essay about rice farmers in the philippines

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The cultural significance of rice in the philippines: my journey to understanding rice.

Helena Wehmeyer (ELP 2021) | Affiliate PhD Research Scholar and Research Assistant , International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Switzerland

My journey to understanding rice started in 2017 when I moved to the Philippines and started my PhD in Geography at the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). Originally from Switzerland with Italian roots, rice was not a very regular staple for me and rather an occasional food, generally as a risotto. This changed as soon as I arrived in Los Baños. My colleagues taught me that rice would not only consume most of my studies, but also become one of my staples in cooking, baking, and, of course, eating out. They gave me the opportunity to delve into the cultural importance and culinary diversity of rice during my time in the Philippines.

Filipino cuisine is perfectly aligned to serve rice at every meal. Rice is eaten at breakfast, lunch, and dinner. My personal favorite is a steamy arroz caldo, also known as congee, for breakfast. In addition, desserts and snacks also often include rice. Hence, its prevalence demonstrates its cultural significance. In this country, where many struggle with food insecurity and malnutrition is widespread, it generally remains the central portion of the dish and calorie provider. Nevertheless, a large dependence on rice can lead to multiple challenges. Health issues related to an unbalanced diet and low nutrients are associated with high rice consumption, especially white rice. Food security policies still strongly focus on rice. They aim to achieve rice self-sufficiency, but the Philippines is still a net rice importer due to stagnating yields (Global Rice Science Partnership (GRiSP) 2013). In addition, the effects of climate change are becoming more challenging and directly influence rice production. Farmers are some of the most directly affected in the rice value chain.

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Filipino rice farmers are trying to cope with increased environmental, social, and economic pressure. Although more than two-thirds of the rice cultivation area in the Philippines is irrigated and many farmers use modern varieties, such as hybrid rice varieties or high-yielding varieties, yields are significantly lower compared to neighboring countries (GRiSP, 2013). At IRRI and in collaboration with the Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice), efforts are made to improve rice farmers’ situation. The introduction of new varieties to reduce yield gaps and increase farmers’ profitability is a key focus. In addition, promoting the use of good-quality seeds and improving mechanization is central. One project at IRRI, supported by the Department of Agriculture of the Philippines, also centers on less favorable rice cultivation areas (IRRI 2015). The heirloom rice project intends to enrich the legacy of traditional rice through empowered communities in unfavorable rice-based ecosystems. The main objective not only concentrates on enhancing productivity, but also promotes traditional rice cultivation practices and rice’s cultural importance throughout the country.

During my time at IRRI, I have been able to find out about the diversity of rice-related aspects that influence millions and feed billions. The most important lesson that I have learned is that rice is the foundation for a cultural and culinary understanding that goes beyond being a simple side dish. It is the livelihood basis for millions of smallholders in the Philippines and the world. It is a highly variable and adaptable crop that can grow in various climates and be cultivated under different practices. Furthermore, it is a food that connects people and allows them to share their favorite way of preparing or eating rice. The Filipino rice specialty that I will miss the most is bibingka, a sumptuously sweet and soft rice cake that contains a hint of coconut milk.

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Global Rice Science Partnership (GRiSP) (2013): Rice Almanac. 4th Edition. International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños. URL: http://books.irri.org/9789712203008_content.pdf (accessed 20.09.2021)

International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) (2015): The DA-IRRI Heirloom Rice Project. http://books.irri.org/Heirloom_brochure.pdf (accessed 20.09.2021)

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Life of Local Farmers (Rice): A Phenomenological Study

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• Published: 14 October 2022

Two decades of rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines: A systematic review and research agenda for the social sciences

• Ginbert P. Cuaton   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5902-3173 1 &
• Laurence L. Delina   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8637-4609 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  9 , Article number:  372 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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While rice studies are abundant, they usually focus on macro-level rice production and yield data, genetic diversity, cultivar varieties, and agrotechnological innovations. Moreover, many of these studies are either region-wide or concentrated on countries in the Global North. Collecting, synthesizing, and analyzing the different themes and topic areas in rice research since the beginning of the 21st century, especially in the Global South, remain unaddressed areas. This study contributes to filling these research lacunae by systematically reviewing 2243 rice-related articles cumulatively written by more than 6000 authors and published in over 900 scientific journals. Using the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, this study screened and retrieved articles published from 2001 to 2021 on the various topics and questions surrounding rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines—two rice-producing and -consuming, as well as emerging economies in Southeast Asia. Using a combination of bibliometrics and quantitative content analysis, this paper discusses the productive, relevant, and influential rice scholars; key institutions, including affiliations, countries, and funders; important articles and journals; and knowledge hotspots in these two countries. It also discusses the contributions of the social sciences, highlights key gaps, and provides a research agenda across six interdisciplinary areas for future studies. This paper mainly argues that an interdisciplinary and comparative inquiry of potentially novel topic areas and research questions could deepen and widen scholarly interests beyond conventional natural science-informed rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines. Finally, this paper serves other researchers in their review of other crops in broader global agriculture.

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Introduction.

Rice feeds the majority of the world’s population and employs millions, especially in developing countries in the Global South (Muthayya et al., 2014 ). Rice consumption has increased globally over the last decade. Statista data show that, in the cropping year 2020/2021, the world population consumed about 504.3 million metric tons of rice, increasing from 437.18 million metric tons in 2008/2009 (Shabandeh, 2021 ). These data highlight the crop’s global contribution and importance, especially in realizing the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the blueprint for global prosperity (Gil et al., 2019 ). The SDGs call for systems transformation, including in agriculture, guided by the principles of sustainability and equity, driven by the leave-no-one-behind aphorism, to address the root causes of perennial poverty and chronic hunger.

Pathologist M. B. Waite ( 1915 ) pointed out that the apparent indicator of progress in modern agriculture is the application of scientific research and the subsequent modification and improvement of farming systems based on those research. For example, the Green Revolution resulted in increased agricultural production in developing countries due to the transfer of agrotechnological innovations from countries in the Global North to countries in the Global South. Although, we acknowledge that this project came with a cost (Glaeser, 2010 ; Pielke and Linnér, 2019 ; Pingali, 2012 ).

Regional rice studies have proliferated in Europe (Ferrero and Nguyen, 2004 ; Kraehmer et al., 2017 ), the Americas (Singh et al., 2017 ), Africa (Zenna et al., 2017 ), the Asia Pacific (Papademetriou et al., 2000 ), and South Asia (John and Fielding, 2014 ). Country studies on rice production have also emerged in Australia (Bajwa and Chauhan, 2017 ), China (Peng et al., 2009 ), and India (Mahajan et al., 2017 ). Scholars have also systematically reviewed rice’s phytochemical and therapeutic potentials (Sen et al., 2020 ), quality improvements (Prom-u-thai and Rerkasem, 2020 ), and its role in alleviating the effects of chronic diseases and malnutrition (Dipti et al., 2012 ).

These extant studies, however, are limited on at least three fronts. First, their foci were on rice production, yield, and operational practices and challenges at the macro level. Second, there have been zero attempts at synthesizing this corpus since the 21st century. Third, there are also no attempts at examining the various rice research areas that scholars, institutions, and countries need to focus on, especially in developing country contexts, and their nexuses with the social sciences. This paper addresses these gaps by unpacking and synthesizing multiple rice studies conducted in the emerging Southeast Asian economies of Indonesia and the Philippines from 2001 to 2021. A focus on these developing countries matters since they are home to over 35 million rice farmers (IRRI, 2013 ).

We conducted our review from the Scopus database, using a combination of bibliometric and quantitative content analyses. Section “Results and discussions” reports our results, where we discuss (1) the most relevant and influential rice scholars and their collaboration networks; (2) the most rice research productive institutions, including author affiliations, their countries, and their research funders; and (3) the most significant articles and journals in rice research. This section also identifies 11 topic areas belonging to four major themes of importance for rice research in the two countries. Section “Contributions from and research agenda for the social sciences” provides a research agenda, where we identify and discuss the contributions of our review in terms of future work. Despite the preponderance of rice research in the last two decades and more in Indonesia and the Philippines, contributions from the social sciences remain marginal. Thus, in the section “Conclusion”, we conclude that emphasis is needed on expanding and maximizing the contributions of social scientists given the many opportunities available, especially for conducting interdisciplinary and comparative rice research in these Southeast Asian countries.

Review methods and analytical approach

We used bibliometric and quantitative content analyses to systematically categorize and analyze more than two decades of academic literature on rice in Indonesia and the Philippines. Bibliometric methods, also known as bibliometrics, have grown to be influential in evaluating various research fields and topic areas. Bibliometrics mushroomed because of the increasing availability of online databases and new or improved analysis software (Dominko and Verbič, 2019 ). Bibliometrics quantitatively and statistically analyze research articles using their bibliographic data, such as authors, affiliations, funders, abstracts, titles, and keywords. These data are analyzed to identify and assess the development, maturity, research hotspots, knowledge gaps, and research trends (Aria and Cuccurullo, 2017 ). For example, bibliometrics have been used in reviewing hydrological modeling methods (Addor and Melsen, 2019 ), business and public administration (Cuccurullo et al., 2016 ), and animals’ cognition and behavior (Aria et al., 2021 ).

This review article used bibliometrix , a machine-assisted program that offers multiple options and flexibility to map the literature comprehensively (Aria and Cuccurullo, 2017 ). We run this program using R Studio version 4.1.2 (2021-11-01; “Bird Hippie”) for its source code readability, understandability, and easy-to-do computer programming (Cuaton et al., 2021 ). We used bibliometrix in three critical analytical phases: (a) importing and converting data to R format, (b) identifying our dataset’s collaboration networks and intellectual and conceptual structures, and (c) processing, presenting, and analyzing our dataset. Bibliometrix, however, is unable to produce specific data that we want to highlight in this paper; examples of these are our coding criteria on interdisciplinarity and author gender, where such information was not captured in the articles’ bibliographic data in Scopus. We addressed these issues by conducting a quantitative content analysis (QCA) of our dataset. QCA is a method to record, categorize, and analyze textual, visual, or aural materials (Coe and Scacco, 2017 ). QCA has been applied in other reviews, such as in energy research development in the social sciences (Sovacool, 2014 ), the concepts of energy justice (Jenkins et al., 2021 ), and in examining agricultural issues in Botswana (Oladele and Boago, 2011 ) and Bangladesh (Khatun et al., 2021 ).

Search strategies

We constructed our dataset from the Scopus database, which we accessed via our institution’s online library on 14 November 2021. Scopus is a scientific database established in 2004 and owned by Elsevier Ltd. (Elsevier, 2021 ). We excluded other databases, such as Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, and EBSCO, suggesting one potential bias in our review (Waltman, 2016 ; Zupic and Čater, 2015 ). Our decision to exclusively use Scopus arises from two main reasons. First, the database has broader coverage than others, including the abovementioned (Falagas et al., 2008 ). Scopus includes new and emerging journals published in developing countries like Indonesia and the Philippines, our focus countries. Second, Scopus has a user-friendly interface and its search options allow researchers to flexibly explore its universe of indexed articles based on authors, institutions, titles, abstracts, keywords, and references (Donthu et al., 2021 ).

We followed the PRISMA 2020 Guideline (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses) (Page et al., 2021 ) in our search for potential rice-related studies in Indonesia and the Philippines (see Fig. 1 ). We used the initial search string: “rice” AND “Indonesia*” OR “Philippine*” (asterisk or “*” was used as a wildcard search strategy) and limited the year coverage from 2001 to 2021. Our first round of searches resulted in 3846 documents (results as of 14 November 2021). We filtered these documents by including only peer-reviewed, full-text English articles on rice. We did not include any documents from the grey literature (e.g., news items, press releases, government or corporate reports), and other document types indexed in Scopus such as reviews, books, conference papers, errata, comments, editorials, and short reports.

Our initial result of 3846 documents (results as of 14 November 2021) was filtered by including only peer-reviewed, full-text English articles on rice, resulting in 2243 eligible documents.

We also excluded articles with irrelevant keywords by using the following combined queries:

This resulted in 2243 eligible documents. We downloaded these documents as raw files in BibTex format and imported them to Biblioshiny , a web interface in Bibliometrix, where they were further filtered. Our verified final dataset comprises 2243 full-text English articles cumulatively written by 6893 authors and published across 909 journals (see Table 1 ).

