in Cyberspace: Assessing the Processual Relationship Between Thoughtfully Reflective Decision Making, Protection Motivation Theory, Cyber Hygiene, and Victimization , C. Jordan Howell

Racial Threat Theory: A Test of the Economic Threat Hypothesis , Carl L. Reeds

Online Perceptions of Panamanian Prisons and Incarcerated persons: An analysis of YouTube user comments , Mahaleth J. Sotelo

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

Toxic Colonialism and Green Victimization of Native Americans: An Examination of the Genocidal Impacts of Uranium Mining , Averi R. Fegadel

Cross-National Incarceration Rates as Behavior of Law , Christopher J. Marier

The Effects of Perceived Motivations and Mental Distress on the Likelihood of Reporting and Engaging in Self-Protective Measures Among Victims of Stalking , Daniela Oramas Mora

Mental Health and In-Prison Experiences: Examining Socioeconomic and Sex Differences in the Effect of Mental Illness on Institutional Misconduct and Disciplinary Segregation , Rachel E. Severson

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

Dating Application Facilitated Victimization: An Examination of Lifestyle-Routine Activities, Self-Control, and Self-Efficacy , Vanessa Centelles

Social Constructionism and Cultivation Theory in Development of the Juvenile “Super-Predator” , Elizabeth R. Jackson-Cruz

Bystander Intervention, Victimization, and Routine Activities Theory: An Examination of Feminist Routine Activities Theory in Cyber Space , Jennifer A. Leili

Sexual Assault and Robbery Disclosure: An Examination of Black’s Theory of the Behavior of Law , Caitlyn N. Muniz

Mass Shootings and Gun Sales: A Study on the Influence of Red and Blue Power , Maria Jose Rozo Osuna

A Multi-dimensional Macrolevel Study of Drug Enforcement Strategies, Heroin Prices, and Heroin Consumption Rates , Alexander G. Toth

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

The Impact of a Religious/Spiritual Turning Point on Desistance: A Lifecourse Assessment of Racial/Ethnic Differences , Rhissa Briones Robinson

Political Decisions on Police Expenditures: Examining the Potential Relationship Between Political Structure, Police Expenditures and the Volume of Crime Across US States , Xavier D. Burch

Identifying the Personal and Perceived Organizational Characteristics Associated with Job Satisfaction Among Juvenile Probation Staff , Julie M. Krupa

The Role of Organizational Justice in Predicting Attitudes Toward Body-Worn Cameras in Police Officers , Nathaniel L. Lawshe

Yet Another Ferguson Effect: An Exploratory Content Analysis of News Stories on Police Brutality and Deadly Force Before and After the Killing of Michael Brown , Carl Root

The Role of Race/Ethnicity and Risk Assessment on Juvenile Case Outcomes , Tayler N. Shreve

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

Intimate Partner Violence and the Capacity and Desire for Self-Control , Krista Taralynne Brewer

School Shootings in the United States from 1997 to 2012: A Content Analysis of Media Coverage , Victoria N. Iannuzzi

Chronic Runaway Youth: A Gender-Based Analysis , Michelle N. Jeanis

A Test of Wikström’s Situational Action Theory Using Self-Report Data on Intimate Partner Violence , Lauren Nicole Miley

An Exploratory Study of Macro-Social Correlates of Online Property Crime , Hyojong Song

Female Incarceration and Prison Social Order: An Examination of Gender Differences in Prison Misconduct and In-Prison Punishments , Elisa L. Toman

Adverse Childhood Experiences and Their Role as Mitigators for Youthful and Non-Youthful Offenders in Capital Sentencing Cases , Jessica R. Trapassi

Theses/Dissertations from 2016 2016

Disinhibition, Violence Exposure, and Delinquency: A Test of How Self-Control Affects the Impact of Exposure to Violence , Wyatt Brown

The Guilty But Mentally Ill Verdict: Assessing the Impact of Informing Jurors of Verdict Consequences , Erin Elizabeth Cotrone

The Relationship between Psychopathic Personality Traits and Lying , Jason A. Dobrow

Delving into the Heart of Victimization Risk: Examining the Interactive Relationship between Demographic Factors and Context , Amy Sheena Eggers

A Power Conflict Approach to Animal Cruelty: Examining How Economic Power Influences the Creation of Animal Cruelty Laws , Leonard J. Genco

The Role of Gender in Self-Control and Intimate Partner Violence , Laura Marie Gulledge

The Restrictive Deterrent Effect of Warning Banners in a Compromised Computer System , Christian Jordan-Michael Howell

Tactics of Sexual Control and Negative Health Outcomes , Anna Elizabeth Kleppe

The Applicability of Criminology to Terrorism Studies: An Exploratory Study of ISIS Supporters in the United States , Amanda Marie Sharp Parker

The Path to Violent Behavior: The Harmful Aftermath of Childhood Trauma , Nicholas Michael Perez

The Effects of Racial Bias on Perceptions of Intimate Partner Violence Scenarios , Batya Yisraela Rubenstein

Theses/Dissertations from 2015 2015

Reel or Reality? The Portrayal of Prostitution in Major Motion Pictures , Raleigh Blasdell

Psychopathy and Perception of Vulnerability , Barbara Joyce Dinkins

Effect of Empathy on Death Penalty Support in Relation to the Racial Divide and Gender Gap , Brian Godcharles

Exploring the Interactive Effects of Social Learning Theory and Psychopathy on Serious Juvenile Delinquency , Brandy Barenna Henderson

Tampa Electric Company's Big Bend Utility Plant in Hillsborough County, Florida: A Case Study , Lynne M. Hodalski-Champagne

Thirty Year Follow-Up of Juvenile Homicide Offenders , Norair Khachatryan

Organized Crime in Insurance Fraud: An Empirical Analysis of Staged Automobile Accident Rings , Chris Longino

The Role of Social Support in the Disclosure and Recovery Process of Rape Victims , Jessica Nicole Mitchell

Evaluating the Social Control of Banking Crimes: An Examination of Anti-Money Laundering Deficiencies and Industry Success , Erin M. Mulligan

Elite Deviance, Organized Crime, and Homicide: A Cross-National Quantitative Analysis , Carol L.s. Trent

An Evaluation of the Utah First District Mental Health Court: Gauging the Efficacy of Diverting Offenders Suffering With Serious Mental Illness , Stephen Guy VanGeem

Rape, Race, and Capital Punishment in North Carolina: A Qualitative Approach to Examining an Enduring Cultural Legacy , Douglas Wholl

Theses/Dissertations from 2014 2014

The Tattoo: A Mark of Subversion, Deviance, or Mainstream Self-Expression? , Jocelyn Camacho

Juvenile and Adult Involvement in Double Parricide and Familicide in the U.S.: An Empirical Analysis of 20 Years of Data , Averi Rebekah Fegadel

Predicting Successful Drug Court Graduation: Exploring Demographic and Psychosocial Factors among Medication-Assisted Drug Court Treatment Clients , Autumn Michelle Frei

Experimentally Evaluating Statistical Patterns of Offending Typology For Burglary: A Replication Study , Lance Edwin Gilmore

Developmental Trajectories of Physical Aggression and Nonaggressive Rule-Breaking among At-risk Males and Females during Late Childhood and Early Adolescence , Eugena Givens

Predicting Fear of Crime using a Multilevel and Multi-Model Approach: A Study in Hillsborough County , Jonathan Maskaly

Public Knowledge and Sentiments about Elite Deviance , Cedric Michel

The Influence of Community Context on Social Control: A Multi-Level Examination of the Relationship between Race/Ethnicity, Drug Offending, and Juvenile Court Outcomes , Jennifer Peck

Theses/Dissertations from 2013 2013

Assessing the Relationship Between Hotspots of Lead and Hotspots of Crime , Kimberly L. Barrett

A Life-Course Approach to Sexual Offending: Examining the Continuity of Juvenile Sexual Offending into Adulthood and Subsequent Patterns of Recidivism , Maude Beaudry-Cyr

Examining the link between self-control and misconduct in a multi-agency sample of police supervisors: A test of two theories , Christopher Matthew Donner

The Impact of Hyperfemininity on Explicit and Implicit Blame Assignment and Police Reporting of Alcohol Facilitated Rape in a Sample of College Women , Sarah Ehlke

Rurality and Intimate Partner Homicide: Exploring the Relationship between Place, Social Structure, and Femicide in North Carolina , Amelia Kirkland

Self-Control, Attitudinal Beliefs, and White-Collar Crime Intentions , Melissa Anne Lugo

Zero Tolerance for Marginal Populations: Examining Neoliberal Social Controls in American Schools , Brian Gregory Sellers

State-Corporate Crime in the Democratic Republic of Congo , Veronica Jane Winters

Theses/Dissertations from 2012 2012

The Walls Are Closing In: Comparing Property Crime Victimization Risk In Gated And Non-Gated Communities , Nicholas Branic

What Propels Sexual Homicide Offenders? Testing an Integrated Theory of Social Learning and Routine Activities Theories , Heng Choon Chan

A Deadly Way of Doing Business: A Case Study of Corporate Crime in the Coal Mining Industry , Charles Nickolas Stickeler

Deconstructing the "Power and Control Motive": Developing and Assessing the Measurability of Internal Power , Shelly Marie Wagers

Theses/Dissertations from 2011 2011

Assessing racial differences in offending trajectories: A life-course view of the race-crime relationship , Michael S. Caudy

Mental Health Courts Effectiveness in Reducing Recidivism and Improving Clinical Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis , Brittany Cross

General Strain Theory and Juvenile Delinquency: A Cross-Cultural Study , Wen-Hsu Lin

General Strain Theory, Race, and Delinquency , Jennifer Peck

Developmental Trajectories of Self-Control: Assessing the Stability Hypothesis , James Vance Ray

Explaining the "Female Victim Effect" in Capital Sentencing Decisions: A Case for Sex-Specific Models of Capital Sentencing Research , Tara N. Richards

A Multilevel Model of Police Corruption: Anomie, Decoupling, and Moral Disengagement , Ruth Zschoche

Theses/Dissertations from 2010 2010

The Emotional Guardianship of Foreign-Born and Native-Born Hispanic Youth and Its Effect on Violent Victimization , Amy Sheena Eggers

The Influence of Narcissism and Self-Control on Reactive Aggression , Melissa L. Harrison

Is There an "Innocent Female Victim" Effect in Capital Punishment Sentencing? , Amelia Lane Kirkland

An Analysis of the Influence of Sampling Methods on Estimation of Drug Use Prevalence and Patterns Among Arrestees in the United States: Implications for Research and Policy , Janine Kremling

A Pathway to Child Sex Trafficking in Prostitution: The Impact of Strain and Risk-Inflating Responses , Joan A. Reid

Victimization Among Individuals With Low Self-Control: Effects on Fear Versus Perceived Risk of Crime , Casey Williams

Theses/Dissertations from 2009 2009

Domestic Violence Within Law Enforcement Families: The Link Between Traditional Police Subculture and Domestic Violence Among Police , Lindsey Blumenstein

Rape Attitudes and Beliefs: A Replication Study , Rhissa Emily Briones

Reel Images: Representations of Adult Male Prisons by the Film Industry , Melissa E. Fenwick

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Citing Sources Using APA Style, 6th Edition

• Cite Articles
• Cite Webpages
• In-text Citations & References

APA Overview

APA (American Psychological Association) is the style is most commonly used to write papers and cite sources within the social sciences .

Recommended Guides

• Frequently Asked Questions About APA Style This resource is from the American Psychological Association and provides a clear and quick guide to the formatting structure of different source types in APA style. It also provides access to additional tutorials and a Q&A section and tips for formatting your research paper.
• OWL Purdue: APA Formatting & Style Guide This comprehensive resource from the Online Writing Lab at Purdue is very popular for good reason. It provides clear examples and descriptions of how to cite most sources and format research papers, in-text citations, and works cited in APA 6th edition.
• APA Quick Guide from EasyBib This guide is quick tool showing you how to cite the most common information sources in APA.

Video Guides

• APA Video Tutorials from OWL Purdue This series of 6 videos provides an excellent quick overview to creating citations and formatting your paper in APA style.

APA Article Citation Examples

Print articles, journal article example.

Harlow, H. F. (1983). Fundamentals for preparing psychology journal articles. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55 (6), 893-896.

Magazine Article Example

Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's schools. Time, 135 , 28-31. 

 Newspaper Article Example

Schultz, S. (2005, December 28). Calls made to strengthen state energy policies.  The Country Today  , pp. 1A, 2A.

Electronic Articles

Today, it is more than likely that you will locate articles from a database or a website. When a DOI is available for an electronic article, provide the number at the end of the citation. In APA it is optional to include the name of the database or URL where the source was found, but always be sure to check your instructor's preferences for inclusion.

TAKE NOTE:  When using a URL from a database, always use the permalink when one is provided to avoid expired session URLs.

Article from an Online Database Examples

Brownlie, D. (2007). Toward effective poster presentations: An annotated bibliography. European Journal of Marketing, 41, 1245-1283. doi:10.1108/03090560710821161

Halfwerk, W. , Jones, P. , Taylor, R. , Ryan, M. , & Page, R. (2014). Risky ripples allow bats and frogs to eavesdrop on a multisensory sexual display. Science, 343 (6169), 413. Retrieved from http:// http://science.sciencemag.org/content/343/6169/413.full

Article from a Website Example (no author)

Youtuber, brexit, and 'get your freak on' enter the Oxford English Dictionary. (2016, December 14). Time Magazine . Retrieved from   http://time.com/4603064/oxford-dictionary-new-words. 

Need More APA Article Citation Examples?

• OWL Purdue: Articles in Periodicals
• OWL Purdue: Reference List - Electronic Sources
• What's a DOI?
• What's a Permalink?

APA Book Citations

Print books, book (one author).

Berry, W. (1981).  The gift of good land . San Francisco, CA: NorthPoint.

Book (more than one author)

Winston, B. L., Reinhart, M. L., Sacker, J. R., Gottlieb, W., Oscar, B., & Harris, D.P. (1980).  Nepal in crisis: Growth and  stagnation at the periphery . Delhi: Oxford UP.

Book (editor)

Del Castillo, A. R. (Ed.). (1990).  Between borders: Essays on Mexicana/Chicana history . Encino, CA: Floricanto.

Electronic Books

When a book is accessed from a database, website, or other electronic source (even Amazon), the URL (or DOI when available) information is provided at the end of the citation. If the book is not directly available online or must be purchased, use "Available from," rather than "Retrieved from," and point readers to where they can find it. 

TAKE NOTE:  

• The place of download (URL) or DOI is used in-place of publisher information.
• When using a URL from a database, always use the  permalink ( permanent link)  when one is provided to avoid expired session URLs.

eBook from a Database

Pustz, M. (1999).  Comic book culture: Fanboys and true believers . Retrieved from http://0-search.ebscohost.com.iii.sonoma.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=25895&site=ehost-live&scope=site. 

Schiraldi, G. R. (2001).  The post-traumatic stress disorder sourcebook: A guide to healing, recovery, and growth  [Adobe Digital Editions version]. doi:10.1036/0071393722

eBook from a Website

Speed, H. (2004).  The practice and science of drawing.  Retrieved from http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14264

Stoker, B. (2000).  Dracula [Kindle HDX version]. Retrieved from http://www.overdrive.com

Need More APA Book Citation Examples?

• OWL Purdue: APA Book Citations

MLA Website Citations

Website examples.

All 33 Chile miners freed in flawless rescue. (2010, October 13). Retrieved from http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39625809/ns/world_news-americas/

Lundman, S.. How to make vegetarian chili.  Retrieved from: http://www.ehow.com/how_10727_make-vegetarian-chili.html. 

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Retrieved from http://www.drugabuse.gov

Need More MLA Website Examples?

• OWL Purdue: APA Electronic Sources

Other Media Sources

The following are examples for citing Videos, Blogs, Comments, Tweets, and Email in APA format style:

Ted Talks (Producer). (2016, April 6).  Inside the mind of a master procrastinator: Tim Urban  [Video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/arj7oStGLkU

Freakonomics. (2010, October 29). E-ZPass is a life-saver (literally) [Blog post]. Retrieved from http://freakonomics.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/10/29/e-zpass-is-a-life-saver-literally/

TAKE NOTE: E-mails are not included in the list of references, though you parenthetically cite them in your main text:

(e. robbins, personal communication, january 4, 2001)..

BarackObama. (2009, July 15). Launched American Graduation Initiative to help additional 5 mill. Americans graduate college by 2020: http://bit.ly/gcTX7 [Twitter post]. Retrieved from http://twitter.com/BarackObama/status/2651151366

Need More APA Examples of Other Media Sources?

• OWL Purdue: Electronic Sources (see bottom of list)
• OWL Purdue: Motion Pictures

In-text Citations

In order to avoid plagiarism, all information which you gather from someone else’s research or knowledge needs to be both cited in a References page as well as through in-text citations (also called parenthetical citation). In-text citations are inserted directly into an essay using parentheses. In-text citations must be used to give credit to the original author for paraphrases, summaries, as well as direct quotes. Generally, they are placed at the end of a sentence. 

In-text citations:  

• allows your reader to know which source each idea/fact came from
• gives you credibility as a writer
• protects you from plagiarism
• points your reader to the proper entry in your References.

Examples of In-text Citations

The  format for creating an in-text citation  in APA Style is to include the  last name of the author  of the work,  followed by the page number  of the content used.

Direct Quote:

"In the Caribbean the successful planting of new varieties of crops owed much to the Amerindian, who carefully nurtured each newly introduced food source." (Mackie, 42)

Lead-in Reference with quote:

Christine Mackie notes that  "in the Caribbean the successful planting of new varieties of crops owed much to the Amerindian, who carefully nurtured each newly introduced food source."  (42)

Paraphrase:

The success of new varieties of crops planted in the Caribbean was due in part to the careful tending by the Amerindians. (Mackie, 42)

In the References:

The References for this essay will include a full bibliographic citation to the Mackie work:

Mackie, C.. (1992).  Life and food in the Caribbean . New York: New Amsterdam Books

Need More APA In-text Citation Examples?

• Purdue OWL: APA In-Text Citations - Authors

APA style requires a References page at the end of your research paper. All entries (except personal email) in the References page must correspond to the sources cited in your main text, in other words -- your in-text citations.

Basic Rules

• Begin your References page on a separate page at the end of your research paper. 
• Label the page References (do not italicize the words References or put them in quotation marks) and center the word References at the top of the page.
• Double space all citations, but do not skip spaces between entries.
• Indent the second and subsequent lines of citations by 0.5 inches to create a hanging indent.

APA References Examples

• Purdue OWL: APA Sample Paper
• << Previous: ASA style
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Sample APA-Style Papers (7th edition)

The following links provide samples of student-paper formatting in APA's 7th edition style.  The first is from APA's web site; the second is from Purdue OWL's web site.

• Sample APA Student Paper This document from the APA web site illustrates the 7th edition formatting of a student paper. This format is a simplified version of the professional paper format (excluding things like running heads, etc.).
• Purdue OWL Sample Student Paper This sample student paper in APA 7th edition comes from PurdueOWL. It can be used to supplement the example from the APA web site, or stand on its own.

The following links provide samples of professional-paper formatting in APA's 7th edition style.  The first is from APA's web site; the second is from Purdue OWL's web site.  The formatting of these professional papers is a bit more involved than that of the student sample papers.

• Sample APA Professional Paper This sample professional paper from the APA web site illustrates the 7th edition formatting for a paper submitted for publication to a professional journal.
• Purdue OWL Sample Professional Paper This sample paper from Purdue OWL illustrates in 7th edition formatting a professional paper. It can be used to supplement the APA sample paper or it can stand alone.

