example of qualitative research scenario

18 Qualitative Research Examples

Qualitative research is an approach to scientific research that involves using observation to gather and analyze non-numerical, in-depth, and well-contextualized datasets.

It serves as an integral part of academic, professional, and even daily decision-making processes (Baxter & Jack, 2008).

Methods of qualitative research encompass a wide range of techniques, from in-depth personal encounters, like ethnographies (studying cultures in-depth) and autoethnographies (examining one’s own cultural experiences), to collection of diverse perspectives on topics through methods like interviewing focus groups (gatherings of individuals to discuss specific topics).

Qualitative Research Examples

1. ethnography.

Definition: Ethnography is a qualitative research design aimed at exploring cultural phenomena. Rooted in the discipline of anthropology , this research approach investigates the social interactions, behaviors, and perceptions within groups, communities, or organizations.

Ethnographic research is characterized by extended observation of the group, often through direct participation, in the participants’ environment. An ethnographer typically lives with the study group for extended periods, intricately observing their everyday lives (Khan, 2014).

It aims to present a complete, detailed and accurate picture of the observed social life, rituals, symbols, and values from the perspective of the study group.

Example of Ethnographic Research

Title: “ The Everyday Lives of Men: An Ethnographic Investigation of Young Adult Male Identity “

Citation: Evans, J. (2010). The Everyday Lives of Men: An Ethnographic Investigation of Young Adult Male Identity. Peter Lang.

Overview: This study by Evans (2010) provides a rich narrative of young adult male identity as experienced in everyday life. The author immersed himself among a group of young men, participating in their activities and cultivating a deep understanding of their lifestyle, values, and motivations. This research exemplified the ethnographic approach, revealing complexities of the subjects’ identities and societal roles, which could hardly be accessed through other qualitative research designs.

Read my Full Guide on Ethnography Here

2. Autoethnography

Definition: Autoethnography is an approach to qualitative research where the researcher uses their own personal experiences to extend the understanding of a certain group, culture, or setting. Essentially, it allows for the exploration of self within the context of social phenomena.

Unlike traditional ethnography, which focuses on the study of others, autoethnography turns the ethnographic gaze inward, allowing the researcher to use their personal experiences within a culture as rich qualitative data (Durham, 2019).

The objective is to critically appraise one’s personal experiences as they navigate and negotiate cultural, political, and social meanings. The researcher becomes both the observer and the participant, intertwining personal and cultural experiences in the research.

Example of Autoethnographic Research

Title: “ A Day In The Life Of An NHS Nurse “

Citation: Osben, J. (2019). A day in the life of a NHS nurse in 21st Century Britain: An auto-ethnography. The Journal of Autoethnography for Health & Social Care. 1(1).

Overview: This study presents an autoethnography of a day in the life of an NHS nurse (who, of course, is also the researcher). The author uses the research to achieve reflexivity, with the researcher concluding: “Scrutinising my practice and situating it within a wider contextual backdrop has compelled me to significantly increase my level of scrutiny into the driving forces that influence my practice.”

Read my Full Guide on Autoethnography Here

3. Semi-Structured Interviews

Definition: Semi-structured interviews stand as one of the most frequently used methods in qualitative research. These interviews are planned and utilize a set of pre-established questions, but also allow for the interviewer to steer the conversation in other directions based on the responses given by the interviewee.

In semi-structured interviews, the interviewer prepares a guide that outlines the focal points of the discussion. However, the interview is flexible, allowing for more in-depth probing if the interviewer deems it necessary (Qu, & Dumay, 2011). This style of interviewing strikes a balance between structured ones which might limit the discussion, and unstructured ones, which could lack focus.

Example of Semi-Structured Interview Research

Title: “ Factors influencing adherence to cancer treatment in older adults with cancer: a systematic review “

Citation: Puts, M., et al. (2014). Factors influencing adherence to cancer treatment in older adults with cancer: a systematic review. Annals of oncology, 25 (3), 564-577.

Overview: Puts et al. (2014) executed an extensive systematic review in which they conducted semi-structured interviews with older adults suffering from cancer to examine the factors influencing their adherence to cancer treatment. The findings suggested that various factors, including side effects, faith in healthcare professionals, and social support have substantial impacts on treatment adherence. This research demonstrates how semi-structured interviews can provide rich and profound insights into the subjective experiences of patients.

4. Focus Groups

Definition: Focus groups are a qualitative research method that involves organized discussion with a selected group of individuals to gain their perspectives on a specific concept, product, or phenomenon. Typically, these discussions are guided by a moderator.

During a focus group session, the moderator has a list of questions or topics to discuss, and participants are encouraged to interact with each other (Morgan, 2010). This interactivity can stimulate more information and provide a broader understanding of the issue under scrutiny. The open format allows participants to ask questions and respond freely, offering invaluable insights into attitudes, experiences, and group norms.

Example of Focus Group Research

Title: “ Perspectives of Older Adults on Aging Well: A Focus Group Study “

Citation: Halaweh, H., Dahlin-Ivanoff, S., Svantesson, U., & Willén, C. (2018). Perspectives of older adults on aging well: a focus group study. Journal of aging research .

Overview: This study aimed to explore what older adults (aged 60 years and older) perceived to be ‘aging well’. The researchers identified three major themes from their focus group interviews: a sense of well-being, having good physical health, and preserving good mental health. The findings highlight the importance of factors such as positive emotions, social engagement, physical activity, healthy eating habits, and maintaining independence in promoting aging well among older adults.

5. Phenomenology

Definition: Phenomenology, a qualitative research method, involves the examination of lived experiences to gain an in-depth understanding of the essence or underlying meanings of a phenomenon.

The focus of phenomenology lies in meticulously describing participants’ conscious experiences related to the chosen phenomenon (Padilla-Díaz, 2015).

In a phenomenological study, the researcher collects detailed, first-hand perspectives of the participants, typically via in-depth interviews, and then uses various strategies to interpret and structure these experiences, ultimately revealing essential themes (Creswell, 2013). This approach focuses on the perspective of individuals experiencing the phenomenon, seeking to explore, clarify, and understand the meanings they attach to those experiences.

Example of Phenomenology Research

Title: “ A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology: current state, promise, and future directions for research ”

Citation: Cilesiz, S. (2011). A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology: Current state, promise, and future directions for research. Educational Technology Research and Development, 59 , 487-510.

Overview: A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology by Sebnem Cilesiz represents a good starting point for formulating a phenomenological study. With its focus on the ‘essence of experience’, this piece presents methodological, reliability, validity, and data analysis techniques that phenomenologists use to explain how people experience technology in their everyday lives.

6. Grounded Theory

Definition: Grounded theory is a systematic methodology in qualitative research that typically applies inductive reasoning . The primary aim is to develop a theoretical explanation or framework for a process, action, or interaction grounded in, and arising from, empirical data (Birks & Mills, 2015).

In grounded theory, data collection and analysis work together in a recursive process. The researcher collects data, analyses it, and then collects more data based on the evolving understanding of the research context. This ongoing process continues until a comprehensive theory that represents the data and the associated phenomenon emerges – a point known as theoretical saturation (Charmaz, 2014).

Example of Grounded Theory Research

Title: “ Student Engagement in High School Classrooms from the Perspective of Flow Theory “

Citation: Shernoff, D. J., Csikszentmihalyi, M., Shneider, B., & Shernoff, E. S. (2003). Student engagement in high school classrooms from the perspective of flow theory. School Psychology Quarterly, 18 (2), 158–176.

Overview: Shernoff and colleagues (2003) used grounded theory to explore student engagement in high school classrooms. The researchers collected data through student self-reports, interviews, and observations. Key findings revealed that academic challenge, student autonomy, and teacher support emerged as the most significant factors influencing students’ engagement, demonstrating how grounded theory can illuminate complex dynamics within real-world contexts.