Structure and analytical approach

We examined the authors’ profiles based on their gender, relevance in the study, and global impact. For gender, we coded them into ‘man,’ ‘woman,’ and ‘undetermined’ because some did not put enough information that helps in gender identification. We identified their gender by counter-checking their Scopus profiles to their verified accounts in Google Scholar, ResearchGate, Publons/Web of Science, or institutional profiles. We measured the authors’ relevance and impact against their (a) productivity, (b) citations, and (c) H-indices. We acknowledge, however, that some Filipino and Indonesian scholars, whose papers may not be indexed in Scopus, could also be prolific based on different parameters, but we excluded them. We proceeded to map the collaboration networks of these authors to identify “who works with whom on what.” A collaboration network illustrates nodes (circle shape) as authors and links (connecting lines) as co-authorships (Glänzel and Schubert, 2005 ).

Institutions, countries, funders

Following Sovacool ( 2014 ), we categorized the authors’ institutions into four: (1) University and research included authors who are researchers, instructors/lecturers/professors, other academic faculty from various non-university research think tanks, institutes, and national and local research centers; (2) Government consisted country or state departments, bureaus, ministries, and other government regulatory bodies; (3) Interest groups and NGOs included intergovernmental bodies, such as the United Nations Food and Agriculture Office (FAO) and international organizations like the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) and Oxfam; and (4) Banking and finance encompassed players from the finance sector, including multilateral development banks such as the Asian Development Bank (ADB), World Bank, and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). After coding and categorizing, we analyzed the authors’ institutional collaboration networks.

We identified the country’s productivity and coded them by global region based on their geographical location: (a) Asia, (b) Australia, New Zealand, and South Pacific, (c) Europe, (d) North America, (e) South America, and (f) Africa. We did this to show how various countries have been researching rice in Indonesia and the Philippines since the 21st century.

We then constructed a country collaboration map as a visual macro-representation of countries working together on rice research using these data. Bibliometrix, however, measured the country’s productivity based on the corresponding authors’ affiliations. We, therefore, noted two critical points here. First, many corresponding authors may have multiple institutional affiliations. For example, one corresponding author may belong to more than two affiliations (e.g., a corresponding Filipino author may have concurrent institutional affiliations in Japan, Australia, and New Zealand). Second, the corresponding authors may not necessarily be nationals of that country. Note that the unit of analysis is based on the corresponding authors’ institutional affiliations at the time of publication and not on their country/ies of citizenship or nationality. Despite these, our findings still provide insight into the macro-level productivity of countries conducting rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines.

We analyzed the funders using Scopus’ in-house Analytics Tool and determined their relevance based on the number of articles mentioning them in the Funding source or Acknowledgment section in the paper. We categorized the funders into six: (1) government (e.g., ministries, departments, or regulatory agencies), (2) research (e.g., research councils, research centers, and national academies), (3) foundations and non-government organizations (NGOs), (4) universities, (5) private companies and corporations, and (6) intergovernmental organizations/IGOs, including multilateral development banks.

Articles and journals

In terms of interdisciplinarity, we coded the articles as (a) interdisciplinary, (b) disciplinary, or (c) unidentified by using the authors’ department or division affiliation/s as a proxy to determine their disciplinary training. We coded an article as interdisciplinary if it belonged to any of the three criteria: (1) it had an author that had training or belonged to a department/division in at least two conventional disciplines (e.g., agriculture, anthropology, sociology, biology); (2) it had an author that had a self-identified interdisciplinary department (e.g., interdisciplinary division, sustainability, agriculture economics, etc.); or (3) it had at least two authors with different disciplinary training or expertise (e.g., business and economics; crop science and political science, etc.). We coded an article as disciplinary if its author/s had only belonged to one conventional department/division affiliation (e.g., Division of Agriculture, Department of Economics, Division of Environmental Science, etc.). On the other hand, we coded an article as undetermined when the authors had only indicated the name of their institutions or did not indicate their departmental or division affiliations (e.g., only the University of the Philippines, IRRI, Universitas Gadja Mada, etc.).

We examined the articles based on their local relevance and global influence. Bibliometrix measured the articles’ relevance based on their “local citations” or citations received from the 2243 articles of our sample dataset. We did this to determine which papers are considered relevant by authors studying various areas of rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines. Global influence is measured based on the articles’ citations from the global research community or other scientific works beyond our sample dataset. We also conducted a co-citation analysis of the cited references. Co-citation is the frequency by which articles cite together two or more articles relevant to the topic areas of inquiry (Aria and Cuccurullo, 2017 ). Bibliometrix had identified some co-cited articles published before our timeline of interest (i.e., pre-2001) which provide scholars with a more profound understanding of rice research in the two countries.

On the other hand, Bibliometrix identified the most relevant journals based on the number of papers the journals had published and the local citations of the articles. These data guide readers and researchers on which journals to look for on rice studies in Indonesia and the Philippines.

Knowledge hotspots

Bibliometrix creates a thematic map that allows researchers to identify which study areas have been adequately explored and which areas need further investigation or re-investigation to identify knowledge hotspots and research gaps (Aria and Cuccurullo, 2017 ). Della Corte et al. ( 2019 , pp. 5–6) discussed the major themes in Bibliometrix in the following:

“Themes in the lower-right quadrant are the Basic Themes , characterized by high centrality and low density. These themes are considered essential for a research field and concerned with general topics across different research areas.

Themes in the upper-right quadrant are the Motor Themes , characterized by high centrality and density. Motor themes are considered developed and essential for the research field.

Themes in the upper-left quadrant are the highly developed and isolated themes or Niche Themes . They have well-developed internal links (high density) but unimportant external links, which could be interpreted as having limited importance for the field (low centrality).

Themes in the lower-left quadrant are known as Emerging or Declining Themes . They have low centrality and density, making them weakly developed and marginal.”

Contributions from and research agenda for the social sciences

As interdisciplinary environmental and social scientists, we also focused our review on the social studies of rice in the two countries. This section highlighted the gaps between the natural and the social sciences in rice research and advanced a research agenda for interdisciplinary and comparative social scientists.

Limitations

As in any systematic review, we acknowledge certain limitations to our work. We discuss four of these.

First, to keep a certain level of reliability, we focused only on peer-reviewed full-length research articles written in the English language and indexed in the Scopus database. Therefore, we may have excluded some relevant articles, including those written in Filipino, Indonesian, and other local or indigenous languages and published in local or international journals but are not indexed in Scopus. Our review also excluded conference papers, commentaries, book reviews, book chapters, conference reviews, data papers, errata, letters, notes, and non-academic publications like policy briefings, reports, and white papers.

Second, in our quantitative content analysis, we acknowledge the highly cis-heteronormative approach we used in coding the author’s gender as “man” or “woman.” We identified these genders from the names and pictures of the authors in their verified Scopus, Publons/ Web of Science, and institutional profiles. It is not our deliberate intention to neglect the varying genders of researchers and scientists beyond the traditional binary of man or woman.

Third, we recognize that our analysis cannot directly identify how much each funder provided as the unit of analysis in bibliometrix may depend on how prolific researchers were in publishing articles despite smaller funds. For instance, one research project supported by Funder A with US$1 million may have published only one article based on their project design or the funder's requirement. Since the authors published only one paper from this project, the data could show that Funder A only funded one research. Another research project, supported by Funder B, with only US$300,000 in funding, may have published more than five papers; therefore, more articles counted as funded by Funder B. This issue is not within the scope of our review.

Lastly, it should be noted that the future research works we discussed were highly influenced by our research interests and the general overview of the literature, and thus neither intend to cover nor aim to discuss the entire research topics that other scholars could study.

Despite these limitations, we strongly argue that our review provided relevant insights and proposed potentially novel topic areas and research questions for other scholars to explore, especially social scientists, in deepening and widening rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines. To end, we hope that researchers heed our call to conduct more interdisciplinary and comparative rice-related studies in these two emerging Southeast Asian countries.

Results and discussions

Our dataset comprises 2243 peer-reviewed journal articles cumulatively written by 6893 authors who cited around 80,000 cumulative references. The average annual publications from 2001 to 2013 were only 57 papers but elevated to hundreds beginning in 2014 (Fig. 2 ).

The average number of annual publications on rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines from 2001 to 2013 was only 57 papers but elevated to hundreds beginning in 2014.

Of the 159 authors, one had a duplicate profile; thus, we identified 158 authors publishing on rice studies; the majority (66%) are men. The top 50 most prolific scholars produced a little over 25% (567 articles) of the total articles. Australian ecologist Finbarr Horgan topped this list ( n  = 21), followed by Bas Bouman and Grant Singleton—each with 20 articles. The top 10 authors with the highest number of publications have affiliations with the IRRI, the University of the Philippines, the University of Gadjah Mada, and the Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice). For the full list of prolific scholars with at least 10 articles published, see Supplementary Table 1 .

In terms of the authors with the most local citations, although Finbarr Horgan has the most documents, Johan Iskandar ( n  = 36 citations) from the Universitas Padjadjaran, who studies rice genetic diversity, is the most cited. Local citations refer to the citations received by authors from our sample dataset of 2243 articles. Muhidin Muhidin from the Universitas Halu Oleo and Ruhyat Partasasmita from the Universitas Padjadjaran, followed him with 30 and 28 local citations, respectively. Common to these three authors are their Biology background/expertise and interest in rice genetic diversity. To check the top 20 most locally cited scholars, refer to Supplementary Table 2 .

The H-index is the author-level measure of publications’ productivity and citation impacts (Hirsch, 2005 ). Bas Bouman (H-index = 18) leads the top 10 scholars among rice-related researchers in Indonesia and the Philippines. Yoshimichi Fukuta (H index = 13) and Shaobing Peng (H index = 13) followed him. These three authors are affiliated with or have collaborated with the IRRI. To check the top 10 scholars with the highest H-indices, refer to Supplementary Table 3 .

Figure 3 reveals the top 80 authors who collaborate across eight major clusters of rice research. The Red cluster shows Finbarr Horgan as the most prominent author with at least four significant collaborators in pest management, specifically on rice stemborers (Horgan et al., 2021 ), anthropods’ biodiversity in tropical rice ecosystems (Horgan et al., 2019 ), and virulence adaptations of rice leafhoppers (Horgan et al., 2018 ). In the Purple Cluster, Yoshimichi Fukuta has multiple publications with at least six collaborators in the study of rice blast (Ebitani et al., 2011 ; Kadeawi et al., 2021 ; Mizobuchi et al., 2014 ). In the Brown cluster, Bernard Canapi from the IRRI has collaborated with at least five scholars in the study of rice insect pest management (Cabasan et al., 2019 ; Halwart et al., 2014 ; Litsinger et al., 2011 ), farmers’ preference for rice traits (Laborte et al., 2015 ), and the drivers and consequences of genetic erosion in traditional rice agroecosystems in the Philippines (Zapico et al., 2020 ). The Gray cluster shows that Siti Herlinda has collaborated with at least four scholars to study anthropods in freshwater swamp rice fields (Hanif et al., 2020 ; Herlinda et al., 2020 ) and the benefits of biochar on rice growth and yield (Lakitan et al., 2018 ).

The authors’ collaboration networks show eight major clusters of rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines.

Institutions

Author affiliations.

In terms of institutional types, Fig. 4 shows that most rice researchers in Indonesia and the Philippines have affiliations with “University and research.” Figure 5 shows the top 20 institutions in terms of research productivity led by the IRRI, the University of the Philippines System, the PhilRice, the Institute Pertanian Bogor/IPB University, and the University of Gadja Mada. These 20 institutions produced 66% of the articles in our dataset.

The majority of rice researchers in Indonesia and the Philippines have affiliations with “University and research”.

The top 5 most productive institutions in terms of rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines are the IRRI, the University of the Philippines System, the PhilRice, the Institute Pertanian Bogor/IPB University, and the University of Gadja Mada.

Scholars affiliated with the IRRI have written the most papers (at least 19% or 358 articles) in our dataset. The range of topics covers both regional and country studies. Some regional examples include the drivers of consumer demand for packaged rice and rice fragrance in South and Southeast Asia (Bairagi et al., 2020 ; Bairagi, Gustafson et al., 2021 ). Country studies, for example, include an investigation of rice farming in Central Java, Indonesia (Connor et al., 2021 ), the cultural significance of heirloom rice in Ifugao in the Philippines (Bairagi, Custodio et al., 2021 ), and the distributional impacts of the 2019 Philippine rice tariffication policy (Balié and Valera, 2020 ).