Quotations and Paraphrases in APA Style (7th edition)

• Quotations (APA 7th Edition) This link takes you to a page on the official APAstyle.org web site with information that includes how to cite both direct and indirect quotations (short and long), how to cite material for direct quotations that do not contain page numbers, and more.
• Quotations--PurdueOWL (APA 7th edition) On this "Basics: In-Text Citations" page from PurdueOWL, scroll down to see explanations and example for quotations both short (under 40 words) and long (40+ words). In addition, it gives guidance about paraphrases/summaries and how to use in-text citations to document their original source(s).

Formatting an Annotated Bibliography in APA Style (7th edition)

• Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL): Annotated Bibliographies This helpful page from PurdueOWL explains the purpose of annotated bibliographies, what they often contain, and why they're helpful.
• Guidelines for Formatting Annotated Bibliographies (APA, 7th ed.) This document provides guidance for formatting annotated bibliographies, including a sample annotated bib.

Formatting a Literature Review in APA Style (7th edition)

While APA doesn't itself provide an example of how to format a literature review, it does provide some guidance in its Publication Manual * about the content of a lit review:

Literature Reviews:

• provide summaries and evaluations of findings/theories in the research literature of a particular discipline or field;
• may include qualitative, quantitative, or a variety of other types of research;
• should define and clarify the problem being reviewed;
• summarize previous research to inform readers of where research stands currently in regard to the problem;
• identify relationships, contradictions, gaps, and inconsistencies in the current literature;
• suggest next steps or further research needed to move toward solving the problem.  (APA, 2020, Section 1.6, p. 8)

* American Psychological Association. (2020).  Publication manual of the American Psychological Association: The official guide to APA style (7th ed.). American Psychological Association.

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Criminology Research Methods Research Paper

View sample criminology research paper on criminology research methods. Browse other research paper examples for more inspiration. If you need a thorough research paper written according to all the academic standards, you can always turn to our experienced writers for help. This is how your paper can get an A! Feel free to contact our writing service for professional assistance. We offer high-quality assignments for reasonable rates.

Those interested in the study of criminology and criminal justice have at their disposal a wide range of research methods. Which of the particular research methods to use is entirely contingent upon the question being studied. Research questions typically fall into four categories of research: (1) descriptive, (2) exploratory, (3) explanatory, and (4) evaluative (Schutt). Descriptive research attempts to define and describe the social phenomena under investigation. Exploratory research seeks to identify the underlying meaning behind actions and individual behavior. Explanatory research seeks to identify the cause(s) and effect(s) of social phenomena. Evaluation research seeks to determine the effects of an intervention on individual behavior. These four areas of research are not mutually exclusive; rather, they are designed to be used interactively in order to gain a deeper understanding of the question under investigation.

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With this background, the purpose of this research paper will be to introduce the reader to the two major research paradigms and issues that organize the field of criminology and criminal justice: quantitative and qualitative research strategies. After describing the different research methodologies several issues related to internal and external validity are identified that are important to bear in mind when assessing the adequacies of distinct research methodologies. The paper closes by highlighting what appears to be the most promising research strategy for criminology and criminal justice.

Quantitative Research Methods

Quantitative research methods are typically concerned with measuring criminological or criminal justice reality. To understand this process several terms must first be identified. Concepts are abstract tags placed on reality that are assigned numerical values, thus making them variables. Variables are then studied to examine patterns of relation, covariation, and cause and effect. At the most basic level, there exists at least one dependent variable and one independent variable. The dependent variable is commonly referred to as the outcome variable. This is what the researcher is attempting to predict. The independent variable is commonly referred to as the predictor variable, and it is the variable that causes, determines, or precedes in time the dependent variable (Hagan). Consider the following examples.

Criminological theorists may be interested in studying the relationship between impulsivity (independent variable) and criminal behavior (dependent variable). In studying such a relationship, scholars create a summated scale of items that is designed to indirectly measure the concept of impulsivity. Then, this impulsivity scale is used to predict involvement in criminal behavior. Criminal justice scholars may be interested in studying the effects of a mandatory arrest policy (independent variable) on future patterns of domestic violence (dependent variable). In studying such a question, scholars typically evaluate the effect of an arrest, compared to some other sanction, on the future criminal behavior of the arrestee. Thus, quantitative research methods involve a pattern of studying the relationship(s) between sets of variables to determine cause and effect.

Three criteria are needed to establish causality. The first is association. That is, the independent and dependent variables must be related to one another. The second is time order; the independent variable must precede the dependent variable in time. Finally, there is the issue of nonspuriousness. This occurs if the relationship between the independent and dependent variables is not due to variation in some unobserved third variable.

There are a number of different quantitative research methods available to researchers, most of which fall under the rubric of a research design, which loosely can be defined as the plan or blueprint for a study that includes the who, what, where, when, why and how of an investigation (Hagan). These research methods include: survey research, experimental and quasiexperimental research, cross-sectional research, longitudinal research, time series research, and meta-analysis.

Survey Research

Serving as the most frequently used mode of observation within the social sciences, including criminology (Maxfield and Babbie), survey research involves the collection of information from a sample of individuals through their responses to questions (Schutt). Survey research is generally carried out via mail, telephone, computer, or in person.

Typically, surveys contain a combination of open- and closed-ended questions. Open-ended questions ask the respondent to provide an answer to a particular question. For example, the respondent may be asked: ‘‘What do you think is the most important problem facing residents in your neighborhood today?’’ Then in their own words, the respondent would provide his or her answer. On the other hand, closed-ended questions ask the respondents to select an answer from a list of choices provided. For example, the question asked above would read exactly the same only now respondents are provided with a list of options to choose from: ‘‘What do you think is the most important problem facing residents in your neighborhood today? (a) crime, (b) drugs, (c) education, (d) employment, (e) family structure, (f ) poverty, (g) health care, (h) child care, (i) extracurricular activities, ( j) other.’’

Surveys offer a number of attractive features that make them a popular method of doing research. They are versatile, efficient, inexpensive, and generalizable. At the same time, survey methods may be limited due to problems in sampling, measurement, and overall survey design. When creating a survey, researchers should take care in making sure that the items in the survey are clear and to the point.

Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research

Some scholars believe that experimental research is the best type of research to assess cause and effect (Sherman; Weisburd). True experiments must have at least three features: (1) two comparison groups (i.e., an experimental group and a control group); (2) variation in the independent variable before assessment of change in the dependent variable; and (3) random assignment to the two (or more) comparison groups (Schutt).

Many experiments contain both a pre-test and a post-test. The former test measures the dependent variable prior to the experimental intervention while the latter test measures the outcome variable after the experimental group has received the treatment. Randomization is what makes the comparison group in a true experiment a powerful approach for identifying the effects of the treatment (Schutt). Assigning groups randomly to the experimental and comparison groups ensures that systematic bias does not affect the assignment of subjects to groups. This is important if researchers wish to generalize their findings regarding cause and effect among key variables within and across groups.

The classic experimental design is one in which there is a pre-test for both groups, an intervention for one group (i.e., the experimental group), and then a post-test for both groups. Consider the following criminal justice example. Two police precincts alike in all possible respects are chosen to participate in a study that examines fear of crime in neighborhoods. Both precincts would be pre-tested to obtain information on crime rates and citizen perceptions of crime. The experimental precinct would receive a treatment (i.e., increase in police patrols), while the comparison precinct would not receive a treatment. Then, twelve months later, both precincts would be post-tested to determine changes in crime rates and citizen perceptions.

There have been several experimental designs in criminology and criminal justice including the Domestic Violence Experiment (Sherman), where offenders were randomly assigned to one of three interventions (arrest, mediation, separation). The Jersey City Police Department’s Program to Control Violent Places also utilized an experimental design (Braga et al.). For this study, twenty-four high-activity, violent crime places were matched into twelve pairs and one member of each pair was allocated to treatment conditions in a randomized block field experiment.

On the other hand, quasi-experimental research lacks the random assignment to experimental and control groups, but can be approximated by close and careful matching of subjects across the two groups on several key variables. The two major types of quasiexperimental designs are: (1) nonequivalent control group designs, which have experimental and comparison groups that are designated before the treatment occurs and are not created by random assignment; and (2) before-and-after designs, which have both a pre- and post-test but no comparison group (Schutt).

An example of a nonequivalent control group design is a study of the effect of police actions on seat-belt law violations. For example, Watson selected two communities of comparable size where police enforcement of the law was low. In the experimental community, Watson instituted a media campaign to increase seat-belt usage, followed by increased police enforcement of the seat-belt law. Watson found that the percentage of drivers using seat belts increased in the experimental community but remained stable or declined slightly in the comparison community.

An example of the before-and-after design is the Pierce and Bowers analysis of the impact of the Massachusetts Bartley-Fox gun law. This law carried a one-year minimum prison sentence for the unlicensed carrying of firearms. Their early evaluation showed a decrease in gun-related assaults, robberies, and homicides, but was offset by increases in non-gun assaults and robberies using other weapons.

Cross-Sectional Research

Cross-sectional designs involve studies of one group at one point in time. Therefore, they offer a quick glimpse or snapshot of the phenomena being studied. Typically, they refer to a representative sample of the group and thus allow researchers to generalize their findings (Hagan). Cross-sectional research designs permeate criminology and criminal justice research. Hirschi’s famous study of causes of delinquency utilized a cross-sectional design in which he asked male respondents a series of questions related to involvement in delinquent activities and emotional ties to social bonds.

Longitudinal Research

There are two commonly used longitudinal research designs, panel and cohort studies. Both study the same group over a period of time and are generally concerned with assessing within- and between-group change. Panel studies follow the same group or sample over time, while cohort studies examine more specific populations (i.e., cohorts) as they change over time. Panel studies typically interview the same set of people at two or more periods of time. For example, the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) randomly selects a certain number of households from across the United States and interviews a member from each a series of seven times at six-month intervals. Cohort studies follow individuals or specific cohorts as they change over time. One classic example of a cohort study was conducted by Marvin Wolfgang and his colleagues in Philadelphia. The authors traced the criminal records of all boys born in Philadelphia in 1945 through the age of eighteen. Similarly, Tracy, Wolfgang and Figlio tracked the criminal history of males and females born in Philadelphia in 1958.

Time-Series Designs

Time-series designs typically involve variations of multiple observations of the same group (i.e., person, city, area, etc.) over time or at successive points in time. Typically, they analyze a single variable (such as the crime rate) at successive time periods, and are especially useful for studies of the impact of new laws or social programs (Schutt). An example of a time-series design would be to examine the murder rate in the United States over the last twenty years or to compare the murder rate of the United States and Canada over the same period of time.

An interrupted time-series design analyzes a single variable at successive time periods with measures taken prior to some form of interruption (i.e., intervention) and other observations taken after the intervention. An example of an interrupted time-series design may be found in Spelman and Eck (1987). These authors studied the number of larcenies from automobiles in Newport News, Virginia. The intervention in this study was a problem-oriented policing program that consisted of special tracking and investigation of crime incidents. The results showed that the number of larcenies dropped significantly immediately after the intervention took place and remained significantly small for over one year after the intervention. In another interrupted time series study, D’Alessio and Stolzenberg investigated the impact of Minnesota sentencing guidelines on jail incarceration. They found that the onset of the sentencing guidelines increased judicial use of the jail sanction beyond the effect of preexisting trends.

Although time-series designs are especially useful in studying trends over time and how such trends are influenced by some sort of intervention, researchers should be aware of one key feature of time-series designs: the inability to control for all potential spurious effects. Consider the following example. Suppose that a researcher is studying the effect on robberies of a mandatory convenience store law that requires stores to have at least two clerks working during hours of operation. After examining the number of robberies before and after the law took effect, the researcher observed that the number of robberies significantly decreased after the law was instituted. Therefore, the researcher claimed that the law led to the decrease in the number of robberies committed and concluded that the law should be generalized to other locales. However, what the researcher may have failed to consider was the recent capture of two offenders who were committing 75 percent of all convenience store robberies, and who just happened to be captured about the time the law took effect. In sum, researchers need to be careful in making sure that their interpretations of interrupted time-series analyses take into consideration as much information, both empirical and nonempirical, as possible.

Meta-Analysis

A recent advent in research methodology is the use of meta-analysis. This research approach is the quantitative analysis of findings from multiple studies. At its core, metaanalysis involves researchers pulling together the results of several studies and making summary, empirical statements about some cause and effect relationship. A classic example of meta-analysis in criminology was performed by Wells and Rankin and concerned the relationship between broken homes and delinquency.

After observing a series of findings showing that the broken-homes-causes-delinquency hypothesis was inconclusive, Wells and Rankin identified fifty studies that tested this hypothesis. After coding the key characteristics of the studies, such as the population sampled, age range, measures (both independent and dependent) used, the authors found that the average effect of broken homes across the studies was to increase the probability of delinquency by about 10 to 15 percent. Perhaps more importantly, they found that the different methods used across the studies accounted for much of the variation in estimating the effect of broken homes. For example, the effect of broken homes on delinquency tended to be greater in studies using official records rather than self-report surveys.

Although the research community has not spoken with one voice regarding the usefulness of meta-analysis, one thing is clear: meta-analysis makes the research community aware that it is inappropriate to base conclusions on the findings of one study. It is because of this important lesson that meta-analysis has become a popular technique in criminological and criminal justice research (Lipsey and Wilson).

Threats to Validity

Validity refers to the accuracy of measurement or whether the instrument is in fact measuring what it is suppose to measure (Hagan). While quantitative research methods have permeated criminological and criminal justice research, they are not without problems. Threats to validity are perhaps the most profound and should be acknowledged. Some of these threats are internal and are concerned with whether the observational process itself produced the findings, while external threats are concerned with whether the results were unique and applicable only to the group or target studied (Hagan).

Internal Threats

According to Campbell and Stanley, a number of internal threats need to be considered, including: (1) history, (2) maturation, (3) testing, (4) instrumentation, (5) statistical regression, (6) selection bias, (7) experimental mortality, and (8) selectionmaturation interaction. In determining whether a particular design rules out threats to internal validity, Cook and Campbell suggest that ‘‘estimating the internal validity of a relationship is a deductive process in which the investigator has to systematically think through how each of the internal validity threats can be ruled out’’ (p. 55). External threats. Campbell and Stanley also identify several threats to external validity, including: (1) testing effects, (2) selection bias, (3) reactivity or awareness of being studied, and (4) multiple-treatment interference. These threats are greater for experiments conducted under more carefully controlled conditions (Maxfield and Babbie). Perhaps one of the best methods for assessing threats to external validity is replication, or the repetition of experiments or studies utilizing the same methodology. By replication of key findings, researchers can gain confidence that the results observed in one study may not be due to external validity threats. One of the key examples of replication occurred in the late 1980s when the Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment was replicated in six cities throughout the United States (Sherman). Importantly, these replications yielded both similar and contradictory conclusions to those observed in the initial experiment.

Qualitative Research Methods

Unlike quantitative research methods, qualitative approaches are designed to capture life as participants experience it, rather than in categories predetermined by the researcher. These methods typically involve exploratory research questions, inductive reasoning, an orientation to social context and human subjectivity, and the meanings attached by participants to events and to their lives (Schutt). There are a number of distinctive research designs under this paradigm: (1) participant observation, (2) intensive interviewing, (3) focus groups, and (4) case studies and life histories. Each of these will be discussed in turn.

Participant Observation

At its most basic level, participant observation involves a variety of strategies in data gathering in which the researcher observes a group by participating, to varying degrees, in the activities of the group (Hagan). Gold discusses four different positions on a continuum of roles that field researchers may play in this regard: (1) complete participant, (2) participant-as-observer, (3) observer-as-participant, and (4) complete observer. Complete participation takes place when the researcher joins in and actually begins to manipulate the direction of group activity. In the participant-as-observer strategy, the researcher usually makes himself known and tries to objectively observe the activities of the group. The observer-as-participant strategy is very much like a one-visit interview, where the interviewees are also short-term participant observers. Typically, these interviews are conducted with individuals who are known to participate in a designated activity. For example, Jacobs interviewed known active drug dealers in order to gain a better understanding of how the crack business actually operates on the streets. Finally, the complete observer strategy relies on sole observation absent participation from the researcher.

Although several issues must be confronted when engaging in this sort of research, two are of vital importance: (1) objectivity, and (2) ‘‘going native.’’ The former deals with the researcher’s ability to avoid not only overidentification with the study group, but also aversion to it (Hagan). The latter deals with a situation in which the researcher identifies with and becomes a member of the study group, and in the process abandons his or her role as an objective researcher (Hagan). Even with these cautions, a number of important participant observation studies have been undertaken in criminology and criminal justice including Polsky’s study of pool hustlers and con artists, as well as Marquart’s study of prison life.

Intensive Interviewing

Intensive interviewing consists of open-ended, relatively unstructured questioning in which the interviewer seeks in-depth information on the interviewee’s feelings, experiences, or perceptions (Schutt, 1999). Unlike the participant observation strategy, intensive interviewing does not require systematic observation of respondents in their natural setting. Typically, interviewing sample members, and identification and interviewing of more sample members, continues until the saturation point is reached, the point when new interviews seems to yield little additional information (Schutt).

A prominent example of the intensive interviewing technique can be found in a series of studies with active residential burglars (Wright and Decker, 1994) and robbers (Wright and Decker, 1997) in St. Louis. These authors have conducted in-depth interviews with active criminals in their natural environment. Some of these interviews have yielded important theoretical insights that perhaps may not have been garnered via traditional survey methods. Other prominent examples may be found in Fagan and Wilkinson’s study of gun-related violence in New York and Jacobs’s study of crack addicts in St. Louis.

Focus Groups

Focus groups are groups of unrelated individuals that are formed by a researcher and then led in group discussions of a topic (Schutt). Typically, the researcher asks specific questions and guides the discussion to ensure that group members address these questions, but the resulting information is qualitative and relatively unstructured (Schutt).

Although generalizations from focus groups to target populations cannot be precise (Maxfield and Babbie), research suggests that focus group information, combined with survey information, can be quite consistent under certain conditions (Ward et al.). One such criminal justice example is provided by Schneider and her colleagues. These authors examined the implementation process and the role of risk/need assessment instruments for decisions about the proper level of supervision among parolees and probationers. Their use of focus group was able to provide a context for a more complete understanding of the survey results from the probation officers interviewed.

Case Studies and Life Histories

In general, case studies and life histories are in-depth, qualitative studies of one or a few illustrative cases (Hagan). Several criminological examples using this approach exist, and a few in particular have produced some of the most important, baseline information in the discipline today. The classic example is Sutherland’s The Professional Thief (1937). In this case study, Sutherland’s informant, Chic Conwell, described the world of the professional thief. Other examples include Shaw’s The Jack-Roller (1930), which tells the autobiographical story of a delinquent’s own experiences, influences, attitudes, and values. Finally, Horatio Alger’s tale of street life in New York tells the story of Young Dick, a street boy who is involved in a delinquent life but who is also honest and hardworking. Life-history methods generally involve the analysis of diaries, letters, biographies, and autobiographies to obtain a detailed view of either a unique or representative individual (Hagan). A classic example of the life-history method is Teresa and Renner’s My Life in the Mafia (1973).

Future of Research Methods in Criminology and Criminal Justice

Although the preceding discussion has portrayed the two main research paradigms, quantitative and qualitative research methods, as two ends of the research continuum, it was not meant to imply that the two are mutually exclusive. On the contrary, the future of research methods in criminology and criminal justice lies in the combination of quantitative and qualitative research approaches. Illustrated below are two successful integrations.

The first, by Eric Hirsch, used a combination of methods, including participant observation, intensive interviewing, and a standardized survey, to study the 1985 student movement that attempted to make Columbia University divest its stock in companies dealing with South Africa. Hirsch believed that the combination of research methodologies provided a more comprehensive picture of student’s motivations.