7. Narrative Research

Definition: Narrative research is a qualitative research method dedicated to storytelling and understanding how individuals experience the world. It focuses on studying an individual’s life and experiences as narrated by that individual (Polkinghorne, 2013).

In narrative research, the researcher collects data through methods such as interviews, observations , and document analysis. The emphasis is on the stories told by participants – narratives that reflect their experiences, thoughts, and feelings.

These stories are then interpreted by the researcher, who attempts to understand the meaning the participant attributes to these experiences (Josselson, 2011).

Example of Narrative Research

Title: “Narrative Structures and the Language of the Self”

Citation: McAdams, D. P., Josselson, R., & Lieblich, A. (2006). Identity and story: Creating self in narrative . American Psychological Association.

Overview: In this innovative study, McAdams et al. (2006) employed narrative research to explore how individuals construct their identities through the stories they tell about themselves. By examining personal narratives, the researchers discerned patterns associated with characters, motivations, conflicts, and resolutions, contributing valuable insights about the relationship between narrative and individual identity.

8. Case Study Research

Definition: Case study research is a qualitative research method that involves an in-depth investigation of a single instance or event: a case. These ‘cases’ can range from individuals, groups, or entities to specific projects, programs, or strategies (Creswell, 2013).

The case study method typically uses multiple sources of information for comprehensive contextual analysis. It aims to explore and understand the complexity and uniqueness of a particular case in a real-world context (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). This investigation could result in a detailed description of the case, a process for its development, or an exploration of a related issue or problem.

Example of Case Study Research

Title: “ Teacher’s Role in Fostering Preschoolers’ Computational Thinking: An Exploratory Case Study “

Citation: Wang, X. C., Choi, Y., Benson, K., Eggleston, C., & Weber, D. (2021). Teacher’s role in fostering preschoolers’ computational thinking: An exploratory case study. Early Education and Development , 32 (1), 26-48.

Overview: This study investigates the role of teachers in promoting computational thinking skills in preschoolers. The study utilized a qualitative case study methodology to examine the computational thinking scaffolding strategies employed by a teacher interacting with three preschoolers in a small group setting. The findings highlight the importance of teachers’ guidance in fostering computational thinking practices such as problem reformulation/decomposition, systematic testing, and debugging.

Read about some Famous Case Studies in Psychology Here

9. Participant Observation

Definition: Participant observation has the researcher immerse themselves in a group or community setting to observe the behavior of its members. It is similar to ethnography, but generally, the researcher isn’t embedded for a long period of time.

The researcher, being a participant, engages in daily activities, interactions, and events as a way of conducting a detailed study of a particular social phenomenon (Kawulich, 2005).

The method involves long-term engagement in the field, maintaining detailed records of observed events, informal interviews, direct participation, and reflexivity. This approach allows for a holistic view of the participants’ lived experiences, behaviours, and interactions within their everyday environment (Dewalt, 2011).

Example of Participant Observation Research

Title: Conflict in the boardroom: a participant observation study of supervisory board dynamics

Citation: Heemskerk, E. M., Heemskerk, K., & Wats, M. M. (2017). Conflict in the boardroom: a participant observation study of supervisory board dynamics. Journal of Management & Governance , 21 , 233-263.

Overview: This study examined how conflicts within corporate boards affect their performance. The researchers used a participant observation method, where they actively engaged with 11 supervisory boards and observed their dynamics. They found that having a shared understanding of the board’s role called a common framework, improved performance by reducing relationship conflicts, encouraging task conflicts, and minimizing conflicts between the board and CEO.

10. Non-Participant Observation

Definition: Non-participant observation is a qualitative research method in which the researcher observes the phenomena of interest without actively participating in the situation, setting, or community being studied.

This method allows the researcher to maintain a position of distance, as they are solely an observer and not a participant in the activities being observed (Kawulich, 2005).

During non-participant observation, the researcher typically records field notes on the actions, interactions, and behaviors observed , focusing on specific aspects of the situation deemed relevant to the research question.

This could include verbal and nonverbal communication , activities, interactions, and environmental contexts (Angrosino, 2007). They could also use video or audio recordings or other methods to collect data.

Example of Non-Participant Observation Research

Title: Mental Health Nurses’ attitudes towards mental illness and recovery-oriented practice in acute inpatient psychiatric units: A non-participant observation study

Citation: Sreeram, A., Cross, W. M., & Townsin, L. (2023). Mental Health Nurses’ attitudes towards mental illness and recovery‐oriented practice in acute inpatient psychiatric units: A non‐participant observation study. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing .

Overview: This study investigated the attitudes of mental health nurses towards mental illness and recovery-oriented practice in acute inpatient psychiatric units. The researchers used a non-participant observation method, meaning they observed the nurses without directly participating in their activities. The findings shed light on the nurses’ perspectives and behaviors, providing valuable insights into their attitudes toward mental health and recovery-focused care in these settings.

11. Content Analysis

Definition: Content Analysis involves scrutinizing textual, visual, or spoken content to categorize and quantify information. The goal is to identify patterns, themes, biases, or other characteristics (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005).

Content Analysis is widely used in various disciplines for a multitude of purposes. Researchers typically use this method to distill large amounts of unstructured data, like interview transcripts, newspaper articles, or social media posts, into manageable and meaningful chunks.

When wielded appropriately, Content Analysis can illuminate the density and frequency of certain themes within a dataset, provide insights into how specific terms or concepts are applied contextually, and offer inferences about the meanings of their content and use (Duriau, Reger, & Pfarrer, 2007).

Example of Content Analysis

Title: Framing European politics: A content analysis of press and television news .

Citation: Semetko, H. A., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2000). Framing European politics: A content analysis of press and television news. Journal of Communication, 50 (2), 93-109.

Overview: This study analyzed press and television news articles about European politics using a method called content analysis. The researchers examined the prevalence of different “frames” in the news, which are ways of presenting information to shape audience perceptions. They found that the most common frames were attribution of responsibility, conflict, economic consequences, human interest, and morality.

Read my Full Guide on Content Analysis Here

12. Discourse Analysis

Definition: Discourse Analysis, a qualitative research method, interprets the meanings, functions, and coherence of certain languages in context.

Discourse analysis is typically understood through social constructionism, critical theory , and poststructuralism and used for understanding how language constructs social concepts (Cheek, 2004).

Discourse Analysis offers great breadth, providing tools to examine spoken or written language, often beyond the level of the sentence. It enables researchers to scrutinize how text and talk articulate social and political interactions and hierarchies.

Insight can be garnered from different conversations, institutional text, and media coverage to understand how topics are addressed or framed within a specific social context (Jorgensen & Phillips, 2002).

Example of Discourse Analysis

Title: The construction of teacher identities in educational policy documents: A critical discourse analysis

Citation: Thomas, S. (2005). The construction of teacher identities in educational policy documents: A critical discourse analysis. Critical Studies in Education, 46 (2), 25-44.

Overview: The author examines how an education policy in one state of Australia positions teacher professionalism and teacher identities. While there are competing discourses about professional identity, the policy framework privileges a  narrative that frames the ‘good’ teacher as one that accepts ever-tightening control and regulation over their professional practice.

Read my Full Guide on Discourse Analysis Here

13. Action Research

Definition: Action Research is a qualitative research technique that is employed to bring about change while simultaneously studying the process and results of that change.

This method involves a cyclical process of fact-finding, action, evaluation, and reflection (Greenwood & Levin, 2016).

Typically, Action Research is used in the fields of education, social sciences , and community development. The process isn’t just about resolving an issue but also developing knowledge that can be used in the future to address similar or related problems.

The researcher plays an active role in the research process, which is normally broken down into four steps: 

• developing a plan to improve what is currently being done
• implementing the plan
• observing the effects of the plan, and
• reflecting upon these effects (Smith, 2010).

Example of Action Research

Title: Using Digital Sandbox Gaming to Improve Creativity Within Boys’ Writing

Citation: Ellison, M., & Drew, C. (2020). Using digital sandbox gaming to improve creativity within boys’ writing. Journal of Research in Childhood Education , 34 (2), 277-287.