The University of the Philippines System, with rice scholars affiliated with their campuses in Los Baños, Diliman, Mindanao, and Manila, produced the next largest number of papers (more than 200 or 10%) on topics about rice pests and parasites (Horgan et al., 2019 , 2021 ; Vu et al., 2018 ), weed control (Awan et al., 2014 , 2015 ; Fabro and Varca, 2012 ), and climate change impacts on rice farming (Alejo and Ella, 2019 ; Ducusin et al., 2019 ; Gata et al., 2020 ). Social studies of rice conducted by the University of the Philippines researchers include indigenous knowledge on climate risk management (Ruzol et al., 2020 , 2021 ), management options in extreme weather events (Lopez and Mendoza, 2004 ), agroecosystem change (Aguilar et al., 2021 ; Neyra-Cabatac et al., 2012 ), and the development and change over time of rice production landscapes (Santiago and Buot, 2018 ; Tekken et al., 2017 ).

PhilRice, a government-owned corporation under the Department of Agriculture (Official Gazette of the Philippines, 2021 ), is the third most prolific rice research-producing institution (122 papers) on topics ranging from nematodes or rice worms (Gergon et al., 2001 , 2002 ) and arthropods (invertebrates found in rice paddies) (Dominik et al., 2018 ), hybrid rice (Perez et al., 2008 ; Xu et al., 2002 ), alternate wetting-and-drying technology (Lampayan et al., 2015 ; Palis et al., 2017 ), and community development strategies on rice productions (Romanillos et al., 2016 ).

The IPB University, a public agrarian university in Bogor, Indonesia, investigates rice productivity and sustainability (Arif et al., 2012 ; Mucharam et al., 2020 ; Setiawan et al., 2013 ), irrigation (Nugroho et al., 2018 ; Panuju et al., 2013 ), extreme weather events such as drought (Dulbari et al., 2021 ), floods (Wakabayashi et al., 2021 ), and emerging social issues such as food security (Putra et al., 2020 ), land-use change (Chrisendo et al., 2020 ; Munajati et al., 2021 ), and sustainability (Mizuno et al., 2013 ). This university has 23 research centers, including those which focus on environmental research; agricultural and village development; engineering applications in tropical agriculture; Southeast Asian food and agriculture; and agrarian studies.

Universitas Gadja Maja in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, hosts 21 research centers, including its Agrotechnology Innovation Centre. It carries out research incubation and development activities, product commercialization, and integration of agriculture, animal husbandry, energy, and natural resources into a sustainable Science Techno Park. Some of their published studies focused on drought-tolerant rice cultivars (Salsinha et al., 2020 , 2021 ; Trijatmiko et al., 2014 ), farmers’ technical efficiency (Mulyani et al., 2020 ; Widyantari et al., 2018 , 2019 ), systems of rice intensification (Arif et al., 2015 ; Syahrawati et al., 2018 ), and climate change adaptation (Ansari et al., 2021 ).

In terms of institutional collaboration, the IRRI tops the list with at least eleven collaborators (Fig. 6 ), including the Japan International Center for Agricultural Sciences, the PhilRice, the University of the Philippines System, and the Indonesian Center for Rice Research.

The IRRI, as an international organization focused on many aspects of rice, is not surprising to have the greatest number of institutional collaborators ( n  = 11 institutions).

Rice studies’ authors are from at least 79 countries; the majority of them are working in Asia (79%), followed by Europe (13%) and North America (9%). At least 90% of rice scholars are in Indonesia, and more than 51% have affiliations in the Philippines, followed by Japan, the USA, and China. For the list of the top 20 most productive countries researching rice in Indonesia and the Philippines, see Supplementary Table 4 . Figure 7 shows a macro-level picture of how countries have collaborated on rice-related projects in Indonesia and the Philippines since 2001, suggesting that rice research in both countries has benefited from international partnerships.

A macro-level picture of how countries have collaborated on rice-related projects in Indonesia and the Philippines since 2001. It suggests that rice research in both countries has benefited from international partnerships.

Only around 47% (1050 studies) of our dataset acknowledged their funding sources, where most received financial support either from governments (45%), research (27%), or university funders (16%) (Fig. 8 ). To see the top 15 funders that supported at least 10 rice-related research projects in Indonesia and the Philippines from 2001 to 2021, refer to Supplementary Table 5 . Of over 150 rice research funders, Indonesia’s Ministry of Education, Culture, and Research (formerly the Ministry of Research and Technology) funded ~6% (62 out of 1050 studies). The Japan Society for the Promotion of Science and Japan’s Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology came in as the second and third largest funders, respectively.

The majority of rice research projects in Indonesia and the Philippines were funded by governments (45%), research (27%), and university institutions (16%).

Half of all articles in the dataset were borne out of interdisciplinary collaboration. More than a quarter of the articles, however, were unidentified, showing an apparent undercount of the total number of disciplinary collaborations. Most of these collaborative pieces of work (~61%) belong to the natural science subject areas of agricultural and biological sciences; biochemistry, genetics, and molecular biology; and environmental science (see Table 2 ). Note that the cumulative number of articles in Table 2 is more than the total number of the sample dataset since an article may belong to multiple subject areas as indicated by its authors in Scopus. Less than 9% (354) of all papers were written by social scientists, highlighting their marginal contribution to rice research. The social studies of rice can increase our understanding of the many facets of rice production, including their socio-political, economic, and cultural aspects.

Our review shows that there are 10 major networks of rice research co-citations (Fig. 9 ). The papers by Bouman et al. ( 2005 ), Bouman et al. ( 2007 ), Bouman and Tuong ( 2001 ), and Tuong and Bouman ( 2003 ) were co-cited by scholars studying the relationship between water scarcity management vis-à-vis rice growth and yield (the purple cluster in Fig. 9 ). Papers by Yoshida et al. ( 2009 ), De Datta ( 1981 ), and Peng et al. ( 1999 ) were co-cited by scholars researching the genetic diversity, yield, and principles and practices of rice production in Indonesia (the red cluster in Fig. 9 ). Papers by Ou ( 1985 ), Mackill and Bonman ( 1992 ), Sambrook et al. ( 1989 ), Kauffman et al. ( 1973 ), Iyer and McCouch ( 2004 ), and Mew ( 1987 ) were considered essential references in studying rice diseases (blue cluster in Fig. 9 ). The top-cited article on rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines, based on their overall global citations, is a study on water-efficient and water-saving irrigation (Belder et al., 2004 ). This study detailed alternative options for typical water management in lowland rice cultivation, where fields are continuously submerged, hence requiring a continuous large amount of water supply (Belder et al., 2004 ). Global citations refer to the citations received by the articles within and beyond our sample dataset of 2243 articles. To see the top 10 most globally cited articles on rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines, refer to Supplementary Table 6 .

There are 10 major networks of rice research co-citations in Indonesia and the Philippines.

The journal Biodiversitas: Journal of Biological Diversity published the most number of papers on rice research in the two countries. Biodiversitas publishes papers “dealing with all biodiversity aspects of plants, animals, and microbes at the level of gene, species, ecosystem, and ethnobiology” (Biodiversitas, 2021 ). Following its indexing in Scopus in 2014, Biodiversitas has increasingly published rice studies, most of which were authored by Indonesian researchers. To see the top 10 most relevant journals for rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines based on the number of documents published since 2001, refer to Supplementary Table 7 .

Based on their local citations, the journals Field Crops Research , Theoretical & Applied Genetics , and Science are the most relevant. Field Crops Research focuses on crop ecology, crop physiology, and agronomy of field crops for food, fiber, feed, medicine, and biofuel. Theoretical and Applied Genetics publishes original research and review articles in all critical areas of modern plant genetics, plant genomics, and plant biotechnology. Science is the peer-reviewed academic journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and one of the world’s top academic journals. To see the top 30 most relevant journals for rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines based on the number of local citations, refer to Supplementary Table 8 .

The most used keywords found in 2243 rice research papers published between 2001 and 2021 in Indonesia and the Philippines are food security, climate change, drought, agriculture, irrigation, genetic diversity, sustainability, technical efficiency, and production (Fig. 10 ). We found 11 clusters across four significant themes of rice research in these countries (Fig. 11 ).

The most used keywords found in 2243 rice research papers published between 2001 and 2021 in Indonesia and the Philippines are food security, climate change, drought, agriculture, irrigation, genetic diversity, sustainability, technical efficiency, and production.

There are four major themes composed of 11 clusters of rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines since 2001.

Basic themes

We identified four major clusters under ‘basic themes’ (refer to Fig. 11 ):

The Red Cluster on studies in the Philippines related to rice yield and productivity, drought, nitrogen, the Green Revolution, and the use and potential of biomass;

The Blue Cluster on studies in Indonesia related to food security, climate change, agriculture, upland rice, irrigation, technical efficiency, and sustainability vis-à-vis rice production;

The Green Cluster on rice genetic diversity, bacterial blight diseases, resistant rice genes, aerobic rice, and brown planthoppers; and

The Gray Cluster on the nutritional aspects of rice, including studies on biofortified rice cultivars.

Agriculture suffers from climate change impacts and weather extremes. Rice researchers in Indonesia and the Philippines are identifying drought-tolerant rice cultivars that can produce high yields in abiotic stress-prone environments (Afa et al., 2018 ; Niones et al., 2021 ). These hybrid cultivars are vital for increasing rice productivity, meeting production demand, and feeding the growing Filipino and Indonesian populations (Kumar et al., 2021 ; Lapuz et al., 2019 ). Researchers have also looked at alternative nutrient and water management strategies that farmers can use, especially those in rainfed lowland areas during drought (Banayo, Bueno et al., 2018 ; Banayo, Haefele et al., 2018 ). There were also studies on the socio-cultural dynamics under which farmers adapt to droughts, such as how past experiences of hazards influence farmers’ perceptions of and actions toward drought (Manalo et al., 2020 ).

Motor themes

We identified three significant clusters of ‘motor themes’ (refer to Fig. 11 ):

The Pink Cluster on yield loss and integrated pest management of rice fields;

The Blue-Green Cluster on biodiversity, ecosystem services, remote sensing, and water productivity; and

The Orange Cluster on the antioxidant properties of rice bran and black rice.

In both countries, pests, including weeds (Awan et al., 2014 , 2015 ), insects (Horgan et al., 2018 , 2021 ), and rodents (Singleton, 2011 ; Singleton et al., 2005 , 2010 ), have significant impacts on yield loss in rice production and human health. To address these, many farmers have embraced chemical-heavy pest management practices to prevent yield loss and increase economic benefits. Pesticides began their use in Indonesia and the Philippines and rapidly expanded from the 1970s to the 1980s (Resosudarmo, 2012 ; Templeton and Jamora, 2010 ). However, indiscriminate use of pesticides caused an ecological imbalance that exacerbated pest problems (Templeton and Jamora, 2010 ) and contributed to farmers’ acute and chronic health risks (Antle and Pingali, 1994 ; Pingali and Roger, 1995 ).

Integrated pest management was introduced, applied, and studied in both countries to address these issues. This approach combines multiple compatible pest control strategies to protect crops, reduce pesticide use, and decrease farming costs (Gott and Coyle, 2019 ). For example, Indonesia’s 1989 National Integrated Pest Management Program trained hundreds of thousands of farmers and agricultural officials about its principles, techniques, and strategies (Resosudarmo, 2012 ). In the Philippines, the government of then-President Fidel V. Ramos (1992–1996) prohibited using hazardous pesticides and instituted a “multi-pronged approach to the judicious use of pesticides” (Templeton and Jamora, 2010 , p. 1). President Ramos’ suite of policies included deploying Integrated Pest Management “as a national program to encourage a more ecologically sound approach to pest control” (Templeton and Jamora, 2010 , p. 1). This pesticide policy package benefited the Philippine government in terms of private health costs avoided (Templeton and Jamora, 2010 ).

To address weed problems, farmers traditionally use manual weeding, a labor-intensive practice. However, as labor costs for manual weeding increased, herbicide use became economically attractive to farmers (Beltran et al., 2012 ). Herbicide experiments were made to address common rice weeds including barnyard grass ( Echinochloa crus-galli ) (Juliano et al., 2010 ), crowfoot grass ( Dactyloctenium aegyptium ) (Chauhan, 2011 ), three-lobe morning glory ( Ipomoea triloba ) (Chauhan and Abugho, 2012 ), and jungle rice ( Echinochloa colona ) (Chauhan and Johnson, 2009 ). Knowledge gained from these experiments contributed to the development of integrated weed management strategies.

Yet, many factors come into play when farmers decide to use herbicides. Beltran et al. ( 2013 ) reported that farmers’ age, household size, and irrigation use are significant determinants of adopting herbicides as an alternative to manual weeding. Beltran et al. ( 2013 ) further showed that economic variables, like the price of the herbicide, household income, and access to credit, determined farmers’ level of herbicide use (Beltran et al., 2013 ). Their study highlights the complex decision-making process and competing factors affecting weed management in the Philippines.