The second example is from John Laub and Robert Sampson. For quite some time, these two scholars have been working on the reanalysis of one of the classic data sets in criminology, the Unraveling Juvenile Delinquency (UJD) study that was initiated by Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck in 1940. The data contain the original case records of all one thousand sample members as well as detailed archival life records that included information from the ‘‘home investigation,’’ which consisted of an interview with family members and offered an opportunity for the investigators to observe the home and family life of sample members. Furthermore, the UJD study included interviews with key informants such as social workers, settlement house workers, clergymen, schoolteachers, neighbors, employers, and criminal justice and social welfare officials. When this detailed information is combined with the statistical information on criminal behavior and other life events, one can begin to appreciate the richness with which Laub and Sampson have been able to document these one thousand lives and contribute much needed information regarding crime over the life course.

The future of criminological and criminal justice research will likely come full circle. Early studies of crime and criminality began with qualitative observations almost to the exclusion of quantitative research. New research topics were observed and highlighted by scholars who wished to forge ahead in the understanding of crime and criminality. Once these topics were brought to the forefront of the field, quantitative research became the choice method of analysis. The future of criminological research must focus on the blending of the two. As John Clausen notes, both case history and statistical data are required ‘‘if we are to understand the influences on the lives of persons who have lived through a particular slice of American history’’ (p. 43).

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PRIMARY RESEARCH PAPERS 

These primary criminology research papers are written by some of the most up and coming criminologists in their fields. It should be noted that although these criminology papers are not anonymously peer reviewed, like those in our articles section of the journal, primary research papers are reviewed and edited by the General Editor and members of the Editorial Board to ensure they meet the high standards of the Internet Journal of Criminology.

To download the articles please click on the the title of the articles below.

Dr. Charles Scott’s Role as an Expert Witness in the Nikolas Cruz Sentencing Trial                   by Professor Dina Lenore Cirigliano

On Valentine’s Day of the year 2018, a nineteen-year-old man by the name of Nikolas Cruz entered his alma mater, the Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School, located in the Miami suburb of Parkland, Florida. With “an AR-15-style semiautomatic rifle” (Laughland, et at, 2018) in hand, Cruz gunned down thirty-four people and traumatizing all within the building. Authorities stated that Cruz was equipped with three-hundred-thirty rounds of ammo when he crossed the threshold of the school and had carved swastikas onto the magazines. At the end of his rampage, seventeen were wounded and seventeen were deceased on account of this mass murderer’s actions. 

Richard von Krafft-Ebing’s Psychopathia Sexualis & Jacob Appel’s The Mask of Sanity                      By Professor Dina Lenore Cirigliano

In the year 1886, a medical doctor who was “recognized as an authority on deviant sexual behavior and its medico-legal aspects” (Kupferschmidt, 1987) published Psychopathia Sexualis. This expert was Richard von Krafft-Ebbing, a University of Heidelberg graduate who practiced psychiatry within asylums across Germany. One-hundred-thirty-one years later in the year 2017, a Bronx-born lawyer/bioethicist/physician who specializes in emergency psychiatry published Mask of Sanity. This professional is Jacob Appel, professor of psychiatry and medical education at the Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York. While Krafft-Ebing’s Psychopathia Sexualis is a German-printed, non-fictional piece classified as a medico-legal reference, and Appel’s Mask of Sanity is an American novel of the fiction genre, both pieces are scribed by authorities in their field and both publications address individuals who suffer from pervasive mental disorders steeped in criminality. 

Are Non-Scientists Qualified To Be Blood Spatter Analysis Professionals?

By Dina Cirigliano, Plaza College, Forest Hills, New York

While blood spatter analysis has indeed developed and expanded with the passage of time, there have been notable setbacks in the field as of late. These setbacks come in the form of questionable credentials of those permitted to offer expert testimony regarding blood spatter in courts of law. Particularly in the last half decade, blood spatter analysis has come under the inspection of some watchful eyes, as the qualifications of supposed experts are more and more often being viewed as subpar. The purpose of this paper is to establish whether or not non-medical doctor and non-scientific researcher blood spatter analysis professionals deserve the scrutiny they have been facing for the past five years.

Advances in Forensic Science: Deoxyribonucleic Acid Breakthroughs in the Last Five Years

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) has come a long way since its discovery by Swiss chemist, Dr. Friedrich Miescher, in the year 1869. It has subsequently been recognized as presenting in three-dimensional, double helix form, has been utilized to exonerate the accused but not-guilty, and has been applied as irrefutable scientific evidence to convict offenders in criminal court, regardless of their lack of admission of guilt. Scientific discovery is a continuum of knowledge to be acquired with each passing year, especially within the field of genetics. The purpose of this paper is to explore what the last five years of DNA research has brought forth.

From 1860 Miescher to 1986 Jeffreys: A Times Past View of Forensic DNA Analysis    

B y Dina Lenore Ciriligiano, Plaza College, Forest Hills, New York

The purpose of this piece is to highlight the major events throughout the short history of DNA, specifically 1) the first discovery of its existence, 2) Watson and Crick’s discovery of its three-dimensional double helix form and more, 3) Dr. Alec Jeffreys’ and the first conviction in a criminal case using DNA as scientific evidence, and 4) the recognition of identical twin DNA and the doubt it brings forth. 

From Galton to the First Repository: Fingerprint Analysis During the Pre-AFIS Period By Dina Cirigliano, Plaza College, Forest Hills, New York

At the present time, fingerprints are utilized to confirm or refute an individual’s identity within the confines of criminal justice systems throughout the world. Today, fingerprints are used to identify individuals who were present at crime scenes even after fleeing, to link one crime scene to another by comparing prints from both locations, often connecting them to the very same individual, to differentiate inmates housed in correctional facilities, to track the criminal record of repeat offenders, and to even ;put a name to the face of many a John and Jane Doe in the custody of the Office of the Chief Medical Examiner (OCME). All of this comparing, tracking, differentiating, and linking is done with advanced computer technologies whose system houses an infinite repository of fingerprints and identities the individuals to whom each print belongs. However, this high-tech database known as the Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) did not come into existence until the year 1980 (Crime Scene Forensics, 2018).  Prior to that, anything regarding fingerprint analysis and sharing was done the old-fashioned way. The purpose of this paper is to highlight the establishment of fingerprint usage during the pre-AFIS period, specifically 1) Sir Francis Galton’s concepts of minutiae, 2) Sir Edward Henry’s pattern classification, 3) the William West conundrum, 4) the Thomas Jennings case, and 5) the growth of the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s fingerprint repository.

The Last Five Years In Blood Spatter

By Professor Dina L. Cirigliano / Plaza College / Forest Hills, New York

Blood spatter analysis by forensic science experts began one-hundred-twenty-eight years ago and is therefore, by no means, a new specialization. The maturity of this concentration of forensic science has increased over time. That is quite evident with the professionals’ ability to establish categories of blood spatter as passive stains (droplets, flows, and pools), transfer stains (wipes, swipes, footprints, shoeprints, handprints, glove prints, and body drag marks), and impact stains (cast-off and arterial gush), their ability to identify the bloodshed event (sharp-force injury, blunt-force injury, or gunshot injury), their ability to determine the trajectory of a projectile, their ability to establish the locations and positions of victims and offenders, their ability to bring forth chemiluminescence with a mere spray of aerosol Luminol, and their ability to to recreate crime scenes by utilizing simulation software. While blood spatter analysis has indeed developed and expanded with the passage of time, there have been notable setbacks in the field as of late. These setbacks come in the form of questionable credentials of those permitted to offer expert testimony regarding blood spatter in courts of law. Particularly in the last half decade, blood spatter analysis has come under the inspection of some watchful eyes, as the qualifications of supposed experts are more and more often being viewed as subpar. The purpose of this paper is to establish whether or not non-medical doctor and non-scientific researcher blood spatter analysis professionals deserve the scrutiny they have been facing for the past five years.

Innovations in Forensic Fingerprint Analysis Over the Last Half-Decade By Dina Cirigliano, Plaza College, Forest Hills, New York

The study of fingerprints has come a long way from its meagre beginnings in 1892, when Galton introduced the world’s first fingerprint analysis publication. So much had happened in the field since then that by the year 1980, the database known as the Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) was not only founded, but up and running, so that print sharing between law enforcement agencies could occur seamlessly. Today, forty-three years after the establishment of AFIS, fingerprint research is still at the forefront of forensic scientists’ focus. The purpose of this piece is to highlight advances in fingerprint science in the last five years, particularly 1) how and when fingerprints develop on the bulbs of human fingers, 2) the role of INTERPOL in fighting international crime, 3) the recognition of irregularly rare fingerprints, and 4) the ability to estimate the sex of an offender or victim based on the ridge density of the fingerprints left behind at the crime scene.

Blood Spatter: The History of Analysis

Blood spatter analysis is, at the present time, a well-established subcategory within the field of forensic science. In today’s world of innovative technologies and highly-sophisticated equipment, attorneys can rely on the testimony of blood spatter experts in the form of forensic scientists, to make or break their cases. However, this was not always so. Blood splatter analysis was not always in existence, let alone as evolved as it is at the current time. The purpose of this piece is to highlight the major milestones throughout blood splatter analysis’ historical timeline, specifically 1) its origin with Dr. Eduard Piotrowski, 2) its breakthrough into the American legal system as accepted scientific proof presented during trial, 3) its popularity among researchers enacting the establishment of the International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysts, 4) its introduction of Fred Carter’s blood simulation software, and 5) its use of detection Luminol to reveal weaponry used along with the locations of the victim and offender.

EXAMINING AN ECCENTRIC NECROPHILE

By Dina Lenore Cirigliano. Plaza College.

As far back as historical documentation goes, necrophilia has always been a macabre constant. In earlier times, Herodotus (who lived from 484 BC - 425 BC), documented in his record writings that bodies of remarkably stunning women were no longer embalmed immediately after their deaths in Ancient Egypt, to deter a repetition of a situation where it was exposed that an embalmer had intercourse with the corpse of a freshly deceased woman. Hundreds of years later, the Babylonian Talmud (3rd–5th centuries AD), records a chosen maiden killing herself to avoid marrying King Herod of Judea, as she had no desire to be with him. It continues to state that following her suicide, the king had her corpse conserved in thick honey for seven years so that he may have sex with her body at a later date. Later still, Gilles de Rais, a knight, lord, leader in the French army, and companion-in-arms to Joan of Arc, was “noted to have sexually violated the dead bodies of his victims”  until his death in October 1440. Continuing onward in time, notable criminologist Herschel Prins, proved that up until the 19th century, if an engaged woman in passed away in Central Europe prior to her marriage, the male betrothed to her may copulate with her body. Again, necrophilia has plagued every era throughout history and will continue to do so throughout the future, as paraphilias are neither preventable nor curable. They are, in fact, “innate, driven by some complex interactions between androgenization of the brain and neurohormonal changes”.  

EVOLUTION OF AUTHORIZED DEATH DEVICES: PROGRESSION OF SANCTIONED KILLING MACHINES, TRENDS THEY YIELD, AND WHAT THESE DRIFTS INDICATE ABOUT THE NLAC LASER AS THE FUTURE OF CAPITAL PUNISHMENT IMPLEMENTATION  

By Dina Lenore Cirigliano, Plaza College

This article illustrates the progression in the sophistication of death devices with regard to both materials utilized and apparatus design, from times in ancient history through modern days. The article will illustrate the fact that when examining the development of death penalty constituents and contraptions, as the means by which the convicted are condemned to death become increasingly technologically savvy, they also become decreasingly gruesome and less time-consumingly torturous. With the passage of time and the rise of innovative methods of execution comes a change from primitive, bloody, lengthy agony to state-of-the-art, minimally-gory, swift humaneness. This alteration shows a definite surge in moral and ethical responsibility. If this trend is to continue, the questions for corrections professionals are as follows: 

1.    What will the capital punishment device of the future be?   2.    In what ways will the future death apparatus continue the ongoing movement toward innovative technology, morality, ethics, and humaneness and away from bloody displays and drawn-out suffering?  

THE EXPERIENCE AND TREATMENT OF WOMEN PRISONERS AS VICTIMS OF VIOLENCE

By  Rezia Begum,  Loughborough University

This research was undertaken for my PhD thesis. The aim of the research was to gain access to women’s prison in the UK in order to undertake qualitative research into two specific issues: women prisoners’ experience of domestic violence; and what treatment or management programmes are in place to deal with this issue, both whilst women are in prison and upon their release. 

‘It’s Life But Not As We Know It’.  An Impact Study Looking At Youth Offending Practitioners Interactions With Their Service Users By Antony Peter Gadsby, Nottingham Trent Universtity, UK

In recent years, studies that aim to understand the experiences of youth justice practice have tended to focus on the practice as a whole using quantitative methods and statistics to explain the trends in offending behaviours rather that the impact this has on the practitioners themselves (Burnett & Appleton, 2004). There has also been a tendency to concentrate solely on the offending behaviour rather than the individual’s behaviour, which is portrayed mainly in negative ways, resulting in even less emphasis on the impacts and implications for practitioner and client relationship. For this very reason, a single participant case study utilising Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis, aimed to look into the experience of a practitioner within a youth offending team, to understand the psychological impacts both positive and negative that may occur, in work related situations. The study’s main aim was to extract rich idiographic data, in order to give the researcher a clear and richer understanding of their experiences and coping mechanisms needed to efficiently manage their daily activities. The participant Trevor (pseudonym) was a white male with extensive experience working with young people, also with a youth working background. A youth offending office such as the one in the study was a very busy environment, and unexpected events occurred frequently from the initial observations during part 1 of the interview. Due to the nature of the work, the interview with Trevor had to be conducted in 2 parts to facilitate the study. There was a main theme in the interview, whereby time constraints and adhering to procedures affected the way relationships were built up. Other emerging themes from the semi-structured interview reflected on a reactive practice, whereby immediate action was required, uncertainty in daily planning of duties, resulting in what Trevor described as ‘fire fighting’. However, where policies and procedures are in place, in inter- agency organisations such as youth offending teams, the mix of historical, professional and cultural traditions (Eadie & Canton, 2002) may unfortunately do little to alter these working practices for the foreseeable future, but measures may be introduced to ease these working practices.

Field Observations of Australian Private Investigators Conducting Fraud Investigations

By Michael King, Brisbane North Institute of Technical and Further Education, Australia

It has been over a decade since the last study was conducted investigating the nature and role of the private investigation profession. To fill this gap, this study uses semi-structured interviews and field observation of private investigators working within the metropolitan area of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia to obtain data to further this field. This study focuses on the investigative methods used by private investigators to conduct their investigations and examines the ethical and legal issues arising from their work. Despite some advances in training and licensing, the industry is still prone to investigators adopting questionable ethical practices such as deception to solve cases. The objective of this paper is to provide a greater insight into this little understood profession. 

Police interviewing of criminal suspects: A historical perspective

By Karl Roberts, Macquarie University, Australia

This paper provides an historical overview of the development of police suspect interviewing. The paper highlights how different approaches developed based upon the prevailing needs of the time, from early approaches involving torture and threats, simple question and answer approaches, through to methods incorporating knowledge from the behavioural sciences such as persuasive interviewing. The paper highlights some of the problems associated with these approaches in particular risks of unreliable information and potential miscarriages of justice and discusses more recent ethically oriented interview approaches developed to minimise some of these risks. The paper stresses the importance of sensitivity to the rights and needs of suspects even when carrying out interviews under pressured conditions. 

Youth Offenders and Functional Literacy By Edward Thomas, Middlesex University, UK

One of the key findings of the Department of Communities and Local Government’s Report into the 2011 riots found that a significant causal issue amongst those persons convicted of criminal offences during the riots of August 2011, was their lack of ‘Functional Literacy’. This article looks at longitudinal study of convicted youth offenders from 1995 and 2006. It sets out to establish that there has been sufficient academic writing from Rutter (1975) to Goodman & Ruggeiro (2010) coupled with the findings of successive Government Reports, including The Moser Report 1999, that have gone virtually unheeded by Governments of all political persuasions. These findings have been left to gather dust during periods of financial growth as well as recession for over more than thirty years. Why should the Department of Communities and Local Government’s Report fare any better? 

Portsmouth Community Safety Survey 2012

By Nick Sandford-Smith & Tom Ellis, Institute of Criminal Justice Studies, Portsmouth University, UK

This is a summary report of the key findings from the 5th Portsmouth Community Safety Survey (PCSS). Previous surveys were carried out in 2001, 2004, 2007and 2009 by Ipsos MORI. This 2012 survey has been carried out by second year research students in the Institute of Criminal Justice Studies (ICJS). It was designed to gather opinions from Portsmouth residents on: quality of life; perceptions and experience of crime and anti-social behaviour; and fear of crime in relation to particular areas of Portsmouth. This summary report was commissioned by Portsmouth City Council to inform the Safer Portsmouth Partnership Strategic Assessment (SPPSA) and the Safer Portsmouth Partnership Plan (SPPP). Both of these documents identify the community safety priorities for the partner agencies involved and provide the evidence on which the allocation of relevant resources and the commissioning of associated services within Portsmouth are based. 

Sentenced to Work: From Retribution to Rehabilitation

By Keith Price, Anthony Pierson and Susan Coleman, all at West Texas A&M University, USA.

Inmate work has been an important feature of prison systems in the United States from the colonial period until today (Fox, 1972), and work has been seen as a method to accomplish several correctional objectives (Hawkins, 1976). Prison labor was initiated for disciplinary reasons and retribution in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, extended and expanded for financial profit with the development of the industrial prison in the nineteenth, and maintained for its alleged therapeutic and educational value as a part of rehabilitation in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries (Conley, 2001).  

In Pursuit of the Beast: 

Undergraduate Attitudes Towards Sex Offenders and Implications for Society, Rehabilitation and British Psychology Education By Craig A. Harper, University of Lincoln, UK

Positive attitudes toward sex offenders can lead to favourable treatment outcomes and with psychology students being among the most likely graduates to move into offender rehabilitation, it is important to investigate the attitudes of this group. Students from British psychology and non-psychology courses read vignettes depicting an adult and a juvenile committing a contact sexual offence on a child, and completed modified versions of the attitudes towards sex offenders [ATS] questionnaire. The adult offender was viewed significantly more punitively than the juvenile offender, but no significant differences were found between subgroups of participants. It was concluded that undergraduate psychology degrees do not go far enough to address some of the stigmatised views held by the general population towards sex offenders. Implications for media reporting, recidivism and psychology education are discussed.  

Criminal Attitudes of Ex-Prisoners: The Role of Personality, Criminal Friends and Recidivism  By Daniel Boduszek, University of Ulster and Dublin Business School, Christopher G. McLaughlin, University of Ulster and Philip E. Hyland, University of Ulster and Dublin Business School, Ireland

Previous research suggests that those who enter prison with a low level of criminal attitudes tend to acquire more deviant attitudes during their sentence due to persistent contact with criminal others, and moreover, presence of criminal personality may be sufficient to develop criminal attitudes. The aim of this paper is to determine which of the independent variables: age, education level, marital status, number of children, location, recidivism, association with criminal friends, and personality traits could be used to explain why ex-prisoners hold criminal attitudes.

Policing in the Pacific: Why the Wontok Sysytem of the Solomons Encourages Corruption

By Jason Paul Sargent, JP. SJP. B Policing. Grad Dip Psych. FSA. MAIPIO, Kathleen Lumley College & Adelaide University, Australia

Jason Sargent spent 4 months serving in the Solomon Islands in 2003 as part of the (RAMSI) Royal Assistance Mission to the Solomon Islands, when he was a uniformed member of the Australian Federal Police in the Protective Service section. This paper will examine how policing in the Solomon Islands will always face the reality of corruption due to the tribal system known as the Wontok system of family association and protection.

