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English for Specific Purposes: Some Influences and Impacts

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• Ken Hyland 2  

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The field of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) addresses the communicative needs and practices of particular professional or occupational groups. It draws its strength from an eclectic theoretical foundation and a commitment to research-based language education, which seeks to reveal the constraints of social contexts on language use and the ways learners can gain control over these. In other words, it challenges the theory-practice divide and makes visible academic and professional genres to students. In this chapter, I briefly point to some of the major ideas and practices that influence ESP, focusing on needs analysis, ethnography, critical approaches, intercultural rhetoric, social constructionism, and discourse analysis. I then go on to look briefly at some of the effects ESP has had on language teaching and research, arguing that it has encouraged teachers to highlight discourse rather than language, to adopt a research orientation to their work, to employ collaborative pedagogies, to be aware of discourse variation, and to consider the wider political implications of their role. Together these features of ESP practice emphasize a situated view of literacy and underline the applied nature of the field.

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Hyland, K. (2019). English for Specific Purposes: Some Influences and Impacts. In: Gao, X. (eds) Second Handbook of English Language Teaching. Springer International Handbooks of Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02899-2_19

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English for Specific Purposes: Its Definition, Characteristics, Scope and Purpose

Abstract The present study is an attempt to understand English for Specific Purposes (ESP): an extremely significant branch of ELT by encompassing various linguists’ efforts to define it, tracing its historical growth, discussing its characteristics, and trying to find out its scope and purpose to address the specific needs of EFL/ESL learners. Though lots of contradicting views have been reported in defining ESP but there seems an agreement finally that it is confined to the teaching of English to the learners who have specific goals and purposes: these goals might be professional, academic or scientific. Thus it is not the specific discipline that is primary in ESP but the specific goal of specific learners. The same has been reinforced by the discussion related to its absolute and variable characteristics. Historical growth of ESP has also been traced and it has been reported that though it is considered a modern approach ESP textbooks existed even in the sixteenth century. It is found out that the purpose of an ESP course is to enable learners to function adequately in the target situation. Thus an ESP program should be aim-directed, learnerdirected and situation-directed. An ESP course should have the following three features a) authentic material, b) purpose-related orientation and c) self-direction. Keywords: English for specific purposes, characteristics, specific needs, authentic material

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In this present age of rapidly developing international scientific collaboration and business, courses of foreign language for specialist purposes are becoming more and more popular. These courses are conducted on the basis of the approach called English for Specific Purposes (ESP). This approach assumes that the language teaching will be adjusted to the specific linguistic and communicative needs of the particular learners with special attention being paid to the context in which they use, or will use, English language. In order to tailor the course to the learners' needs, the ESP course should be preceded by an analysis of the learners' needs as related to their future professional work and plans for the future, as well as to their preferred styles of learning. This needs analysis should also include within its scope some target situation analysis, which means the identifying of the features of the particular situations in which the students will use the foreign language, and also some discourse analysis, that is to say, the analysis of the language used in these situations. The source of information on the students' needs are students themselves, and both their teachers and their future employers. Methods of collecting the information include questionnaires, interviews and talks. All these procedures aim at maximization of the effectiveness of the teaching process. The aim of this work is to present both a theoretical and a practical basis for the methodology which underpins courses of ESP, and explain what makes them different from courses of General English, as well as considering some of the methodological implications for language teachers. Introduction After the collapse of communism in Poland in 1989, a great trend has been observed within the country in the learning of the English language, especially the English language necessary for academic or professional purposes. The reason for this has been related to the opportunities given to scholars and students to participate in international conferences and projects, as well as the opportunities for them to teach and to study at prominent universities abroad. The work market abroad has been opened up for Polish specialists in various professions. With the inclusion of Poland to the European Union in 2004, the borders were abolished and visa-free tourism developed rapidly. However, in order to be able to function actively in all these enterprises a good command not only of general English, but also specialist English, is required. This includes the knowledge of vocabulary and linguistic structures used in the target academic and work settings. Nowadays, in this era of global scientific and professional cooperation where English is the leading language both for communication and for the dissemination of knowledge, the need for the courses teaching of a specialist English language (ESP) is stronger than ever before. As a result of all this English for Specific Purposes has developed into being one of the most prominent branches of EFL. There are two main areas in ESP: English for Academic Purposes (EAP), which prepares students for studying in foreign universities, and English for Occupational/Professional Purposes (EOP/EPP), which prepares learners for functioning in a particular profession. It covers subjects ranging from engineering, law, medicine or computer science to tourism and business management. The general classification of ESP courses, according to the scientific disciplines or professional areas they cover, is shown in Figure 1.

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This article will provide 1) general overview and course design of English for Specific Purposes in the field of ELT (English Language Teaching), 2) the role of teacher and student in English for Specific Purposes (ESP), and 3) the difficulties related to teacher, student, environment and others in teaching English for Specific Purposes (ESP). In the field of English Language Teaching (ELT), English for Specific Purposes (ESP) concerns the specific English language needs of the target learners/students. It refers to teaching a specific genre of English for students with specific goals which is oriented and focused on English teaching and learning. ESP is designed and developed based on an assessment of purposes and needs and the activities for which English is needed. There are many teacher’s roles, such as asking to organize courses, setting the learning objectives, establishing a positive learning environment and evaluating the students' progress. While, the learners are relat...

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Abstract This article aims at presenting insights regarding the peculiar role of learners, teachers and teaching methodologies to address to the specific needs of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) programmes. It has been found out that adulthood teaching demands that ESP teaching should not be restricted only to instructional setting but other modes, such as self-access study, project work, cooperative learning etc. should be incorporated in the program. It has also been reported that ESP learners should be actively involved in the process of the choice of the content materials, curriculum development and teaching methodology to ensure maximum commitment and motivation of the program participants. The following five key roles have been identified for ESP practitioners who need to discharge their work as a 1) teacher, 2) course designer and material provider, 3) collaborator, 4) researcher and 5) evaluator. ESP teachers have to bear the extra burden of the content area of the learners as well. Additionally ESP practitioners have a challenging task because they are not in the position of being the 'primary knower' of the carrier content and in most of the cases ESP learners may know more about the content than the teachers. The findings strongly suggest that ESP teaching calls for an extremely professional behavior on part of ESP teachers who need to update their knowledge by remaining constantly in touch with the research in the various fields of ESP. It is suggested that no single teaching methodology can be sufficient to address diverse and peculiar needs of ESP learners and ESP practitioners have to pick and choose from a host of teaching methodologies to run an effective ESP course. It may be summed up that as the learners’ personalities as well as the learning contexts are diverse and specific, there is an unavoidable need to choose matching pedagogical methodologies. Key words: English for Specific Purposes; Practitioner; ESP learners; Needs Analysis

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English for Specific Purpose appeared due to the awareness that general English course was not suitable for the learners’ need, especially in higher education. In the teaching of ESP, the materials are focused on the learners’ needs or their specific fields of study and it is assumed that they have basic language skills of general English. The purpose of this study was to analyze the problems that arise in teaching English for Specific Purpose (ESP) in higher education. The writer investigated the problems and the causes by reading many literature reviews related to the topic. The findings showed that there are five main problems in ESP. They are related to (1) teaching pedagogy, (2) the teachers ,(3) the design of the course, (4) students’ ability and (5) students’ needs. Some suggestions are also given to solve the problems in teaching English for Specific Purpose in higher education.

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The present paper is an attempt to understand the essence of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) by studying various language specialists’ efforts to define it, tracing its evolution and presenting its distinctive characteristics. Being a branch of English Language Teaching (ELT), its focus is narrower than that of EGP (English for General Purposes) and in contrast to EGP, ESP is determined by specific learning needs of the language learner. Although, there have been contradictions as to what ESP is, Hutchinson and Waters improved absolute and variable characteristics helped significantly in resolving arguments about what is ESP. Thus, ESP refers to the teaching and learning of English where the aim of the learners is to use English in a particular academic, professional or occupational domain, focusing on learners’ special needs. Key-words: ESP, EGP, special needs, absolute characteristics, variable characteristics

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Changing visions in ESP development and teaching: Past, present, and future vistas

1 School of Education, Taylor’s University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Swee Heng Chan

Min thein win.

2 School of Medicine, Taylor’s University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Globalization and international development in language education have inspired a shift from the learning of traditional College English to English for Specific Purposes (ESP). This article begins with a section on the methodology used to develop the literature review. From various literatures, a historical perspective was first presented for the period, 1962 to the present day, and accompanied by a review on the teaching approaches. The purpose was to reveal emerging trends in ESP development and forefront the strength of association between ESP development and the changes in teaching approaches. Then it focuses on the relationship between needs analysis and ESP, as needs analysis is well recognized as a vital ESP characteristic and it is given a comprehensive revisit as an update in ESP development. The review continues with some insights into recent studies from various countries to reflect on various aspectual developments of current ESP practices that illustrate the dynamics of growing research agendas that have implications for current and future ESP research directions. Finally, future vistas for ESP development and teaching are affirmed. The paper concludes on the note on the importance of knowing past and future ESP developments, and the prioritizing of effective teaching based on soundly designed materials tailored to particular student-centered needs and wants.

1. Introduction

Traditionally, when educators and applied linguists discussed the concept of teaching of EFL (English as a foreign language), they referred to the teaching of what is known today as general English. However, this understanding has changed over the past few decades as the teaching of ESP gained popularity, especially in non-native English-speaking countries. A change in teaching methods was also needed to maximize the educational or learning outcomes of the foreign language teaching process that tends to lean toward the learning of ESP. This includes the design of specific educational learning objectives for short-term or long-term courses, or programs to fulfill the following: (1) the specific needs of the learners, (2) the overall goals of the course or program, and (3) the specific type of training learners hope to achieve upon completion of the program ( Dudley-Evans and Saint John, 1998 ; Hyland, 2006 ). Ultimately, the goal of all ESP programs is to help learners become more adept in the use of language aligned to their specific disciplines or professional lives ( Abuklaish, 2014 ).