Apart from weeds, insects, like brown planthoppers ( Nilaparvata lugens ) and green leafhoppers ( Cicadella viridis ) and their accompanying diseases, affect rice production. In Java, Indonesia, Triwidodo ( 2020 ) reported a significant influence between the insecticide use scheme and the brown planthopper ( Nilaparvata lugens ) attack rates in rice fields. Brown planthopper attacks increased depending on the frequency of pesticide application, their varieties, and volume (Triwidodo, 2020 ). In the Philippines, Kim and colleagues ( 2019 ) developed a rice tungro epidemiological model for a seasonal disaster risk management approach to insect infestation.

Some social studies of integrated pest management included those that looked at the cultural practices that mitigate insect pest losses (Litsinger et al., 2011 ) and farmers’ knowledge, attitudes, and methods to manage rodent populations (Stuart et al., 2011 ). Other social scientists evaluated the value of amphibians as pest controls, bio-monitors for pest-related health outcomes, and local food and income sources (Propper et al., 2020 ).

Niche themes

We identified two ‘niche themes’ consisting of studies related to (a) temperature change and (b) organic rice production (refer to Fig. 11 ). Temperature change significantly affects rice farming. In the Philippines, Stuecker et al. ( 2018 ) found that El Niño-induced soil moisture variations negatively affected rice production from 1987–2016. According to one experiment, high night temperature stress also affect rice yield and metabolic profiles (Schaarschmidt et al., 2020 ). In Indonesia, a study suggests that introducing additional elements, such as Azolla, fish, and ducks, into the rice farming system may enhance rice farmers’ capacity to adapt to climate change (Khumairoh et al., 2018 ). Another study produced a rainfall model for Malang Regency using Spatial Vector Autoregression. This model is essential as rainfall pattern largely determines the cropping pattern of rice and other crops in Indonesia (Sumarminingsih, 2021 ).

Studies on organic rice farming in the Philippines include resource-poor farmers’ transition from technological to ecological rice farming (Carpenter, 2003 ) and the benefits of organic agriculture in rice agroecosystems (Mendoza, 2004 ). Other studies on organic rice focused on its impacts on agricultural development (Broad and Cavanagh, 2012 ) and climate resilience (Heckelman et al., 2018 ). In Indonesia, Martawijaya and Montgomery ( 2004 ) found that the local demand for organic rice produced in East Java was insufficient to generate revenue enough to cover its production costs. In West Java, Komatsuzaki and Syuaib ( 2010 ) found that organic rice farming fields have higher soil carbon storage capacity than fields where rice is grown conventionally. In Bali, farmers found it challenging to adopt organic rice farming vis-à-vis the complex and often contradictory and contested administration of the Subaks (MacRae and Arthawiguna, 2011 ) and the challenges they have to confront in marketing their produce (Macrae, 2011 ).

Emerging or declining themes

We identified two clusters of ‘emerging/declining themes’ or areas of rice research that are weakly developed and marginal (refer to Fig. 11 ). The Purple Cluster (emerging) studies rice straw, rice husk, methane, and rice cultivation, while the Light Blue Cluster (declining) pertains to local rice research.

In this section, we present and discuss the contributions of the social sciences, highlight key gaps, and provide a research agenda across six interdisciplinary areas for future studies. In Table 3 , we summarized the various topic areas that other scholars could focus on in their future studies of rice in Indonesia and the Philippines.

Economic, political, and policy studies

Political scientist Ernest A. Engelbert ( 1953 ) was one of the earliest scholars to summarize the importance of studying agricultural economics, politics, and policies. Engelbert ( 1953 ) identified three primary reasons scholars and laypeople alike need to understand the nature of political processes in agriculture. First, the rapid change and highly contested political environment where agriculture operates often places agriculture last on national policy agenda. Second, the formulation of agricultural policies intersects with contemporary national and economic contexts by which these policies revolve. Third, understanding the political processes around agriculture can help avoid political pressures and machinations aimed at undermining agricultural development.

Politics play a crucial role in better understanding rice- and agriculture-related policies, their evolution, dynamics, challenges, developments, and futures. Grant ( 2012 , p. 271) aptly asks, “Who benefits [from government policies, regulations, and programs]?” . Knowing, understanding, and answering this question is crucial since policymaking is a highly contested process influenced and negotiated not only by farmers and decision-makers but also by other interest groups, such as people’s organizations and non-government organizations. On the other hand, understanding macro- and micro-economic government arrangements come hand-in-hand in analyzing how policies impact farmers and consumers. Using tariffs as an example, Laiprakobsup ( 2014 , p. 381) noted the effects of government interventions in the agrarian market:

“… when the government implements consumer subsidy programs by requiring the farmers to sell their commodities at a cheaper price, it transfers the farmers’ incomes that they were supposed to earn to the consumers. Moreover, the government transfers tax burdens to the farmers via export taxes in that the agricultural industry is likely to purchase the farmers’ commodities as cheaply as possible in order to make up for its cost.”

The two countries have compelling economic, political, and policy-oriented rice studies. Some examples of this type of research in the Philippines are the following. Intal and Garcia ( 2005 ) argued that the price of rice had been a significant determinant in election results since the 1950s. Fang ( 2016 ) analyzed how the Philippines’ colonial history bolstered an oligarchy system, where landed elite politicians and patronage politics perpetuated corruption to the detriment of rice farmers. Balié and Valera ( 2020 ) examined rice trade policy reforms’ domestic and international impacts. San Juan ( 2021 ) contends that the 2019 Rice Tariffication Law of the Philippines only encouraged the country to rely on imports and failed to make the local rice industry more competitive.

In Indonesia, some political studies on rice production are the following. Putra et al. ( 2020 ) analyzed how urbanization affected food consumption, food composition, and farming performance. Noviar et al. ( 2020 ) provided evidence that households in the rice sub-sector have achieved an insufficient level of commercialization in their rice production. Rustiadi et al. ( 2021 ) investigated the impacts of land incursions over traditionally rice farming regions due to Jakarta’s continuous expansion. Satriawan and Shrestha ( 2018 ) evaluated how Indonesian households participated in the Raskin program, a nationwide rice price subsidy scheme for the poor. Misdawita et al. ( 2019 ) formulated a social accounting matrix and used a microsimulation approach to assess the impacts of food prices on the Indonesian economy.

Future work

Social science researchers could further explore and compare the local, regional, and national similarities and differences of the abovementioned issues or conduct novel research related to land-use change, land management, urbanization, food and agricultural policies, trade policies, irrigation governance, and price dynamics. Comparative social studies of rice could also lead to meaningful results. As social policy scholar Linda Hantrais noted:

“Comparisons can lead to fresh, exciting insights and a deeper understanding of issues that are of central concern in different countries. They can lead to the identification of gaps in knowledge and may point to possible directions that could be followed and about which the researcher may not previously have been aware. They may also help to sharpen the focus of analysis of the subject under study by suggesting new perspectives.” (Hantrais, 1995 , p. n/a).

Sociological, anthropological, and cultural studies

Biologists dominated agricultural research until the mid-1960s (Doorman, 1991 ). Agriculture, in other words, was no social scientist’s business. However, this situation gradually changed when governments and scholars realized the long-term impacts of the Green Revolution from the 1950s to the 1980s, which underscores that the development, transfer, and adoption of new agrotechnology, especially in developing countries, is driven not only by techno-biological factors but also by the socio-economic, political, and cultural realities under which the farmers operate. Since then, sociologists, anthropologists, and cultural scholars have become indispensable in answering the “how”, “what”, and “why” agrarian communities follow, adopt, utilize, or, in some cases, prefer local/traditional production technologies over the technological and scientific innovations developed by engineers, biologists, geneticists, and agriculturists. Nyle C. Brady, a soil scientist and the former Director-General of the IRRI pointed out:

“… we increasingly recognize that factors relating directly to the farmer, his family, and his community must be considered if the full effects of agricultural research are to be realized. This recognition has come partly from the participation of anthropologists and other social scientists in interdisciplinary teams … during the past few years.” (IRRI, 1982 ).

Since the late 19th century, many rice studies have tried to answer the roles of social scientists in agricultural research. Social sciences have contributed to agricultural research in many ways, especially regarding technology adoption by farmers (DeWalt, 1985 ; Doorman, 1990 ). Doorman ( 1991 , p. 4) synthesized these studies and offered seven roles for sociologists and anthropologists in agricultural research as follows:

“Accommodator of new technology, ex-post and ex-ante evaluator of the impact of new technology, an indicator of the needs for new technology, translator of farmer’s perceptions, broker-sensitizer, adviser in on-farm research, and trainer of team members from other disciplines.”

Social studies of rice are especially critical in Indonesia and the Philippines—home to hundreds of Indigenous cultural communities and Indigenous peoples (Asian Development Bank, 2002 ; UNDP Philippines, 2010 ). Regardless of the highly contested debates surrounding “indigeneity” or “being indigenous,” especially in Indonesia (Hadiprayitno, 2017 ), we argue that Indigenous cultural communities and Indigenous peoples have similarities (i.e., they are often farming or agrarian societies) but also recognize their differences and diversity in terms of their farming practices, beliefs, traditions, and rituals. These socio-cultural factors and human and non-human interactions influence rice production; thus, these differences and diversity bring front-and-center the importance of needs-based, community-driven, and context-sensitive interventions or projects for rice farming communities. These are research areas best explored by sociologists, anthropologists, and cultural scholars.

Today, agriculture’s sociological, anthropological, and cultural research have gone beyond the classic technology adoption arena. In Indonesia, studies have explored farmers’ technical efficiency in rice production (e.g., Muhardi and Effendy, 2021 ), the similarities and differences of labor regimes among them (e.g., White and Wijaya, 2021 ), the role of social capital (e.g., Salman et al., 2021 ), and the reciprocal human–environmental interactions in the rice ecological system (e.g., Sanjatmiko, 2021 ). Disyacitta Nariswari and Lauder ( 2021 ) conducted a dialectological study to examine the various Sundanese, Javanese, and Betawi Malay words used in rice production. Rochman et al. ( 2021 ) looked into the ngahuma (planting rice in the fields) as one of the inviolable customary laws of the Baduy Indigenous cultural community in Banten, Indonesia.

In the Philippines, Balogbog and Gomez ( 2020 ) identified upland rice farmers’ productivity and technical efficiency in Sarangani. Aguilar et al. ( 2021 ) examined the drivers of change, resilience, and potential trajectories of traditional rice-based agroecosystems in Kiangan, Ifugao. Pasiona et al. ( 2021 ) found that using the “modified listening group method” enables farmers’ peer-to-peer learning of technical concepts. Sociologist Shunnan Chiang ( 2020 ) examined the driving forces behind the transformation of the status of brown rice in the country.

Social scientists could further look into the social, cultural, technological, and human–ecological interactions in the temporal and spatial studies of different rice farming regions in Indonesia and the Philippines. Other topics could include the cultural practices and the techno-social relationships of rice farmers (e.g., Shepherd and McWilliam, 2011 ) and other players in the rice value chain, local and indigenous knowledge and practices on agrobiodiversity conservation, historical and invasive pests and diseases, agricultural health and safety, farmer education, and aging agricultural infrastructures. Lastly, future researchers can explore the impacts of adopting rice farming technologies in the different stages or processes of the rice value chain. They can look into its short- and longer-term effects on farmers’ livelihoods and conduct comparative analyses on how it improves, or not, their livelihoods, and whether farmers regard them better compared to the traditional and indigenous practices and beliefs that their communities apply and observe in rice farming.

Social and environmental psychology

Our review yielded no article published on the social and environmental psychology aspects of rice farming in Indonesia and the Philippines, suggesting a new research frontier. The increasing demand for and competition over agricultural and natural resources due to climate change and population expansion (Foley et al., 2011 ) opens up new and emerging sociopsychological dilemmas for society to understand, answer, and, hopefully, solve. Social and environmental psychologists can help shed light on these questions, such as those related to understanding farmers’ pro-environmental agricultural practices (Price and Leviston, 2014 ), sustainable sharing and management of agricultural and natural resources (Anderies et al., 2013 ; Biel and Gärling, 1995 ), and understanding the psychosocial consequences of resource scarcity (Griskevicius et al., 2013 ). Broadly, social psychology examines human feelings, thoughts, and behaviors and how they are influenced by the actual, imagined, and implied presence, such as the effects of internalized social norms (Allport, 1985 ). Social psychologists look at the many facets of personality and social interactions and explore the impacts of interpersonal and group relationships on human behavior (American Psychological Association, 2014b ). On the other hand, environmental psychology examines psychological processes in human encounters with their natural and built environments (Stern, 2000 ). Environmental psychologists are interested in studying and understanding people’s responses to natural and technological hazards, conservation, and perceptions of the environment (American Psychological Association, 2014a ).