Multi-ethnic Comparisons of the Predictors of Delinquency Among Urban Adolescents

By Tia E. Kim, Ph.D., The Pennsylvania State University, USA and Michiko Otsuki-Clutter, Ph.D., University of South Florida, USA

The purpose of the present study was to examine the roles of parental and peer influences on adolescent delinquency in a multiethnic sample of European American, Asian American, and Latino youth. The study utilized survey data on parental monitoring, peer delinquency, and delinquency on 187 high school students (10-12th grade). Overall, we found that when controlling for ethnicity and other demographic variables, both parental monitoring and peer delinquency independently predicted participants’ delinquency. In addition, peer delinquency functioned as a mediator between parental monitoring and delinquency. Findings from our study also show that correlates of delinquency differ among European American, Asian American, and Latino adolescents. Our findings suggest that prevention and intervention programs should acknowledge ethnic differences and should gauge whether steps can be taken to tailor programming to specific ethnic grou

A Global Crime: Why Transnational Sex Trafficking Networks are Succeeding in the 21st Century

By Peter Mameli, Associate Professor, Department of Public Management, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, U.S.A.

This article explores the relationship between increasing environmental complexity born of globalization processes and transnational criminal activity. In particular, the phenomenon of transnational sex trafficking is spotlighted for review. Initially, this review sketches the parameters of the problem and the main actors involved. Next, an analysis of how transnational criminals function examines why changes in organizational form have unleashed operational capabilities that public sector entities in law enforcement are finding difficult to overcome. The study closes suggesting productive paths forward to combat this growing scourge.   

From the USA to the ROK, CSI is Getting Airplay :

An Exploratory Study of the Presence and Popularity of American Criminal Justice Dramas in Northeast Asia 

By Ben Brown, Criminal Justice Department, The University of Texas at Brownsville, U.S.A.

Considerable research has focused on media presentations of crime and the criminal justice system in the United States, but little attention has been afforded to the popularity of American criminal justice dramas in foreign nations. This study utilizes a mixed methodological strategy to examine the availability and viewing of American criminal justice dramas (television programs and movies) in South Korea. An analysis of daily programming on several networks available in South Korea shows that American criminal justice television dramas such as CSI and American movies about crime and justice such as The Fugitive are frequently broadcast. An analysis of data obtained from a survey of South Korean college students shows that more than half the students watched an American criminal justice dramatic television program at least once and that more than one out of ten of the students watched American criminal justice dramatic programs on a regular basis. The implications of the data for future research are discussed.  

The Women of Stormfront: An Examination of White Nationalist Discussion Threads on the Internet

By Tammy Castle, Ph.D, James Madison University and Meagan Chevalier, B.A, George Mason University, USA

Although a plethora of literature exists on hate or extremist group activity, the role of racist women remains an unexplored area. The current study sought to explore one method of communication for racist women, the Internet. The researchers conducted a content analysis on 227 discussion threads provided on one of the oldest extremist websites on the Internet, Stormfront. The purpose of this study was to investigate the content of the discussion threads described as ‘For Stormfront Ladies Only.’ Of primary interest to the researchers was whether the content discussed by women in this ‘White Nationalist’ cyber community supported the assertion by some scholars that the role of women in racist activities is undergoing a transformation and the implications of this study in that regard are discussed.

Criminal Justice Department Chairs' Attitudes Towards Homosexuals and Curricular Issues

By Alexis J. Miller, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Criminal Justice, and Danielle McDonald, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Criminal Justice, Northern Kentucky University, USA

Criminal justice students have stronger negative attitudes toward homosexuals than do other social science students (Cannon 2005; Miller 2001; & Olivero and Murataya’s 2001). The current research surveys criminal justice department chairs’ attitudes toward homosexuals and the number and nature of courses in their departments that deal with gay and lesbian issues. Results show that male chairs and chairs that are older and white tend to have more negative feelings towards homosexuals. Furthermore, while chairs’ believe that some gay and lesbian issues are also criminal justice issues, courses covering issues facing homosexual in the criminal justice system are lacking.  

Betting Shops and Crime: Is There a Relationship? 

By Professor Mark Griffiths, International Gaming Research Unit, Nottingham Trent University, U

Gambling and its link with criminal activity is an area of growing research interest. Studies from various regions worldwide have suggested an association between criminal activity and easily accessible gambling, yet, despite growth in the commercial gambling industry, relatively little is known about the nature, extent or impact of gambling-related crime. Such information is critical in the current UK climate as some gambling establishments (particularly betting shops) are prevented from getting operating licenses on the basis of police objections that they are likely to become ‘crime hotspots’. Therefore, this paper briefly overviews to what extent betting shops cause, facilitate, or attract crime. It is concluded that only two types of betting shops can realistically be associated with crime arising from problem gamblers who use their premises and with criminal behaviour occurring within or in the immediate environment of the premises itself. Although a few studies have shown associations between gambling and crime there is no empirical evidence showing that gambling venues (including betting shops) cause crime. Most of the empirical evidence concerning the relationship between crime and gambling concerns the criminal consequences of problem gambling (including those ‘addicted’ to gambling). In order to be a cause of crime, betting shops must be both a necessary and sufficient condition for the crimes in question to occur. This paper finds that they are neither.

Public Perceptions of the Police: Effects of Police Investigation and Police Resources

By Andreas Cebulla, Research Director at the National Centre for Social Research and Mike Stephens, Senior Lecturer in Criminology and Social Policy at Loughborough University, UK

Since the 1980s, successive UK governments have sought to increase efficiency in, and effectiveness of, policing through what has been described as “cycles of reform” (Reiner, 2000, p. 204). The reforms typically involved exerting greater central control over regional police forces. Many of the early initiatives met with resistance from within the police and, as a result, were not fully implemented (McLaughlin and Murji, 1995). By the late 1990s and early 2000s, however, more effective and direct control over police performance was finally established. This took the form of a centralisation of police management, which resulted in the introduction of more uniform measures of monitoring police performance, including the regular recording of crime and crime detection rates among police forces. Performance targets were set and the public’s satisfaction with the work of the police in their local area became one of several performance indicators.  Performance targets and measures to generate greater cost efficiency in service provision, however, can have unexpected, sometimes perverse side effects. Two of these are focus of this paper. First, it explores how shifts in the police’s focus on specific types of crime in response to the introduction of performance targets affected the public’s reporting of crime. Second, it asks whether, in the light of efforts to achieve efficiency savings in the police, public spending on police forces has had any bearing on the public’s perception of the quality of local policing.   

Socio-Cultural Determinants of Criminal and Anti-Social Behaviour of Agaba Groups in Calabar Metropolis, Nigeria By Moses U. Ikoh, PhD, Graduate School, University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria and Prof. Joseph O. Charles, PhD, Department of Sociology, University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria.

This paper explored the involvement and arrest of street boys (popularly called Agaba boys) in 19 criminal and anti-social behaviours. Using the General Strain Theory (GST) to guide discussion, the study administered questionnaires on 80 Agaba members drawn purposively from four groups in Calabar Metropolis. It equally held Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) with group leaders. Chi square statistical tool and multiple regressions were used in analysis. The results revealed differences in the four groups’ involvements in the 19 criminal and anti-social behaviours that were tested. Socio-economic activities found in their residential areas were the major determinants of type of criminal and anti-social activities they specialized in. The study argues that socio-demographic backgrounds that the boys found themselves exerted significant effect on their subsequent behaviours. It suggests the creation of a Public Private Partnership (PPP) initiative that would deliberately create employments which require low and manual skills that could help in taking most of the boys from the streets. 

Perception of Smuggling Among the Yoruba People of Oke-Ogun of South Western Nigeria

By Oladeji, Matthew Olaniyi, Senior Principal Lecturer, The Polytechnic Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria

Smuggling, defined by Nigerian law as criminal, is rampant in Oke-ogun area of Southwestern Nigeria. Consequently, a research project was conducted among the people of the area to determine; how the people perceive smuggling. Also, to see the relationship that exists between the smugglers and the border town dwellers as well as between the smugglers and the law enforcement agents. Furthermore, it was meant to investigate the relationship between the level of education and perception of smuggling by the people of the area. The major instruments used were structured questionnaire, key informant method and in-depth interview. The study established that most residents did not see anything bad in smuggling as they profit from smuggling activities; and most of the services they provide are not without rewards. A positive relationship also exists between levels of education and perception of smuggling among the people of the study area. 

Spinach, Iron and Popeye: Ironic lessons from biochemistry and history on the importance of healthy eating, healthy scepticism and adequate citation  By Dr Mike Sutton, Reader in Criminology, Nottingham Trent University, UK

To inform knowledge in research methods and dissemination ethics for the natural and social sciences, this article reinforces the importance of citation to support all assertions of fact. New findings are presented for the history of biochemistry, nutrition, psychology, medicine, and the social sciences. Bio-chemistry papers and scientific news reports from the 1930’s seriously undermine a long standing truism that in the 1920s and 30s, bio-chemists, nutrition experts, public health policy makers, and E. Segar the creator of the newspaper comic strip Popeye were misled either by a decimal place error in 19th Century published research, or else by erroneous interpretation of 19th Century scientific findings, to exaggerate the iron content of spinach tenfold. Further, the failure to study original sources is evidenced in a multitude of completely erroneous publications claiming that these apocryphal errors caused Segar to choose spinach for Popeye’s super human strength. In fact, Segar chose and promoted spinach for its vitamin A content alone.   

Relationship between Psycho-demographic Factors and Civil Servants’ Attitudes to Corruption in Osun State, Nigeria By Adebayo O. Adejumo, Department of Psychology, University of Ibadan, Nigeria and a member of Nigeria’s National Health Research Ethics Committee

This paper examines the relationship between psycho-demographic factors and attitude to corruption (ATC). The cross-sectional survey included 600 local government civil servants following multi-stage sampling. A 58-item self report validated questionnaire was used for data gathering. There was significant relationship between; personality, fraudulent intent, N-Ach and ATC. Fear of crime had an inverse relationship with ATC, personality was shown to be the most potent predictor of ATC and there was significant relationship between age and ATC. This study provides insight to the role of these psychological factors and age as fundamental to improving public servants’ ATC, especially in Nigeria. Utilisation of these findings could be useful in staff recruitment and reduction of corruption in private and public administration in other settings.   

Male Inmate Perspective on Reducing Recidivism Rates Through Post-Incarceration Resources By Misty Malott and Ali Fromander, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Univeristy of Wisconsin, USA

Most people who are incarcerated come from the community and ultimately will return to the community (Andress, Wildes, Rechtine, and Moritsugu, 2004). What are some unmet needs post-incarceration that could be addressed to reduce their risk of reoffending? This nonrandom pilot study investigates inmate perspectives regarding perceived access to resources post-incarceration that could reduce their recidivism, by surveying 102 male inmates at three Midwestern jails. It was hypothesized that male inmates would agree that accessible resources, treatment, and/or support services, post-incarceration would help reduce their recidivism. Major findings supported the hypothesis. The survey data was statistically analyzed using frequencies, means, and a reliability analysis. Implications for practitioners and future researchers were addressed.   

Crime and gambling: A brief overview of gambling fraud on the Internet

By Dr. Mark Griffiths (BSc, PhD, PGDipHE, CPsychol), Professor of Gambling Studies and Director of the International Gaming Research Unit at Nottingham Trent University, UK

Although there is an association between crime and gambling there is relatively little information and research on the topic. One area that appears to have become more prevalent over the last five years is that of fraudulent gambling activities on the Internet. This paper briefly outlines how many frauds and scams have moved into technological media such as the Internet and overviews a number of these including: (i) lottery scams, (ii) fake gambling site scams, (iii) betting software scams, (iv) gambling ‘bonus’ scams, (v) ‘twofer’ scams, and (vi) prize scams. It is concluded that gambling fraud on the Internet is a growth area because many gamblers themselves want to get a huge reward from a small outlay (just as the fraudsters do). As long as there are people who are prepared to risk money on chance events, there will be those out there who will want to fraudulently take their money from them. Given the complete lack of empirical data on these fraudulent practices, there is a need for research to be initiated in this newly emerging area of criminological concern.   

A Physicist, a Philosopher and a Politician: What penologists can learn from Einstein, Kant and Churchill 

By Dr. Curtis R. Blakely, Assistant Professor in the Justice Systems Department at Truman State University, and Alice Walkley, Justice Systems major at Truman State University, USA

For the past three decades scholars, politicians and prison officials within the United States have collectively ignored offender rehabilitation as a legitimate penal pursuit. This has stifled the development and use of treatment initiatives. The absence of a treatment objective signifies a state of ideological imbalance. Prison specialization is offered as a potential solution to restore this balance while helping to break the criminogenic cycle. In looking at the feasibility of prison specialization, attention is given to three great thinkers, Albert Einstein, Immanuel Kant, and Winston Churchill. Both Einstein and Kant suggested that creative and innovative thinking can produce immensely rewarding results regardless of the field under consideration. Likewise, Churchill specifically lobbied for the creation of a specialized prison system.   

Bias Motivation in Crime: A Theoretical Examination

By Erica Hutton, Criminal Justice PhD Program, Capella University, USA

This paper assesses the social problem of racially motivated crime that occurs within our communities. Racially motivated crime is also known as bias motivation and this type of offense is personal in nature, pertaining to one’s race, ethnicity or nationality, religion, disability, or sexual orientation. There are various categories of bias that influence an individual to participate in the execution of a hate crime. The Labeling Perspective and the Constructionist Perspective are examined to assess a theoretical interpretation of this complex social problem. There is substantial controversy in regards to what exactly constitutes a hate crime and how this discrimination of one another effects members of our communities, affecting behavior as well as shaping social norms, violations, and deviant behavior correlated to the occurrence of bias acts of criminal activity.   

Cameras in the Courtroom: A Comprehensive Examination

This paper will examine the utilization of cameras within the courtroom and will discuss the historical context of broadcasting court proceedings as well as the current legal regulations pertaining to the use of cameras in and outside of the court. The strengths and weaknesses of utilizing cameras in court are explored. A section is devoted to the discussion of the diverse implications associated with utilizing cameras in court proceedings as well as the precarious influences correlating to the members thereof. An assessment of the behavioral and theoretical perspectives will be considered in regards to the sociological, psychological and criminological aspects of the community, citizens, and members of the criminal justice system.   

Pakistan: Far-Right Islamist Militants and a Resurgence in the Illicit Opiates Trade 

By James Windle, Midlands Centre for Criminology and Criminal Justice, Loughborough University, UK

Between the mid-1970s and late-1990s, Pakistan was a major source of illicit opium and heroin to the global market. By 2001, development and law enforcement activities where successful in creating a business environment in which Pakistani opium poppy farmers could not compete with their Afghan counterparts, resulting in Pakistan being declared ‘opium free’ by the UN Office of Drugs and Crime. Since 2003, there has been a gradual increase in illicit opium production in Pakistan, however, the state has been able to eradicate as much as 77 percent of all crops; this was not the case in 2008, mainly due to the redeployment of resources from counter-narcotics to counter-militancy operations. This paper posits that the current high levels of violent conflict between the state and far-right Islamist militants could act as an impetus to an increase in illicit opium production in Pakistan’s North West Frontier Province and Federally Administered Tribal Areas.   

Family Structure and Juvenile Delinquency: Correctional Centre Betamba, Centre Province of Cameroon 

By Ilongo Fritz Ngale, Institute of Education, National University of Lesotho, Lesotho-Southern Africa

The relationship between family structure and juvenile delinquency was explored in a purposive probability sample of 120 adolescents of the Betamba children’s correctional center using a questionnaire. The use of quantitative statistical analysis revealed the following significant relationships: (1) Juvenile delinquents mostly come from homes in which the parents are married; (2) The moral education of juvenile delinquents is undertaken more by others than their biological parents; (3) Most delinquent children come from the lowest socio-economic stratum of society; (4) About two-thirds of the juvenile delinquents come from homes where 7 persons and above live under the same roof; (5) Most parents of our respondents have low paid jobs which keep them for long periods away from their children. A growing number of parents need additional socio-economic support, development of vital skills of responsible parenting, in order to adequately manage periods of rapid social change and simultaneous multidimensional challenges.   

Moral Remediation, Multi-Systemic Therapy and Effective Interventions for Serious Juvenile Offenders

By David Sortino, Sonoma County Probation Department, Director of the Center for Moral Development, Values and Character Education, USA

Our juvenile hall population is at an all time high, 2.2 million inmates at an average cost of about $35,000 per inmate (OJJDP, 2006). In fact, we lead the world in incarcerated juvenile offenders and the juvenile system is fast becoming a breeding ground for adult prisons. In Washington State alone, 73% of adult inmates served time in a juvenile detention facility (OJJDP, 2005). This paper describes how a “Moral Remediation” program could be employed as an adjunct to the most successful intervention programs as defined by a recent study in the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Bulletin (April, 2000). The Bulletin defined 200 intervention programs and the methods they used to lower the recidivism rates of serious juvenile offenders in non-institutionalized and institutionalized facilities. 

Identity Crisis? Negotiating Blackness in the British Police Service: a Regional Perspective 

By Barbara Perry, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, USA and Catherine John-Baptiste, Nottingham Trent University, UK

Our paper will address preliminary findings from a pilot study in which we will interview a sample of black police personnel from Nottingham, UK. Our goal in this project is to uncover the mechanisms by which police officers as well as other police staff negotiate their black identities in the context of their roles within law enforcement – an entity that clearly been historically characterized by systemic racism.   

How Prolific Thieves Sell Stolen Goods 

By Mike Sutton, Nottingham Trent University, UK

Aiming to reduce acquisitive crimes and associated offending, Nottinghamshire Constabulary is considering adopting the Market Reduction Approach (MRA) to tackle stolen goods markets in order to reduce theft. As a first step, this report provides a review of findings from a study of local stolen goods markets in Nottingham and Mansfield. The study examined the ways that local stolen goods markets operate and their influence upon local theft levels and criminal careers. Funding for the study was provided by Nottinghamshire County Council’s Communities Department. The findings in this report come from in-depth interviews conducted in the summer of 2006 with 20 offenders under supervision by Mansfield and Nottingham’s prolific offender units. Some interviewees admitted that they were active offenders. Others were making a concerted effort to remain out of trouble. Most had recently completed a spell in custody.   

Differences at the Border: Views of Crime, Criminals, Punishment, and Treatment Among Canadian and U.S. College Students  By Eric G. Lambert, Kasey A. Tucker and David N. Baker, University of Toldeo, USA

Crime is universal; views about crime and how to control it vary widely in different cultural and political climates. This study examined cross-cultural views of crime, criminals, punishment and treatment for offenders. Specifically, this study compared Canadian and U.S. college students and their perceptions of these issues to determine whether cultural differences exist and to what degree. Both the independent t-test and ordered ordinal regression indicated that U.S. students tended to be more punitive than their Canadian counterparts on a majority of the indicators. This attitude may be due to the fact that U.S. students were more likely to perceive a higher crime rate.  

Handling Stolen Goods: Findings from the 2003 Offending Crime and Justice Survey 

By Mike Sutton, Nottingham Trent University, England, Sarah Hodgkinson, Leicester University, England and Mike Levi, Cardiff University, Wales

This paper presents findings from a systematic analysis of stolen goods markets, based upon scholarly research and criminological theory, with a toolkit for implementing Sutton’s MRA. The MRA has been implemented in several UK police forces including Kent, Thames Valley, The Metropolitan Police. Derbyshire, Manchester and West Mercia. Other forces use MRA techniques, while Nottinghamshire and Cheshire currently seek to build it into routine policing. Independent academic evaluators, commissioned by the Home Office to evaluate the MRA in 3 police force areas: Kent; Greater Manchester and West Mercia, found MRA theory to be sound, referring positively to police using this report as ‘The Sutton Bible’. This Primary Research Paper presents important analysis.   