An important characteristic of an ESP course is that the materials and goals are tailored to the learners’ specific needs. They would concentrate on the language, identified skills, and genres that are most relevant to the specific activities that learners need to perform in so as to use English efficiently. In the words of Johns (2012) , the teaching of ESP involves pursuing the following key concerns:

How to identify learner needs, the nature of the genres that learners need to be able to produce as well as participate in, and how to know if our learners have been able to do this successfully, and if not, what we can do to help them (p. 7).

Belcher (2009) describes the development of ESP as having several branches and sub-branches. It includes English for Academic Purposes (EAP), branching off into English for General Academic Purposes (EGAP), English for Specific Academic Purposes (ESAP) and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP). Sub branches include English for Vocational Purposes (EVP), English for Medical Purposes (EMP), English for Business Purposes (EBP), English for Legal Purposes (ELP) and English for Science and Technology ( West, 1994 ). Today, we see that many more subbranches have evolved, illustrating the vibrant demands of various stakeholders who see the value of learning ESP in accordance with the specific needs associated with various work disciplines as they gain great significance in tandem with developing economies worldwide.

2. Methodology of the literature review

A semi-systematic literature review (LR) approach is used to meet the needs of this review. The general aim of the LR is to identify gaps in research and also to engage with the ESP theory development, and to parallel the developments with the emergence of discernible teaching approaches. A semi-systematic review approach was adopted. It often looks at how research within the ESP field has progressed over time or how a topic has developed across research traditions ( Snyder, 2019 ). Being cognizant of the history of ESP and how its roots have adapted to societal needs may provide a broader perspective on its past with implications for current significance, thus allowing us to have a better grasp of current trends and concepts related to ESP.

The first step was to scan the relevant selected literature in relation to the research agenda. In total, aside from physical book and journal article references accessed mainly through libraries, the keywords “ESP development,” “Needs Analysis,” “future of ESP,” “technology of ESP” and “interculture and ESP” were keyed into Web of Science (WOS), Google Scholar and a website in China—the National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI). More than 400 articles out of 1000 of articles, books and reports related to ESP were finally downloaded. They were most relevant to the research and contained the highest number of recorded citations. The MarginNote 3 app from Apple program helps to scan all literature with notetaking, summary facilities, which include the drawing of mind maps and the different topics were then drawn together to provide a coherent literature review. Endnotes app also helps the establishing of inclusion and exclusion criteria that can trim the body of ESP literature, such as, year of publication, the language of articles (English or Chinese), and type of article and journal. These procedures resulted in careful data extraction to ensure quality and validity in the review process. In compiling the data, due attention was given to author information, especially when attending to seminal theories, and their arguments. A comparative method ensued to identify similarities and differences in their arguments in order to construct a meaningful and discerning flow of the discourse. In addition, the review also considered the currency of the writings, which is important as a benchmark for updated literature on a research issue. On another note, the researchers considered the reputation of the publishers and journals, and perspectives were sought from different countries to pan the diversity and breadth of the relevant work done. The literature review data were then organized according to the five keyword topics and the information was then captured in a number of specific literature matrices that were tailored to the selected topic or theme that would help in the final reporting. As a result of the LR process, the final outline for the literature review report evolved and it then served as a guide for the drafting of the report and the finalizing of the selected bibliographic entries.

3. Historical overview of ESP development

Following the LR methodological procedure, the first theme that emerged was the historical overview of ESP development which traces the origin and history of ESP. In this review, each phase of development since ESP gained traction in the 1960s was noted. The historical overview will be presented and described according to the traditional four phases of ESP history identified by Johns (2012) . Occasionally, noticeable overlaps were recorded as expected, as changes do not happen in isolation but usually they conflate and interact ( Ramírez, 2015 ). Admittedly, this panning of ESP literature on its development is not entirely novel. However, each LR on an identified area could lend new insights, particularly when viewed from the lenses of current literature updates as a dynamic endeavor which could incorporate layers of newer viewpoints into an established field. Along with the chronological tracing, this review also provides insights into the application of specific linguistic and non-linguistic concepts in ESP teaching that could contribute to new emerging trends in the state of the art.

3.1. Early ESP development from 1962 to 1981

According to their landmark work, Hutchinson and Waters (1987) identified three factors that had a bearing on driving ESP development in the early years. They are: (1) the demands of the “Brave New World,” (2) a linguistic revolution, and (3) a newfound focus on the learner.

Demands of the “Brave New World” that impacted the origins of ESP can be traced back to the conclusion of the Second World War when people began to recognize the necessity of learning English (widely regarded as a global language) in the new commerce-driven world. The end of the Second World War had ushered in an era of tremendous expansion in scientific, technical, and economic activities worldwide due mainly to the growing economic strength of America. These changes created new and dynamic roles in the use of the English language leading to its consolidation as a significant international language. Greater impetus for its development is the Oil Crisis in the early 1970s which resulted in the flow of Western currency and knowledge into oil-rich countries. With these developments, new demands were made on the learning of the English language, thus impacting the growth of ESP with discernible teaching trends. Non-native speakers had to be equipped with a new lingua franca rooted in ESP that met their needs for cross-cultural communication, commercial transactions, and information exchange ( Teodorescu, 2010 ).

3.1.1. The teaching of functional vocabulary

The afore-mentioned events, and subsequent growth in ESP placed strong pressure on the language teaching profession to produce fast track results in the 1970s. In this regard, linguists promoted register analysis to enhance the development of scientific and technical lexis which was hypothesized to give ESP learning a boost. ESP practitioners, in turn, identified their major role as imparting and training of technical vocabulary related to a field of study or profession. For example, if one were educating nursing students, his/her job would be to teach them nursing terminology in a designed curriculum that was “flavoured” with medical and nursing terms ( Johns, 2012 ).

At the same time, the learning of English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) impacted the move toward learner-centered teaching. This movement resulted in great emphasis on learner needs and needs analysis as the foundation of ESP course design. Another major outcome, as stated by Hutchinson and Waters (1987) , is the realization that marked differences in language use exist depending on the language skills learnt. To illustrate, language use can be determined by whether learners are learning to write or speak in the acquiring of language skills. In other words, the context of use will effect the needs of the learner. As a result, several attempts to refine and define language use for Science and Technology ( West, 1994 ) materialized in the late 1960s and early 1970s. EST Pioneers like Selinker, Swales, Ewer, Latorre and Trimble were the trend setters. Notably, Swales (2004) added that “new” ESP teachers should begin to teach general English infused with technical vocabulary based on the needs analysis protocols that identified details about the language skill use to accompany the learners’ discipline. Thus, specific skill-based courses were popularly designed to meet learners’ specific foreign language needs based on needs analysis. For example, in English for Business Purposes, due consideration is given to the needs to the specifics of Business Writing, Making Business Presentations, or Reading Skills for Business. However, it soon became clear that simply teaching according to specific skills is an inadequate approach; rather, learners’ language-learning processes must also be addressed to enable successful real-life language learning. As a result, learners’ motivation and strategy use for mastering the target language were focused on, alongside needs analysis ( Maleki, 2008 ).

3.1.2. ESP teaching influenced by rhetorical and discourse analysis

Register analysis then gave way to the application of discourse analysis to obtain a better understanding of ESP discourse for teaching. At this point of time, register analysis was criticized as giving excessive focus on language form, and had failed to explain why and how sentences were created and integrated for use in specific disciplinary situations. Rhetorical and discourse analysis then took center stage as the emergent teaching trend and it “introduced the notion of linking language form to language use, making use of the key criterion for the selection of ESP teaching materials” ( Dudley-Evans and Saint John, 1998 , p. 22). The emphasis of discourse analysis is said to manifest the “communicative values” of a meaningful discourse. Hence, the ESP scope had expanded to a concentration on text analysis in association with discourse analysis.

Contrastive rhetoric, focusing on contrastive discourse analysis, has also always remained firmly linked to ESP research ( Connor et al., 2002 ). For example, Swales and Mustafa (1984) published an earlier collection of works on the topic which featured the chapter of Holes (1984) entitled “Textual approximation in the teaching of academic writing to Arab students: A contrastive approach.” Additionally, Salager-Meyer’s (1990) comparison of metaphors found in French, Spanish and English medical research publications was published in the ESPJ in 1990. This interest in international rhetoric was alive and well at that time, especially in ESL development ( Escudero and Swales, 2011 ). Bhatia et al. (2011) through their publications, contributed important intercultural volumes on legal discourse.

3.2. ESP development from 1981 to the 1990s

ESP development from 1981 to the 1990s took on a new significance as a result of the rapid dissemination of published ESP work. Hewings (2002) investigated the English for Specific Purposes Journal (ESPJ) publications and concluded that the journal had published a noticeable number of ESP studies outside of the United States and the United Kingdom, which are traditional sources of ESP work. The deep interest in ESP had spun over countries, such as, China, Central America, and South America, and Hong Kong as ESP hubs for information dissemination. He further concluded that there was a growing wave of recognition of ESP as an academic discipline internationally. Another finding was the diversity of ESP topic coverage that included development in EAP and EOP with their many sub-branches. Thirdly, as a result of these developments, general English as the more generic approach to program design seemed to be given less emphasis. Instead, more emphasis was placed on the learning of ESP with discourse analysis as a methodological procedure. In addition, ESP practitioners appeared to concern themselves substantially with specific target settings in language learning, and giving due regard to the design and production of ESP-oriented materials to enhance the development of ESP courses ( Hewings, 2002 ).