Overview: This was a research study one of my research students completed in his own classroom under my supervision. He implemented a digital game-based approach to literacy teaching with boys and interviewed his students to see if the use of games as stimuli for storytelling helped draw them into the learning experience.

Read my Full Guide on Action Research Here

14. Semiotic Analysis

Definition: Semiotic Analysis is a qualitative method of research that interprets signs and symbols in communication to understand sociocultural phenomena. It stems from semiotics, the study of signs and symbols and their use or interpretation (Chandler, 2017).

In a Semiotic Analysis, signs (anything that represents something else) are interpreted based on their significance and the role they play in representing ideas.

This type of research often involves the examination of images, sounds, and word choice to uncover the embedded sociocultural meanings. For example, an advertisement for a car might be studied to learn more about societal views on masculinity or success (Berger, 2010).

Example of Semiotic Research

Title: Shielding the learned body: a semiotic analysis of school badges in New South Wales, Australia

Citation: Symes, C. (2023). Shielding the learned body: a semiotic analysis of school badges in New South Wales, Australia. Semiotica , 2023 (250), 167-190.

Overview: This study examines school badges in New South Wales, Australia, and explores their significance through a semiotic analysis. The badges, which are part of the school’s visual identity, are seen as symbolic representations that convey meanings. The analysis reveals that these badges often draw on heraldic models, incorporating elements like colors, names, motifs, and mottoes that reflect local culture and history, thus connecting students to their national identity. Additionally, the study highlights how some schools have shifted from traditional badges to modern logos and slogans, reflecting a more business-oriented approach.

15. Qualitative Longitudinal Studies

Definition: Qualitative Longitudinal Studies are a research method that involves repeated observation of the same items over an extended period of time.

Unlike a snapshot perspective, this method aims to piece together individual histories and examine the influences and impacts of change (Neale, 2019).

Qualitative Longitudinal Studies provide an in-depth understanding of change as it happens, including changes in people’s lives, their perceptions, and their behaviors.

For instance, this method could be used to follow a group of students through their schooling years to understand the evolution of their learning behaviors and attitudes towards education (Saldaña, 2003).

Example of Qualitative Longitudinal Research

Title: Patient and caregiver perspectives on managing pain in advanced cancer: a qualitative longitudinal study

Citation: Hackett, J., Godfrey, M., & Bennett, M. I. (2016). Patient and caregiver perspectives on managing pain in advanced cancer: a qualitative longitudinal study.  Palliative medicine ,  30 (8), 711-719.

Overview: This article examines how patients and their caregivers manage pain in advanced cancer through a qualitative longitudinal study. The researchers interviewed patients and caregivers at two different time points and collected audio diaries to gain insights into their experiences, making this study longitudinal.

Read my Full Guide on Longitudinal Research Here

16. Open-Ended Surveys

Definition: Open-Ended Surveys are a type of qualitative research method where respondents provide answers in their own words. Unlike closed-ended surveys, which limit responses to predefined options, open-ended surveys allow for expansive and unsolicited explanations (Fink, 2013).

Open-ended surveys are commonly used in a range of fields, from market research to social studies. As they don’t force respondents into predefined response categories, these surveys help to draw out rich, detailed data that might uncover new variables or ideas.

For example, an open-ended survey might be used to understand customer opinions about a new product or service (Lavrakas, 2008).

Contrast this to a quantitative closed-ended survey, like a Likert scale, which could theoretically help us to come up with generalizable data but is restricted by the questions on the questionnaire, meaning new and surprising data and insights can’t emerge from the survey results in the same way.

Example of Open-Ended Survey Research

Title: Advantages and disadvantages of technology in relationships: Findings from an open-ended survey

Citation: Hertlein, K. M., & Ancheta, K. (2014). Advantages and disadvantages of technology in relationships: Findings from an open-ended survey.  The Qualitative Report ,  19 (11), 1-11.

Overview: This article examines the advantages and disadvantages of technology in couple relationships through an open-ended survey method. Researchers analyzed responses from 410 undergraduate students to understand how technology affects relationships. They found that technology can contribute to relationship development, management, and enhancement, but it can also create challenges such as distancing, lack of clarity, and impaired trust.

17. Naturalistic Observation

Definition: Naturalistic Observation is a type of qualitative research method that involves observing individuals in their natural environments without interference or manipulation by the researcher.

Naturalistic observation is often used when conducting research on behaviors that cannot be controlled or manipulated in a laboratory setting (Kawulich, 2005).

It is frequently used in the fields of psychology, sociology, and anthropology. For instance, to understand the social dynamics in a schoolyard, a researcher could spend time observing the children interact during their recess, noting their behaviors, interactions, and conflicts without imposing their presence on the children’s activities (Forsyth, 2010).

Example of Naturalistic Observation Research

Title: Dispositional mindfulness in daily life: A naturalistic observation study

Citation: Kaplan, D. M., Raison, C. L., Milek, A., Tackman, A. M., Pace, T. W., & Mehl, M. R. (2018). Dispositional mindfulness in daily life: A naturalistic observation study. PloS one , 13 (11), e0206029.

Overview: In this study, researchers conducted two studies: one exploring assumptions about mindfulness and behavior, and the other using naturalistic observation to examine actual behavioral manifestations of mindfulness. They found that trait mindfulness is associated with a heightened perceptual focus in conversations, suggesting that being mindful is expressed primarily through sharpened attention rather than observable behavioral or social differences.

Read my Full Guide on Naturalistic Observation Here

18. Photo-Elicitation

Definition: Photo-elicitation utilizes photographs as a means to trigger discussions and evoke responses during interviews. This strategy aids in bringing out topics of discussion that may not emerge through verbal prompting alone (Harper, 2002).

Traditionally, Photo-Elicitation has been useful in various fields such as education, psychology, and sociology. The method involves the researcher or participants taking photographs, which are then used as prompts for discussion.

For instance, a researcher studying urban environmental issues might invite participants to photograph areas in their neighborhood that they perceive as environmentally detrimental, and then discuss each photo in depth (Clark-Ibáñez, 2004).

Example of Photo-Elicitation Research

Title: Early adolescent food routines: A photo-elicitation study

Citation: Green, E. M., Spivak, C., & Dollahite, J. S. (2021). Early adolescent food routines: A photo-elicitation study. Appetite, 158 .

Overview: This study focused on early adolescents (ages 10-14) and their food routines. Researchers conducted in-depth interviews using a photo-elicitation approach, where participants took photos related to their food choices and experiences. Through analysis, the study identified various routines and three main themes: family, settings, and meals/foods consumed, revealing how early adolescents view and are influenced by their eating routines.

Features of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a research method focused on understanding the meaning individuals or groups attribute to a social or human problem (Creswell, 2013).

Some key features of this method include:

• Naturalistic Inquiry: Qualitative research happens in the natural setting of the phenomena, aiming to understand “real world” situations (Patton, 2015). This immersion in the field or subject allows the researcher to gather a deep understanding of the subject matter.
• Emphasis on Process: It aims to understand how events unfold over time rather than focusing solely on outcomes (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). The process-oriented nature of qualitative research allows researchers to investigate sequences, timing, and changes.
• Interpretive: It involves interpreting and making sense of phenomena in terms of the meanings people assign to them (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). This interpretive element allows for rich, nuanced insights into human behavior and experiences.
• Holistic Perspective: Qualitative research seeks to understand the whole phenomenon rather than focusing on individual components (Creswell, 2013). It emphasizes the complex interplay of factors, providing a richer, more nuanced view of the research subject.
• Prioritizes Depth over Breadth: Qualitative research favors depth of understanding over breadth, typically involving a smaller but more focused sample size (Hennink, Hutter, & Bailey, 2020). This enables detailed exploration of the phenomena of interest, often leading to rich and complex data.