Counter-Terrorism and Democracy Transition in Russia

By Anna Tabolina, Far Eastern State University, Vladivostok, Russian Federation

The purpose of this essay is to open up East and West dialogues by critically discussing the measures that Russia is undertaking in order to tackle terrorism and to discuss how this impacts upon the provision of security in a nation recently undergoing such relatively rapid change.  

Targeted Intervention Effects on Antisocial Behaviour

By Dr Boaz Shulruf, Faculty of Education, University of Auckland, New Zealand

The current study reports on an evaluation of a school-based intervention aimed at altering at-risk primary students’ self-perception and social awareness as an avenue to mainstream citizenship rather than delinquency and criminal activity. Fourteen students participated in a pilot intervention programme operated once weekly over four months. Programme activities were focused on raising awareness of antisocial behaviours and awareness of personal life quality. The evaluation applied a mixed-methods approach using both quantitative and qualitative data. Evidence for improvement in children’s self-perception was identified as well as effective methods facilitating such changes. Implications of the findings for further intervention programmes and evaluations are discussed.  

The relationship between community attitudes and recent racial vilification laws in Victoria Australia: A comparison of a legal and extra-legal classification model. By Kristine Muraca and Terence P Bartholomew, School of Applied Sciences, Forensic Psychology Program, School of Psychology, Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia

This study assessed the level of consistency between the elements prescribed in Victoria, Australia’s Racial and Religious Tolerance Act (2001) and the criteria utilised by a sample of the general population in that state. A random sample of 197 adult Victorians was asked to provide their opinions about a hypothetical vignette where seemingly racist comments were made. Based on existing research and theory, it was anticipated that participants’ classifications of conduct as racial vilification would be better predicted by factors not included in the legislation, than legislatively-defined considerations. Results indicate that the legal model, which included the elements of ‘incitement’ and ‘basis of race’, was a significant predictor of classifications of racial vilification. However, the proposed ‘extra-legal’ model, which included ‘race of the target’, ‘race of the perpetrator’, ‘intention’, and ‘perceived seriousness’, also emerged as a significant predictor of respondent classifications. Although the legal model did in fact emerge as a more effective predictor, a hybrid model including the legally prescribed elements as well as ‘perceived seriousness’ had the greatest predictive ability. It is concluded that the public, as potential jurors, show a preference for grounded ‘act-based’ factors when determining whether a behaviour constitutes racial vilification or not, and that the tenets of Victoria’s Racial and Religious Tolerance Act (2001) largely reflect these intuitive criteria.   

The Effect of Initial Meeting Context and Video-Mediation on Jury Perceptions of an Eyewitness 

By Chris Fullwood, Amy Marie Judd, and Mandy Finn, School of Applied Sciences, University of Wolverhampton, UK

Video-mediated testimony in the courtroom has become more widespread since introduced as a method to aid vulnerable witnesses. Despite many benefits, research indicates that individuals are perceived more negatively over video links in comparison to face-to-face contact. Studies have also shown that an initial face-to-face meeting can improve subsequent person perceptions across video. The current study compared participant perceptions of an eyewitness in three conditions: face-to-face testimony, video testimony and video testimony with an initial face-to-face introduction. Results suggest that although impressions of the eyewitness were more negative when the testimony was given via video (compared with face-to-face), this did not impact upon the jury’s decision to convict the accused. Furthermore, the initial face-to-face meeting did not significantly improve the jury’s perceptions of the eyewitness. Video-mediated impressions may be more negative due to social distance and the attenuation of visual cues.  

“If They Are Dead, Tell Us!” A Criminological Study of the “Disappearances” in Kashmir 

By Teresa Crew, Postgraduate Student, University of Wales, Bangor

Cradled in the lap of majestic mountains of the Himalayas, Kashmir is one of the most beautiful places on earth. This paradise is now hell for many Kashmiris due to the prolonged war between India and Pakistan since the end of the British Empire and subsequent partition of the Indian Subcontinent. This paper focuses on the enforced disappearances in Kashmir. The aim of this study is to further develop the study into the victims of State harm. In order to do this, Kauzlarich et al's 'Victimology of State Crime' is utilised, and their general propositions of State crime are tested with reference to the disappeared in Kashmir. This study holds with Kauzlarich et al's assertion that State crime victimology is a different phenomenon from that of street crime as victims are doubly victimised by the state - once during the actual harm inflicted and then again by the criminal justice process. Whilst the majority of Kauzlarich's propositions were consistent with the situation in Kashmir, the concept of secondary victimisation was underdeveloped throughout the original Kauzlarich et al paper. This concept, in relation to Kashmir, is developed in this paper. 

The Public Discourse on Corruption in Greece

By Effi Lambropoulou, Panteion University of Social and Political Sciences, Greece.

Perceptions of corruption have significant impact on a country’s awareness of the issue and thereby on the success of any prevention measures. This paper provides a brief overview and summary of preliminary findings from an on-going study funded by the European Commission to examine issues of corruption in 8 EU countries. The study examines the perceptions of political and administrative decision-makers in the various countries, of the representatives of various institutions and authorities, as well as of citizens and media in the European societies. Overall, the project attempts to investigate the difference between institutionalised prevention policies, how they are perceived in daily practice and how effective they are.  

Honour-Related Violence (HRV) in Scotland: A Cross- And Multi-Agency Intervention Involvement Survey.  by Dr. Roxanne Khan, University of Central Lancashire, UK

This paper documents the results of a small-scale pilot study, which represents the first step towards further research in this overlooked area of violence against women and represents a first step towards responding to widespread calls for multi-disciplinary research to be conducted in this area. ‘Honour’ killings and ‘honour’ related violence is a neglected area in criminology. Such killings and acts of violence are assaults committed against women both by female and male family or community members, for what is considered ‘immoral behaviour,’ that might include women choosing their own marriage partner, allegations of premarital or extramarital sex, being a victim of sexual abuse or rape and even talking innocently with a man who is not a relative. This paper highlights the lack of provision for females facing this specific type of family violence and problems faced by agencies who attempt to help them. This Primary Research Paper provides insights that will remind/inform readers that because this form of violence is shrouded by notions of ‘honour’, there are girls and women living in the UK who are outwardly living calmly in what are effectively dangerous and violent family- and community-governed environments.  

Are Reality TV Crime Shows Continuing to Perpetuate Crime Myths?

By Elizabeth Monk-Turner, Homer Martinez, Jason Holbrook & Nathan Harvey, Department of Sociology and Criminal Justice, Old Dominion University, USA

This article examines the portrayal of gender and race in the USA reality television program COPS. Fifty one police officers apprehending sixty perpetrators were content analyzed into four categories including race (of both officer and perpetrator), gender (of both officer and perpetrator), US Uniform Crime Report (UCR) type offense (type I or type II), as well as the specific type of crime depicted. The vast majority of police officers shown on COPS were white male (92%) and the majority of offenders were nonwhite males (62%). Black men were most likely to be shown engaging in a crime of burglary or theft or crimes involving drugs. Hispanic men were most likely to be involved in UCR Part I offenses; however, they were in a distinct minority on these episodes. On the other hand, the most likely scenario for white offenders is to be shown committing an alcohol related offense or causing, or being part of, a domestic disturbance. Few white women were included on the show. One was a police officer and among the other five, one was looking for a lost child and the others were picked up for a variety of relatively minor violations (driving under the influence, drug possession, stolen bike, animal disturbance). No minority women were shown on COPS during this period of evaluation - as either an officer or perpetrator of a crime. The authors argue that media images depicted in COPS are at odds with UCR official crime statistics and reinforce stereotypes and myths about the nature of crime in the United States.  

Culture, Violence and Rape Adjudication: Reflections on the Zuma Rape Trial and Judgment 

B y Sarah H. Krieg, Ph.D. fellow, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany

This paper offers contextualised reflections on the role of cultural arguments during the rape trial of South Africa's former Deputy President, Jacob Gedleyihlekisa Zuma. In conjunction with an analysis of International and South African Law on violence against women, it establishes and applies a gender and culture sensitive framework with which rape adjudication and other criminal law judgments can be examined.  

Anti-social Behaviour: Concerns of Minority and Marginalised Londoners 

B y Andrew Millie, Lecturer in Criminology and Social Policy, Loughborough University

In the UK there is currently a lot of political and media attention on what has become known as anti-social behaviour (ASB). Concerns about ASB appear to be higher in deprived and/or urban areas. In particular, people living in London are more likely to suffer from ASB. There is undoubtedly real ASB in London; however, this article argues that people will have different expectations of urban living and use of public spaces, resulting in contested notions or tolerances of what is acceptable or anti-social behaviour. This has implications for people’s acceptance of difference or ‘otherness’. With this in mind, evidence is drawn from 10 focus groups with minority and marginalised Londoners. The article argues that our beliefs and expectations of urban living need to be challenged as this is what urban living is all about. Similarly, we should take on board the focus group participants’ assertion that all can be anti-social - rather than focusing on certain groups that ‘don’t fit in’ and entrenching their social exclusion.   

Police Administrators in Indiana: A Descriptive Study of Attitudes, Perceptions, and Stressors 

By Billy Long, Ph.D., Indiana University Southeast, and Officer Courtney Yerington, Owensboro Police Department.

Surveys were sent to 308 police chiefs and sheriffs in Indiana in the USA - resulting in 229 being returned for a response rate of 74%. The survey device measured six areas of policing: 1) demographics of police executives; 2) departmental characteristics; 3) stressors (external); 4) stressors (internal/work-related); 5) police executive attitudes toward the current use of police resources; and 6) police executive perceptions of the efficacy of current police strategies and tactics. Results showed that Indiana police departments and sheriff’s offices are mostly small departments with little turnover and are rarely accredited by the Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies (CALEA). Civilian Review Boards and Early Warning Systems are rarely used to address police misconduct. Indiana departments are overwhelmingly white and male and attempts to increase diversity have failed. Police executive stressors were highest in the area of perceiving courts as too lenient, the criminal justice system as ineffective and media reports about police as overly hostile. Similarly, they indicate significant sources of stress in the areas of financial resources for the department, poor equipment, and dealing with complaints about their officers. Chiefs and sheriffs indicate strong support for the use of police resources for tracking sex offenders and enforcing drug laws. Problem areas were identified in that police executives are not familiar with research on policing. These misunderstandings result in stress on the part of police executives. Areas of misunderstanding include the effectiveness of random patrol and enforcing anti-marijuana laws. Policy implications are discussed.   

Race, Diversity and Criminal Justice in Canada: A view from the UK 

By David Denney, Department of Health and Social Care, Royal Holloway, University of London, UK, Tom Ellis, Institute of Criminal Justice Studies, University of Portsmouth, UK, and Ravinder Barn, Department of Health and Social Care, Royal Holloway, University of London, UK

This article examines the way in which those employed in the Canadian criminal justice system perceive race and diversity, and how such perceptions could affect professional practice. By drawing on research carried out under the Canadian High Commission Institutional Research Program, the paper has a number of purposes. Firstly, to explore the possibility that disparities in the outcomes of courtroom proceedings could be related to the perceptions and practices of those who play a key part in the sentencing process. Secondly, to examine the nature of current anti-racist criminal justice practices in one province of Canada. Thirdly, the paper also makes recommendations for the development of future antiracist training. Finally, the paper discusses the implications of the findings with respect to developments in the British criminal justice system.   

Black and Asian Police Officers and Support Staff: Prejudice, Identity, Agency and Social Cohesion

By Mike Sutton, Nottingham Trent University, Barbara Perry, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Catherine John-Baptiste, Nottingham Trent University and Glen Williams, National Black Police Association

This primary research paper presents a review of research that finds that the British Government’s new social cohesion agenda does hold promise for racial and ethnic prejudice reduction – but that social cohesion policies and practice must include at their core policies to reduce institutional racism in British police services. Analysis of the literature reveals that considerably more research is required to examine the precise nature and dynamics of institutional racism within the police services. There is a need to understand how racism against Black and minority ethnic (BME) police employees, and police racism against BME communities, influences social cohesion. That this is important, given the British government’s current social cohesion policy agenda, is patently clear. Considerably more research is about to be undertaken in this area by the authors of this paper and the results will be published in the academic press, disseminated at conferences and presented in training programmes. 

Reasons for Supporting and Opposing Capital Punishment in the USA: A Preliminary Study 

By Eric G. Lambert, and Alan Clarke (both at Utah Valley State College) and Janet Lambert

The death penalty is a controversial subject in our society. Research has explored why people support or oppose capital punishment. Most the literature to date looks at the reasons provided one at a time. In this study, a multivariate analysis was conducted to see which reasons best explain the observed variation of support and opposition for capital punishment. It was found that emotional retribution, emotional opposition, morality, and law and order, were the only reasons which had statistically significant effects on the degree of death penalty support among college students at a Midwestern university. Other variables, such as fear of crime, religious measures, other punishment ideologies, and personal characteristics (which earlier studies found statistically significant using bivariate analysis) were not statistically significant in this study. The results suggest the need for greater attention to and more study of death penalty attitudes using multivariate analysis.  

Just Deserts: University Students' Inclination to Nullify the Law 

By Morris Jenkins and Bradene Moore, both at University of Toledo, USA  Professors Jenkins and Moore present findings from a groundbreaking small-scale exploratory study of circumstances that might influence juror’s decisions not to follow the law in their determination of a trial verdict.

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INTERNET JOURNAL OF CRIMINOLOGY

• Open access
• Published: 12 August 2014

Innovative data collection methods in criminological research: editorial introduction

• Jean-Louis van Gelder 1 &
• Stijn Van Daele 2  

Crime Science volume  3 , Article number:  6 ( 2014 ) Cite this article

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Novel technologies, such as GPS, the Internet and virtual environments are not only rapidly becoming an increasingly influential part of our daily lives, they also have tremendous potential for improving our understanding of where, when and why crime occurs. In addition to these technologies, several innovative research methods, such as neuropsychological measurements and time-space budgets, have emerged in recent years. While often highly accessible and relevant for crime research, these technologies and methods are currently underutilized by criminologists who still tend to rely on traditional data-collection methods, such as systematic observation and surveys.

The contributions in this special issue of Crime Science explore the potential of several innovative research methods and novel technologies for crime research to acquaint criminologists with these methods so that they can apply them in their own research. Each contribution deals with a specific technology or method, gives an overview and reviews the relevant literature. In addition, each article provides useful suggestions about new ways in which the technology or method can be applied in future research. The technologies describe software and hardware that is widely available to the consumer (e.g. GPS technology) and that sometimes can even be used free of charge (e.g., Google Street View). We hope this special issue, which has its origins in a recent initiative of the Netherlands Institute for the Study of Crime and Law Enforcement (NSCR) called CRIME Lab, and a collaborative workshop together with the Research consortium Crime, Criminology and Criminal Policy of Ghent University, will inspire researchers to start using innovative methods and novel technologies in their own research.

Issues and challenges facing crime researchers

Applied methods of scientific research depend on a variety of factors that play out at least in part beyond researcher control. One such factor regards the nature and availability of data, which largely determines the research questions that can be addressed: Data that cannot be collected cannot serve to answer a research question. Although this may seem like stating the obvious, it has had and continues to have far-reaching implications for criminological research. Because crime tends to be a covert activity and offenders have every interest in keeping it that way, crime in action can rarely be observed, let alone in such a way as to allow for systematic empirical study. Consequently, our knowledge of the actual offending process is still limited and relies in large part on indirect evidence. The same applies to offender motivations and the offending process; these cannot be measured directly in ways similar to how we can observe say the development of a chemical process or the workings of gravity. This has placed significant restrictions on the way crime research has been performed over the years, and most likely has coloured our view of crime and criminality by directing our gaze towards certain more visible elements such as offender backgrounds, demographics and criminal careers.

Another factor operating outside of researcher control regards the fact that the success of scientific analyses hinges on the technical possibilities to perform them. Even if researchers have access to particular data, this does not guarantee that the technology to perform the analysis in the best possible way is available to them. The complexity of the social sciences and the interconnectivity of various social phenomena, together with the lack of a controlled environment or laboratory, require substantial computational power to test highly complicated models. For instance, the use of space-time budgets, social network analysis or agent-based modelling can be quite resource-intensive. Adding the complexity of social reality to the resulting datasets (e.g. background variables related to social structure, GIS to incorporate actual road networks, etc.) puts high pressure on the available computational power of regular contemporary desktop computers. Addressing these challenges has practical and financial consequences, which brings us to the third issue, which although more mundane in nature is by no means limited to the applied sciences: a researcher requires the financial and non-financial resources to be able to perform his research.

All three factors have a bearing on the contents and goals of the present special issue. More specifically, the methods that are discussed and explained in different articles in this special issue each address one or more of these factors and have, we believe, the potential to radically change the way we think about crime and go about doing crime research. The methods and technologies are available, feasible and affordable. They are, so to speak, there for the taking.

Notes on criminological research methods

The above factors have contributed to a general tendency within criminology to stick to particular research traditions, both in terms of method and analysis. Although these traditions are well-developed and have undergone substantial improvement over the decades, most changes in the way research is performed in the discipline have been of the ’more of the same‘ variety, and most involve gradual improvements, rather than embodying ‘scientific revolutions’ and ‘paradigm shifts’ that have radically changed how criminologists go about doing research and thinking about crime.

With respect to methodology, since the field's genesis in the early 20th century, research in criminology has largely spawned studies using similar methods. In a meta-analysis of articles that have appeared in seven leading criminology and criminal justice journals in 2001-2002, Kleck et al. ([ 2006 ]) demonstrate that survey research is still the dominant method of collecting information (45.1%), followed by the use of archival data (31.8%), and official statistics (25.6%). Other methods, such as interviews, ethnographies and systematic observation, each account for less than 10% (as methods are sometimes combined the percentages add up to more than 100%). Furthermore, the Kleck et al. meta-analysis shows that as far as data analysis is concerned, nearly three quarters (72.5%) of the articles published uses some type of multivariate statistics. As such, it appears that criminology has developed a research tradition that started to dominate the field, though not to everybody's enthusiasm. Berk ([ 2010 ]), for example, states that regression analysis, in its broad conception, has become so dominant that researchers give it more credit than they sometimes should and take some of its possibilities for granted. Whereas certain research traditions may have a strong added value, they run the risk of being used more out of habit than for being the most appropriate method to answer a particular research question. As innovation influences our daily lives and how we perform our daily activities, there is no reason why it should not influence our way of performing science as well.

Innovation and technology in daily life and their application in criminological research

Novel technologies, such as GPS, the Internet, and virtual environments are rapidly establishing themselves as ingrained elements of our daily lives. Think, for example, of smart phones. While unknown to most of us as recently as ten years ago, today few people would leave their home without carrying one with them. Through their ability to, for example, transmit visual and written communication, use social media, locate ourselves and others through apps and GPS, smart phone technology has radically changed the way we go about our daily routines. The research potential of smart phone technology for improving our understanding of social phenomena is enormous and includes a better understanding of where, when and why crime occurs through automated data collection, interactive tests and surveys (Miller [ 2012 ]). Yet, so far surprisingly few crime researchers have picked up on the possibilities this technology has to offer.

A similar point can be made with respect to the Internet. While most researchers have made the transition from paper-and-pencil questionnaires to online surveys and online research panels may have become the norm for collecting community sample data, much of the potential of the Internet for crime research remains untapped. Think, for example, of the possibility of using Google Maps and Google Street View for studying spatial aspects of crime and the ease with which we can virtually travel down most of the roads and streets to examine street corners, buildings and neighbourhoods. The launch of Google Street View in Belgium stirred up controversy because it was perceived by police officers as a catalogue for burglars and was expected to lead to an increase in the number of burglaries. While it is not clear whether this has actually happened, crime studies reporting these tools in their method sections are few and far between.