Using the Asian Journal of Social Psychology and the Journal of Environmental Psychology as benchmarks, we recommend that scholars explore the following uncharted or least studied areas of rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines: sociopsychological processes such as attitude and behavior, social cognition, self and identity, individual differences, emotions, human–environmental health and well-being, social influence, communication, interpersonal behavior, intergroup relations, group processes, and cultural processes. Researchers could also investigate the psycho-behavioral areas of nature–people interactions, theories of place, place attachment, and place identity, especially in rice farming. Other topics may include farmers’ perceptions, behaviors, and management of environmental risks and hazards; theories of pro-environmental behaviors; psychology of sustainable agriculture; and the psychological aspects of resource/land management and land-use change.

Climate change, weather extremes, and disaster risk reduction

Indonesia’s and Philippines’ equatorial and archipelagic location in the Pacific Ring of Fire (Bankoff, 2016 ; Parwanto and Oyama, 2014 ), coupled with their political, social, and economic complexities (Bankoff, 2003 , 2007 ; UNDRR and CRED, 2020 ), expose and render these countries highly vulnerable to hazards, such as typhoons, strong winds, tsunamis, storm surges, floods, droughts, and earthquakes. The accelerating global climate change increases the frequency and intensity of some of these hazards, such as prolonged droughts, torrential rainfalls causing floods, and super typhoons (IPCC, 2014 ). For example, torrential flooding, induced by heavy rains caused by low pressures and southwest monsoons, has been damaging lives and livelihoods, including rice production (Statista, 2021 ). The 2020 droughts caused over 12 trillion pesos (~US$239.40 billion) of economic losses in the Philippines (Statista, 2021 ) and affected millions of Indonesians (UNDRR, 2020 ). Prolonged drought in Indonesia has also exacerbated fire hazards, which caused transboundary haze pollution in neighboring countries, like Singapore and the Philippines, inflecting environmental health damages (Aiken, 2004 ; Sheldon and Sankaran, 2017 ; Tan-Soo and Pattanayak, 2019 ). Increasing sea-level rise due to anthropogenic climate change puts cities like Jakarta and Manila at risk of sinking in the next 30–50 years (Kulp and Strauss, 2019 ). The high vulnerability, frequent exposure, and low capacities of marginalized and poor Indonesians and Filipinos turn these hazards into disasters (Gaillard, 2010 ; Kelman, 2020 ; Kelman et al., 2015 ), negatively affecting rice agriculture.

Given these contexts, climate change, weather extremes, and disaster risks, vis-à-vis its impacts on the rice sector, are issues of profound interest to scholars and the Indonesian and Philippine governments. In the Philippines, climate adaptation studies include re-engineering rice drying systems for climate change (Orge et al., 2020 ) and evaluating climate-smart farming practices and the effectiveness of Climate-Resiliency Field Schools in Mindanao (Chandra et al., 2017 ). In Indonesia, where some rice farming communities are vulnerable to sea-level rise, scholars are experimenting to identify rice cultivars with high yields under different salinity levels (Sembiring et al., 2020 ). Hohl et al. ( 2021 ) used a regional climate model to develop index-based drought insurance products to help the Central Java government make drought-related insurance payments to rice farmers. Aprizal et al. ( 2021 ) utilized land-use conditions and rain variability data to develop a flood inundation area model for the Way Sekampung sub-watershed in Lampung, Sumatra. Others also looked at the science behind liquefaction hazards caused by irrigation systems for wet rice cultivation in mountainous farming communities like the 2018 earthquake-triggered landslides in Palu Valley, Sulawesi (Bradley et al., 2019 ).

Examples of climate mitigation-related studies in the Philippines include investigating the social innovation strategies in engaging rice farmers in bioenergy development (Minas et al., 2020 ) and evaluating the environmental performance and energy efficiency of rice straw-generated electricity sources (Reaño et al., 2021 ). Doliente and Samsatli ( 2021 ) argue that it is possible to combine energy and food production to increase farm productivity and reduce GHG emissions with minimal land expansion. Other studies have looked into the potential of alternate wetting and drying irrigation practices to mitigate emissions from rice fields (Sander et al., 2020 ).

Future work could explore the following topic areas: demand-driven research and capacity building on climate information and environmental monitoring; nature-based solutions for climate mitigation and adaptation; water–energy–food nexus in rice farming; the nexus of climate change and conflict in rice farming communities; the potentials and pitfalls of social capital in farmer’s everyday adaptation; just energy transitions in rice farming; vulnerabilities from and traditional/local/indigenous ways of adapting to climate change, including the various learning strategies communities use for its preservation; and examples, potentials, and barriers in adopting climate-smart agriculture technologies and practices.

Demographic transitions and aging farmers

Farmers are in various stages and speeds of aging globally (Rigg et al., 2020 ). Evidence of aging farmers in the Global North has been reported in Australia (O’Callaghan and Warburton, 2017 ; Rogers et al., 2013 ), the Czech Republic (Zagata et al., 2015 ), England (Hamilton et al., 2015 ), Japan (Poungchompu et al., 2012 ; Usman et al., 2021 ), and the United States of America (Mitchell et al., 2008 ; Reed, 2008 ; Yudelman and Kealy, 2000 ). Similarly, in the Global South, HelpAge International ( 2014 , p. 21) reported that “there has been a universal trend of an increase in the proportion of older people… attached to agricultural holdings… across [Low and Middle-income Countries in] Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean.” Moreover, farming populations are aging rapidly in East and Southeast Asia (Rigg et al., 2020 ) and southern Africa (HelpAge, 2014 ). Despite this, the literature on aging farmers in Southeast Asian countries remains scant, except for case studies conducted in some villages and provinces in Thailand (Poungchompu et al., 2012 ; Rigg et al., 2018 , 2020 ) and the Philippines (Moya et al., 2015 ; Palis, 2020 ).

Rice farmers’ quiet but critical demographic transformation in Indonesia and the Philippines has not received much attention from scientists, policymakers, and development practitioners. The impacts of aging farmers on the micro-, meso-, and macro-level agricultural processes and outcomes are important issues that require urgent attention. Studies done in other countries could guide future work to explore these questions in Indonesia and the Philippines. These include aging’s potential negative implications in terms of agricultural efficiency and productivity (e.g., Tram and McPherson ( 2016 ) in Vietnam, and Szabo et al. ( 2021 ) in Thailand), food security (e.g., Bhandari and Mishra ( 2018 ) in Asia), farming continuity and sustainability (e.g., O’Callaghan and Warburton ( 2017 ) in Australia, Palis ( 2020 ) in the Philippines, and Rigg et al. ( 2018 , 2020 ) in Thailand), aging and feminization of farm labor (e.g., Liu et al. ( 2019 ) in China), cleaner production behaviors (e.g., Liu et al. ( 2021 ) in Northern China), youth barriers to farm entry (e.g., Zagata and Sutherland ( 2015 ) in Europe), and health and well-being of aging farmers (Jacka, 2018 ; Rogers et al., 2013 ; Ye et al., 2017 ).

Other critical new topics include the (dis)engagement and re-engagement of young people in rice farming; gender dynamics—including structures and systems of inclusion and/or exclusion—in rice production; the impacts of migration and return migration to farming households; community-based and policy-oriented case studies that provide examples of successfully engaging and retaining youth workers in farming; and social protection measures for aging farmers, to name a few.

Contemporary and emerging challenges

One of the biggest and most visible contemporary global challenges is the Covid-19 pandemic. Most pronounced is the pandemic’s impacts on the healthcare system and the economic toll it caused on the lives and livelihoods of people, including rice farmers. Only 0.18% (4 articles) of our dataset have investigated the impacts of Covid-19 on rice systems in Indonesia and the Philippines. Ling et al. ( 2021 ) assessed the effects of the pandemic on the domestic rice supply vis-à-vis food security among ASEAN member-states. They found that Singapore and Malaysia were highly vulnerable to a pandemic-induced rice crisis, while Brunei, Indonesia, and the Philippines are moderately vulnerable. They argued that Southeast Asian rice importers should consider alternative import strategies to reduce their high-risk reliance on rice supply from Thailand and Vietnam and look for other suppliers in other continents.

Rice prices did not change in the early months of the pandemic in Indonesia (Nasir et al., 2021 ); however, as the health emergency progressed, distributors and wholesalers incurred additional costs due to pandemic-induced mobility restrictions (Erlina and Elbaar, 2021 ). In the Philippines, San Juan ( 2021 ) argues that the global rice supply disruption due to the pandemic proves that the country cannot heavily rely on rice imports; instead, it should work on strengthening its domestic rice supply. To realize this, he recommended drastic investments in agriculture and research, rural solar electrification, and the promotion of research on increasing rice yields, boosting productivity, and planting sustainably as feasible steps on the road to rice self-sufficiency.

The ways and extent to which the pandemic negatively affected or exacerbated the vulnerabilities of rice farmers and other value chain actors remain an understudied area in the social studies of rice. Scholars could study the pandemic’s impacts in conjunction with other contemporary and emerging challenges like climate change, weather extremes, aging, conflict, and poverty. Scholars could also explore the medium- and longer-term impacts of the pandemic on rice production, unemployment risks, rice supply and nutrition security of farming households, and the potential and extent to which economic stimulus can benefit rice farmers, to name a few. Most importantly, the pandemic allows researchers and governments to assess the business-as-usual approach that resulted in the disastrous impacts of the pandemic on different sectors, including rice farmers, and hopefully devise strategies to learn from these experiences.

From our review of 2243 articles, cumulatively written by 6893 authors using almost 80,000 references, we conclude that a voluminous amount of rice research has been conducted in Indonesia and the Philippines since 2001. As in other reviews, (e.g., on energy research by Sovacool, 2014 ), our results show that women scholars remain underrepresented in rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines. While interdisciplinary collaboration is abundant, most of these studies belong to the natural sciences with minimal contributions from the social sciences, arts, and humanities. University and research institutions contributed the most to rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines: from hybrid rice cultivars, water management, and technology adoption to socio-cultural, political, economic, and policy issues. Influential scholars in the field were affiliated with the IRRI, which can be expected given the institute’s focus on rice, and key agriculture-focused universities and government bureaus such as the University of the Philippines and the PhilRice in the Philippines, and the Institut Pertanian Bogor University and the Universitas Gadja Maja in Indonesia. We also discussed some examples of economic, political, and policy studies; social, anthropological, and cultural research; social and environmental psychology; climate change, weather extremes, and disaster risk reduction; demographic transitions; and contemporary and emerging issues and studies on rice in the two Southeast Asian countries. Ultimately, we hope that this systematic review can help illuminate key topic areas of rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines and magnify the crucial contributions from and possible research areas and questions that interdisciplinary and comparative social scientists can further explore.

Data availability

The dataset analyzed in this study is available in the Figshare online repository via https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.17284814.v2 . All codes about Bibliometrix are available at https://bibliometrix.org/ .

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The work described in this paper was substantially supported by a grant from the Research Grants Council of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China (Project No. HKUST 26600521). Partial funding was also made available by the HKUST Institute for Emerging Market Studies with support from EY.

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Cuaton, G.P., Delina, L.L. Two decades of rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines: A systematic review and research agenda for the social sciences. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 9 , 372 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-022-01394-z

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The Central Luzon Loop Survey: Rice Farming in the Philippines from 1966 to 2021

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• Kei Kajisa 9 ,
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The Central Luzon Loop Survey in the Philippines is one of the longest-running and ongoing household-level farm surveys in tropical Asia. This chapter reviews the changes in rice farming from 1966 to 2021, with a particular focus on the past decade. The data show that rice yields have stagnated and become more variable despite a prompt and continuous switch to newer modern varieties with an appropriate nitrogen application level since the Green Revolution. This implies that the Green Revolution-type agricultural development is at a crossroads. As background factors, this chapter reviews how the adoption of labor-saving technologies, mechanization, and farm size have changed over time under increasing rural labor scarcity. A subjective assessment of the impact of COVID-19 on rice farming is also discussed.

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The Evolution of Rice Farming in the Lower Mekong Basin

Introduction: Why an African Green Revolution Is Needed and Why It Must Include Small Farms

On the determinants of low productivity of rice farming in mozambique: pathways to intensification, 1 introduction.