Qualitative vs Quantitative Research

Qualitative research centers on exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups attribute to a social or human problem (Creswell, 2013).

It involves an in-depth approach to the subject matter, aiming to capture the richness and complexity of human experience.

Examples include conducting interviews, observing behaviors, or analyzing text and images.

There are strengths inherent in this approach. In its focus on understanding subjective experiences and interpretations, qualitative research can yield rich and detailed data that quantitative research may overlook (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011).

Additionally, qualitative research is adaptive, allowing the researcher to respond to new directions and insights as they emerge during the research process.

However, there are also limitations. Because of the interpretive nature of this research, findings may not be generalizable to a broader population (Marshall & Rossman, 2014). Well-designed quantitative research, on the other hand, can be generalizable.

Moreover, the reliability and validity of qualitative data can be challenging to establish due to its subjective nature, unlike quantitative research, which is ideally more objective.

Compare Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methodologies in This Guide Here

In conclusion, qualitative research methods provide distinctive ways to explore social phenomena and understand nuances that quantitative approaches might overlook. Each method, from Ethnography to Photo-Elicitation, presents its strengths and weaknesses but they all offer valuable means of investigating complex, real-world situations. The goal for the researcher is not to find a definitive tool, but to employ the method best suited for their research questions and the context at hand (Almalki, 2016). Above all, these methods underscore the richness of human experience and deepen our understanding of the world around us.

Angrosino, M. (2007). Doing ethnographic and observational research. Sage Publications.

Areni, C. S., & Kim, D. (1994). The influence of in-store lighting on consumers’ examination of merchandise in a wine store. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 11 (2), 117-125.

Barker, C., Pistrang, N., & Elliott, R. (2016). Research Methods in Clinical Psychology: An Introduction for Students and Practitioners. John Wiley & Sons.

Baxter, P. & Jack, S. (2008). Qualitative case study methodology: Study design and implementation for novice researchers. The Qualitative Report, 13 (4), 544-559.

Berger, A. A. (2010). The Objects of Affection: Semiotics and Consumer Culture. Palgrave Macmillan.

Bevan, M. T. (2014). A method of phenomenological interviewing. Qualitative health research, 24 (1), 136-144.

Birks, M., & Mills, J. (2015). Grounded theory: A practical guide . Sage Publications.

Bryman, A. (2015) . The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research. Sage Publications.

Chandler, D. (2017). Semiotics: The Basics. Routledge.

Charmaz, K. (2014). Constructing grounded theory. Sage Publications.

Cheek, J. (2004). At the margins? Discourse analysis and qualitative research. Qualitative Health Research, 14(8), 1140-1150.

Clark-Ibáñez, M. (2004). Framing the social world with photo-elicitation interviews. American Behavioral Scientist, 47(12), 1507-1527.

Creswell, J. W. (2013). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches. Sage Publications.

Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage publications.

Crowe, S., Cresswell, K., Robertson, A., Huby, G., Avery, A., & Sheikh, A. (2011). The case study approach. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 11(100), 1-9.

Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2011). The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research. Sage.

Dewalt, K. M., & Dewalt, B. R. (2011). Participant observation: A guide for fieldworkers. Rowman Altamira.

Doody, O., Slevin, E., & Taggart, L. (2013). Focus group interviews in nursing research: part 1. British Journal of Nursing, 22(1), 16-19.

Durham, A. (2019). Autoethnography. In P. Atkinson (Ed.), Qualitative Research Methods. Oxford University Press.

Duriau, V. J., Reger, R. K., & Pfarrer, M. D. (2007). A content analysis of the content analysis literature in organization studies: Research themes, data sources, and methodological refinements. Organizational Research Methods, 10(1), 5-34.

Evans, J. (2010). The Everyday Lives of Men: An Ethnographic Investigation of Young Adult Male Identity. Peter Lang.

Farrall, S. (2006). What is qualitative longitudinal research? Papers in Social Research Methods, Qualitative Series, No.11, London School of Economics, Methodology Institute.

Fielding, J., & Fielding, N. (2008). Synergy and synthesis: integrating qualitative and quantitative data. The SAGE handbook of social research methods, 555-571.

Fink, A. (2013). How to conduct surveys: A step-by-step guide . SAGE.

Forsyth, D. R. (2010). Group Dynamics . Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Fugard, A. J. B., & Potts, H. W. W. (2015). Supporting thinking on sample sizes for thematic analyses: A quantitative tool. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 18 (6), 669–684.

Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Aldine de Gruyter.

Gray, J. R., Grove, S. K., & Sutherland, S. (2017). Burns and Grove’s the Practice of Nursing Research E-Book: Appraisal, Synthesis, and Generation of Evidence. Elsevier Health Sciences.

Greenwood, D. J., & Levin, M. (2016). Introduction to action research: Social research for social change. SAGE.

Harper, D. (2002). Talking about pictures: A case for photo elicitation. Visual Studies, 17 (1), 13-26.

Heinonen, T. (2012). Making Sense of the Social: Human Sciences and the Narrative Turn. Rozenberg Publishers.

Heisley, D. D., & Levy, S. J. (1991). Autodriving: A photoelicitation technique. Journal of Consumer Research, 18 (3), 257-272.

Hennink, M. M., Hutter, I., & Bailey, A. (2020). Qualitative Research Methods . SAGE Publications Ltd.

Hsieh, H. F., & Shannon, S. E. (2005). Three Approaches to Qualitative Content Analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15 (9), 1277–1288.

Jorgensen, D. L. (2015). Participant Observation. In Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences: An Interdisciplinary, Searchable, and Linkable Resource. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Jorgensen, M., & Phillips, L. (2002). Discourse Analysis as Theory and Method . SAGE.

Josselson, R. (2011). Narrative research: Constructing, deconstructing, and reconstructing story. In Five ways of doing qualitative analysis . Guilford Press.

Kawulich, B. B. (2005). Participant observation as a data collection method. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 6 (2).

Khan, S. (2014). Qualitative Research Method: Grounded Theory. Journal of Basic and Clinical Pharmacy, 5 (4), 86-88.

Koshy, E., Koshy, V., & Waterman, H. (2010). Action Research in Healthcare . SAGE.

Krippendorff, K. (2013). Content Analysis: An Introduction to its Methodology. SAGE.

Lannon, J., & Cooper, P. (2012). Humanistic Advertising: A Holistic Cultural Perspective. International Journal of Advertising, 15 (2), 97–111.

Lavrakas, P. J. (2008). Encyclopedia of survey research methods. SAGE Publications.

Lieblich, A., Tuval-Mashiach, R., & Zilber, T. (2008). Narrative research: Reading, analysis and interpretation. Sage Publications.

Mackey, A., & Gass, S. M. (2015). Second language research: Methodology and design. Routledge.

Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (2014). Designing qualitative research. Sage publications.

McAdams, D. P., Josselson, R., & Lieblich, A. (2006). Identity and story: Creating self in narrative. American Psychological Association.

Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2015). Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation. Jossey-Bass.

Mick, D. G. (1986). Consumer Research and Semiotics: Exploring the Morphology of Signs, Symbols, and Significance. Journal of Consumer Research, 13 (2), 196-213.

Morgan, D. L. (2010). Focus groups as qualitative research. Sage Publications.

Mulhall, A. (2003). In the field: notes on observation in qualitative research. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 41 (3), 306-313.

Neale, B. (2019). What is Qualitative Longitudinal Research? Bloomsbury Publishing.

Nolan, L. B., & Renderos, T. B. (2012). A focus group study on the influence of fatalism and religiosity on cancer risk perceptions in rural, eastern North Carolina. Journal of religion and health, 51 (1), 91-104.

Padilla-Díaz, M. (2015). Phenomenology in educational qualitative research: Philosophy as science or philosophical science? International Journal of Educational Excellence, 1 (2), 101-110.

Parker, I. (2014). Discourse dynamics: Critical analysis for social and individual psychology . Routledge.