Along with the show of deep interest in ESP research, the journal added many special issues targeted at specific learning to further equip practitioners with ESP teaching skills, covering domains ranging from ESP teacher training ( Ewer, 1983 ), vocational ESP ( Crandall and Burkart, 1984 ), interlanguage ( Selinker and Douglas, 1987 ), to international teaching assistant training ( Young, 1989 ). In the regular issues, three most frequently published themes throughout this period were reflected in: (a) Needs Assessment/Needs Analysis and Learning-centered Approach , (b) the Wide-angle Approach vs. the Narrow-angle Approach in ESP and (c) Genre Analysis and Rhetorical Moves.

The discussions thus generated a consolidated platform for ESP debate and argument. To illustrate, Jacobson (1986) focused on the strategic language learning goals of students working in a physics lab, while Tarantino (1988) provided face-to-face questionnaire interview data from 53 EST researchers and students to reveal how macro-and micro-level language requirements were assessed. Later, West (1994) demonstrated how research on the complexity of student needs analysis could become more empirical in the making.

Other scholars also contributed their seminal treatises in the form of books which also accelerated the ESP movement. Among them, Hutchinson and Waters (1987) initiated a major reexamination of many long-held ESP beliefs, such as, the issue of ESP students being guided toward developing “underlying competence” so as to become independent learners. Hutchinson and Waters’s (1987) work led on to further ESP developments that related to the learner-centered approach which “focuses on the learning process, emphasizes the exploitation of the learner’s already possessed skills (learned at work or via academic study), and takes into consideration students’ various learning styles” ( Dudley-Evans and Saint John, 1998 , p. 25). As a result, focusing on the needs of learners is just as important as the methods used to disseminate linguistic information and to address the salient affective factors that accompany the learning. In fact, “learner-centred” and “learning-centred” are still catchwords in ESP learning today.

3.2.1. Teaching ESP in the 2nd phase of ESP development (1981–1990s)

Greater details on how best to teach ESP emerged from the discussion on the use of the Wide-angle Approach vs. The Narrow-angle Approach in learning orientations. The former advocates the teaching of English through topics beyond students’ specialist areas, while the latter focuses on students’ specific area of development ( Johns, 2012 ). As Dudley-Evans and Saint John (1998) saw it, ESP theoretical work tends to lag behind practical material development at this period of time. The on-going argument about learning approaches also led to the questioning of the inclusion of an ESP subject specialist, who can give the necessary disciplinary content knowledge and applied language use input to the teaching environment. Both Tarone et al. (1981) and Johns (2012) strongly advocated this input leading to “subject-specialist informants” being prominently used in ESP teaching and research. In sum, the 1980s saw the trending of content and skill specificity, material design, and the use of the expert informant as facilitator or instructor as salient points of discussion in ESP development ( Ramírez, 2015 ).

3.2.2. ESP learning influenced by genre analysis and rhetorical moves

Another significant contributor to ESP development in the 1980s, was the growing influence of two new twin key concepts, that of “genre analysis” and “rhetorical moves” which became the bedrock of substantial ESP research ( Johns, 2012 ). Toward this end, she clearly reinforced Paltridge and Starfield’s (2011) earlier advocacy on the need to further understand the discourse features of ESP texts if ESP learning is to be improved:

[…] in drawing a clear distinction between research and practice, unlike many other research areas in theoretical and applied linguistics, ESP has been, at its core, a practitioners’ movement, devoted to establishing, through careful research, the needs and relevant discourse features for a targeted group of students ( Johns, 2012 , p. 6 ).

The seminal article of Swales (2011) , “ Aspects of Article Introductions ” and his books on genre analysis further perpetuated the importance of genre analysis and rhetorical moves in ESP research. However, in this phase of ESP development, most ESP research had remained more focused on EAP, especially EST at the post-secondary or graduate level for ESP learning. Also written discourse remained the preferred data for analysis ( Hewings, 2002 ). As for its influence on learning approaches, the application of such ESP research information was noted to be ostensibly slow at the classroom level. A possible reason could be that the practitioners took time to take on the challenge, especially when the concepts may not be easily translated into teaching materials. On top of it, writing skills are usually considered more complex and difficult to learn compared to other language skills.

3.3. The modern age in ESP development (1990–2011)

During this period, more interesting and vibrant developments took place in the ESP arena. Among them were the flourishing of new ESP oriented work that focus on intercultural rhetoric, genre studies and corpus studies as evidenced in publications in new journals in the field. During this era, two new international journals were launched and considered on par to ESPJ for ESP work. Leki and Silva (1992) launched the Journal of Second Language Writing (JSLW), while Hamp-Lyons and Lumley (2001) founded the Journal of English for Academic Purposes (JEAP) in response to the overwhelming number of ESP related papers submitted for publication in the ESPJ. Paltridge and Starfield (2011) analyzed the publications in the ESPJ for 2010 and the breakdown revealed the following figures. Taiwan scored the highest number of submissions (23), followed by China (21). The United States recorded (16), Iran (11), and Malaysia (10). However, the acceptance rate for the ESPJ was only around 25%, indicating that a significant portion of submissions was not published, and there was a definite need for more publishing opportunities for ESP explorations.

Another significant feature of the 1990 to 2011 ESP era is the dominance of genre-focused ESP research, which tied up with Swales and Swales’ (1990) Genre Analysis, sparking off a highly fruitful debate among academics ( Johns, 2012 ). Advanced academic genre studies continued to dominate, as demonstrated through works by Crandall and Burkart (1984) and Bhatia et al. (2011) on legal discourse. Interest in expository genres also enhanced research both within the ESP community and among genre theorists and practitioners from various theoretical schools ( Bawarshi and Reiff, 2011 ).

While genre analysis gained traction, it was a source of concern for other scholars as they felt that the most intractable academic difficulties are still found in novice undergraduate language education ( Benesch, 1996 ; Johns, 2012 ). Thus, outcomes of genre analysis may not be very useful when applied to fundamental learning of the English language.

3.3.1. Continuing influence of genre analysis on ESP teaching and corpus analysis

Nonetheless, genre analysis continued to flourish and Hyon (1996) forwarded three recognized theories and approaches in genre studies: ESP, North American New Rhetoric studies, and Australian systemic functional linguistics, each reflecting viewpoints and educational aims that often contradicted one another ( Johns et al., 2006 ; Tardy, 2012 ). Some other specialists ( Johns et al., 2006 ; Swales, 2009 ; Flowerdew, 2011 ; Johns, 2012 ) worked on theory, research, and pedagogical convergences to address some of the theoretical and pedagogical discrepancies, which was projected as extremely helpful for future ESP research.

Swales and Swales (1990) continue to provide new angles to the analysis of a genre. In “ Other Floors, Other Voices ,” Swales (1998) brought photography into the ESP lexicon, as he studied the interactions of texts and contexts in three distinct discourse communities using written work, interviews, and observations. Swales (2004) coined a specific novel phrase, “occluded genres,” which perform “essential way stage roles in the administrative and evaluative functioning of the research worlds” (p. 18). Paltridge and Starfield (2011) , who are active ESP practitioners and researchers, expanded the photography element in genre studies in their more current work.

The modern period of ESP development was characterized by another research innovation that uses corpus research, notably in studies of written academic genres. During this time, the relevance of inter-personality and interactivity in written discourse grew to the point where one aspect, evaluative language, became a focal point for discussion as evidenced in a 2003 special issue of the JEAP ( Journal of English for Academic Purposes ) on “evaluation in academic discourse.” Hunston and Thompson (2000) in their contribution, defined evaluative language as the “expression of the speaker or writer’s attitude or stance toward, or viewpoint on, our feelings about the entities or propositions that he or she is talking about” (p. 5). Within and across academic discourses, the contributors to this issue explored critically what evaluative language is and its purposes ( Johns, 2012 ). Indeed, Johns (2012) saw the flourishing of global ESP journals as playing a major role in articulating the importance of ESP and its relevance in English language development. Furthermore, the increased emphasis on well-established concepts such as international rhetoric and genre analysis research, along with the more in-depth and continuing research on corpus studies, continued to demonstrate their presence as anchored core issues, with room yet for the forging forward of evolving growth in the field.

3.4. Future vistas in post-modern ESP development and teaching

Following the three marked phases in ESP historical development and teaching, it would be apt to consider what lies beyond the phases as future vistas in ESP development. The early developments to the current 21st century have seen a deep-seated entrenchment of ESP teaching often aligned to the identification of needs. As such, the following section on future vistas will explore specifically the changes in defining needs analysis and its implications for teaching while noting the theoretical inputs that have contributed to ESP practice.

3.4.1. Needs analysis revisited

Needs analysis or needs assessment often forms the corner stone of ESP practice and it is envisaged to continue to be so in future ESP works. Since its appearance in the 1970s, needs analysis has evolved as a framework that has attracted and garnered much attention of many ESP and ESL researchers and practitioners. Among the influential works are those by Munby (1978) , Hutchinson and Waters (1987) , Robinson (1991) , West (1994) , Dudley-Evans and Saint John (1998) , and Iwai et al. (1999) who explicated the role and importance of needs analysis not only for ESP courses but also for those that concern English for General Purposes. Strevens (1977) also emphasized that needs analysis, which is primarily concerned with the character of scientific discourse, is a necessary first step in ESP course formulation. Richterich and Chancerel (1978) and Trim (1978) extended the dimensions of needs analysis to include the full range of techniques that can be tapped to lead to an understanding of the parameters for successful learning, such as the ego of learners, teachers, administrators, course-writers, and producers, expectations of careers and workplace satisfaction, social dynamics, learner type, and resource analysis. Needs assessment, according to Holec (1980) , Hutchinson and Waters (1987) , and Hamp-Lyons and Lumley (2001) , is a classic process for establishing a close link between learners and curricula. Needs analysis determines learners’ needs and helps prioritize the setting of learning targets that enables efficient language teaching.