The Central Luzon Loop Survey in the Philippines (the Loop Survey) is one of the longest-running and still ongoing household-level farm surveys in tropical Asia. Footnote 1 The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) started the survey on the eve of the Green Revolution in 1966, the year of the official release of the miracle rice, IR8. Since then, the survey has been conducted every four to five years until 2021, generating 14 rounds of datasets, covering a period of more than half a century. Footnote 2 The datasets of this feature enable us to explore the situation of rice farming and rice farm families before the Green Revolution, how the situation changed through the progress of the Green Revolution, and the emerging issues in the post-Green Revolution era in the Philippines.

The Loop Survey revealed Green Revolution’s substantial impact on the country’s food production and poverty alleviation. Among the 34 major publications (books, reports, and journal articles) produced from the Loop Survey, comprehensive documentation from 1966 (first round) to 2012 (12th round) was found in a study by Moya et al. ( 2015 ). Footnote 3 It shows that the paddy (unmilled rice) yield per hectare had increased from 2.3 tons per hectare (t/ha) in 1966 to 3.9 t/ha in 2011 in the wet (rainy) season and from 1.8 t/ha in 1967 to 5.8 t/ha in 2012 in the dry season, thereby increasing the farmers’ rice income. Accordingly, the first-generation Green Revolution farmers increased schooling investment in their children, resulting in an increase in the proportion of secondary- or tertiary-level graduates from 18 to 65% in the same period. These educated children moved to the non-agricultural sector. Hence, although the proportion of rice income increased from 68% in the 1960s to 86% in the 1970s, it decreased successively since then to the level of 17% in the first decade of the twenty-first century (‘00s), whereas the proportion of off-farm income and remittances accounted for 34% and 28%, respectively. In general, countries benefiting from the Green Revolution show a similar pattern of agricultural development and income change (Otsuka et al. 2008 ).

However, Green Revolution-style agricultural development is now at a crossroads. It is ironic that the Green Revolution, which has achieved success through the advancement of seed-fertilizer technology and the adoption of labor-intensive crop care, is now challenged by increasing rural labor scarcity caused by its success. This is an inevitable historical pattern of agricultural transformation in the Philippines and other countries that have started economic ‘take-offs’ (Viswanathan et al. 2012 ; Briones and Felipe 2013 ; Timmer 1988 ). Furthermore, disasters and infectious disease pandemics are becoming increasingly rampant as contemporary phenomena. The achievement of sustainable rice farming is challenged by these contemporary issues.

This chapter aims to identify emerging issues on rice farming in the post-Green Revolution era in the Philippines using the last two rounds of the Loop Survey, namely the 2015–16 and 2020–21 rounds. This discussion includes the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on rice farming.

2 Survey Design and Survey Site

The use of ‘loop’ in the name stems from the survey’s sampling feature: selecting sample farm fields along the loop of the national highway passing through six provinces (Fig. 3.1 ). Randomization of the sample was achieved by specifying the fields to be observed at specific kilometer posts along the main highway (e.g., the 50th, 60th, 70th, etc.). The most important feature of the data is that they were collected from the same fields despite changing operators. Hence, this dataset provides long-term, plot-level panel data. The initial sample size was 95 farmers who cultivated 120 parcels in 1966, gradually decreasing mainly due to land conversion to non-agricultural purposes, thus supplemented in the 1979–80 round, for a total of 148 farmers with 338 parcels. Since then, no compensation has been made, resulting in a sample size of 81, with 126 parcels in the 2021 interview. The sample size for each round is presented in Table 3.1 .

Map of the Central Luzon Loop Survey

The area is known as the country’s rice bowl and has a distinct wet season (WS) and dry season (DS)—the WS begins in May or June and ends in October, and the DS begins in November and ends in March or April. The introduction of large-scale surface irrigation systems in the 1970s and the adoption of low-lift pumps and shallow tube wells in the 1990s have made DS rice farming possible. Footnote 4 Accordingly, the crop intensity (taking a value of 2 if fully double-cropped), which was 1.33 in 1966–67, jumped up to 1.55 in 1979–80 due to the availability of surface irrigation systems, and then further increased to 1.82 by 2011–12, mainly due to the expansion of pump irrigation.

The last feature of the survey site is land ownership and tenure distribution. Large rice and sugarcane haciendas (plantations) developed in this area during the Spanish colonial period in the nineteenth century. Given this historical background, the Central Luzon region was targeted as the first place for implementing the comprehensive land reform program. Footnote 5 From 1966 to 2012, the distribution of tenancy changed from 13 to 47% as owners, 13–29% as leaseholders, 75–5% as share tenants, and 0–19% as borrowers, indicating an increase in owner or leaseholder cultivators who used to be the share tenants. Usually, in other countries, land reforms are implemented at once in a short period, but it is unique in the Philippines that the program has been continuously extended, and the reform is continuing (as of 2021).

The last survey round was conducted under the COVID-19 pandemic using telephone interviews one year after the regular cycle. Hence, it covers the regular period of 2019–20 with recall data and the period of 2020–21. In the telephone interviews, questions were limited to key variables, but they also included questions about the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. This chapter used only 2020–21 data as the data patterns in 2019–20 are quite similar.

3 Recent Changes

The Asian rice Green Revolution has been led by farmers’ vigorous adoption of seed-fertilizer technology under irrigated or favorable rainfed conditions. Figure 3.2 shows the seasonal diffusion of modern varieties (MVs) from 1966 to 2021. Following the analytical style of Estudillo and Otsuka ( 2001 , 2006 ) and Laborte et al. ( 2015 ), the varieties are classified by generation based on their release dates and distinct characteristics, consisting of the traditional variety, the five modern variety generations (MV1 to MV5), and hybrid rice. Footnote 6 The figure indicates that the switch from old to new MVs has occurred promptly; more than 70–80% were replaced within four-year intervals. This implies that Loop farmers are active farm managers with strong enthusiasm for newer technologies. Recently, hybrid rice varieties have become popular, particularly in the DS when the risks of pests, diseases, and harsh weather shocks are low under irrigated conditions (Laborte et al. 2015 ). The hybrid varieties have a potential yield of approximately 10–14 t/ha compared with 6–10 t/ha of the latest inbred varieties. This has proceeded since 2011, and 7% of farmers in the 2020 WS and 24% in the 2021 DS cultivated the hybrid varieties.

Trends in the adoption of modern varieties in the Wet season (left) and the Dry season (right), 1966–2021 (The Loop Survey)

In parallel with MV diffusion, farmers increased the application of inorganic fertilizers. The Loop data indicate that the amount of nitrogen applied to rice fields started at 9 kg per hectare (kg/ha) in 1966 (pre-Green Revolution), increased steadily since then, and in the 1987 DS and the 1994 WS reached close to the recommended 100 kg/ha level (Moya et al. 2015 ). The nitrogen application level has been approximately 100 kg/ha since then.

What is the impact of the diffusion of seed-fertilizer technology on rice productivity? Figure 3.3 shows the long-term trend of the mean (Panel A) and coefficient of variation (CV) (Panel B) of the paddy yield (kg/ha). The yield increased sharply during the early phase of the Green Revolution (the 1970s and the 1980s). During this period, the CV increased initially in the 1970s but steadily declined until the early ‘00s, indicating that the Green Revolution technologies were much riskier than the traditional ones when they were introduced, but gradually standardized.

Trends in the mean (left) and the coefficient of variation (right) of paddy yield, 1966–2021

We can identify two features in the recent rounds: (1) stagnant yield growth in the WS since the late 1990s and in the DS since the 2010s, and (2) the increasing trend of the CV since the 2010s. As we have seen, the adoption of hybrid rice varieties has continued since 2011. However, the yield did not significantly increase. The recent trend indicates that the potential yield has not been fully realized in the fields and that the stability of rice production has been diminished.

This trend may be attributed to two major reasons. First, many sources indicate that natural disaster events, such as floods and insect outbreaks, are increasing in the Philippines, but the varieties commonly planted in recent years (i.e., MV4 and MV5) are characterized by lower resistance to pests and diseases compared to MV2 and MV3 (Laborte et al. 2015 ). In addition, floods have become more rampant in Central Luzon because newly-constructed factories and roads block water flow to the drainage. In this regard, natural and human-made disasters have hindered yield increases in this region. Second, increasing labor shortages require a structural transformation in rice farming, but this has not been fully achieved. The second point is discussed later in this section.

How has the increasing labor shortage affected rice farming in this area? Table 3.1 shows the trend in the adoption of labor-saving technologies, farm size (operational landholdings including rented-in parcels and excluding rented-out parcels), and the area planted with rice from 1966 to 2021, revealing four features. First, small-scale mechanization proceeded rapidly after the Green Revolution and was completed in the early 1990s. The adoption rate of power tillers (hand tractors) and small threshers reached approximately 100% by the early 1990s.

Second, the adoption of combine harvesters has jumped up in the last two rounds—the government promoted it as a replacement for manual harvesting. Its utilization increased in both seasons from 0% in 2011–12 to 96% in 2020–21. This was the reason for the sharp decline in the use of small threshers to the level of 3% in the 2020 WS and 8% in the 2021 DS.

Third, crop establishment still fully relies on manual labor—it can be done either through transplanting or direct seeding, with the latter—broadcasting seeds directly on a field—being a labor-saving method introduced in this area in the 1980s. However, it is appropriate only for plots with suitable water control because otherwise, the germination of seeds cannot be synchronized. Hence, as shown in Table 3.1 , the boom in direct seeding’s adoption during the introduction period notwithstanding, particularly in the WS when water control is more difficult; the adoption rate in the WS decreased to merely 7% in 2008. However, the last round survey shows it increased again to 27% in 2020, presumably reflecting increasing challenges in finding a sufficient number of laborers for transplanting. Simultaneously, transplanting machines have not been used in the 2020–21 round. Thus, crop establishment is still a relatively labor-intensive activity, although not as much as in the past when direct seeding technology was unavailable.

Fourth, farm size (shown in the lower part of the table) shows no dramatic change at approximately 2 hectares (ha). Given this farm size, the area planted with rice in the WS declined from approximately 2 ha in the 1970s to approximately 1 ha in the 1980s. It then remained almost unchanged at slightly more than 1 ha. In contrast, the area in the DS was slightly less than 1.5 ha throughout the survey period. To better understand this aspect, we need to consider the land reform issues of this country. The land reform program has continued to be extended, and there is concern that landlords are reluctant to rent out their land for fear of land expropriation, resulting in an inactive land rental market. This could be a hurdle for land consolidation and further progress in large-scale mechanization.

In summary, mechanization is still limited to land preparation, harvesting, and threshing, and enlargement of the farm size has not been realized at the study site. In other words, the agricultural transformation has reached only the halfway mark.

As explained above, crop establishment depends fully on manual labor as of 2020–21. Nevertheless, the labor employment for this activity is also affected by the increasing rural labor shortage. Table 3.2 shows the number and composition of hired labor for crop establishment by labor type from 2012 to 2016 using the recall data collected in the 2015–16 round. We classify hired labor into three categories based on the length of the working period: (1) regular workers who have worked for the interviewee farmer for more than five years in total; (2) occasional workers who have worked for 1–4 years in total; and (3) new workers who worked for the first time. Footnote 7

The table clearly indicates that it had become more challenging to recruit regular workers, and the farmers had to rely more on new workers in both the WS and the DS. The proportion of regular workers decreased from 62 to 35%, whereas that of new workers increased from 17 to 28% in the WS. A similar trend was observed for the DS. The stagnant and fluctuating yield in recent rounds may stem from the management challenges of new unknown laborers who might not only be unfamiliar with the agronomic characteristics of hiring farmers’ particular plots (thus cannot do transplanting efficiently) but also be less reluctant to commit opportunistic behaviors, such as the delay or absence in the appointment and labor effort shirking. Footnote 8

Therefore, Table 3.2 implies that although labor was becoming scarce within the Loop villages, it was still available from distant areas at least until the 2015–16 round. As the Ricardian trap model predicted, the labor wage rate would not rise if this were the case. Figure 3.4 shows the agricultural wage rate trend from 1966 to 2021. It clearly shows that although the nominal wage rate continued to increase sharply, particularly after the 1980s, the real wage rate (deflated by consumer price index [CPI] or paddy price) initially increased from the 1980s until the mid-1990s but was relatively stable in the ‘00s until the 2015–16 round. However, the real wage rate seems to have started to rise in the 2020–21 round. A sharp increase in the real wage rate in the 1980s is puzzling because economic growth was slow, and population growth was high during that period.