Patton, M. Q. (2015). Qualitative research & evaluation methods: Integrating theory and practice . Sage Publications.

Polkinghorne, D. E. (2013). Narrative configuration in qualitative analysis. In Life history and narrative. Routledge.

Puts, M. T., Tapscott, B., Fitch, M., Howell, D., Monette, J., Wan-Chow-Wah, D., Krzyzanowska, M., Leighl, N. B., Springall, E., & Alibhai, S. (2014). Factors influencing adherence to cancer treatment in older adults with cancer: a systematic review. Annals of oncology, 25 (3), 564-577.

Qu, S. Q., & Dumay, J. (2011). The qualitative research interview . Qualitative research in accounting & management.

Ali, J., & Bhaskar, S. B. (2016). Basic statistical tools in research and data analysis. Indian Journal of Anaesthesia, 60 (9), 662–669.

Rosenbaum, M. S. (2017). Exploring the social supportive role of third places in consumers’ lives. Journal of Service Research, 20 (1), 26-42.

Saldaña, J. (2003). Longitudinal Qualitative Research: Analyzing Change Through Time . AltaMira Press.

Saldaña, J. (2014). The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers. SAGE.

Shernoff, D. J., Csikszentmihalyi, M., Shneider, B., & Shernoff, E. S. (2003). Student engagement in high school classrooms from the perspective of flow theory. School Psychology Quarterly, 18 (2), 158-176.

Smith, J. A. (2015). Qualitative Psychology: A Practical Guide to Research Methods . Sage Publications.

Smith, M. K. (2010). Action Research. The encyclopedia of informal education.

Sue, V. M., & Ritter, L. A. (2012). Conducting online surveys . SAGE Publications.

Van Auken, P. M., Frisvoll, S. J., & Stewart, S. I. (2010). Visualising community: using participant-driven photo-elicitation for research and application. Local Environment, 15 (4), 373-388.

Van Voorhis, F. L., & Morgan, B. L. (2007). Understanding Power and Rules of Thumb for Determining Sample Sizes. Tutorials in Quantitative Methods for Psychology, 3 (2), 43–50.

Wodak, R., & Meyer, M. (2015). Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis . SAGE.

Zuber-Skerritt, O. (2018). Action research for developing educational theories and practices . Routledge.

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 5 Top Tips for Succeeding at University
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 50 Durable Goods Examples
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 100 Consumer Goods Examples
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 30 Globalization Pros and Cons

Leave a Comment Cancel Reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Qualitative research: methods and examples

Last updated

13 April 2023

Reviewed by

Qualitative research involves gathering and evaluating non-numerical information to comprehend concepts, perspectives, and experiences. It’s also helpful for obtaining in-depth insights into a certain subject or generating new research ideas. 

As a result, qualitative research is practical if you want to try anything new or produce new ideas.

There are various ways you can conduct qualitative research. In this article, you'll learn more about qualitative research methodologies, including when you should use them.

Make research less tedious

Dovetail streamlines research to help you uncover and share actionable insights

• What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is a broad term describing various research types that rely on asking open-ended questions. Qualitative research investigates “how” or “why” certain phenomena occur. It is about discovering the inherent nature of something.

The primary objective of qualitative research is to understand an individual's ideas, points of view, and feelings. In this way, collecting in-depth knowledge of a specific topic is possible. Knowing your audience's feelings about a particular subject is important for making reasonable research conclusions.

Unlike quantitative research , this approach does not involve collecting numerical, objective data for statistical analysis. Qualitative research is used extensively in education, sociology, health science, history, and anthropology.

• Types of qualitative research methodology

Typically, qualitative research aims at uncovering the attitudes and behavior of the target audience concerning a specific topic. For example,  “How would you describe your experience as a new Dovetail user?”

Some of the methods for conducting qualitative analysis include:

Focus groups

Hosting a focus group is a popular qualitative research method. It involves obtaining qualitative data from a limited sample of participants. In a moderated version of a focus group, the moderator asks participants a series of predefined questions. They aim to interact and build a group discussion that reveals their preferences, candid thoughts, and experiences.

Unmoderated, online focus groups are increasingly popular because they eliminate the need to interact with people face to face.

Focus groups can be more cost-effective than 1:1 interviews or studying a group in a natural setting and reporting one’s observations.

Focus groups make it possible to gather multiple points of view quickly and efficiently, making them an excellent choice for testing new concepts or conducting market research on a new product.

However, there are some potential drawbacks to this method. It may be unsuitable for sensitive or controversial topics. Participants might be reluctant to disclose their true feelings or respond falsely to conform to what they believe is the socially acceptable answer (known as response bias).

Case study research

A case study is an in-depth evaluation of a specific person, incident, organization, or society. This type of qualitative research has evolved into a broadly applied research method in education, law, business, and the social sciences.

Even though case study research may appear challenging to implement, it is one of the most direct research methods. It requires detailed analysis, broad-ranging data collection methodologies, and a degree of existing knowledge about the subject area under investigation.

Historical model

The historical approach is a distinct research method that deeply examines previous events to better understand the present and forecast future occurrences of the same phenomena. Its primary goal is to evaluate the impacts of history on the present and hence discover comparable patterns in the present to predict future outcomes.

Oral history

This qualitative data collection method involves gathering verbal testimonials from individuals about their personal experiences. It is widely used in historical disciplines to offer counterpoints to established historical facts and narratives. The most common methods of gathering oral history are audio recordings, analysis of auto-biographical text, videos, and interviews.

Qualitative observation

One of the most fundamental, oldest research methods, qualitative observation , is the process through which a researcher collects data using their senses of sight, smell, hearing, etc. It is used to observe the properties of the subject being studied. For example, “What does it look like?” As research methods go, it is subjective and depends on researchers’ first-hand experiences to obtain information, so it is prone to bias. However, it is an excellent way to start a broad line of inquiry like, “What is going on here?”

Record keeping and review

Record keeping uses existing documents and relevant data sources that can be employed for future studies. It is equivalent to visiting the library and going through publications or any other reference material to gather important facts that will likely be used in the research.

Grounded theory approach

The grounded theory approach is a commonly used research method employed across a variety of different studies. It offers a unique way to gather, interpret, and analyze. With this approach, data is gathered and analyzed simultaneously.  Existing analysis frames and codes are disregarded, and data is analyzed inductively, with new codes and frames generated from the research.

Ethnographic research

Ethnography  is a descriptive form of a qualitative study of people and their cultures. Its primary goal is to study people's behavior in their natural environment. This method necessitates that the researcher adapts to their target audience's setting. 

Thereby, you will be able to understand their motivation, lifestyle, ambitions, traditions, and culture in situ. But, the researcher must be prepared to deal with geographical constraints while collecting data i.e., audiences can’t be studied in a laboratory or research facility.

This study can last from a couple of days to several years. Thus, it is time-consuming and complicated, requiring you to have both the time to gather the relevant data as well as the expertise in analyzing, observing, and interpreting data to draw meaningful conclusions.

Narrative framework

A narrative framework is a qualitative research approach that relies on people's written text or visual images. It entails people analyzing these events or narratives to determine certain topics or issues. With this approach, you can understand how people represent themselves and their experiences to a larger audience.

Phenomenological approach

The phenomenological study seeks to investigate the experiences of a particular phenomenon within a group of individuals or communities. It analyzes a certain event through interviews with persons who have witnessed it to determine the connections between their views. Even though this method relies heavily on interviews, other data sources (recorded notes), and observations could be employed to enhance the findings.

• Qualitative research methods (tools)

Some of the instruments involved in qualitative research include:

Document research: Also known as document analysis because it involves evaluating written documents. These can include personal and non-personal materials like archives, policy publications, yearly reports, diaries, or letters.

Focus groups:  This is where a researcher poses questions and generates conversation among a group of people. The major goal of focus groups is to examine participants' experiences and knowledge, including research into how and why individuals act in various ways.