The two intertwined concepts of “needs” and “analysis” are defined in terms of necessities, wants, or lacks ( Hutchinson and Waters, 1987 ). These “needs” may vary depending on “the goal of analysis but both focus on the learner, and the manifestations can be described as objective or subjective, perceived or felt” ( Brindley, 1989 ). Thus, meeting objective and subjective needs would depend largely on target situation analysis in which learners’ real-world communicative needs are recognized in order to set some founding principles for course design.

As for subjective needs, Nunan et al. (1988) commented:

Subjective needs […] are situated in the present and influence the teaching methodology of the syllabus, taking into account biographical information and learner preferences, thus going into why the learner wants to learn a foreign language and the classroom tasks and activities that the learners prefer (p. 18).

Nunan et al. (1988) together agreed that needs analysis is the key aspect of curriculum development and is typically imperative before a syllabus for language teaching can be prepared.

In a nutshell, Robinson (1991) believed that “Needs analysis is usually considered as fundamental to ESP, but ESP is by no means the only educational endeavor that uses it,” (p. 7). Alternatively, West (1994) defined needs as what learners will need to do with the foreign language in the target learning situation, and how learners might best master the language throughout the learning period. These needs may then be translated as program’s goals and objectives to serve as the foundation for the development and selection of teaching materials and learning activities, besides aiding test development and evaluation of learning strategies.

Along similar lines, Brown (1995) argued that:

Needs analysis is the systematic collection and analysis of all subjective and objective information necessary to define and validate defensible curriculum purposes that satisfy the language learning requirements of students within the context of the particular institutions that influence the learning and teaching situation (p. 102).

The articulated needs set the target learning goals and are reflected in the defining of language use governed by the context for learning, realized in specific disciplines, such as for academic purposes, business, sports or aviation. In future, it is likely that more novel ESP courses will arise due to the evolving changes in disciplinary needs, whether objective or subjective. In the event, relevant materials can be designed. Information from discourse and genre analysis can help feed meaningful analyses of the needs. Objective needs can also be generated from the needs of the location of study or workplace and its demands compounded by the social situation, thereby adding to the complexity of the “needs” concept.

While basic notions about needs analysis remain relatively constant over the years, however, Otilia and Brancusi (2015) observed the concept of needs analysis has undergone changes. They noted that in the early stages of ESP development (i.e., the 1960s and early 1970s), needs analysis basically revolves around assessing learners’ communicative needs and identifying the techniques required to achieve appropriate teaching objectives. Today, the objectives of needs analysis are considerably more complicated, aiming to gather information from many dimensions of students’ experience that can fall within the objective context as well the ESP learning environment. Abuklaish (2014) added that data can be gathered from questionnaires, tests, interviews, and observations to discover the following:

• The situations in which a language will be used (including who it will be used with).
• The objectives and purposes for which the language is needed.
• The type of communication that will be used (e.g., written, spoken, formal, informal).
• The level of proficiency that will be required (p. 51).

Dudley-Evans and Saint John (1998) in their book, addressed the original definition of needs analysis as being related to “ESP (as) a discipline that attempts to meet the needs of a specific population of students, employs methodologies and material from the discipline it is centered on and focuses on the language and discourse related to it” (p. 125). Graves and Xu (2000) has redefined it as a system that entails “a systematic and ongoing process of gathering information about students’ needs and preferences, interpreting the information, and then making course decisions based on the interpretation to meet the needs” (p. 98). This updated definition views needs analysis as a dynamic process dotted with several important decision-making steps.

Braine (2001) concluded from previous descriptions of needs analysis that disagreements among linguists on its specific meaning as not uncommon, though they all concur on underlying external factors like staffing, time, and cultural attitudes that influence the multiple definitions. Emphasizing procedural aspects, Hyland (2006 , p. 73) had seen needs analysis as “the procedures involved in data acquisition as the framework for the analysis, which may then be prioritized, of the needs of students or groups.” The procedures entailed looking into the following: (1) learners’ goals and backgrounds, (2) their language learning preferences, and (3) the situations in which they will need to communicate, which may determine what learners know, do not know, or want to know, and can be collected and analyzed in a variety of methods. Notably, these processes today should not be a one-time event but should be continuously refined alongside the development of ESP teaching and learning. Regardless of the varied definitions, all learners and relevant members of the community should be involved participants in the meaningful planning process.

3.4.1.1. Recent related studies on ESP and needs analysis

In support of ESP work that has evolved as multi-dimensional in approach, which is still developing, some current sample readings are explored to provide more insights. For example, Chen et al. (2019) embarked on the use of needs analysis which employed triangulated data gathered from questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, and on-site observations. Based on the data obtained, they built a case for a context-aware ubiquitous learning environment. Their findings revealed that language learning should be done in the following sequence: listening, reading, and speaking skills, followed by green-building terminology. Video and audio content, adaptive functionalities, and a user-friendly interface design were also found to be necessary to promote successful learning.

Pazoki and Alemi (2020) explored learner attitude with regard to ESP learning in Iran. Results indicated that the students had negative attitudes toward ESP learning experiences, and this was linked to a low motivation level. They emphasized the importance of doing a reliable needs analysis so that stakeholders are more accurate in defining needs for goal formulation and avoiding discrepancies in course material selection. Students’ motivation in ESP classes could also be subjected to ongoing evaluation at various planned learning stages as a tracer effort in monitoring progress. At the macro level, problems may be related to policymaking. Thus, stakeholders must take this into consideration to set realistic learning goals.

Identifying students’ needs ultimately requires a thorough investigation of many elements. Tailoring a course to meet the needs of the learners in and of itself does not ensure course success and effectiveness. Motivation to learn plays a crucial role in ensuring learning success. Pazoki and Alemi (2020) emphasized that a well-designed course could capture the interest of learners, and this could increase the level of motivation for attaining success in learning the language.

On the other hand, Arnó-Macià et al. (2020) reported that their students are generally satisfied with their ESP classes and had gained a much better understanding of the nature of specialized communication. The findings also provided deeper insights into students’ strategy use and in areas where ESP was useful in preparing and empowering the students for their future workplace. The findings can be used to inform on the success of needs analysis that will further assist the design of other ESP courses.

ESP teachers may need to help learners to attend to general academic needs as the immediate goal. Academic fulfillment like reporting on project work and completing course assignments in English is just as important as fulfilling professional or workplace-related needs like writing professional emails, attending job interviews, and doing specialist oral presentations. In this way, rather than depending on intuition, ESP teachers may develop courses based on information obtained through personalized needs analysis. Indeed, support given to academic fulfillment as part of a well-designed ESP course may boost learners’ confidence, fluency, and accuracy as they enter into specialized communication. In an increasingly internationalized context, it is also necessary to reappraise current ESP courses and practices to determine the extent to which they are adapted to the ever-changing needs in a globalized world.

In Indonesia, Sari and Sari (2020) used a qualitative descriptive method to investigate the English language needs of marine pilots. Their study revealed the real-time needs of this group of language users, with a focus on practical language skills (speaking and listening) skewed to giving advice and exchanging information. In ESP learning, they emphasized that it is important to provide learners with a meaningful learning experience, and the use of role-play and simulation could go a long way in achieving communicative competence.

In Malaysia, Shaalan (2020) conducted a needs analysis on dental majors to assess students’ academic and professional needs, wants and lacks for the designing of a course that fits their requirements. The findings indicated that incorporating project-based learning techniques into the ESP course helped to increase dental vocabulary and using creative techniques in the dental vocabulary classroom boosted students’ self-awareness, problem-solving skills, critical thinking, and creativity.

College English is a mandatory course for students who enter tertiary education in China. The exit language performance indicator is a set criterion score obtained through the CET (College English Test) as a graduating language assessment attainment goal. This requirement is often viewed as a less than satisfactory rigid language policy implementation. The tension between ESP approaches and College English which centers on the learning of general English has been much debated among Chinese scholars. Xu and Liu (2015) point out that “after students have reached the level of general requirements in the English curriculum, they can gradually transit to ESP” as the next step, thereby recommending an integrated approach as the way forward in the learning of English. This call is supported by Liu (2003) who views ESP teaching as “an extension and continuation of basic English teaching” with Wen (2014) advocating a similar line of action on a symbiotic co-existence of EGP and ESP in the university English teaching system. In a series of papers, Cai (2007 , 2010 , 2015) repeatedly emphasizes that the difference between EAP and EGP (English for general purposes) lies merely in goal identification and suggests that universities could replace the integrated EGP course with academic English as a starter course for the freshmen year as a more realistic learning goal in the EFL context. This recommendation could be aligned to the provision of ESP as an academic English course and could be seen as a possible path for students of any discipline to engage themselves in a more meaningful manner in their English language learning experience. The premise taken is that after an ESP course that is oriented toward academic English, it could motivate them to study ESP further to equip themselves with more marketable skills within their disciplines when they leave the university.

Attesting that ESP research in China has developed rapidly in recent decades, Lu and Jiang (2018) analyzed ESP research studies published from 2007 to 2016 (a period of 10 years) in China’s core online journal database, CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). The results revealed that China’s ESP research studies have been on the rise in the 10 years surveyed, and the research areas have expanded from non-empirical studies with a concentrate on theoretical reflections (occupying 80.3% of the total publications) to empirical studies (qualitative research, qualitative research, and mixed methods research) standing at 19.7%. Among the empirical research, needs analysis only constituted 10.4% of the pool of studies. These figures illustrate a dire lack of ESP research in China and local ESP researchers could definitely play a vital role in adding insights and understanding into the needs of EFL learners in relation to the target language use settings, with a possible greater inclusion of learning ESP oriented courses designed and developed for individual group of learners.