Trends in agricultural labor wage rate, 1966–2021 (Loop Survey for wage and paddy price; Philippine Statistics Authority for CPI)

Last, we provide an overview of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on rice farming. In our survey period, the 2000 WS and the 2021 DS were the pandemic periods of the country, with a much higher number of cases in the 2021 DS. Anecdotal evidence indicates that, as possible negative effects, external labor activities were restricted, and input and output supply chains had limited activities. Meanwhile, many urban factory workers returned to their rural home villages because of the suspension of factory operations, which might have relaxed labor shortages.

Table 3.3 summarizes the subjective assessments of the aforementioned impacts. Contrary to our initial expectation, less than 15% of the farmers experienced challenges working outside and finding hired labor. Also, only approximately 20% claimed challenges in finding buyers for their harvest. Similarly, only 8% of farmers in the WS and 4% in the DS had challenges accessing chemicals and seeds, whereas 57% and 82% complained of increases in the prices of inputs in the WS and the DS, respectively. Regarding positive effects, approximately 10–20% of farmers recognized an increase in family or hired labor availability. These snapshots indicate that while the pandemic generated an enormous impact on the entire society, its effect on rice farming is limited, seemingly implying relatively stronger resilience of rural livelihoods.

4 Conclusion

Rice farming in Central Luzon is at a crossroads. Rice yields have stagnated and have become more variable in the last decade, despite a prompt and continuous switch to newer MVs. We discussed the adoption of labor-saving technologies and mechanization, stagnation of land consolidation and enlargement, increasing labor management challenges, and more rampant natural and human-made disasters. To choose the right direction moving forward from the crossroads, we need further studies to make rice farming more resilient to rapid demographic changes, rampant disasters, and future pandemics. The Loop Survey can provide important information for this purpose and contribute to drawing useful lessons for Asian countries and show possible future paths for rice-producing Sub-Saharan African countries.

Recollections of Professor Keijiro Otsuka

It is a great asset to my research life that I served as a researcher at IRRI from 2006 to 2012, where Professor Otsuka also served in the 1980s. There I learned the importance of fieldwork and interaction with researchers in other fields. – Kei Kajisa

It was an honor for me to know and interact with Professor Kei Otsuka when he was then a Senior Staff and Chairman of the Board of Trustees of IRRI. I learned a lot from his insights and knowledge of IRRI's research and management and how he was instrumental in securing stable funding during his term. – Piedad Moya

Professor Otsuka joined IRRI in the mid-1980s, and I was then a research assistant involved in his projects on how technological changes in rice farming affected farmers’ socioeconomic conditions in different areas in the Philippines. It was a great learning experience to pick up his approaches to collecting field information. I am greatly honored and privileged to have worked with a well-known economist and one who has a passion for sharing his research knowledge and experiences in his field of expertise. – Fe Gascon

Other distinguished long-term farm household surveys covering multiple villages include the Village Dynamics in South Asia (VDSA) by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), and the Bangladesh Panel initiated by IRRI and succeeded by the Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (BIDS) and BRAC. Single village, fixed-point long-term surveys include the East Laguna village survey in the Philippines (Hayami and Kikuchi 2000 ) and Palanpur in India (Bliss and Stern 1982 ; Lanjow and Stern 1998 ; Himanshu et al. 2018 ).

See Appendix Table 3.4 for the researchers involved in each round. Keijiro Otsuka led the 6th round (1986–87).

See Appendix B of Moya et al. ( 2015 ) for the 33 publications (other than Moya et al. 2015 ) released by 2009.

The completion of the Pantabangan Dam in 1975 and the establishment of the Upper Pampanga Integrated Irrigation System represented the first major irrigation project in the region. The Casecnan Irrigation and Hydroelectric Plant, which commenced in 2002, diverts water from the Casecnan and Taan rivers of Nueva Vizcaya to the Pantabangan Reservoir, further enhancing the expansion of the irrigated area in the region. In the last two decades, the adoption of low-lift pumps and shallow tube wells has been the major source of irrigation expansion, particularly in the dry season.

The Agricultural Land Reform Code (RA 3844), was a major advancement of land reform in the Philippines. It was enacted in 1963 to abolish tenancy and establish a leasehold system in which farmers paid fixed rentals to landlords, rather than a percentage of the harvest. In September 1972, the second presidential decree that Marcos issued under martial law declared the entire Philippines a land reform area. A month later, he issued Presidential Decree No. 27, which had the specifics of his land reform program. The reform attempted to convert share tenants to leaseholders when the landlord owned less than 7 hectares (ha) of land or to amortizing owners when the landlord owned more than 7 ha of land. The reform procedure involved two steps. The first, Operation Leasehold, converted share tenancy to leasehold tenancy with rent fixed at a rate of 25% of the average harvest for the three normal years preceding the operation. The second step, Operation Land Transfer, transferred land ownership to tenants. In the latter operation, the government expropriated the area in excess of the landlord retention limit, with compensation to the landlord being 10% of the land value in cash and the rest in interest-free redeemable Land Bank bonds. The land was resold to the tenants for annual mortgage payments over 25 years, and they were granted a Certificate of Land Transfer (CLT). Upon completion of the mortgage payments, the CLT holders were given Emancipation Patents (EP) on the land, that is, a land ownership title with the restricted right of land sale. In 1988, the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP), which covers non-rice and non-corn areas, was introduced and has been continuously extended (as of 2021). See Moya et al. ( 2015 ) for more details.

The MV1 is the first generation of modern varieties released from the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s, including IR8, sharing the trait of being high-yielding without pest and disease resistance. MV2 varieties released from the mid-1970s to the mid-1980s, were characterized as having short maturity with multiple pest and disease resistance traits. MV3 varieties released from the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s, added better grain quality, and a stronger host plant resistance trait, and MV4 (from the mid-1990s to 2005) added tolerance to abiotic stresses and lower amylose content (for soft-cooked rice) but had lower resistance to pests and diseases. MV5 varieties were released after 2005 without taking into account the difference in characteristics with MV4.

In our survey module, we also asked questions about where the laborers came from (for example, the same village, different village but still in the same municipality, and different municipality). Since we find that the location and the length of work period are highly correlated so that the workers from the distant locations are relatively newer than the others, we use only the length of work period for our analysis.

When farmers need many laborers for transplanting and manual harvesting, they usually call for a foreman, called a kabisiliya , who has his or her group of laborers. Hence, the control of opportunistic behavior is an issue that has to be handled by the kabisiliya. Anecdotal evidence during the interview tells that farmers are becoming more serious about finding a reliable kabisiliya.

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Kajisa, K., Moya, P., Gascon, F. (2023). The Central Luzon Loop Survey: Rice Farming in the Philippines from 1966 to 2021. In: Estudillo, J.P., Kijima, Y., Sonobe, T. (eds) Agricultural Development in Asia and Africa. Emerging-Economy State and International Policy Studies. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5542-6_3

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Filipino Rice Farmers: What We Can Learn from their Struggle

The complex situation of filipino rice farmers.

How does a country like the Philippines, with a long history of rice production employing a significant chunk of its population, become the number one importer of rice, beating even China? It is a long and complex story, of course, and one that doesn’t always center the Filipino rice farmers themselves.

It is a story of tax reforms, import regulations, and a government’s choices and regarding its people.

Over the past two to three decades, many factors have negatively impacted rice farming in the Philippines. These include human negligence and natural disasters to name a couple. However, the industry suffered the most significant hit at the hands of its own government. Filipino government implemented a policy allegedly intended to improve conditions for all Filipinos, including Filipino rice farmers.

How Policy Affects Filipino Rice Farmers

This policy was the Rice Tariffication Law (RTL). They ratified it in February 2019.  Quota restrictions previously controlled rice imports. This law opened up these imports completely and only an import tariff regulated them. The government stated that purpose of this new law was to stop rapid inflation. The aim was to support food security for all Filipinos, and not only protecting the smaller group of Filipino rice producers. Inflation did indeed slow. Allegedly, the benefits for the general population, such as lower prices for rice, would by far outweigh losses in the rice production sector. However, the Federation of Free Farmers , an organization created in 1953 to bring about nonviolent reform to support peasants’ rights, conducted a study on the matter. They revealed that farmers are in a much worse situation now than they were prior to the RTL.

Under this new rice law, a significant portion of the tariff on rice imports was intended to support the modernization and improvement of local rice farming practices. These improvements should have included specialized machinery and other subsidies. The idea was to boost production and thus make Filipino rice farmers more competitive, both locally and internationally. Sadly, one year after the implementation of the law, the promised machinery has yet to be delivered. Several other promises remain unfulfilled as well.

Shifting Agriculture & Social Dynamics

Currently, Filipino rice farmers and their families find themselves seeking other employment in urban areas. They are mostly finding work in construction, food services, factories, and domestic work. These jobs don’t necessarily offer better income than rice farming, but they do provide more stability, and moreover often include non-monetary benefits such as health insurance and paid leave. The migration of farmworkers to cities translates into abandoned farmland, sometimes repurposed for other uses, including real-estate development.

Questions arise:

Is the gradual elimination of local agricultural production going to ensure food security for a rapidly growing population of over 100 million people?

Is the government acting in the interest of all of its people?

Small movements towards organic agriculture offer glimmers of hope as the global trend of sustainable food systems that care for the soil, water, and environment slowly gains traction. Within this framework, “the old ways” are embraced and combined with new eco-friendly technologies and practices.

The Greater Population or Those Who Feed Them?

Right now, given the COVID-19 pandemic, it is clear that the government will continue to focus on how to feed the majority of its population, rather than on how to improve the situation of the roughly three million people whose livelihoods depend on growing rice. At the beginning of April of this year, the Philippine government signed an agreement with Vietnam, the world’s third largest rice exporter, to secure a continuous supply of as much as 300,000 tons of rice.

In times of crisis, urgent and immediate matters demand attention, often at the expense of more sustainable and longer-term planning. Depending on how long this global pandemic lasts, and as the food supply chain becomes increasingly strained by transport restrictions, the importance of having a healthy local production to guarantee food security may become more apparent.

Contemplating possible solutions? You can head over to this recent story and learn the steps proposed by the Producers Market team to help innovate and strengthen our value chains during disruptive times.

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[ANALYSIS] The real story about rice production in 2020

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This is AI generated summarization, which may have errors. For context, always refer to the full article.

Illustration by Guia Abogado

In his post last January 21, 2021, Manila Times columnist Fermin Adriano claimed that critics of the Rice Tariffication Law or RTL were dismally wrong in predicting a decline in planted area and production as a result of lower palay prices following the removal of restrictions on rice imports. He pointed to the latest projections from the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA) placing 2020 palay output at a record high of 19.44 million tons, up 3.3% from the previous year despite a succession of typhoons in the latter part of the year.  

Indeed, the Department of Agriculture (DA) should be commended for a positive outcome in 2020 despite the challenges imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic and the earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and typhoons that hit the country during the year. However, a deeper analysis of the data implies that there is actually little to celebrate about and that the future may not be as rosy as Mr Adriano makes it appear.

The production increase in 2020 was not surprising considering that 2019 was affected by an El Nino episode which brought palay output to 18.8 million tons, the lowest since 2017. Compared to 2017, which is the most recent “normal” year before the RTL took effect in February 2019, the 2020 performance was only about 1% higher. In other words, we basically just got back to where we were 4 years ago.

In the meantime however, the population grew by around 5% between 2017 and 2020. Clearly, the growth in our rice requirement outpaced the gains in palay output, which means that our level of self-sufficiency has actually deteriorated since RTL took effect.

Interestingly, rainfed areas outperformed irrigated areas in 2020 in terms of growth not only in terms of output and harvested area but also yield.  This appears to be counterintuitive, considering that support from RTL and gains in productivity and competitiveness were supposed to focus on prime production areas, particularly irrigated farms.

The total harvested area in 2020 grew by 1.7% over 2019 levels. But compared to 2017, it actually declined by 2%. Around 80,000 hectares were removed from rice production during the interim. This belies Mr Adriano’s claim that the predicted exodus of farmers from rice production was off the mark. In fact, even the Philippine Institute of Development Studies (PIDS) and the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) had previously forecast that a significant number of farmers would not be able to compete with imported rice and would eventually be forced to leave rice farming.

Mr Adriano also claims that the decline is palay prices is a seasonal phenomenon that has occurred regularly in previous years. While that is true, the data also shows that farmgate prices in 2020 were almost 10% lower than they were in 2017 when RTL was not yet in effect.  

Nightmare on Eid: A father loses his daughters to conflict

In turn, retail prices for both well-milled and regular-milled rice in 2020 were only about 1% lower than they were in 2017, belying claims that consumers have gained significantly as a result of liberalized rice imports.  