Secondary study: Involves acquiring existing information from texts, images, audio, or video recordings.

Observations:   This requires thorough field notes on everything you see, hear, or experience. Compared to reported conduct or opinion, this study method can assist you in getting insights into a specific situation and observable behaviors.

Structured interviews :  In this approach, you will directly engage people one-on-one. Interviews are ideal for learning about a person's subjective beliefs, motivations, and encounters.

Surveys:  This is when you distribute questionnaires containing open-ended questions

• What are common examples of qualitative research?

Everyday examples of qualitative research include:

Conducting a demographic analysis of a business

For instance, suppose you own a business such as a grocery store (or any store) and believe it caters to a broad customer base, but after conducting a demographic analysis, you discover that most of your customers are men.

You could do 1:1 interviews with female customers to learn why they don't shop at your store.

In this case, interviewing potential female customers should clarify why they don't find your shop appealing. It could be because of the products you sell or a need for greater brand awareness, among other possible reasons.

Launching or testing a new product

Suppose you are the product manager at a SaaS company looking to introduce a new product. Focus groups can be an excellent way to determine whether your product is marketable.

In this instance, you could hold a focus group with a sample group drawn from your intended audience. The group will explore the product based on its new features while you ensure adequate data on how users react to the new features. The data you collect will be key to making sales and marketing decisions.

Conducting studies to explain buyers' behaviors

You can also use qualitative research to understand existing buyer behavior better. Marketers analyze historical information linked to their businesses and industries to see when purchasers buy more.

Qualitative research can help you determine when to target new clients and peak seasons to boost sales by investigating the reason behind these behaviors.

• Qualitative research: data collection

Data collection is gathering information on predetermined variables to gain appropriate answers, test hypotheses, and analyze results. Researchers will collect non-numerical data for qualitative data collection to obtain detailed explanations and draw conclusions.

To get valid findings and achieve a conclusion in qualitative research, researchers must collect comprehensive and multifaceted data.

Qualitative data is usually gathered through interviews or focus groups with videotapes or handwritten notes. If there are recordings, they are transcribed before the data analysis process. Researchers keep separate folders for the recordings acquired from each focus group when collecting qualitative research data to categorize the data.

• Qualitative research: data analysis

Qualitative data analysis is organizing, examining, and interpreting qualitative data. Its main objective is identifying trends and patterns, responding to research questions, and recommending actions based on the findings. Textual analysis is a popular method for analyzing qualitative data.

Textual analysis differs from other qualitative research approaches in that researchers consider the social circumstances of study participants to decode their words, behaviors, and broader meaning. 

Learn more about qualitative research data analysis software

• When to use qualitative research

Qualitative research is helpful in various situations, particularly when a researcher wants to capture accurate, in-depth insights. 

Here are some instances when qualitative research can be valuable:

Examining your product or service to improve your marketing approach

When researching market segments, demographics, and customer service teams

Identifying client language when you want to design a quantitative survey

When attempting to comprehend your or someone else's strengths and weaknesses

Assessing feelings and beliefs about societal and public policy matters

Collecting information about a business or product's perception

Analyzing your target audience's reactions to marketing efforts

When launching a new product or coming up with a new idea

When seeking to evaluate buyers' purchasing patterns

• Qualitative research methods vs. quantitative research methods

Qualitative research examines people's ideas and what influences their perception, whereas quantitative research draws conclusions based on numbers and measurements.

Qualitative research is descriptive, and its primary goal is to comprehensively understand people's attitudes, behaviors, and ideas.

In contrast, quantitative research is more restrictive because it relies on numerical data and analyzes statistical data to make decisions. This research method assists researchers in gaining an initial grasp of the subject, which deals with numbers. For instance, the number of customers likely to purchase your products or use your services.

What is the most important feature of qualitative research?

A distinguishing feature of qualitative research is that it’s conducted in a real-world setting instead of a simulated environment. The researcher is examining actual phenomena instead of experimenting with different variables to see what outcomes (data) might result.

Can I use qualitative and quantitative approaches together in a study?

Yes, combining qualitative and quantitative research approaches happens all the time and is known as mixed methods research. For example, you could study individuals’ perceived risk in a certain scenario, such as how people rate the safety or riskiness of a given neighborhood. Simultaneously, you could analyze historical data objectively, indicating how safe or dangerous that area has been in the last year. To get the most out of mixed-method research, it’s important to understand the pros and cons of each methodology, so you can create a thoughtfully designed study that will yield compelling results.

Get started today

Go from raw data to valuable insights with a flexible research platform

Editor’s picks

Last updated: 21 December 2023

Last updated: 16 December 2023

Last updated: 6 October 2023

Last updated: 25 November 2023

Last updated: 12 May 2023

Last updated: 15 February 2024

Last updated: 11 March 2024

Last updated: 12 December 2023

Last updated: 18 May 2023

Last updated: 6 March 2024

Last updated: 10 April 2023

Last updated: 20 December 2023

Latest articles

Related topics, log in or sign up.

Get started for free

• Panelist area
• Become a panelist

Qualitative interviews: use of real-life scenarios (or “vignettes”)

Different methods can govern a qualitative interview (one of the leading techniques in qualitative research ). One of them is the scenario method, also called “vignettes”. In this article, we discuss the use of real-life scenarios to simplify the respondents’ speaking process.

What is the scenario or “vignette” method?

The scenario, or vignette, is the description of a situation that is most often hypothetical and into which the social scientist wishes to immerse the respondent before interviewing him, or her. Reduced to its simplest expression, the scenario can consist of a single sentence. However, it is important to include elements that will stimulate the beliefs, perceptions or attitudes that one wishes to study.

Advantages and disadvantages of the scenario method

The advantages of the scenario method in qualitative research are multiple:

• easy to use, they are within everyone’s reach
• they have been in use for several decades, which makes it possible to establish the reliability of the approach
• they can be adapted to multiple situations and allow the projection of a hypothetical situation that would otherwise rarely be observable
• they help to put all respondents on an “equal footing.”

There are also disadvantages associated with the use of vignettes describing fictitious situations:

• Difficulties in analyzing respondents’ discourse when focusing on their ideas instead of taking the fictional characters’ perspective in the vignette.
• Distinguishing between the respondent’s own opinions and the part of the discourse that represents social norms . When the scenario contains hypothetical situations that the respondent has never faced, their responses may not reflect what they would do but rather what is acceptable to say (social norms).

The “vignettes” or scenarios used in qualitative interviews most often relate to fictitious situations. This article presents an approach that uses scenarios from real cases.

The use of real-life scenarios: advantages and disadvantages

In a 2020 article , Sampson and Johannessen introduce the notion of real-life inspired vignettes.

Their research led them to observe real but rare situations in risk management on the high seas. Notes taken on the spot allowed the creation of vignettes describing these situations. These vignettes were presented to respondents for feedback and to explore their daily practices in managing risks at sea.

Risk management at sea is subject to stringent rules that must imperatively follow specific procedures. Practices different from those described in the guidelines are, therefore, theoretically rare. There was a risk that respondents might make a “facade” statement that does not reflect actual practices . Thus, the researchers came up with the idea of using real situations observed in real life as narratives to “put the respondent at ease.” The article contains many verbatim accounts that are as many testimonials that this strategy worked. In particular, we should note that specific reactions seem to be firmly anchored in the respondents’ memory because of the emotional charge with which they are associated. This is reminiscent of the  Critical Incident Technique (CIT) .

In the end, vignettes are described as a “short cut to credibility in a challenging research context.” The authors of the research see this qualitative approach as a way to  avoid the trap of idealized responses in the case of fictitious scenarios. In particular, real-life situations acted as a lever to free speech in seemingly “unacceptable” situations.

In qualitative research, the use of vignettes based on real-life situations has several advantages, particularly concerning exploring situations in which the truth could be hidden behind a facade discourse. However, Sampson and Johannessen caution that more preparatory work is needed to develop these vignettes than is the case with fictitious vignettes.