In brief, various current studies have been found to identify learners’ specific needs ( Long, 2005 ; Chaudron et al., 2010 ; Spence and Liu, 2013 ; Chen et al., 2019 ). In addition, Mirisaee and Zin (2009) recommended the use of triangulated data to develop effective task-based instruction. In practice, a successful needs analysis should look at essential language skill needs from a variety of angles. Following the needs that are discovered, a subsequent step is to use the information to develop effective ESP materials ( McDonough, 2010 ).

3.4.2. Use of information technology

From the above description, ESP development is certainly affected by ever-changing needs and contextual challenges. Future vistas about ESP developments and learning potentially can result in a more flourishing and thriving field. Lesiak-Bielawska (2015) aptly noted that by the turn of the 20th century, technology noticeably has impacted foreign language learning. Since then, there had been a deluge of such developments that made the Internet a source of diverse technological applications. However, she cautioned that much more research is necessary as she felt that many gaps existed. For one, she questioned the sustainability of some technologies as they may become obsolete and be replaced by new innovations. ESP teachers may have a hard time “catching up” as many are “digital immigrants” and the road to being “digital natives” could be fraught with many challenges.

Nonetheless, it is a fact that technology is here to stay and it is also an ever-growing concern as more and more transborder transactions take place. With the world experiencing fast-paced technological advances, it is inevitable that it will impact current and future language use. Technology can be said to be perversive especially in the workforce. Every country bent on economic growth must attend to advances in technology so as to remain competitive. These national needs are translated into the realm of language teaching.

3.4.2.1. Recent related studies on ESP and information technology

As a line of investigation, Asmali (2018) purports that integrating technology in an ESP curriculum will be highly beneficial to students as computer technology allows interactive and communicative activities that can be professionally related to the current or future workplace. Through specially designed multimedia packages tailored to students’ needs, students can easily be exposed to authentic target language use, thus allowing more language practice that is often lacking in traditional materials.

Yan and Li (2018) pointed out that big data, cloud computing, and information sharing can be combined through a triangulation analysis to generate more precise needs analysis relevant to the underlying concepts of Present Situation Analysis, Learners’ Needs Analysis and Target Situation Analysis. In line with these current developments, new ESP approaches that incorporate technology inevitably will need to be devised and taught to post-modern ESP participants, especially professionals who are in need for tailored ESP contact to accelerate professional advancement.

With specific needs analysis results, teaching materials could definitely be designed for a specific group of individuals. During the teaching process, simulated teaching methods, task-based teaching methods, cooperative project-based learning ( Zaafour and Salaberri-Ramiro, 2022 ) and flipped methods might guide the teaching application to meet the learners’ needs. In addition, ESP teachers can resort to blended learning ( Salim et al., 2018 ) or the design of a Massive Open Online Course (MOOC; Shapiro et al., 2017 ), use other information and communication technology tools to design multimodal online platforms ( Yélamos-Guerra et al., 2022 ). The use of technology is well illustrated in the book, English in the Disciplines: A Multidimensional Model for ESP Course Design in which the authors, Hafner and Miller (2019) stated their concern for multi-literacies and the greater need for collaborative learning. They highlighted the use of ESP interactive collaborative learning through the use of LearnWeb 2.0 and corpus analysis, and then proceeded to present illustrative scenarios in an ESP course that learners can immerse in to become multi-literate and gain useful professional knowledge and critical application.

In China, learners can access technical support for English learning via the ESP Linguistic Corpus ( Zheng and Wu, 2019 ) and Zhu (2020) highlighted the application of e-portfolios and apps to set up ESP competency standards enabling the establishment of an evaluation test system to standardize ESP language assessment mechanism. All these could well be future characteristics in ESP teaching and learning and recognizably pave another significant ESP phase of “a brave new world.” These implementations would provide more information for the future growth of ESP research as well as enhancement of ESP subjective status, at the same time, boosting practical development of ESP-oriented courses ( Cai, 2019 ). Technology without a doubt is making a great impact on ESP and will continue to do so in the near future.

3.4.3. Intercultural communication

Lesiak-Bielawska (2015) also noted when she shared as a “ second wave of online learning ,” the importance of cultural learning that may also connect to intercultural competence, cultural literacy and social discourses. With regard to English as a lingua franca in an EFL situation, Firth (1996) defined cultural learning as “a contact language between persons who share neither a common native tongue nor a common (national) culture” (p. 240). In this context, cultural awareness in both native speakers’ culture and non-mainstream culture should be seriously considered in the teaching of English to non-native speakers.

3.4.3.1. Recent related studies on ESP and intercultural communication

Translingual efficiency could stress the need for effective negotiation strategies when communicating across linguistic and cultural boundaries ( McIntosh et al., 2017 ). Thus, intercultural communication and awareness within linguistic diversity is a needed mainstay component in English learning classrooms ( Jiang et al., 2020 ) inclusive of ESP classrooms by extension. As pointed out by Benabdallah and Belmikki (2020) , learning a language does not occur in a vacuum, but rather it is carried in social, economic and cultural contexts so that learning becomes meaningful. An ESP-oriented course especially in an intercultural context, could also call upon such needs to design suitable materials for vocational activities to enhance ESP linguistic and cultural competency, pertinently determined for workplace demands ( Hazrati, 2014 ).

This is well-illustrated in English courses, targeted specifically in areas, such as, shipping ( Bocanegra-Valle, 2014 ), corporate leader messages in business ( Ngai et al., 2020 ), investor relations communication financial policy ( Camiciottoli, 2020 ), advanced business writing ( Feng and Du-Babcock, 2016 ), and aviation English ( Hazrati, 2014 ).

It is also important to distinguish between Culture with a “big C” (inclusive of history, geography, institutions, literature, art and music, etc.) and with a little “c” (e.g., cultural behavior, culturally influenced beliefs, and perceptions). In the designing of materials, Connor and Traversa (2014) believed that the “little” culture is more linked to language learning to promote cohesive behaviors within social groupings, and she recommended incorporating five complex and interacting small cultures for teaching: national culture, professional-academic culture, classroom culture, student culture and youth culture ( Xu et al., 2016 ). Indeed, the intercultural rhetoric framework has made valuable pedagogical contributions to the teaching of EAP/ESP with a recognition given to societal and student needs, teacher preparation, and curriculum design in particular contexts ( Xu et al., 2016 ; McIntosh et al., 2017 ).

From another perspective, Yang and Wyatt (2021) asserted the crucial role of cultural influences on improving Chinese ESP teachers’ cognitions about motivation and motivational practices, with suggestions on how the Confucius heritage, as a deep-seated Chinese cultural feature, can be conceptually applied to ESP courses for East Asian countries as a point of cross-cultural awareness. Learning English without understanding its cultural context is a definite risk ( Alharbi, 2022 ), and as a future vista, this concern should continue to pervade in the application of an ESP pedagogical framework.

4. Conclusion

This review study began by introducing the basic tenets and trends of ESP giving a historical account of ESP development which was accompanied by a discussion of how ESP teaching and learning have evolved concurrently. This recognition of history sets the tone for possible future trends in ESP development and teaching giving due emphasis on the need for a revisit of needs analysis, the salience of technological advances, and intercultural communication. In sum, new explorations in needs analysis, technological advances, and intercultural awareness will significantly support the construction of a better environment for learning English in specific situations, therefore justifying the establishment of future ESP courses to properly prepare students and train professionals for the workplace. To confirm the effectiveness of the use of ESP frameworks, it is reiterated that it is equally vital to recognize that changes in ESP development will also result in changes in learning approaches that must be taken seriously into account for successful learning.

Author contributions

AD, SC, and MW contributed to the conception and design of the study. AD wrote the first draft of the manuscript. SC and MW revised sections of the manuscript. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

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Understanding Science

How science REALLY works...

• ESP can be studied scientifically, but scientific studies have found no evidence supporting the idea that it exists.
• Science can only study the natural world.

ESP: What can science say?

Ever answer a phone call, only to hear the person you were just thinking of on the other end? Ever had a dream about something that later actually happened? Ever felt like somebody read your mind? Some people may interpret these sorts of experiences as extrasensory perception, or ESP. ESP is defined as an awareness of the world that occurs through some mechanism other than the known senses — mind reading, sensing when a far-off friend is in trouble, foreseeing the future, and other phenomena more commonly associated with illusion artists than with ​​ science . Science deals with ​​ observations  of the ​​ natural world  — from far off galaxies, to microorganisms, to human behavior — and can shed light on natural explanations for those observations. So what does science have to say about ESP? Though ESP might not seem like something scientists would examine, the results of ESP — knowledge of events in the world — are well within the realm of science, and so we can use the tools of science to study phenomena sometimes attributed to ESP. 1

Using these tools, scientists have studied whether ESP exists. Their ​​ experiments  have explored all kinds of ESP, but most have focused on mind reading. In the most typical of these experiments, one person, the sender, goes through a deck of cards, each depicting one of five symbols (like a star or cross), while another person, the receiver, tries to determine what symbol the sender is looking at. To eliminate any tips from body language, the sender is often shielded from view. If the receiver were to correctly identify the symbol more often than could be explained by chance, it would suggest that ESP does indeed exist. However, researchers have found that receivers aren’t particularly accurate in these experiments; no ​​ evidence  of mind reading or any other sort of ESP has been found. 2  Since science hasn’t uncovered any evidence that ESP even exists, no scientific investigations of its potential mechanisms have been undertaken.

ESP itself is neither scientific nor unscientific — but it can be studied scientifically or unscientifically, and scientific studies find no support for the ​​ hypothesis  that ESP exists. Those who ignore the evidence and insist that ESP is a real, ​​ natural  phenomenon fail to meet one of the key aspects of scientific behavior: assimilating the evidence.