In addition to novel technologies, several innovative research methods, such as social network analysis, time-space budgets, and neuropsychological measures that can tap into people's physiological and mental state, have emerged in recent years and have become common elements of the tool-set used in some of criminology's sister disciplines, such as sociology, psychology and neuroscience. Again, while often highly accessible and relevant for crime research, these methods are currently underutilized by crime researchers. The promising and emerging field of neurocriminology is an important exception in this respect (see e.g., Glenn & Raine [ 2014 ]).

To revert back to the three issues that have restricted the gaze of criminology mentioned at the outset of this article: accessibility of data, type of data analysis, and availability of resources, the new methods and technologies seem to check all the boxes. Much more data have become accessible for analysis through novel technologies, new methods for data-analysis and data-collection have been developed, and most of it is available at the consumer level. In other words, this allows for collecting and examining data in ways that go far beyond what we are used to in crime research. For example, methods combining neurobiological measurements with virtual environments can tell us a lot about an individual's mental and physical states and how they go about making criminal decisions, which were until recently largely black boxes. Finally, novel technologies are often available on the consumer market, such as smart phones, tablets, and digital cameras, and require only very modest research budgets. In some cases, such as the automated analysis of footage made by security cameras, simulations, or the use of honeypots that lure cyber criminals into hacking them, they even allow for systematically examining crime in action.

Goals of this special issue of Crime Science

The principal aim of the present special issue is to acquaint crime researchers and criminology students with some of these technologies and methods and explain how they can be used in crime research. While widely diverging, what these technologies and methods have in common is their accessibility and potential for furthering our understanding of crime and criminal behavior. The idea, in other words, is to explore the potential of innovative research methods of data-collection and novel technologies for crime research and to acquaint readers with these methods so that they can apply them in their own research.

Each article deals with a specific technology or method and is set-up in such a way as to give readers an overview of the specific technology/method at hand, i.e., what it is about, why to use it and how to do so, and a discussion of relevant literature on the topic. Furthermore, when relevant, articles contain technical information regarding the tools that are currently available and how they can be obtained. Case studies also feature in each article, giving readers a clearer picture of what is at stake. Finally, we have encouraged all contributors to give their views on possible future developments with the specific technology or method they describe and to make a prediction regarding the direction their field could or should develop. We sincerely hope this will inspire readers to apply these methods in their own work.

While not intended as a manual, after reading an article, readers should not only have a clear view of what the method/technology entails but also of how to use it, possibly in combination with one or more of the references that are provided in the annotated bibliography provided at the end of each article. The contributions may also be useful for researchers already working with a specific method or students interested in research methodology.

Article overview

Hoeben, Bernasco and Pauwels discuss the space-time budget method. This method aims at retrospectively recording on an hour-by-hour basis the whereabouts and activities of respondents, including crime and victimization. The method offers a number of advantages over existing methods for data-collection on crime and victimization such as the possibility of studying situational causes of crime or victimization, possibly in combination with individual lifestyles, routine activities and similar theoretical concepts. Furthermore, the space-time budget method offers the possibility of collecting information on spatial location, which enables the study of a respondent's whereabouts, going beyond the traditional focus of ecological criminological studies on residential neighborhoods. Finally, the collected spatial information on the location of individuals can be combined with data on neighborhood characteristics from other sources, which enables the empirical testing of a variety of ecological criminological theories.

The contribution of Gerritsen focuses on the possibilities offered by agent-based modeling, a technique borrowed from the domain of Artificial Intelligence. Agent-based modeling (ABM) is a computational method that enables a researcher to create, analyse and experiment with models composed of agents that interact within a computational environment. Gerritsen explains how modeling and simulation techniques may help gain more insight into (informal) criminological theories without having to experiment with these phenomena in the real world. For example, to study the effect of bystander presence on norm violation, an ‘artificial neighborhood’ can be developed that is inhabited by 'virtual aggressors and victims’, and by manipulating the agents’ parameters different hypothetical scenarios may be explored. This enables criminologists to investigate complex processes in a relatively fast and cheap manner.

Since the pioneering early studies of the 1990s hinted at its promise as a method for social scientific research, Virtual Reality (VR) technology is increasingly used as a research tool by social scientists from various disciplines such as psychology and sociology. Given recent developments that have greatly enhanced the realism, reduced costs, and increased possibilities for application, it seems well on its way to become an established method in the social sciences. In their contribution Van Gelder, Luciano and Otte explore the potential of VR as a tool for research in criminology. Their article offers a description of how virtual reality has been used in social scientific research before discussing the potential it holds for criminology. By way of illustration, the authors describe a recent case study that has used immersive virtual reality for theory testing, which gives an idea of the unique possibilities of VR for studying crime.

Cornet also draws from criminology's sister disciplines in her article on neurobiological measurements observing that while the literature on the relationship between neurobiological factors and antisocial behavior has accumulated in recent years, the use of neurobiological measurements does not yet play a central role in criminological research. One of the underlying reasons Cornet identifies is the idea among criminologists that it is complicated to use these techniques compared to sociological, psychological and behavioral instruments. This article aims to provide an overview of the most commonly used neurobiological measurements, their added value and, importantly, how they can be relatively easily implemented in criminological research.

Vandeviver explains the possibilities and merits of online mapping applications such as Google Maps and Google Street View. While these technologies have evoked concern from law enforcement agencies that offenders could exploit them, Vandeviver notes that for criminologists they also open up several new perspectives to conduct research. Elaborating on results from prior studies in related fields and personal research experience, three potential uses of Google Maps and Google Street View in criminological research are explored and discussed. In particular, this article deals with how these online mapping applications can generate new research questions, how they allow revisiting and re-assessing established theories in criminology and common research practices, and how they should be considered an essential part of the methodological toolkit of criminologists.

Lemieux, also taking a spatial approach, describes how digital cameras with integrated GPS units can be used to collect useful data for criminological purposes observing that while visual observations have traditionally been an important method of criminological research, when combined with spatial data, such observations become a particularly useful way to describe how crime and disorder are distributed. Lemieux describes the utility and ease of using geo-tagged photographs and GPS tracks for monitoring illegal activity in urban and rural settings presenting case studies from Uganda and Amsterdam.

Vander Laenen discusses a method of qualitative criminological research, the Nominal Group Technique (NGT), which is not necessarily innovative by and of itself, but which has hardly been applied in criminology. The NGT is a highly structured technique with characteristics of an individual survey and a focus group. However its structure limits the influence of the researcher and of group dynamics and guarantees equal participation to all group members and equal influence of (conflicting) values and ideas. The NGT forms an ideal technique for gathering and prioritizing ideas and for innovative solution planning. Furthermore, despite the structure of the procedure, the technique can be modified and easily be applied in a mixed-methods research design. By means of an example, Vande Laenen reports on the use of the NGT in a study on the needs assessment of drug (prevention) policy.

In the final contribution to this special issue on innovative methods of data collection in criminology, De Bondt suggests solutions for doing cross-border criminal policy research and the confusion in wording and interpretation that emerge when comparing different legal systems. Correctly interpreting foreign information and using it as a valid source to substantiate analyses on where, when and why crime occurs and/or how to improve the fight against crime, often requires the expertise of people that are very familiar with a certain legal system. Based on a literature review and a number of successful experiences with the method in past research projects, the strengths and weaknesses of working with (predominantly) multiple choice based questionnaires sent to a single point of contact in each of the EU member states is elaborated upon.

Authors' contributions

Both Jean-Louis van Gelder and Stijn van Daele contributed to all aspects of the paper. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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428 Criminology Research Topics & Questions for Students

As you might already know, criminology is the study of crime. To be more precise, criminology studies crime as a social trend, including its origin, various manifestations, and its impact on society.

Criminology research influences how the police work, how society treats criminals, and how the community maintains law and order. In this article, you’ll find top criminology research topics for your inspiration. We’ll also look into the main criminology theories and research methods and explain the difference between criminology and criminal justice.

🔝 Top-10 Criminology Research Topics

🔤 what is criminology.

• 🔎 Criminology Research Methods
• 📝 Research Topics for Assignments

🦹‍♂️ Crime Research Topics

• 🚔 Topics in Law Enforcement
• 🕵️ Criminal Investigation Topics

⚖️ Criminal Law Research Topics

• 🔒 Topics to Research in Crime Prevention

🧑‍⚖️ Criminal Justice Research Topics

• 🆚 Criminology Vs Criminal Justice

❓ Criminology Topics: FAQ

🔗 references.

• Criminology as a science: criminology theories.
• The importance of eyewitness evidence.
• The issue of racial bias in the investigation.
• Crime propaganda on social media.
• The leading causes of college violence.
• The benefits of private prisons.
• The debate around gun control.
• The analysis of power abuse among police officers.
• Drunk driving and how to prevent it.
• The importance of forensic psychology in the investigation.

Criminology is the study of crime and criminal behavior, supported by the principles of sociology and other sciences, including economics, statistics, and psychology.

Criminologists study a variety of related areas, including:

• Characteristics of people who commit crimes.
• Reasons behind committing different crimes.
• Impact of crime on individuals and communities.
• Measures for preventing crimes.

Criminology Theories

Criminology theories have appeared as an attempt to answer the question, “What is criminal behavior, and what causes it?” The answer to this question affects how society responds to and prevents crime. Proposing new theories and testing existing ones is essential for criminologists to continue working toward understanding the causes of criminal behavior.

Let’s consider the most relevant criminology theories.

🔎 Research Methods Used in Criminology

There are many research methods used within criminology. Usually, they are divided into two groups: primary and secondary research methods.

Primary Research Methods in Criminology

Primary research in criminology is any type of research that you collect yourself rather than based on secondary sources, such as articles or books. Examples of primary research methods in criminology include the following:

• Surveys and questionnaires. Survey research collects information from individuals through their responses to questions. It is considered one of the most widely used research tools in criminology.
• Experiments. For experiments , researchers take large samples of people who might become or have already been involved in crimes as victims or offenders. Then, they divide these samples into two groups, each receiving a different treatment.
• Interviews. An interview requires participants to answer a set of open-ended questions, often on sensitive topics, such as victimization or criminal behaviors. This method allows criminologists to gain more valuable insights into the research topic.
• Focus groups. A focus group is a small number of demographically similar people gathered to discuss a particular crime-related topic. This method allows criminologists to analyze people’s views, attitudes, and perceptions concerning crime.
• Observations. Observations involve a researcher studying groups or individuals in their natural setting without interfering. It is a common research method within the social learning theory.

Secondary Criminology Research Methods

Secondary research methods use information that was collected by someone else so that you can analyze it and identify the trends. Here are the two leading types of secondary research in criminology:

• Secondary analysis of data. A secondary analysis occurs when a researcher uses data collected by other researchers. You can obtain secondary data from surveys, official crime statistics, or official records.
• Literature review. A literature review involves reading, analyzing, evaluating, and summarizing literature about a specific criminology topic. It helps scholars identify research gaps and problems that need to be addressed.

📝 Criminology Research Topics for Assignments

To write an outstanding research paper on criminology, choose a topic that will spark your interest. Below you’ll find excellent criminology topic ideas for college students.

Criminology Research Paper Topics

• Criminology theory and its main elements.
• Criminology discipline and theories .
• American crime trends and criminological theories.
• The significance of criminological studies in the US.
• Criminology: legal rights afforded to the accused .
• The impact of violence and crime on the tourism industry.
• How did US crime rates change over the last 20 years?
• Classical and positivist schools of criminology .
• Should abortion be treated as a crime?
• Official and unofficial instruments within the criminal investigation.
• Criminology: femininity and the upsurge of ladettes .
• Criminal rehabilitation programs and their significance.
• Shoplifting and how to prevent it.
• Emerging technologies in criminology .
• The effects of illegal immigrants on crime rates.
• Drug trafficking by organized crime groups.
• Criminology and victimology: victim stereotypes in criminal justice .
• Can genetics lead to crime?
• The procedures of crime scene investigation.
• Labeling theory and critical criminology: sociological research .
• Hate crimes in modern society.
• The phenomenon of white-collar crime and its causes.
• How to prevent crimes in the workplace?
• Criminology: the social control theory .
• Stereotypes that surround serial killers and their crimes.
• The comparison of organized crime in New York and Chicago.
• Prevention strategies for small business crimes.
• Criminology: four types of evidence .
• Relations between crime, justice, and the media.

Criminology Research Proposal Topics

• How to prevent intellectual property crimes in cyberspace?
• Identity theft and cybercrime in modern society.
• Contemporary theories in criminology .
• The problem of racial profiling in the US.
• How has criminology contributed to the study of terrorism ?
• Possible solutions to the issue of street harassment .
• Postmodern criminology: the violence of the language .
• Gender bias in the investigation: pink-collar criminals.
• The phenomenon of digital terrorism and how to prevent it.
• How do immigration services help fight against terrorism?
• Green criminology: environmental harm in the Niger Delta .
• How has marijuana legalization influenced crime rates?
• Tools for collecting and analyzing crime evidence.
• How does international law manage war crimes ?
• The due process: criminology .
• What are victimless crimes ?
• The relation between crime rates and poverty.
• National system for missing and unidentified persons.
• Three case briefs in criminology .
• The impact of mental illness on criminal behavior.
• The effectiveness of rehabilitation programs in reducing crime rates.
• The use of AI technology in crime prevention and investigation.
• Sexual assault: criminology .
• The role of media coverage in public perception of crime.
• The impact of community policing on reducing crime rates.
• The impact of mass shootings on gun control laws.
• The impact of automation technology on criminology .

Criminology Thesis Topics

• The role of juvenile justice in preventing future criminal behavior.
• Feminism and criminology in the modern justice system .
• The effectiveness of mandatory minimum sentencing in the US.
• Drug laws : fighting crime or fueling it?
• Police brutality : a systemic problem in criminal justice.
• Criminology: USA Patriot Act overview .
• The impact of hate crimes on marginalized communities.
• How does organized crime affect the global economy?
• The significance of DNA evidence for criminal investigations.
• Use of statistics in criminal justice and criminology .
• The ethics of plea bargaining in criminal cases.
• Mental illness and criminal behavior: breaking the stigma.
• The impact of social media on cyberbullying and harassment.
• Robert Merton’s strain theory in criminology .
• Causes and consequences of police corruption .
• The role of restorative justice in repairing harm caused by crime.
• The effectiveness of treatment programs in reducing drug-related crimes.
• Hernando Washington case: criminology .
• The negative effects of human trafficking on global communities.
• The role of forensic science in crimes investigation.
• The effectiveness of community-based alternatives to imprisonment.
• Integrity as a key value: criminology and war .
• The relationship between poverty, education, and crime rates.
• Cybercrime : the dark side of the digital age.
• Hate crimes: motivations and impact on modern society.
• Feminist perspectives’ contribution to criminology .
• The impact of incarceration on families and communities.

Criminology Research Questions for Dissertation

• Can criminal profiling accurately predict offender behavior?
• How do hate crimes affect individuals and communities?
• How were the US Constitution and the Bill of Rights influenced by the classical school of criminology ?
• What are the psychological effects of cyberbullying on victims?
• What factors contribute to domestic violence , and how can it be prevented?
• How have organized crime groups evolved over time?
• How is statistics used in criminology and criminal justice ?
• Is the death penalty an effective crime deterrent?
• What motivates individuals to engage in white-collar crime?
• What are the consequences of police corruption for society?
• What is variance analysis in criminal justice and criminology ?
• How does drug addiction contribute to criminal behavior?
• How does gender influence criminal behavior and justice outcomes?
• What drives individuals to commit mass shootings?
• What is the broken window theory in criminology ?
• What are the biggest challenges facing criminal justice reform efforts?
• How do urban gangs perpetuate violence and criminal activity?
• How do criminal law and procedures protect individual rights and liberties?
• What is the impact of corporate fraud ?
• What challenges do individuals with mental health issues face in the criminal justice system?
• How can society combat human trafficking and exploitation?
• What measures can be taken to enhance cybersecurity and protect against cybercrime?
• What is the aboriginal crisis from a criminology perspective ?
• How can victimology help us better understand the experience of crime victims?
• What are effective crime prevention strategies for different types of crime?
• What is legal insanity in criminology ?
• How does environmental crime impact communities and the environment?
• How is the peace-making model applied in criminology ?

A significant part of criminology research is dedicated to various types of crimes and their reasons. Consider our crime topic ideas that will spark instant interest in your readers:

• The psychological impact of kidnapping on victims and their families.
• The racialization of crime and cultural panic .
• The ethical considerations surrounding ransom payments in kidnapping cases.
• The effect of burglary on small businesses and their ability to recover.
• The impact of race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status on homicide rates and patterns.
• Shoplifting: a crime of convenience .
• The effectiveness of different types of anti-theft devices in preventing motor vehicle theft.
• The role of forensic science in investigating arson cases, including the use of accelerant detection dogs.
• The concept of natural legal crime .
• The psychological profiles of white-collar criminals and their motivations.
• The psychological effects of burglary on victims and their sense of security.
• The concept of juvenile crime .
• The role of social media in facilitating and preventing kidnappings.
• The use of forensic evidence in homicide investigations and the challenges of prosecuting homicide cases.
• Sex crime recidivism rates.
• Illegal immigrantion and its effects on crime .
• The effectiveness of international efforts to combat money laundering .
• The efficacy of community watch programs in reducing burglary rates.
• The role of corporate culture in facilitating or preventing white-collar crime.
• Crimes in America: the 9/11/01 terrorist attacks .
• Technology in motor vehicle theft: GPS tracking and remote disabling systems.
• Human trafficking and the exploitation of vulnerable populations.
• Crime and criminals: general characteristics .
• The ethical and moral implications of capital punishment as a response to homicide.
• The effectiveness of fire prevention and education programs in reducing instances of arson.
• US gun control measures and crime rates reduction .
• The use of cryptocurrency in money laundering and illegal activities.
• White-collar crime and the abuse of power in corporate and financial settings.
• Cargo crimes and threats: government accountability office .
• The rise of cyberstalking and its impact on victims’ mental health.
• The effects of pollution on communities and the legal response to environmental crimes.
• Cyber-bullying and cyber-stalking as crimes .
• The effects of society’s reaction to crime.
• The use of technology in financial fraud schemes .
• Crimes against property and their characteristics .
• The intersection of racism and hate crimes against Asian Americans.
• The impact of deforestation on indigenous communities and wildlife.
• Crime types and their harm to society .
• The prevalence of domestic violence and the legal response to it.
• The exploitation of child labor in the fashion industry .
• Race and crime among minorities in the US .
• The ethical implications of using artificial intelligence in law enforcement.
• The psychological effects of hate crimes on victims and their communities.
• How does local television news viewing relate to fear of crime ?
• The evolution of cybercrime and its most common types.
• Parental responsibility for children’s crimes.
• The sex crime: influence of childhood experiences .
• Prostitution : a victimless crime.
• Sociology and media representation of crime.
• The profile of a crime victim .
• A theory of gendered criminology: women’s crime.