Sampson, H., & Johannessen, I. A. (2020). Turning on the tap: the benefits of using ‘real-life’vignettes in qualitative research interviews. Qualitative Research, 20(1), 56-72.

• Market research methods
• Qualitative marketing

Post your opinion

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Don't forget to check your spam folder .

You didn't receive the link?

Pour offrir les meilleures expériences, nous utilisons des technologies telles que les cookies pour stocker et/ou accéder aux informations des appareils. Le fait de consentir à ces technologies nous permettra de traiter des données telles que le comportement de navigation ou les ID uniques sur ce site. Le fait de ne pas consentir ou de retirer son consentement peut avoir un effet négatif sur certaines caractéristiques et fonctions.

Chapter 13. Participant Observation

Introduction.

Although there are many possible forms of data collection in the qualitative researcher’s toolkit, the two predominant forms are interviewing and observing. This chapter and the following chapter explore observational data collection. While most observers also include interviewing, many interviewers do not also include observation. It takes some special skills and a certain confidence to be a successful observer. There is also a rich tradition of what I am going to call “deep ethnography” that will be covered in chapter 14. In this chapter, we tackle the basics of observational data collection.

What is Participant Observation?

While interviewing helps us understand how people make sense of their worlds, observing them helps us understand how they act and behave. Sometimes, these actions and behaviors belie what people think or say about their beliefs and values and practices. For example, a person can tell you they would never racially discriminate, but observing how they actually interact with racialized others might undercut those statements. This is not always about dishonesty. Most of us tend to act differently than we think we do or think we should. That is part of being human. If you are interested in what people say and believe , interviewing is a useful technique for data collection. If you are interested in how people act and behave , observing them is essential. And if you want to know both, particularly how thinking/believing and acting/behaving complement or contradict each other, then a combination of interviewing and observing is ideal.

There are a variety of terms we use for observational data collection, from ethnography to fieldwork to participant observation . Many researchers use these terms fairly interchangeably, but here I will separately define them. The subject of this chapter is observation in general, or participant observation, to highlight the fact that observers can also be participants. The subject of chapter 14 will be deep ethnography , a particularly immersive form of study that is attractive for a certain subset of qualitative researchers. Both participant observation and deep ethnography are forms of fieldwork in which the researcher leaves their office and goes into a natural setting to record observations that take place in that setting. [1]

Participant observation (PO) is a field approach to gathering data in which the researcher enters a specific site for purposes of engagement or observation. Participation and observation can be conceptualized as a continuum, and any given study can fall somewhere on that line between full participation (researcher is a member of the community or organization being studied) and observation (researcher pretends to be a fly on the wall surreptitiously but mostly by permission, recording what happens). Participant observation forms the heart of ethnographic research, an approach, if you remember, that seeks to understand and write about a particular culture or subculture. We’ll discuss what I am calling deep ethnography in the next chapter, where researchers often embed themselves for months if not years or even decades with a particular group to be able to fully capture “what it’s like.” But there are lighter versions of PO that can form the basis of a research study or that can supplement or work with other forms of data collection, such as interviews or archival research. This chapter will focus on these lighter versions, although note that much of what is said here can also apply to deep ethnography (chapter 14).

PO methods of gathering data present some special considerations—How involved is the researcher? How close is she to the subjects or site being studied? And how might her own social location—identity, position—affect the study? These are actually great questions for any kind of qualitative data collection but particularly apt when the researcher “enters the field,” so to speak. It is helpful to visualize where one falls on a continuum or series of continua (figure 13.1).

Let’s take a few examples and see how these continua work. Think about each of the following scenarios, and map them onto the possibilities of figure 13.1:

• a nursing student during COVID doing research on patient/doctor interactions in the ICU
• a graduate student accompanying a police officer during her rounds one day in a part of the city the graduate student has never visited
• a professor raised Amish who goes back to her hometown to conduct research on Amish marriage practices for one month
•  (What if the sociologist was also a member of the OCF board and camping crew?)

Depending on how the researcher answers those questions and where they stand on the P.O. continuum, various techniques will be more or less effective. For example, in cases where the researcher is a participant, writing reflective fieldnotes at the end of the day may be the primary form of data collected. After all, if the researcher is fully participating, they probably don’t have the time or ability to pull out a notepad and ask people questions. On the other side, when a researcher is more of an observer, this is exactly what they might do, so long as the people they are interrogating are able to answer while they are going about their business. The more an observer, the more likely the researcher will engage in relatively structured interviews (using techniques discussed in chapters 11 and 12); the more a participant, the more likely casual conversations or “unstructured interviews” will form the core of the data collected. [2]

Observation and Qualitative Traditions

Observational techniques are used whenever the researcher wants to document actual behaviors and practices as they happen (not as they are explained or recorded historically). Many traditions of inquiry employ observational data collection, but not all traditions employ them in the same way. Chapter 14 will cover one very specific tradition: ethnography. Because the word ethnography is sometimes used for all fieldwork, I am calling the subject of chapter 14 deep ethnography, those studies that take as their focus the documentation through the description of a culture or subculture. Deeply immersive, this tradition of ethnography typically entails several months or even years in the field. But there are plenty of other uses of observation that are less burdensome to the researcher.

Grounded Theory, in which theories emerge from a rigorous and systematic process of induction, is amenable to both interviewing and observing forms of data collection, and some of the best Grounded Theory works employ a deft combination of both. Often closely aligned with Grounded Theory in sociology is the tradition of symbolic interactionism (SI). Interviews and observations in combination are necessary to properly address the SI question, What common understandings give meaning to people’s interactions ? Gary Alan Fine’s body of work fruitfully combines interviews and observations to build theory in response to this SI question. His Authors of the Storm: Meteorologists and the Culture of Prediction is based on field observation and interviews at the Storm Prediction Center in Oklahoma; the National Weather Service in Washington, DC; and a few regional weather forecasting outlets in the Midwest. Using what he heard and what he observed, he builds a theory of weather forecasting based on social and cultural factors that take place inside local offices. In Morel Tales: The Culture of Mushrooming , Fine investigates the world of mushroom hunters through participant observation and interviews, eventually building a theory of “naturework” to describe how the meanings people hold about the world are constructed and are socially organized—our understanding of “nature” is based on human nature, if you will.

Phenomenology typically foregrounds interviewing, as the purpose of this tradition is to gather people’s understandings and meanings about a phenomenon. However, it is quite common for phenomenological interviewing to be supplemented with some observational data, especially as a check on the “reality” of the situations being described by those interviewed. In my own work, for example, I supplemented primary interviews with working-class college students with some participant observational work on the campus in which they were studying. This helped me gather information on the general silence about class on campus, which made the salience of class in the interviews even more striking ( Hurst 2010a ).

Critical theories such as standpoint approaches, feminist theory, and Critical Race Theory are often multimethod in design. Interviews, observations (possibly participation), and archival/historical data are all employed to gather an understanding of how a group of persons experiences a particular setting or institution or phenomenon and how things can be made more just . In Making Elite Lawyers , Robert Granfield ( 1992 ) drew on both classroom observations and in-depth interviews with students to document the conservatizing effects of the Harvard legal education on working-class students, female students, and students of color. In this case, stories recounted by students were amplified by searing examples of discrimination and bias observed by Granfield and reported in full detail through his fieldnotes.

Entry Access and Issues

Managing your entry into a field site is one of the most important and nerve-wracking aspects of doing ethnographic research. Unlike interviews, which can be conducted in neutral settings, the field is an actual place with its own rules and customs that you are seeking to explore. How you “gain access” will depend on what kind of field you are entering. If your field site is a physical location with walls and a front desk (such as an office building or an elementary school), you will need permission from someone in the organization to enter and to conduct your study. Negotiating this might take weeks or even months. If your field site is a public site (such as a public dog park or city sidewalks), there is no “official” gatekeeper, but you will still probably need to find a person present at the site who can vouch for you (e.g., other dog owners or people hanging out on their stoops). [3] And if your field site is semipublic, as in a shopping mall, you might have to weigh the pros and cons of gaining “official” permission, as this might impede your progress or be difficult to ascertain whose permission to request. If you recall, many of the ethical dilemmas discussed in chapter 7 were about just such issues.