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• To learn more about scientific behavior, visit  Participants in science behave scientifically .
• Learn more about what topics science can study in our section on  what science is .

1 Here we are taking a scientific view of ESP. However, some people have a different view — they consider ESP to be a spiritual or supernatural phenomenon, which involves tapping into another level of consciousness or an alternate dimension. In this case, ESP is not "natural" in a scientific sense, and thus cannot be studied with the tools of science. 2 For example, see: Milton, J., and R. Wiseman. 1999. Does psi exist? Lack of replication of an anomalous process of information transfer.  Psychological Bulletin  125:387-391.

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Teaching Speaking and ESP Students Essay (Critical Writing)

Introduction: speaking strategies for esp, body: article and its significance, conclusion: reevaluating esp issues, works cited.

The significance of acquiring English speaking skills can hardly be overrated. Speaking is the basic way of getting a message across, and one must master the skill in question in order to have a good command of a language, English being no exception. However, in the rise of the globalization process, a rapid increase in diversity rates and, therefore, a significant amount of ESL and ESP students in American schools can be observed. As a result, teachers often need to resort to different strategies for teaching students speaking skills. Christine B. Feak renders the subject matter in her article “ESP and Speaking,” suggesting new tools for addressing the problem.

Article Summary: Shared Communicational Needs

In her article “ESP and Speaking,” Feak addresses one of the key issues in the contemporary pedagogy, i.e., the methods of teaching English to a diverse team of students incorporating not only the ones, to whom English is a native language, but also ESL and ESP students. According to Feak, teachers must facilitate a faster acquisition of speaking skills by ESP and ESL students by creating the environment, in which the learners will be capable of understanding the instructions and general rules better.

Feak claims that, by reducing the complexity of the tasks and simplifying the instructions, teachers will be capable of catering to the needs of ESP students; as a result, the process of language acquisition will be enhanced greatly, and ESP students will be able to speak English according to designated standards. Moreover, Feak suggests that a range of aids should be used in the course of introducing ESP students to new concepts and suggesting them to handle specific tasks; by integrating novel forms of posters, teachers will achieve impressive results in teaching ESP students basic speaking skills, Feak argues.

Critique: Locating the Advantages and the Inconsistencies

The article written by Feak is a very impressive study, which incorporates a streak of important ideas and a range of clever solutions to the problem that many teachers have to deal with on a regular basis. According to Feak, teachers, which work in diverse settings, must incorporate the approaches that will allow ESP students to understand the subject and the teacher’s requirements better by providing more explanations and simplifying some of the elements of the learning process. Feak renders the key tenets of the information exchange theory quite successfully by applying them to the setting in question and claiming that “Provided the correct forms have been learned, the limited flexibility in the communication format is thought to facilitate information exchange” (Feak 42).

Therefore, it seems that Feak’s choice aligns with the key theoretical positioning. The point of view, which Feak adopts, though being quite popular among a range of researchers, still needs further studying. The ides, which Feak suggests, however, do not seem to invite a further discussion of the subject matter; by stating quite clearly that ESP students need to be taught with the help of a less rigid approach, Feak prevents from viewing alternative solutions, which promote enhancement of information acquisition process among ESL and ESP students.

However, the author brings up a range of interesting innovations into the classroom setting, including the concept of conferences, which makes the article quite engaging and the argument rather compelling: “Conference presentations (CP) are undoubtedly essential for scholars to fully participate in the ongoing activity of their disciplines” (Feak 44). Therefore, it would be wrong to assume that the author is biased in any way; instead, the article can be considered as a study that needs a follow-up research for addressing some of the issues that have been overlooked. After all, it is essential to bear in mind that, having contributed to the creation of an academic book with her article, the author must be considered a credible writer; therefore, the article should be viewed as trustworthy.

Though one must give the author credit for her efforts in reevaluating the issue of teaching English to the students with special needs, the argument provided by the author still has a few dents in it. Specifically, the fact that the author overlooks some of the benefits of English-speaking students setting the tone for the class deserves to be mentioned. More importantly, by introducing a set of more lenient approaches towards ESP students, one may face the threat of other students following the tone that ESP learners set. As a result, the performance of English-speaking students may deteriorate once the specified mode of teaching is chosen for a class with high diversity rates.

Moreover, it would be rather reasonable for the author to study the effects of peer scaffolding, which may occur once the English-speaking students are provided with an assignment of assisting their peers in carrying out the basic assignments and understanding the English language rules. The approach of peer assessment and scaffolding might work with the ESP students quite fine, yet the author dismisses the above-mentioned concept without detailing the reasons for doing so. The author’s decision to avoid the specified issue can be viewed as a major issue, which may be addressed in a follow-up study.

The text is written in a coherent and understandable manner. However, as far as the methodology of the author’s study is concerned, Feak could have explained the foundation for her study in a bit more detailed way. Specifically, the theoretical framework for the research to be based on still remains a bit unclear; though mentioning the theory of information exchange at some point, Feak still remains rather vague about the actual basis for her study to rely on.

As a result, the veracity of some of the statements needs to be checked. Nevertheless, Feak has shown an impressive proficiency in using outside sources for supporting her argument; apart from constructing her own research, the author relies on the findings suggested by other credible researchers, therefore, making the paper all the more significant. Feak also simplifies complex concepts and notions so that they could be easy to grasp, yet she never does it to the point, where her clarifications could be considered redundant.

For example, when analyzing the changing perspectives in the ESP speaking, the author provides a series of rather graphic examples of ESP related difficulties by mentioning the pilot-ATC communication issues. Overall, despite the issues regarding the possible one-sidedness of the author’s argument, the artifice can be recommended to someone interested in the strategies for assisting ESL and ESP students.

Outlining the obvious necessity for a teacher to meet the needs of ESP students in a diverse environment, Feak suggests reducing the overall complexity of the assignments and the means of explaining the key tenets of the English language learning theory. While the method suggested by Feak clearly has a few major disadvantages, the threat of English speaking students losing their skills partially being one of the major dangers, the author still provides several legitimate arguments concerning the need to provide ESL students with an opportunity to learn the language properly and excel in speaking English. Therefore, the article can be deemed as fairly valuable for the people interested in the issue.

Feak, Christine B. “ESP and Speaking.” The Handbook of English for Specific Purposes . Ed. Brian Paltridge and Sue Starfield. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 2012. 36–48. Print.

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IvyPanda. (2024, January 16). Teaching Speaking and ESP Students. https://ivypanda.com/essays/teaching-speaking-and-esp-students/

"Teaching Speaking and ESP Students." IvyPanda , 16 Jan. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/teaching-speaking-and-esp-students/.

IvyPanda . (2024) 'Teaching Speaking and ESP Students'. 16 January.

IvyPanda . 2024. "Teaching Speaking and ESP Students." January 16, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/teaching-speaking-and-esp-students/.

1. IvyPanda . "Teaching Speaking and ESP Students." January 16, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/teaching-speaking-and-esp-students/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Teaching Speaking and ESP Students." January 16, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/teaching-speaking-and-esp-students/.

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Essay: ESP (English for specific purposes)

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General Introduction

In the modern world, English has become the most dominant language in terms of use. Its status was consolidated by the spread of cultural ideologies mainly ‘ Globalization ‘ which promotes communication and interaction among people from all around the world. The main motto of this ideology is to create ‘Global citizens’ that can communicate and correspond with each other. This could only be achieved by overcoming the language barrier that people from different speech communities would face .Thus, the need for a united language that serves as the common ground for them and facilitates their social, cultural and most importantly economic interactions became an urgent necessity. Hence, English filled that spot and it became ‘The Language of The world’ or what many scholars call it ‘The lingua Franca of the modern world’.

Today, there are an increasing number of people who are learning English in order to ‘fit-in’ the high demands of global economy and international communication. They are fully aware that English has become synonymous with social, economic and scientific development. Hence governments across the world have set out on aspiring instructive changes incorporating English more profoundly into their educational curricula in order to equip their learners with the linguistic dominator used and needed everywhere in the world. These courses are known as English for Specific Purposes (henceforth ESP). Algeria, like any other developing country has adopted English in its educational programmes including the tertiary level where English is taught almost in all fields like Biology, Physics, Technology and Economics.

Nonetheless, even if – hypothetically – English is integrated in all fields and taught for all levels .There is still a major handicap for students who cannot use the language appropriately for the required needs (educational and professional purposes), and also for teachers who lack the efficient training for ESP teaching which requires a methodology that is different from General English courses (GE).

The researcher has chosen the department of Economic and commercial Sciences at the University of Dr .Moulay Taher ‘Saida- in order to investigate the current status of ESP teaching by conducting a needs analysis for students to assess their level of awareness about the importance of learning English in their studies and how it may affect their level of motivation .

The present inquiry attempts to provide appropriate answers to the following question:

• To what extent is the ESP teaching / learning process efficient in terms of providing teachers and learners with appropriate environment in order to meet the final objectives of the ESP syllabus?

The aforementioned question generated the following sub-questions:

• What are the learners’ attitudes towards learning English in their field of study?
• Are the ESP teachers actually aware of the particularity of their courses?
• Are they giving adequate training and materials to cope with specific requirements of ESP courses?
• How to design an efficient ESP course that actually has well defined objectives and would eventually lead to concrete results?

The main hypothesis for this research is that the ESP Teaching/Learning process probably lacks concrete results which may be for both stakeholders (teachers and students) due to the absence of clear methodology of teaching and well-defined objectives.