🚔 Research Topics in Law Enforcement

Another exciting area within criminology to investigate is law enforcement and police jobs. Have a look at the list of burning and controversial topics we came up with:

• The impact of community policing on crime rates and public trust.
• Law enforcement: online crimes and social media .
• Do body-worn cameras reduce police misconduct?
• The effects of implicit bias on the police use of force.
• Law enforcement cameras as an invasion of privacy .
• The impact of police militarization on community relations.
• Why is mental health training essential for police officers in crisis situations?
• Law enforcement officers’ attitudes regarding body-worn cameras .
• The role of police in addressing hate crimes and bias incidents.
• The effectiveness of community-based alternatives to traditional policing.
• Organizational changes in law enforcement agencies .
• The efficacy of police-community partnership in addressing gang violence.
• The impact of police officer diversity on community relations and trust.
• Local, state, and federal law enforcement in the US .
• The role of police in addressing cybercrime and online harassment.
• The effects of police body language and nonverbal cues on public perceptions.
• Cumulative career traumatic stress in law enforcement .
• Social media and its role in shaping public perceptions of police behavior.
• The role of police discretion in enforcing drug laws and addressing addiction.
• Mindfulness practice in law enforcement .
• The effectiveness of hot spot policing in reducing crime rates.
• Organizational culture in the police department.
• Stress in law enforcement officers and available programs .
• The role of police leadership in promoting ethical behavior and accountability.
• The effectiveness of community-based justice programs for juvenile offenders.
• Law enforcement in colonial America .
• Police-community partnerships for addressing domestic violence.
• The role of police in addressing human trafficking and exploitation.
• Misrepresentation of law enforcement by media .
• School safety and the police.
• How does stress affect the performance of law enforcement officers?
• The law enforcement: verbal communication as the best form of interaction .
• The significance of federal and state law enforcement mechanisms.
• The adverse effects of toxic leadership in quality law enforcement.
• Balance between effective law enforcement and personal liberty .
• The importance of discipline in public services.
• The connection between police salary and rates of police brutality.
• Role of police agencies in law enforcement .
• Police investigative questioning and techniques.
• The issue of corruption in law enforcement.
• Significance of computer forensics to law enforcement .
• Case study: police response to the Ningbo protest.
• Police actions to stop school bullying .
• Law enforcement position in society .
• New technological advances within the police department.
• Do law enforcement cameras violate privacy right?
• Different types of evaluation designs in law enforcement .
• Recognition of women’s right to work as police officers.
• The effectiveness of foot and bike patrols of the streets.
• Firearms types and usage in law enforcement .
• The competencies of international law enforcement authorities.
• Comparison of police brutality statistics for different genders.
• Ethical theories in law enforcement practice .

🕵️ Criminal Investigation Research Topics

The criminal investigation process is another criminology area worth discussing in your research paper. Below you’ll find the most intriguing criminal investigation topics:

• The history and evolution of criminal investigation techniques.
• Crime scene investigation in media and real life .
• The role of forensic science in criminal investigations.
• How does technology impact modern criminal investigations?
• The importance of preserving crime scenes and evidence.
• Crime scene investigation effect in the justice system .
• The ethics of interrogation techniques used in criminal investigations.
• Eyewitness testimony in criminal investigations.
• The role of criminal profiling in solving crimes.
• Organized business crime prosecution and investigation .
• How does media coverage affect criminal investigations?
• The use of informants in criminal investigations.
• The main challenges of investigating white-collar crimes.
• Undercover police investigations in drug-related crimes .
• The role of private investigators in criminal investigations.
• The impact of false confessions on criminal investigations.
• How is DNA evidence collected in criminal investigations?
• Importance of toxicology in crime investigation .
• The role of the FBI in national criminal investigations.
• The use of undercover operations in criminal investigations.
• The main challenges of investigating organized crime.
• Crime level investigation in the United States .
• Witness protection programs in criminal investigations.
• The impact of plea bargaining on criminal investigations.
• Surveillance techniques in criminal investigations.
• Investigating crime with age and mental illnesses factors .
• How are cybercrimes investigated?
• The role of international cooperation in criminal investigations.
• How do racial biases influence criminal investigations?
• Drug trafficking: investigation on Frank Lucas .
• Polygraph tests in criminal investigations.
• The main challenges of investigating terrorism-related crimes.
• Homicide investigations and forensic evidence .
• The role of victim advocacy in criminal investigations.
• Lie detector tests in criminal investigations.
• The role of forensic psychology in the investigation .
• The effects of community involvement on criminal investigations.
• The problem of false accusations in criminal investigations.
• Approaches in criminal investigation .
• The use of forensic accounting in financial crime investigations.
• How does the media shape public perception of criminal investigations?
• Key rulings on the conduct of investigators at the scene of a fire .
• The impact of political pressure on criminal investigations.
• The main challenges of investigating human trafficking.
• The Breonna Taylor case and criminal investigation .
• The role of victim compensation in criminal investigations.
• Behavioral analysis in criminal investigations.
• Procedures within crime scene investigation .
• Crime scene reconstruction in criminal investigations.

Criminology goes hand-in-hand with legal studies. If you’re interested in both areas, you should definitely write a research paper on one of the criminal law research topics:

• The evolution of criminal law in the US .
• Criminal law: stolen valor .
• The difference between criminal and civil law.
• Human trafficking and criminal law.
• Types of criminal offenses and the elements of crime.
• International criminal law and measures .
• The role of the burden of proof in criminal cases.
• Criminal defenses and their validity.
• The insanity defense in criminal law.
• Actus reus in English criminal law .
• The controversies around the death penalty.
• Juvenile delinquency and criminal law.
• Cybercrime and its legal implications.
• Criminal law – is graffiti a crime or not ?
• Domestic violence and criminal law.
• Hate crimes and their legal consequences.
• Restitution for victims in criminal law.
• Civil vs. criminal law and differences between them .
• Forensic evidence and its admissibility in court.
• Sexual assault and criminal law.
• The rights of the accused in criminal cases.
• Regulatory criminal laws in the criminal justice system .
• Receiving immunity for testimony in a criminal law case.
• The legal classification of criminal offenses.
• Self-defense in criminal law cases.
• How Canadian criminal law regulates deviant conduct .
• Sentencing guidelines and their impact on society.
• The use of DNA evidence in criminal cases.
• Eyewitness testimony and its reliability in court.
• Fundamental aspects of Canadian criminal law .
• The role of the media in criminal trials.
• The impact of social inequality on criminal justice outcomes.
• The future of criminal law and its impact on society.
• Criminal law in India and access to justice .
• International criminal law and its enforcement.
• Extradition and its legal implications.
• The impact of globalization on criminal law.
• Juvenile vs. adult criminal law .
• The importance of victim rights in criminal cases.
• Restorative justice and its benefits for society.
• Alternatives to incarceration for non-violent offenders.
• Automatism as a defence in criminal law .
• The role of defense attorneys in criminal trials.
• The role of prosecutors in criminal trials.
• The right to a public trial in a criminal law case.
• Civil and criminal law penalties and differences .
• Car searches in criminal investigations by law enforcement.

🔒 Criminology Topics for Research in Crime Prevention

Researching crime prevention allows you to learn more about the strategies for reducing criminal behavior. Have a look at our outstanding crime prevention topic ideas:

• Understanding and explaining crime prevention.
• Theories that explain criminal activities and criminology .
• The effectiveness of community policing in preventing crime.
• The benefits and drawbacks of crime prevention in the US.
• How can education reduce crime rates?
• Crime prevention programs and criminal rehabilitation .
• Technological innovations and their impact on crime prevention.
• The importance of early childhood interventions in preventing criminal behavior.
• The relationship between poverty and crime prevention strategies.
• Youth crime prevention and needs assessment .
• The use of restorative justice in reducing recidivism.
• The effectiveness of gun control laws in preventing gun-related crimes.
• The impact of social media on crime prevention and awareness.
• Crime prevention program in Australia .
• The use of CCTV cameras in preventing crime.
• Evidence for crime prevention programs in developing countries.
• The role of mental health services in preventing criminal behavior.
• Crime prevention practices: overview .
• The effectiveness of community-based programs in reducing juvenile delinquency.
• The use of environmental design in preventing crime by shaping space and behavior.
• Victim support programs for lowering crime rates.
• Situational and social crime prevention approaches .
• The effectiveness of after-school programs in preventing juvenile offenses.
• Techniques for preventing situational and social crime.
• The impact of citizen participation in crime prevention.
• Computer crime prevention measures .
• The efficacy of community watch programs in preventing neighborhood crimes.
• The use of community centers for preventing gang-related crimes.
• The impact of sentencing policies on crime prevention.
• Biometrics recognition and crime prevention .
• The relationship between video game violence and youth crime .
• Social media and cybercrime prevention.
• The role of social workers in crime prevention.
• Three-strikes law for preventing violent crimes .
• Decreasing crime rates through education and medicine.
• The use of animal-assisted therapy for reducing criminal behavior.
• The effectiveness of aftercare programs in reducing recidivism.
• Capital punishment as ineffective crime deterrence .
• The main strategies for proactive crime prevention.
• The impact of domestic violence prevention programs on crime rates.
• The use of probation and parole in preventing criminal behavior.
• Juvenile weapon crimes and strategies to address .
• The role of faith-based organizations in crime prevention.
• The use of diversion programs in juvenile crime prevention.
• The distinctions between crime prevention and community safety.
• Preventing crime victimization in international students .
• The impact of agriculture and rural development on crime prevention.

Criminal justice might be a challenging research topic, but it is worth the time and effort. Consider our unique topic ideas for your successful research:

• The effectiveness of community policing.
• The use of statistics in criminal justice and criminology .
• Rehabilitation programs offered in prisons and their efficacy.
• The importance of defense attorneys in the criminal justice system.
• The code of ethics in the Texas Department of Criminal Justice .
• The significance of restorative justice programs.
• The impact of mandatory minimum sentencing laws.
• Criminal justice process: felony criminal charge .
• The role of judges in the criminal justice system.
• Probation and parole in the criminal justice system.
• Veterans in the criminal justice system .
• The comparison of prison privatization in the US and UK.
• The main issues women experience in the prison system.
• US terrorism and criminal justice decision-making model .
• The prison system in a democratic society.
• The role of psychologists in the criminal justice system.
• Transgender offenders in the criminal justice system .
• The impact of private prisons on crime rates.
• The effectiveness of victim compensation programs.
• The successes and failures to reform punishment in the criminal justice system .
• Community involvement in the criminal justice system.
• The main challenges of long-term prisoner rehabilitation.
• Technology application in criminal justice .
• The role of victim-offender mediation in the criminal justice system.
• Gender disparity in the criminal justice system.
• Recidivism in criminal justice: the American prison system .
• How does solitary confinement impact people in prisons?
• Legal and ethical issues in international intervention.
• Racial and ethnic disparities in the criminal justice system .
• Do mandatory minimum sentences help or hurt?
• The effects of prison on children of incarcerated individuals.
• Psychopathy in the criminal justice system .
• The importance of mental health professionals in the criminal justice system.
• Techniques for influencing criminal justice system change.
• Non-inclusiveness of the criminal justice system .
• The impact of racial profiling on the criminal justice system.
• The effectiveness of diversion programs for veterans.
• False confessions in the US criminal justice system .
• Racism in the criminal justice system of the US.
• People with disabilities and criminal justice.
• Ethical dilemmas in the criminal justice system .
• Forensic psychology guidelines for criminal justice.
• The impact of technology on jury selection .
• Effective writing and criminal justice .
• The effectiveness of mandatory drug testing for probationers and parolees.
• The effect of wrongful executions on the criminal justice system.
• Discontinuity of care in the criminal justice system .
• The influence of media on criminal justice and community.
• The impact of cybercrime on the global criminal justice system.
• Criminal justice: coerced confessions .
• The role of private prisons in the criminal justice system.
• The effectiveness of diversion programs for people without housing.
• Criminal justice system and the problem of racism .
• What can be learned from the history of criminal courts?
• Comparison between American and British legislative frameworks.
• Criminal justice case: types of sentences, probation, and final decision .
• The overview of the modern justice system.
• The ethical issue of unwarranted arrests.
• Civil liability in criminal justice .
• The risk groups of juvenile recidivism .

🆚 Difference between Criminology and Criminal Justice

Students often confuse criminology with criminal justice because both areas study crime and criminal behavior. Understanding their main differences is essential before conducting research in any of these areas.

Is Criminology a Science?

Criminology can be considered as a science because it uses the scientific method. The scientific method involves five steps: stating the problem, forming the hypothesis, collecting the data, interpreting these data, and drawing conclusions. Within criminology, scientists use standard research methods, such as surveys, experiments, interviews, etc.

What Does Criminology Study?

Criminology studies crime, including its causes, methods of prevention, and responses from law enforcement. It relies on other non-legal studies, such as sociology, psychology, and statistics, to examine the characteristics of people who commit crimes and the effects of criminality on individuals and society.

What Are the Principal Areas of Criminology Research?

Four significant criminology areas include:

• The history of criminology . This area focuses on criminology founders and theories of crime and punishment development.
• Theory of crime causation . This aspect explores if a criminal’s behavior is determined by their social environment.
• Typologies of crime . This field describes different types of crimes and the reasons for committing them.
• Crime prevention efforts . This area studies crime measures that can curb crimes before they occur.

What Are the Principal Types of Research Methods in Criminology?

Criminology uses quantitative (analyzing measurements and statistics) and qualitative (analyzing non-numerical data) research methods to gain valuable insights. The most common scientific methods in criminology are surveys, experiments, secondary data analysis, interviews, historical/comparative research, and ethnography.

• Criminology and Criminal Justice: Pick a Topic | Marquette University
• Criminology Questions & Topics | David H. Kessel
• Topics | Ghent University
• Emergent Issues in Crime & Justice | University of Maryland
• Qualitative Research in Criminal Justice | University of North Texas
• Criminology, Law & Society | UCI Libraries
• What the Data Says (and Doesn’t Say) about Crime in the United States | Pew Research Center
• Types of Criminal Offenses | Justia
• Criminal Justice and Criminology Theses | East Tennessee State University
• Research Overview | The University of Alabama
• Criminology Research | University of Portsmouth
• Research | Arizona State University
• Research Themes | University of Surrey, Centre for Criminology
• Advanced Criminology & Criminal Justice Research Guide | Mardigian Library
• Criminology – Research Guide: Getting Started | PennLibraries
• Law and Criminology | University of Plymouth
• Topics for a Criminology Research Paper | Classroom
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256 Research Topics on Criminal Justice & Criminology

Are you a law school student studying criminal behavior or forensic science? Or maybe just looking for good criminal justice topics, questions, and hypotheses? Look no further! Custom-writing.org experts offer a load of criminology research topics and titles for every occasion. Criminological theories, types of crime, the role of media in criminology, and more. Our topics will help you prepare for a college-level assignment, debate, or essay writing.

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• ⚖️ Criminology vs. Criminal Justice
• 🔬 120 Criminology Research Topics
• 💂 116 Criminal Justice Research Topics

🔥 Hot Criminology Research Topics

• The role of media in criminology.
• Cultural explanation of crime.
• Benefits of convict criminology.
• Main issues of postmodern criminology.
• Is criminal behavior affected by the politics?
• How does DAWN collect data?
• The limitations of crime mapping.
• Personality traits that trigger criminal behavior.
• Community deterioration and crime rates.
• Does experimental criminology affect social policy?

🔬 120 Criminology Research Topics & Ideas

Here are 100 criminology research topics ideas organized by themes.

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General Criminology Research Paper Topics

• Criminology as a social science.
• Criminology and its public policies.
• History of criminology.
• Crime commission: legal and social perspectives .

Criminal Psychology Research Topics

• What is the nature of criminal behavior ?
• How does the lack of education affect the incarceration rates?
• Childhood aggression and the impact of divorce
• The effect of the upbringing on antisocial adult behavior
• How do gender and cultural background affect one’s attitude towards drug abuse ?
• Forensic psychology and its impact on the legal system
• What is the role of criminal psychologists?
• Different types of forensic psychological evaluations
• What’s the difference between therapeutic and forensic evaluation?
• Does socioeconomic status impact one’s criminal behavior ?

Criminology Research Topics: Theories

• What crimes are typical for what ages?
• How does the type of crime correspond with the level of exerted aggression ?
• What is the connection between citizenship (or lack thereof) and law violation?
• How does education (or lack thereof) correspond with crime level?
• Does employment (or lack thereof) correspond with law violation?
• What is the connection between family status and law violation?
• Does gender affect on the type of law violation?
• How does ownership of firearms correspond with law violation?
• Does immigrant status correlate with law violation?

• Is there a connection between mental health and law violation?
• What are the causes of violence in the society?
• Does the crime rate depend on the neighborhood ?
• How does race correspond with the type of crime?
• Do religious beliefs correspond with law violation?
• How does social class correlate with crime rate?
• What are the reasons for the homeless’ improsonment?
• How does weather correspond with law violation?

Criminology Topics on Victimization

• Biological theories of crime: how do biological factors correspond with law violation?
• Classical criminology: the contemporary take on crime, economics, deterrence, and the rational choice perspective.
• Convict criminology: what do ex-convicts have to say on the subject?
• Criminal justice theories: punishment as a deterrent to crime.
• Critical criminology : debunking false ideas about crime and criminal justice.
• Cultural criminology: criminality as the product of culture.
• Cultural transmission theory: how criminal norms are transmitted in social interaction.
• Deterrence theory: how people don’t commit crimes out of fear of punishment.
• Rational choice theory : how crime doing is aligned with personal objectives of the perpetrator.
• Feminist Criminology: how the dominant crime theories exclude women.
• Labeling and symbolic interaction theories: how minorities and those deviating from social norms tend to be negatively labeled.
• Life course criminology : how life events affect the actions that humans perform.
• Psychological theories of crime: criminal behavior through the lense of an individual’s personality.
• Routine activities theory : how normal everyday activities affect the tendency to commit a crime.
• The concept of natural legal crime.
• Self-control theory : how the lack of individual self-control results in criminal behavior.
• Social construction of crime: crime doing as social response.
• Social control theory : how positive socialization corresponds with reduction of criminal violation.
• Social disorganization theory : how neighborhood ecological characteristics correspond with crime rates.
• Social learning theory : how (non)criminal behavior can be acquired by observing and imitating others.
• Strain theories : how social structures within society pressure citizens to commit crime.
• Theoretical integration: how two theories are better than one.

Criminology Research and Measurement Topics

• Citation content analysis (CCA): a framework for gaining knowledge from a variety of media.
• Crime classification systems: classification of crime according to the severity of punishment.
• Crime mapping as a way to map, visualize, and analyze crime incident patterns.
• Reports and statistics of crime: the estimated rate of crime over time. Public surveys.
• Drug abuse warning network (DAWN): predicting trends in drug misuse.
• Arrestee drug abuse monitoring (ADAM): drug use among arrestees.
• Edge ethnography: collecting data undercover in typically closed research settings and groups through rapport development or covert undercover strategy.
• Experimental criminology: experimental and quasi-experimental research in the advancement of criminological theory.
• Fieldwork in criminology: street ethnographers and their dilemmas in the field concerning process and outcomes.
• Program evaluation: collecting and analyzing information to assess the efficiency of projects, policies and programs.
• Quantitative criminology: how exploratory research questions, inductive reasoning , and an orientation to social context help recognize human subjectivity.

Criminology Topics on Types of Crime

• Campus crime: the most common crimes on college campuses and ways of preventing them.
• Child abuse : types, prevalence, risk groups, ways of detection and prevention.
• Cybercrime : cyber fraud, defamation, hacking, bullying, phishing.
• Domestic violence : gender, ways of detection and prevention, activism.
• Domestic violence with disabilities .
• Elder abuse : types, prevalence, risk groups, ways of detection and prevention.
• Environmental crime. Natural resource theft: illegal trade in wildlife and timber, poaching, illegal fishing.
• Environmental crime. Illegal trade in ozone-depleting substances, hazardous waste; pollution of air, water, and soil.
• Environmental crime: local, regional, national, and transnational level.
• Environmental crime: climate change crime and corruption.
• Environmental crime: wildlife harming and exploitation.
• Hate crime : how prejudice motivates violence.