Yield-wise, palay farmers gained an increase of 64 kilos per hectare harvested in 2020 compared to 2019. This represents an improvement in productivity of less than 1%. This is way below RTL targets to raise output from 4 tons to 6 tons per hectare, or by 50%, by providing support for seeds, mechanization, credit, and extension.

If we assume that palay prices averaged P16 per kilo in 2020, the incremental yield would have increased farmers’ incomes by P1,029 per hectare. In turn, the foregone income of farmers averaged P12,000 per hectare if we assume that they should have been able to avail of the NFA’s support price of P19 per kilo. With this discrepancy, it is difficult to believe Mr Adriano’s claim that DA support to farmers would have offset farmers’ losses.

Overall, farmers produced 626,710 tons more in 2020 than in 2019. At an average value of P16 per kilo, this incremental output would amount to around P10 billion. To achieve this result, the government probably spent around P5 billion under the Rice Competitiveness Enhance Fund (RCEF) plus another P8.5 billion under the Rice Resiliency Program. In other words, the government spent P1.35 to produce every P1 worth of additional palay.  

This does not yet include other costs to the government such as the cash transfer of P5,000 per farmer tilling two hectares or less, free crop insurance, and the overhead and operational expenses of DA in implementing its various programs. This begs the question as to whether scarce government funds are being spent wisely, or if farmers could have been better off if the DA had simply given the support money to them as cash grants.  

In summary, while the reported gains in palay output are indeed a positive development, there is still much to be done in helping farmers affected by cheap rice imports, ensuring that consumers actually gain from liberalized trade, and that government resources are used wisely and effectively. Nor is there any guarantee that the positive trend in production will continue in the future if prices continue to decline due to excessive imports. Farmers are not stupid. At some point, they will scale down their production or move out of rice farming altogether if they continue losing money.

Inexplicably, Mr Adriano assumes that importers will scale down their imports if local self-sufficiency levels improve. He does not understand that businessmen will import as much rice as they can for as long as they can make money, whether or not local production expands.  

There is nothing wrong in painting alternative scenarios based on one’s perception of what could happen. Mr Adriano however seems to believe that only his point of view is correct, and he goes on to label those who do not agree with him as “modern-day Cassandras” or doomsday predictors.

In Greek mythology, Cassandra was the daughter of the King of Troy whom the god Apollo tried to woo by bequeathing her with the power to predict the future. However, Cassandra spurned Apollo, and in anger, the god threw a curse at her so that nobody would believe her predictions. Because of this, nobody listened to her when she foresaw that the Greeks would invade Troy and even use a Trojan Horse to take over the city.

Mr Adriano and his ilk would do well to give some attention to modern-day Cassandras, unless he is a Trojan Horse that has been planted in our midst to lull us into complacency while foreigners invade and take over our domestic markets. – Rappler.com

Raul Montemayor is the National Manager of the Federation of Free Farmers.

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While they may complain about the price of rice in supermarkets or enjoy so-called  unli-rice  meals at their favorite fast-food chains, urban Filipinos don’t always appreciate just how crucial rice is to our culture and way of life. And it’s not just because we’re among the world’s biggest consumers of rice per capita. More than a tenth of Filipinos rely on rice as a source of income as well as sustenance.

By some estimates, there are 10 million rice farmers in the Philippines, a country of just over 100 million. When you include people in rice trade and processing, as well the dependents of everyone in the rice business, you begin to see how much of the social and economic impact of  rice in the Philippines . 

Unfortunately, rice farmers, the very people we Filipinos depend on for the bulk of our caloric requirements, are among the most disadvantaged in the country. Decades of systemic problems have resulted in a situation where farmers are finding it harder and harder to make a living. Below are some of the serious challenges Filipino rice farmers face.

1.) High Input Costs

Many Filipino farmers are simply unable to take their production further due to the high expense of many critical inputs. Compounding this is the low  palay  prices that could be expected after harvesting, which keeps many farmers in a perpetual state of struggle and often in serious debt. 

Partly due to market forces and exploitative practices, basics such as fertilizers, high-yield seed grains, and mechanized farm equipment are prohibitively priced for many farmers, who must then struggle harder to produce a profitable crop through more labor-intensive methods. Advanced farm inputs such as agricultural drones and AI and data-driven farming, which would save labor and prevent waste, are even more out of reach. 

2.) Lack of Post-Harvest Facilities 

Most of the crop losses of farmers are post-harvest. This has been largely attributed to the historically poor private and public investment in infrastructure that can prevent these losses.

The lack of storage facilities, farm-to-market roads, and equipment needed to prevent losses from exposure, pests, and natural deterioration have been perennial issues for Filipino farmers. 

The lack of these facilities and equipment makes it difficult for most farmers to produce enough to turn in a profit, as these losses destroy a significant portion of crops even before they make it to market.

Additionally, the lack of these basic amenities makes it difficult or even impossible for farmers to earn enough to ensure a succeeding harvest without needing to take on significant loans.

3.) Climate Change

Climate change is causing seasonal typhoons to happen more frequently and with more ferocity while leading to dry seasons with unheard-of high temperatures. Both of these situations are damaging enough for most farms’ productivity. However, the negative effects of climate change do not stop there. 

Climate change has also led to rising sea levels, a serious matter in an archipelagic country with a population that mostly resides and farms in the lowlands. Signs of saltwater intrusion have already been detected all over the country, in most of its so-called “rice bowls,” with experts predicting a crisis before the end of the decade. If it comes to pass, it could render millions of hectares of riceland unsuitable for most of today’s widely used rice cultivars.

4.) Market Forces

The market for rice has changed much over the past generation. Not only are cheaper imports from Vietnam and other Asian countries pricing Filipino farmers out, but domestic rice consumption has also been dropping slowly over the past few decades.

Meanwhile, as mentioned earlier, the cost of necessary inputs only continues to rise. This has created severe pressures for rice farmers throughout the country, causing many to abandon farming to take their chances in the country’s urban centers.

5.) Land Rent

While land rent could be considered as another high-input cost, this is a uniquely serious issue given its political nature and also because most Filipino farmers do not own the land they cultivate.

Most of the ASEAN had implemented agrarian land reform policies decades ago to ensure not only food security but also better lives for their farmers. The Philippines has been late in implementing its own watered-down take on land distribution. The result is many farmers receive too little, too late and are often motivated to sell whatever land they do receive.

6.) Demographics

Fewer and fewer farmers want their children to have the life that they do. As a result, most of them do everything they can to ensure their children get better-paying jobs, often in the cities. As a result, the average age of Filipino farmers is 53, as few younger people are willing to take up farming. This means that productivity per farmer can be expected to fall, especially for such physically demanding crops as rice.

This is not an issue unique to the Philippines. Japan’s farmers, for instance, have an average age of 66. While more automation and technology more than made up for the labor shortfall in Japan’s case, it is doubtful that the same could be said of the Philippines, as the foundations for more widespread technology adoption are still in the process of being built. 

While these issues are very serious, there have also been major inroads made towards mitigating or even solving them. Investment in farms and farmers continues to rise, albeit slowly, and new labor and cost-efficient methods are continuously being adopted by Filipinos at all points of the agricultural supply chain.

But while there is hope for the future, many Filipino rice farmers today will continue to face these issues — even as they feed a country that does not always appreciate them.

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Farmers group warns of possible rice supply tightening after June

A farmers’ group over the weekend warned of a possible tightening of rice supplies in the Philippines during the lean months, as the local harvest may be delayed given the prolonged drought.

According to the Federation of Free Farmers Cooperatives, there may be a delay in the harvest as the rains may come in later than the regularly expected last week of May, as the country continues to face the El Niño.

“Baka po magkaroon na naman ng kagipitan po sa supply ng bigas lalo na ‘pag sipa po nung tinatawag na lean months natin—Hulyo, Agosto, Setyembre, baka po kwan, lalo po mag-tighten ‘yung ating supply kasi nga po made-delay ‘yung harvest po natin,” Federation of Free Farmers Cooperatives national manager Raul Montemayor said in an interview on GMA Super Radyo DZBB.

(There may be a tightening in the supply of rice especially when the lean months come — July, August, September, there may be a tightening in our supply because our harvest will be delayed.)

This comes as rains usually come during the month of May, with the harvest season coming in the months of October to December. With the El Niño, however, the state weather bureau PAGASA said the rains may come later , pushing back the planting season of rice.

For its part, the Department of Agriculture (DA) said rice granaries are not majorly affected by the El Niño-induced droughts, given the irrigation systems.

“Malaking bahagi rin naman ng bansa natin, lalo na ‘yung ating mga rice granary, ay hindi naman naapektuhan dahil maganda pa naman ang ating patubig,” he said in Katrina Son's report on GMA’s “24 Oras Weekend” on Sunday.

(A big part of the country, especially the rice granaries, are not affected because we have good irrigation.)

The DA said that even if the harvest for this year declines by 100,000 metric tons, this will be less than 1% of the projected harvest of the country this year estimated at 20.06 million metric tons, adding that the declines in the local harvest may be addressed by imports.  — Jon Viktor D. Cabuenas/BM/KG, GMA Integrated News

This article Farmers group warns of possible rice supply tightening after June was originally published in GMA News Online .

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Pizza Fun House

Pizzas here come topped with “disco meatballs” and “Boogie Boogie pepperoni,” pulling from the childhood memories of “Happy Days” by Fabio Granato, a co-owner of Serafina Hospitality. Several Parms, lasagna, salads and pastas are also on the menu in the bright space.

402 Avenue of the Americas (West Eighth Street), pizzafunhousenyc.com .

Bar Tontine

Topping off John Fraser’s La Marchande in the Wall Street hotel is this 15th floor rooftop bar with several tailored rooms and a wraparound outdoor terrace with stunning views. Amy Racine, the beverage director and partner in Mr. Fraser’s group, looks to summer in St. Tropez, not visible from the terrace, for her wine and cocktails. Bar snacks are served. (Saturday)

The Wall Street Hotel, 88 Wall Street (Pearl Street), thewallsthotel.com .

Balcón Rooftop

Marmara Collection Hotel Group, a Turkish company, is running this Murray Hill hotel, which has opened its 20th floor seasonal terrace. Turkish wines are among the drink options, along with snacks like hot dogs with pico de gallo by the executive chef, Ömür Özkan.

The Marmara Park Avenue hotel, 114 East 32nd Street, 212-603-9000, park.marmaranyc.com .

Design meets dining at this downtown pop-up during Art & Design Week, from Luca Pronzato, formerly at Noma in Copenhagen, who created this French culinary collective. Through May 12, lunches and dinners are prepared by the chef Dalad Kambhu; her interpretive Thai restaurant, Kin Dee, is in Berlin. They are served on the fifth floor of W.S.A. (Water Street Associates), a financial district tower devoted to the arts, in a Brutalist setting by the sculptor and architect Marc Leschelier. A six-course lunch, $150, will be available May 11 and 12; an eight-course dinner, $220, is served nightly through May 12.

WSA, 161 Water Street (Fletcher Street), exploretock.com/we-are-ona-new-york-2024

New-York Historical Society

On Fridays through June, the New-York Historical Society now offers jazz and juice starting at 5 p.m. The jazz, played by Michael Hashim’s trio in the ground floor Smith Gallery, is said to be “lost” music, in tune with the exhibit, “Lost New York.” So-called “lost” cocktails are served in the museum’s Clara restaurant, and include the Astoria, like a martini and dating from the original Waldorf and Astoria hotels built in 1893, demolished to make way for the Empire State Building. Robert Simonson, who contributes drink news for The New York Times, advised the museum.

New-York Historical Summer!, 170 Central Park West (77th Street), nyhistory.org .

For more than 40 years this Italian steak house has attracted a loyal following at this location, as it had done at its previous address on East 45th Street. A sign out front now announces that it will be gone after May 23 and is likely to reopen elsewhere. (There’s a branch in Roslyn, N.Y.) After it first opened in 1932, it became one of several steakhouses on the blocks called steak row, including Christ Cella (now Aretsky’s Patroon), Sparks, Pen & Pencil, the Pressbox and the Palm.

232 East 43rd Street, 212-682-9760, pietros.com .

Alice Waters

This chef and cookbook author is the 10th recipient of the Julia Child Award, which was announced at a reception last week at Manhatta, Danny Meyer’s downtown restaurant.

Follow  New York Times Cooking on Instagram ,  Facebook ,  YouTube , TikTok  and  Pinterest .  Get regular updates from New York Times Cooking, with recipe suggestions, cooking tips and shopping advice .

Florence Fabricant is a food and wine writer. She writes the weekly Front Burner and Off the Menu columns, as well as the Pairings column, which appears alongside the monthly wine reviews. She has also written 12 cookbooks. More about Florence Fabricant

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