Moreover, the above questions engendered the following sub-hypotheses:

• There may be a disparity in the level of awareness of students about the necessity of English in their studies .i,e some of them acknowledge the fact that English is an integral part in their studies while others see it as a slot-filling module in their time table.
• ESP may be ambiguous for some instructors; some teachers can not differentiate between ESP and GE courses.
• Perhaps, ESP teachers are not provided with any special materials or even a clear syllabus.
• Designing an efficient ESP course may depend on knowing the actual needs of students and also detecting their linguistics problems. Thus, by attempting to address these problems, an efficient ESP course may be possible to design.

This work is divided into three main chapters:

• The first chapter aims at exploring the theoretical background of ESP. It will shed light on the emergence of ESP , its various definitions and its types. In addition, the researcher would focus on ESP course design rationale as well as some key concept about syllabus design .
• In the second chapter, the researcher will undertake a needs analysis in the department of Economic Sciences, at the University of Dr. Moulay Taher, Saida. Furthermore, the researcher will conduct a students’ questionnaire and a teachers’ interview in order to have an overall description of the teaching of English in the department under study.
• Finally, in the third chapter, the researcher will interpret the data collected through the different research instruments used .Remedial suggestions would be recommended for the purpose of creating adequate conditions for effective ESP instruction.

1.1 Introduction:

The paramount importance of English has led to the expansion of the English language teaching arena. Hence, the implementation of English in the educational system and mainly on the tertiary level has become an inevitable necessity. Consequently, there was a high demand for English courses designed to cater the needs of the diversified university majors (Social Sciences, biology ‘.etc) .This goal-oriented approach is achieved by the teaching of a particular type of English commonly known as English for specific purposes, or simply (ESP).

The first part of this chapter reviews literature on the field of ESP , its various definitions and its branches .The Second part gives a clear idea about syllabus design and some key concepts in its methodology such as needs analysis, teaching materials and evaluation and assessment in this discipline.

1.2 ESP Genesis:

According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987) , ESP was not a ‘planned and coherent movement’ but it has emerged because of numerous unified trends. These trends have operated in a variety of ways around the world, but we can identify three main reasons common to the emergence of ESP.

The demands of a Brave New World :

The post Second World War witnessed an unprecedented expansion in scientific, technical and economic activity on an international scale. This expansion created a world unified and dominated by two forces – technology and commerce (Hutchinson & Waters 1987, p.6).An international language, thus, became an urgent necessity in order to adapt with the new ” unified ” globalized world. Consequently, English was ‘the key to the international currencies of technology and commerce’, it was the dominant language that everyone had to speak due to the political and economic power of the USA .This position was also consolidated by the Oil Crisis in the 1970’s which resulted in Western money and knowledge flowing into the oil-rich countries; the language of this knowledge became English.

This led to the emergence of a new category of people that consists of professionals who needed English to perform their jobs. However ,the process of English learning/teaching they need was different from the conventional methods of learning a language which requires a deep and vast knowledge of the whole aspects of the target language (e,g.Grammar and literature) ;They had specific and well defined objectives .

A revolution in Linguistics

Another reason which had a tremendous impact on the emergence of ESP was a revolution in linguistics . Traditionally, Linguistics’ primary focus was studying the structural features of the language (e.g. Grammar).However; revolutionary pioneers in linguistics shifted their focus to the ways in which language is used in real communication.

Focus on the learner

New developments in educational psychology also contributed to the rise of ESP, linguists emphasized on the psychological attributes that emphasized on the central importance of the learners and their attitudes to learning .Learners were seen to have different needs and interest, which would have an important influence or their motivation to learn and therefore on the activeness of their learning (Hutchinson and Waters:987, p:08) This lent support to the development of courses in the which relevance to the learners need and interests was paramount.

The assumption underlying this approach was that the clear relevance of the english course to their needs could improve the learners’ motivation and thereby learning better and faster.

Eventually, this development exerted pressure on the language teaching profession to deliver the required goods. Whereas English had previously decided its own destiny, it now became subject to the wishes, needs and demands of people other than language teachers. (Hutchinson &Waters, 1987).

1.3 Definition of Esp

Defining ESP has proven to be so problematic to researchers that producing a simple and straightforward definition of ESP is not an easy task (Strevens 1987, p. 109)

An important question may cross our minds is “what is ESP and how is it different from GE ?”.In answering this question, ESP is defined as: ‘Goal oriented language learning. ‘ ( Robinson, Pauline C.ed. Hywel Coleman, 1989, p 398 ) (qutd in Msc. MorenaBracaj, European Scientific Journal January 2014 ) .This means that it is a set of exclusively designed courses tailored for the specific needs of learners (whether vocational or educational purposes) .In this vein , Robinson defines ESP as ‘language in context ‘.Similar to this view , Mackay and Mountford propose a definition of ESP emphasizing on the utility of learning English saying that: ” a restricted repertoire of words and expressions selected from the whole language because that restricted repertoire covers every requirement within a well-defined context, task or vocation.’ (Mackay and Mountford, 1978: 4).

Concerning the difference between ESP and GE .This dichotomy is often Ambiguous for English teachers . Robinson clearly state that :

“the general with which we are contrasting the specific is that of general education for life , culture and literature oriented language course in which the language itself is the subject matter and the purpose of the course . The student of ESP , however, is learning English en route to the acquisition of some quite different body of knowledge and set of skills” (Robinson 1980,p.6)

In this respect ,,Hutchinson and waters (1987) claimed that the difference between GE and ESP is not merely bound with the existence of a need but rather the awarenees of the need. Hence , the difference lies in the learners’ aims and puposes for learning ) That is to say , GE learners the language aspire to master the language for daily use , whereas , ESP learners need specific and a limited set of linguistic repertoire to perform educational or professional tasks

Hutchinson and water (1987) state that ESP should be perceived as an ‘approach’ to teaching, Overall, ESP appeared as a multi-disciplinary branch to teach English for particular specialties. This branch of ELT deals more principally with learners’ needs so that learners will perform adequately in the target situation. (Smoak 2003:23)

1.4 Branches of ESP :

Under the umbrella term of ESP there are a myriad of sub-divisions. Each of these division is strongly related to the concerned field of study.

English for Academic Purposes :

As it name implies, English for Academic purposes (or simply EAP) is a branch of ESP that accentuate the educational needs of learners who need English in their studies . As Kennedy and Bolitho posit that : ” EAP is taught generally within educational institutions to students needing English in their studies” (kennedy andBolitho 1984 : 4) .

EAP courses are programmed in such situations to provide learners with specialized knowledge of the language so that they can be update their knoweldge and keep abreast of the latest developments in their specialities. Typically, EAP learners should attain different skills which would contribute to their studies like listening to lectures, taking notes, reading in the specialised field, writing reports and research articles, and so on .

English for Occupational Purposes :

AOP is taught for learners who need English for vocational purposes. Thus, its teaching is activity-oriented where people may be obliged to use English as part of their everyday job. This is illustrated in the definition of Kennedy and Bolitho (1984:4) who state that:’EOP is taught in a situation in which learners need to use English as part of their work or profession.’

On the other hand, Hutchinson and Waters (1987) say that there is no clear-cut distinction between EAP and EOP because people can work and study at the same time :

‘This is ,of course, not a clear-cut distinction :people can work and study Simultaneously ; it is also likely that in many cases the language learnt for immediate use in a study environment will be used later when the student takes up, or returns to , a job’ (Hutchinson and Waters 1987: p16)

English for Science and Technology:

EST due the constant demands of scientists and technologists who need English in order to stay updated with the latest trends of scientific and technological developments.

Some theorists consider EST as a sub-branch shared by EAP and EOP, Blue (2001) writes :’ English for science and technology cuts across for occupational purposes and language for academic purposes , as it has both occupational and academic applications'( qtd in Hamche,2014: 75)

1.4 ESP course Design

Course design refers to the planning and structuring of a course to achieve the needed goals. It is the outcome of number of elements: the result of the needs analysis, the course designer’s approach to syllabus and methodology, and existing materials (Robinson: 1991). It is a process that enables learners build up new knowledge on the previously existed one (Basturkmen 2010:26). In this respect, Hutchinson et al suggests that

‘Designing a course is fundamentally a matter of asking questions in order to provide a reasoned basis for the subsequent processes of syllabus design, materials writing, classroom teaching and evaluation ‘(Hutchinson et al 1987:21)

In other words, ESP course design is a the basis of inter-related processes that encompasses integrated series of teaching-learning experience such as syllabus design, materials availability and most importantly, data gathered through conducting needs analysis .The latter is considered as a crucial parameter in identifying and analyzing learners’ needs .Consequently, these needs will serve as a guide for for syllabus design , course materials as well as teaching and testing methods.

1.5. Approaches to course design

1.5.1. Language-centred course design:

Language-centred approach put emphasis on the linguistic performance of the learner in the target situation. This approach is considered to have the simplest kind of course design process which begins with identifying learners’ target situation, proceeds through various stages of analysis to a syllabus, then to materials in use in the classroom, and finally to evaluation of mastery of the syllabus items. The diagram below clearly elucidates how the language-centred approach is elaborated.

Figure 01.01: a language-centered approach to course design (Hutchinson and Waters1987:65)

Despite its seemingly logical procedure, Language-centered approach has been criticized on grounds that it disregards the integral role that learners’ needs play in the process of designing an ESP course. Nevertheless, this approach was regarded as a static and an inflexible procedure whose limits end with the end of target situation analysis.

“Once the initial analysis of the target situation is done, the course designer is locked Into a relentless process”. Any procedure must have flexibility, feedback channels and Error tolerance built in so that it can respond to unsuspected or developing countries’ ( Hutchinson and Waters 1987:67)

1.5.2. Skills-centred course design:

The skills-centred approach to course design focuses on the development of

Skills and strategies that should remain active after the ESP course, by making learners

Better processors of information. Unlike the previous approach, Skills-centred approach tends to compensate between performance and competence in presenting its learning objectives.