• Homicide : what motivates one person to kill another.
• Human trafficking : methods of deception, risk groups, ways of detection and prevention.
• Identity theft : methods, risk groups, ways of detection and prevention.
• Gambling in America .
• Juvenile delinquency : risk groups, prevention policies, prosecution and punishment.
• Juvenile Delinquency: Causes and Effects
• Organizational crime: transnational, national, and local levels. Ways of disrupting the activity of a group.
• Prostitution : risk groups, different takes on prevention policies, activism.
• Robbery : risk groups, ways of prevention, prosecution and punishment.
• Sex offenses: risk groups, types, prevalence, ways of detection and prevention.
• Terrorism: definition, history, countermeasures .
• Terrorism : individual and group activity, ways of detection and prevention.
• Theft and shoplifting : risk groups, ways of detection, prevention policies, prosecution and punishment.
• Counter-terrorism: constitutional and legislative issues .
• White-collar crime : types, ways of detection, prevention policies, prosecution and punishment.

Criminology Topics on Racism and Discrimination

• How systemic bias affects criminal justice?
• How discriminatory portrayal of minority groups in the media affects criminal justice?
• Racial profiling : targeting minority groups on the basis of race and ethnicity.
• Racism and discrimination towards African-Americans .
• Racial profiling : what are the cons? Are there any pros?
• How discriminatory is the UK Court System?
• How discriminatory is the US Court System?

Other Criminology Research Topics

• Corporate crime : the ruling class criminals.
• Genetics: illegal research and its dangers.
• Hate crime : the implications in criminal justice.
• Serial killers : risk groups, ways of detection and prevention.
• Serial killers: portrayal in media.
• Organized crime : how does it affect criminal justice?
• Crime prevention programs.
• Street lighting: does it reduce crime?
• Terrorism prevention technology.
• Identity theft : risk groups, ways of deception, prevention policies.
• Due process model: procedural and substantive aspects.
• Crime control in criminal justice administration.
• Types of drugs: how do they affect the users?
• Smart handheld devices: their function for security personnel.
• Social media : its impact on crime rate.
• Public health: how does criminal justice affect it?
• Psychometric examinations: what is their role in criminal justice?
• National defense in the US.
• National defense in the UK.
• Sexual harassment : the role of activism, ways of responding, prevention and prosecution.
• Substance abuse : military.
• Criminology and criminal justice jobs: a full list.

🌶️ Hot Criminal Justice Topics

• The history of modern police.
• Different types of prison systems.
• Is situational crime prevention effective?
• How to prevent wrongful convictions.
• Challenges faced by crime victims.
• The advantages of community corrections.
• How do ethics influence criminal justice?
• Disadvantages of felony disenfranchisement.
• Does correctional system in the USA really work?
• Possible problems of prisoner reentry process.

💂 116 Criminal Justice Research Topics & Questions

Here are some of the most typical and interesting criminal justice issues to dazzle your professor.

• Prison system : the main problems and the hidden pitfalls.
• The question of gender: why are there more men who receive capital punishment than women?
• Kidnapping and ransom: common features, motifs, behavior patterns.
• Crime prevention : key principles.
• Firing a gun: what helps professionals understand whether it was deliberate or happened by accident?
• Cybercrime : the legal perspective.
• Internet vigilantism: revenge leaks.
• Hate crime on the Internet: revenge leaks, trolling, defamation.
• Crime and justice in mass media .
• Parental abduction laws.
• Sex offender registry: pros and cons.
• The deterrence theory and the theory of rational choice : are they relevant in the modern world?
• Sexual assault in schools and workplaces.
• Jury selection: how is it performed?
• Experimental criminology: the latest innovations.

• Wildlife crime: areas of prevalence, ways of prevention.
• Felony disenfranchisement laws: when do they apply?
• The relation between organized crime and corruption .
• Victim services: what help can a victim of a crime get?
• Prison rape and violence: the psychological aspect, ways of prevention.
• Juvenile recidivism : what are the risk groups?
• Forensic science : role and functions in modern criminal justice.
• Shoplifting: how to prevent theft?
• Witness Protection Program: who is eligible and how to protect them.
• Date rape : what are the ways for the victims to seek legal assistance?
• Substance abuse and crime: correlation or causation?
• Identity theft: dangers and consequences in the modern world.
• Online predators: what laws can be introduced to protect kids? Real-life examples.
• Civil and criminal cases: how to differentiate?
• Domestic abuse victims: what laws protect them?
• Elder abuse : what can be done to prevent it?
• The strain theory : the unachievable American dream.
• Concepts of law enforcement: pursuing criminal justice .
• Ethics and criminal justice: the unethical sides of law enforcement.
• The top problems to be solved by law enforcement today.
• Information sharing technology: how has it helped in the fight against terrorism ?
• Terrorism in perspective: characteristics, causes, control .
• Serial killers : types.
• Drug use and youth arrests.
• Aggressive behavior : how does it correlate with criminal tendencies?
• Community corrections : are they effective?
• Sentencing: how does it take place?
• Punishment types and the established terms.
• Unwarranted arrest: when is it acceptable?
• Human trafficking in the modern world.
• Human trafficking: current state and counteracts .
• The role of technology in modern forensics .
• Similarities and differences between homicide , murder, and manslaughter.
• Types of offenders: classification.
• Effects of gun control measures in the United States .
• The role of crime mapping in modern criminal justice.
• Male crimes vs female crimes: are they different?
• Prisons : the problems of bad living conditions.
• Victimization : causes and ways of prevention.
• Victimology and traditional justice system alternatives .
• Rape victims: what are their rights?
• Problem-solving courts: what underlying problems do they address?
• Mandatory sentencing and the three-strike rule.
• Have “three-strikes” laws been effective and should they be continued?
• Criminal courts : what can be learned from their history?
• Hate crimes : what motivates people to commit them?
• Youth gangs: what is their danger?
• Fieldwork: how is it done in criminology?
• Distributive justice : its place in criminal justice.
• Capital punishment : what can be learned from history?
• Humanities and justice in Britain during 18th century .
• Abolition of capital punishment .
• Criminals and prisoners’ rights .
• Crime prevention programs and criminal rehabilitation .
• Campus crime: what laws and precautions are there against it?
• Criminal trial process: how does it go?
• Crimes committed on a religious basis: how are they punished?
• The code of ethics in the Texas department of criminal justice .
• Comparison between Florida and Maryland’s legislative frameworks .
• Fraud in the scientific field: how can copyright protect the discoveries of researchers?
• Prosecution laws: how are they applied in practice?
• The classification of crime systems.
• Cyberbullying and cyberstalking: what can parents do to protect their children?
• Forgery cases in educational institutions, offices, and governmental organizations.
• Drug courts : how do they work?

Controversial Topics in Criminal Justice

Want your work to be unconventional? Consider choosing one of the controversial topics. You will need to present a number of opposite points of view. Of course, it’s acceptable to choose and promote an opinion that you think stands the best. Just make sure to provide a thorough analysis of all of the viewpoints.

You can also stay impartial and let the reader make up their own mind on the subject. If you decide to support one of the viewpoints, your decision should be objective. Back it up with plenty of evidence, too. Here are some examples of controversial topics that you can explore.

• Reform vs. punishment: which one offers more benefits?
• Restorative justice model : is it the best criminal justice tool?
• The war on drugs : does it really solve the drug problem?
• Criminal insanity: is it a reason enough for exemption from liability?
• Juvenile justice system : should it be eliminated?
• Drug testing on the school ground.
• Police brutality in the United States .
• How to better gun control ? 
• Why Gun Control Laws Should be Scrapped .
• Pornography: is it a type of sexual violence?
• Whether death penalty can be applied fairly?
• Jack the Ripper: who was he?
• The modern justice system: is it racist?
• A false accusation: how can one protect themselves from it?
• Concealed weapons: what are the criminal codes of various states?
• Race and crime: is there a correlation?
• Registering sex offenders: should this information be in public records?
• Juvenile delinquency and bad parenting: is there a relation?
• Assessing juveniles for psychopathy or conduct disorder .
• Should all new employees be checked for a criminal background ?
• Are delinquency cases higher among immigrant children?
• Restrictive housing: can it help decongest prisons?
• Homegrown crimes: is there an effective program against them?
• Prostitution: the controversy around legalization .
• Eyewitness testimony : is it really helpful in an investigation?
• Youthful offenders in boot camps: is this strategy effective?
• Predictive policing : is it effective?
• Selective incapacitation: is it an effective policy for reducing crime?
• Social class and crime: is there a relation?
• Death penalty: is it effective in crime deterrence?
• Extradition law: is it fair?
• Devious interrogations: is deceit acceptable during investigations?
• Supermax prisons: are they effective or just cruel?
• Zero tolerance: is it the best policy for crime reduction?
• Marijuana decriminalization: pros and cons.
• Marijuana legalization in the US .

Now that you have looked through the full list of topics, choose wisely. Remember that sometimes it’s best to avoid sensitive topics. Other times, a clever choice of a topic will win you extra points. It doesn’t depend on just the tastes of your professor, of course. You should also take into account how much relevant information there is on the subject. Anyway, the choice of the topic of your research is up to you. Try to find the latest materials and conduct an in-depth analysis of them. Don’t forget to draw a satisfactory conclusion. Writing may take a lot of your time and energy, so plan ahead. Remember to stay hydrated and good luck!

Now, after we looked through the topic collections on criminology and criminal justice, it is time to turn to the specifics in each of the fields. First, let’s talk more extensively about criminology. If you are training to be a criminologist, you will study some things more deeply. They include the behavior patterns of criminals, their backgrounds, and the latest sociological trends in crime.

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In the field of criminology, the specialties are numerous. That’s why it’s difficult to pinpoint one career that represents a typical member of the profession. It all depends on the background of a criminologist, their education, and experience.

A criminologist may have a number of responsibilities at their position. For example, they might be called forth to investigate a crime scene. Participation in autopsies is unpleasant yet necessary. Interrogation of suspects and subsequent criminal profiling is another essential duty.

Some professionals work solely in research. Others consult government agencies or private security companies. Courts and law firms also cooperate with criminologists. Their job is to provide expert opinion in criminal proceedings. Some of them work in the prison systems in order to oversee the rehabilitation of the convicted.

Regardless of the career specialty , most criminologists are working on profiling and data collection. A criminologist is another word for an analyst. They collect, study, and analyze data on crimes. After conducting the analysis, they provide recommendations and actionable information.

A criminologist seeks to find out the identity of the person who committed the crime. The time point of a crime is also important, as well as the reason for it. There are several areas covered by the analysis of a criminologist. The psychological behavior of the criminal or criminals is closely studied. The socio-economic indicators are taken into account. There are also, of course, the environmental factors that may have facilitated the crime.

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Some high-profile cases require a criminologist to correspond with media and PR managers extensively. Sometimes criminologists write articles and even books about their findings. However, it should be noted that the daily routine of a professional in the field is not so glamorous. Most criminologists do their work alone, without the attention of the public.

The research a criminologist accumulates during their work is extensive. It doesn’t just sit there in a folder on their desk, of course. The collected statistics are used for developing active criminal profiles that are shared with law enforcement agencies. It helps to understand criminal behavior better and to predict it. That’s why a criminologist’s work must be precise and accurate for it to be practical and useful. Also, criminology professionals must have a good grasp of math and statistics.

Thinking of a career in criminology? You will need to, at the very least, graduate from college. There, you’ll master mathematics, statistics, and, of course, criminology. An associate’s degree may get you an entry-level position. But the minimum entry-level requirement is usually the bachelor’s degree. The best positions, though, are left for the professionals with a master’s degree or a PhD.

Just having a degree is not enough. To succeed as a criminologist, you will require all your intelligence, commitment, and the skill of analyzing intricate situations. An aspiration to better the society will go a long way. You will need to exercise your creative, written, and verbal communication skills, too. An analytical mind will land you at an advantage.

Criminology: Research Areas

Times change and the world of crime never ceases to adapt. The nature of criminal transgression is evolving, and so do the ways of prosecution. Criminal detection, investigation, and prevention are constantly advancing. Criminology studies aim to improve the practices implemented in the field.

There are six unified, coordinated, and interrelated areas of expertise. Within each, the professionals are busy turning their mastery into knowledge and action.

The first research area is the newest worry of criminology – cybercrime. The impact of this type of crime is escalating with every passing day. That’s why it’s crucial for the law enforcement professionals to keep up to date with the evolving technology. Cybercrime research is exploring the growing threat of its subject at all levels of society. Cybercrime may impact people on both personal and governmental levels. Cybercrime research investigates the motivation and methodology behind the offenses and finds new ways to react.

The second research area is counter fraud. Crimes that fall under this category include fraud and corruption. The questions that counter fraud research deals with are many. How widely a crime is spread, what method is best to fight it, and the optimal courses of action to protect people and organizations.

The third research area is that of forensics. The contemporary face of justice has been changed by forensic science beyond recognition. Nowadays, it’s much harder for criminals to conceal their activity due to evolved technologies. The research in forensics is utilizing science in the identification of the crime and in its reconstruction. It employs such techniques as DNA recovery, fingerprinting, and forensic interviewing.

What is forensic interviewing? It helps find new ways to gather quality information from witnesses and crime scenes. It also works on developing protocols that ensure the protection of this human data and its correct interpretation by police.

The fourth research area is policing. Police service is facing a lot of pressing issues nowadays due to budget cuts. At the same time, police officers still need to learn, and there are also individual factors that may influence their work.

The fifth research area is penology. It’s tasked with exploring the role of punishment in the criminal justice system. Does punishment aid the rehabilitation of perpetrators, and to what extent? The answer will help link theory to practice and thus shape how criminal justice practitioners work.

The sixth research area is that of missing persons. Before a person goes missing, they may display a certain pattern of behavior. The study of missing persons helps to identify it. The results will determine the handling of such cases.

Now that we know what criminology is, it’s time to talk about criminal justice.

While criminology focuses on the analysis of crime, criminal justice concentrates on societal systems. Its primary concern is with the criminal behavior of the perpetrators. For example, in the USA, there are three branches of the criminal justice system. They are police (aka law enforcement), courts, and corrections. These branches all work together to punish and prevent unlawful behavior. If you take up a career in criminal justice, expect to work in one of these fields.

The most well-known branch of criminal justice is law enforcement. The police force is at the forefront of defense against crime and misdemeanor. They stand against the criminal element in many ways. For instance, they patrol the streets, investigate crimes, and detain suspects. It’s not just the police officers who take these responsibilities upon themselves. There are also US Marshals, ICE, FBI Agents, DEA, and border patrol. Only after the arrest has been made, the perpetrator enters the court system.

The court system is less visible to the public, but still crucial to the criminal justice system. Its main purpose is to determine the suspect’s innocence or guilt. You can work as an attorney, lawyer, bailiff, judge, or another professional of the field. In the court, if you are a suspect, you are innocent until proven guilty. You are also entitled to a fair trial. However, if they do find you guilty, you will receive a sentence. Your punishment will be the job of the corrections system.

The courts determine the nature of the punishment, and the corrections system enforces it. There are three elements of the corrections system: incarceration, probation, and parole. They either punish or rehabilitate the convicts. Want to uptake a career in corrections? You may work as, including, but not limited to: a parole officer, a prison warden, a probation officer, and a guard.

📈 Criminal Justice: Research Areas

The research areas in criminal justice are similar, if not identical, to those of criminology. After all, those are two very closely related fields. The one difference is that criminal justice research has more practical than theoretical applications. But it’s fair to say that theory is the building blocks that practice bases itself on. One is impossible without the other unless the result you want is complete chaos.

So, the question is – what topic to choose for the research paper? Remember that the world of criminal justice is constantly changing. Choosing a subject for research in criminal justice, consider a relevant topic. There are many pressing issues in the field. Exploring them will undoubtedly win you points from your professor. Just make sure to choose a direction that will give you the opportunity to show off both your knowledge and your analytical skills.

Not sure that your original research direction will be appreciated? Then choose one of the standard topics. Something that is widely discussed in the media. And, of course, make sure that you are truly interested in the subject. Otherwise, your disinterest will translate into your writing, which may negatively affect the overall impression. Also, it’s just more enjoyable to work on something that resonates with you.

What can you do with your research paper? Literally anything. Explore the background of the issue. Make predictions. Compare the different takes on the matter. Maybe there are some fresh new discoveries that have been made recently. What does science say about that?

Also, remember to backup all your arguments with quotes and examples from real life. The Internet is the best library and research ground a student could hope for. The main idea of the paper, aka the thesis, must be proven by enough factual material. Otherwise, it’s best to change your research direction.

And, of course, don’t put it all off till the last minute. Make a plan and stick to it. Consistency and clever distribution of effort will take you a long way. Good luck!

🤔 Criminal Justice Research FAQs

Criminological and criminal justice research are the scientific studies of the causes and consequences, extent and control, nature, management, and prevention of criminal behavior, both on the social and individual levels.

Criminal justice and criminology are sciences that analyze the occurrence and explore the ways of prevention of illegal acts. Any conducted personal research and investigation should be supported by the implemented analytical methods from academic works that describe the given subject.

There are six interrelated areas of criminology research:

• Cybercrime research makes law enforcement professionals keep up to date with the evolving technology.
• Counter fraud research investigates cases of fraud and corruption.
• Forensics research utilizes science: DNA recovery, fingerprinting, and forensic interviewing.
• Research in policing investigates individual factors that may influence the work of police officers.
• Penology explores the role of punishment in the criminal justice system.
• The study of missing persons helps to identify patterns of victims’ behavior.

There are seven research methods in criminology:

• Quantitative research methods measure criminological and criminal justice reality by assigning numerical values to concepts to find patterns of correlation, cause and effect.
• Survey research collects information from a number of persons via their responses to questions.
• Experimental research assesses cause and effect in two comparison groups.
• Cross-sectional research studies one group at one point in time.
• Longitudinal research studies the same group over a period of time.
• Time-series designs study the same group at successive points in time.
• Meta-analysis employs quantitative analysis of findings from multiple studies.

The basis of criminological theory is criminological research. It influences the development of social policies and defines criminal justice practice.

Criminological research doesn’t just enable law students to develop analytical and presentational skills. The works of criminal justice professionals, scholars, and government policymakers dictate the way law enforcement operates. The newest ideas born out of research identify corrections and crime prevention, too.

Here is a step-by-step instruction on how to write a criminal justice research paper:

• Choose a topic
• Read the materials and take notes
• Come up with a thesis
• Create an outline for your work
• Draft the body
• Start with a cover page, an abstract, and an intro
• List the methods you used, and the results you got
• Include a discussion
• Sum it up with a conclusion
• Don’t forget a literature review and appendices
• Revise, proofread, and edit

The most common types of methodologies in criminal justice research include:

• Observation of participants.
• Surveys and interviews.
• Observation of focus groups.
• Conducting experiments.
• Analysis of secondary data and archival study.
• Mixed (a combination of the above methods).

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• The Differences Between Criminal Justice and Criminology: Which Degree Is Right for You? (Concordia St. Paul)
• Corporate Crime: Britannica
• The Development of Delinquency: NAP
• Databases for Research & Education: Gale
• A CS Research Topic Generator: Purdue University
• A Introduction To The Federal Court System: US Department of Justice
• Criminal Justice Research Topics: Broward College
• Research Topics in Criminology: Cambridge Institute of Criminology
• CRIMINOLOGY: University of Portsmouth
• Research: Department of Criminology & Criminal Justice, University of Maryland
• Criminal Justice: RAND
• Research Methods in Criminal Justice: Penn State University Libraries
• Research: School of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Arizona State University
• Criminology – Research Guide: Getting started (Penn Libraries)
• Criminology Research Papers: Academia
• The History & Development of the U.S. Criminal Justice System: Study.com
• CRIMINAL JUSTICE & CRIMINOLOGY: Marshall University
• Criminal Justice: Temple University
• Criminal Justice: University of North Georgia
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