In this vein, this model views the learner as a user of language rather than as a learner of language and the processes it is concerned with focus more on language use, not language learning (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987). Thus, It is more concerned with language use than language learning.

Figure 01.02: A skills-centred approach to course design(ibid)

1.5.3. Learning-centred course design:

As one of the prominent approaches in recent educational research , Learning-centred approach is based on humanist doctrines mainly of John Dewey and Carl Rogers who emphasize the role of ‘active learning’ and ‘participatory learning’ in building the learning experience .Hence, learning-centred approach considers the learner as a core component in designing a course on the premise that the learner’s motivation , previous knowledge and learning experience would greatly contribute in construct an educational course.

1.6 Needs Analysis

According to The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2000), the verb ‘ to need’ is defined as the following : ” to require something/somebody because they are essential or very important, not just because you would like to have them ” . Generally speaking, a need constitutes the gap between current conditions and desired conditions.

Needs Analysis, also known as needs assessment , is the process through which different learners’ needs are identified and analyzed .The term ‘analysis of needs’ was originated by Michael West in 1920’s as an attempt to investigate why learners should learn English and How they do so. In this vein, Dudley-Evans and St John (1998, p.125) defined Needs Analysis as “professional information about the learners: The tasks and activities learners are/will be using English for [‘]target situation analysis and objective Needs” .Accordingly , Needs Analysis ‘ fundamental question is ” For what purpose is the learner learning the language ? ”

Needs Analysis, Thus, is an indispensable stage in ESP .In fact ‘The idea of analysing the language needs of the learner as a basis for course development has become almost synonymous with ESP’. (McDonough 1984: 29) .It provides ESP teachers with in-depth insights to the actual needs, wants and lacks of their learners. Hence, learners are viewed as partners and co-creators .This enables teachers as well as course designers make the right decisions about content and methodology .i.e., to construct ‘remedial ‘courses that meets the needs of their learners. Nevertheless , Needs Analysis should not be considered as a preliminary phase .In fact , it is ” an on-going process ” that provides teachers the suitable platform for designing their courses in an ad-hoc manner by developing tests, materials, teaching activities and evaluation strategies.

1.7 Models of Needs Analysis

1.7.1. Target Needs Analysis

The term ” Target needs ” refers to the academic or professional requirements the learner aims at obtaining .According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987), target needs can be classified into three main types

a. Necessities :

Necessities are simply the types of needs determined by the demands of the target situation (ibid) .i.e., the required level of language proficiency in order to function effectively in the target situation .They are also known as objectives

As it is apparent from its name, Lacks express the gap between the learner’s present competence and desired competence .A thorough comparison between these two levels would be a valuable tool for teachers to identify learner’s deficiencies and, Thus construct a syllabus that would take these ” lacks ” into consideration.

Wants represent the learner’ subjective point of view of their ” necessities ” and ” lacks ”.In other words , wants are the learner’s consciousness of his linguistic proficiency ,current deficiency as well as prospective linguistic skills in order to be an effective user of the target language. Nevertheless, These views may conflict with the perception of other interested parties: course designers, sponsors, teachers (Hutchinson and Waters 1987:56) Hutchinson et al propose an analytical framework for Target Needs .This includes answering the following questions:

• Why is the language needed?
• How will the language be used?
• What will the content areas be?
• Who will the learners use the language with?
• Where will the language be used?
• When will the language be used?

1.7.2 Learning Needs Analysis

Learning needs are ”what the learner needs to do to actually acquire the language.’Robinson (1991: 7) . They are linked with cognitive, sociological and methodological needs of the learners. In addition, this type of needs analysis includes information about aims of the course, the type of learners, the available materials , the time load as well as the strategies that learners employ in order to learn the target language .

1.8. Syllabus Design

1.8.1. Definition of Syllabus

A syllabus is a document, which says what will (or at least what should) be learnt. (Hutchinson and Waters 1987:80).It is roadmap of teachers that include the subjects to be presented and how the language structures and tasks are organized in order to meet the specific set of objectives. In this respect, Corder asserts that a syllabus is

“the overall plan of the learning process. It, too, must specify what components or learning Items must be available or learned by a certain time and what is the most efficient sequence in which they are learned ” (Corder 1973:296)

Furthermore, Yalden posits,’ ‘.. the syllabus is now seen as an instrument by which the teacher, with the help of the syllabus designer, can achieve a degree of ‘fit’ between the needs and aims of the learner (as social being and as individual)and the activities which will take place in the classroom. (Yalden 1984: 14)qtd in David Nunan, Syllabus Design ,p

To put in a nutshell, a syllabus is a plan of work which elucidates the systematic process for the teaching /learning process. It has an important role for any teacher, syllabus designer or materials writer.

1 .8.2. Factors affecting Syllabus Design:

A syllabus is the teacher’s agenda of a course ‘s content and methodology .In other words , it clearly states what is to be taught and how to be taught .Based on this , designing a syllabus cannot happen in isolation . In fact, a number of parameters are involved in the syllabus design process.

In this vein, Dubin and Olshtain (1986) clarify these parameters in the following diagram:

Figure 01.03: Environmental Factors affecting in course design /Dubin and Olshtain (1986, p06)

As it is illustrated above, the answers to a number of questions provide information about the overall Teaching / Learning environment .For instance, determining the target population (learners), the language setting as well as the learners’ attitudes towards the course .These criteria contributes in determining the design policy.

Generally, the design of a syllabus is influenced by a set of environmental constraints:

• The language setting which concerns the role of the language in the community (as a mother tongue, a second language, or a foreign language).
• The areas of language use in society (How and where is it used?)
• The role of the language in political life taking into account the country’s economy and technology (Ashworth, 1985 a).
• The attitudes of groups and individuals towards the language . This is determined by the degree of their awareness of the language (Vanlier , 1995)

(qutd in Benmansour Radia, 1999: 30)

1.9. The ESP syllabus:

As it has been mentioned before, a syllabus is a statement about the content and methodology of the course. It clearly states what should be taught and in what sequence.

Amidst this contextualization, what is self-evident that designing an ESP course is far from being an easy task. In fact, ESP teachers’ syllabi must improve learners’ grammatical proficiency, communicative competence as well as increasing their terminological register in the target language. Based on this , it is the task of the teacher to choose from the plethora of language syllabi , the appropriate syllabus that leads to effective results .It is , thus , an extension to the stage of needs analysis that clarify the needs of the learners.

Whether it is a Content-based, structural, task-based or functional-notional syllabus. The ESP should be adjustable, open-ended and subject to regular revision.

After choosing the adequate syllabus, the teacher or course designer has to select the appropriate teaching materials.

1.9.1 Teaching materials:

It is evident that materials are an indispensable stage in teaching. They have a crucial role in determining the content of the course. Hutchinson and Waters argue that the material development process takes a great amount of time for ESP teachers because of their importance in providing a stimulus to learning. In this respect , Allwright (1990) argues that materials should teach students to learn, they should be resource books for ideas and activities for instruction/learning, and that they should give teachers rationales for what they do (qtd in .

ESP teachers, thus, should to provide materials that are both challenging and interesting for their learners in order to stimulate their thinking capacities to consolidate and enhance their skills.

1.9.2 Teaching:

There is no single or straightforward way of teaching people to learn. In fact, teaching takes places in a variety of styles and settings taking into account a number of educational, psychological and methodological factors for both teachers and learners.

For any teaching situation, the teacher’s role is to ensure the learners’ effective assimilation of the content .Language teachers’ ultimate task, then, is to enable students to use the target language effectively.

In the case of ESP context, the role of the ESP teacher does not differ from the general English teacher .In fact, an ESP teacher is:’ ”.a teacher of General English who has unexpectedly found himself/herself required to teach students with special needs.’ Strevens (1988:41). This means that an ESP teacher is basically a General English teacher who has to deliver his courses in a tailor made way in order to cater the specific needs of his learners. Nevertheless, many teachers found themselves unable to meet their learners’ academic objectives because they lack proper training in ESP teaching. Thus, the ESP teacher’s work involves much more than instructing. An efficient ESP teacher has to perform various duties; he has to be a course designer material provider, a researcher, a collaborator and an evaluator.

1.9.3 Evaluation and Assessment in ESP teaching :

As the final step of any syllabus design, assessment and evaluation are integral components that constitute the critical platform for stakeholders (learners and teachers).

In order to achieve more prominent results, Hutchinson and Waters (1987) propose two levels of evaluation:

Learner’s assessment :

It is axiomatic that a high quality teaching can be achieved through maintenance and ongoing development. Thus, assessment plays an integral role in the ESP course because it is the ‘barometer’ that quantifies teachers’ attainment of the selected goals and objectives set by the process of needs analysis. In this respect, Richards and Renandya (2002) suggest that assessment yields an observed judgement of the effectiveness of teaching .i,e, learner’s assessment helps to check learner’s performance and detect any linguistic problems in order to suggest remedies for the following courses.

Furthermore, Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998: 210) assert that:

Assessment encompasses benefits such as reinforcement, confidence building, involvement and building on strengths ‘

Course evaluation :

From the perspective of Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998), evaluation does not stand alone, but occupies a prominent place in the ESP process, giving an ESP teacher a wealth of information on the effectiveness of learning and teaching.

Course evaluation, thus, enables the teacher to assess whether or not the objectives have been met.

All in all, both levels of evaluation provide the necessary feedback for the teacher and the learner in order to enhance and enrich the overall teaching/learning experience

1.10 Conclusion:

This chapter has tried to give a clear idea about ESP approach, its various definitions, origins and its branches .It has also shed light on Syllabus, its design methodology and its process. In addition, it has shown the different approaches to course design and the importance of needs analysis in ESP syllabus design .The following chapter will constitutes the practical part of the research.

The researcher will conduct a needs analysis at the chosen department and analyze the findings accordingly.

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