Even with official (or unofficial) permission to enter the site, however, your quest to gain access is not done. You will still need to gain the trust and permission of the people you encounter at that site. If you are a mere observer in a public setting, you probably do not need each person you observe to sign a consent form, but if you are a participant in an event or enterprise who is also taking notes and asking people questions, you probably do. Each study is unique here, so I recommend talking through the ethics of permission and consent seeking with a faculty mentor.

A separate but related issue from permission is how you will introduce yourself and your presence. How you introduce yourself to people in the field will depend very much on what level of participation you have chosen as well as whether you are an insider or outsider. Sometimes your presence will go unremarked, whereas other times you may stick out like a very sore thumb. Lareau ( 2021 ) advises that you be “vague but accurate” when explaining your presence. You don’t want to use academic jargon (unless your field is the academy!) that would be off-putting to the people you meet. Nor do you want to deceive anyone. “Hi, I’m Allison, and I am here to observe how students use career services” is accurate and simple and more effective than “I am here to study how race, class, and gender affect college students’ interactions with career services personnel.”

Researcher Note

Something that surprised me and that I still think about a lot is how to explain to respondents what I’m doing and why and how to help them feel comfortable with field work. When I was planning fieldwork for my dissertation, I was thinking of it from a researcher’s perspective and not from a respondent’s perspective. It wasn’t until I got into the field that I started to realize what a strange thing I was planning to spend my time on and asking others to allow me to do. Like, can I follow you around and write notes? This varied a bit by site—it was easier to ask to sit in on meetings, for example—but asking people to let me spend a lot of time with them was awkward for me and for them. I ended up asking if I could shadow them, a verb that seemed to make clear what I hoped to be able to do. But even this didn’t get around issues like respondents’ self-consciousness or my own. For example, respondents sometimes told me that their lives were “boring” and that they felt embarrassed to have someone else shadow them when they weren’t “doing anything.” Similarly, I would feel uncomfortable in social settings where I knew only one person. Taking field notes is not something to do at a party, and when introduced as a researcher, people would sometimes ask, “So are you researching me right now?” The answer to that is always yes. I figured out ways of taking notes that worked (I often sent myself text messages with jotted notes) and how to get more comfortable explaining what I wanted to be able to do (wanting to see the campus from the respondent’s perspective, for example), but it is still something I work to improve.

—Elizabeth M. Lee, Associate Professor of Sociology at Saint Joseph’s University, author of Class and Campus Life and coauthor of Geographies of Campus Inequality

Reflexivity in Fieldwork

As always, being aware of who you are, how you are likely to be read by others in the field, and how your own experiences and understandings of the world are likely to affect your reading of others in the field are all very important to conducting successful research. When Annette Lareau ( 2021 ) was managing a team of graduate student researchers in her study of parents and children, she noticed that her middle-class graduate students took in stride the fact that children called adults by their first names, while her working-class-origin graduate students “were shocked by what they considered the rudeness and disrespect middle-class children showed toward their parents and other adults” ( 151 ). This “finding” emerged from particular fieldnotes taken by particular research assistants. Having graduate students with different class backgrounds turned out to be useful. Being reflexive in this case meant interrogating one’s own expectations about how children should act toward adults. Creating thick descriptions in the fieldnotes (e.g., describing how children name adults) is important, but thinking about one’s response to those descriptions is equally so. Without reflection, it is possible that important aspects never even make it into the fieldnotes because they seem “unremarkable.”

The Data of Observational Work: Fieldnotes

In interview data collection, recordings of interviews are transcribed into the data of the study. This is not possible for much PO work because (1) aural recordings of observations aren’t possible and (2) conversations that take place on-site are not easily recorded. Instead, the participant observer takes notes, either during the fieldwork or at the day’s end. These notes, called “fieldnotes,” are then the primary form of data for PO work.

Writing fieldnotes takes a lot of time. Because fieldnotes are your primary form of data, you cannot be stingy with the time it takes. Most practitioners suggest it takes at least the same amount of time to write up notes as it takes to be in the field, and many suggest it takes double the time. If you spend three hours at a meeting of the organization you are observing, it is a good idea to set aside five to six hours to write out your fieldnotes. Different researchers use different strategies about how and when to do this. Somewhat obviously, the earlier you can write down your notes, the more likely they are to be accurate. Writing them down at the end of the day is thus the default practice. However, if you are plainly exhausted, spending several hours trying to recall important details may be counterproductive. Writing fieldnotes the next morning, when you are refreshed and alert, may work better.

Reseaarcher Note

How do you take fieldnotes ? Any advice for those wanting to conduct an ethnographic study?

Fieldnotes are so important, especially for qualitative researchers. A little advice when considering how you approach fieldnotes: Record as much as possible! Sometimes I write down fieldnotes, and I often audio-record them as well to transcribe later. Sometimes the space to speak what I observed is helpful and allows me to be able to go a little more in-depth or to talk out something that I might not quite have the words for just yet. Within my fieldnote, I include feelings and think about the following questions: How do I feel before data collection? How did I feel when I was engaging/watching? How do I feel after data collection? What was going on for me before this particular data collection? What did I notice about how folks were engaging? How were participants feeling, and how do I know this? Is there anything that seems different than other data collections? What might be going on in the world that might be impacting the participants? As a qualitative researcher, it’s also important to remember our own influences on the research—our feelings or current world news may impact how we observe or what we might capture in fieldnotes.

—Kim McAloney, PhD, College Student Services Administration Ecampus coordinator and instructor

What should be included in those fieldnotes? The obvious answer is “everything you observed and heard relevant to your research question.” The difficulty is that you often don’t know what is relevant to your research question when you begin, as your research question itself can develop and transform during the course of your observations. For example, let us say you begin a study of second-grade classrooms with the idea that you will observe gender dynamics between both teacher and students and students and students. But after five weeks of observation, you realize you are taking a lot of notes about how teachers validate certain attention-seeking behaviors among some students while ignoring those of others. For example, when Daisy (White female) interrupts a discussion on frogs to tell everyone she has a frog named Ribbit, the teacher smiles and asks her to tell the students what Ribbit is like. In contrast, when Solomon (Black male) interrupts a discussion on the planets to tell everyone his big brother is called Jupiter by their stepfather, the teacher frowns and shushes him. These notes spark interest in how teachers favor and develop some students over others and the role of gender, race, and class in these teacher practices. You then begin to be much more careful in recording these observations, and you are a little less attentive to the gender dynamics among students. But note that had you not been fairly thorough in the first place, these crucial insights about teacher favoritism might never have been made.

Here are some suggestions for things to include in your fieldnotes as you begin: (1) descriptions of the physical setting; (2) people in the site: who they are and how they interact with one another (what roles they are taking on); and (3) things overheard: conversations, exchanges, questions. While you should develop your own personal system for organizing these fieldnotes (computer vs. printed journal, for example), at a minimum, each set of fieldnotes should include the date, time in the field, persons observed, and location specifics. You might also add keywords to each set so that you can search by names of participants, dates, and locations. Lareau ( 2021:167 ) recommends covering the following key issues, which mnemonically spell out WRITE— W : who, what, when, where, how; R: reaction (responses to the action in question and the response to the response); I: inaction (silence or nonverbal response to an action); T: timing (how slowly or quickly someone is speaking); and E: emotions (nonverbal signs of emotion and/or stoicism).

In addition to the observational fieldnotes, if you have time, it is a good practice to write reflective memos in which you ask yourself what you have learned (either about the study or about your abilities in the field). If you don’t have time to do this for every set of fieldnotes, at least get in the practice of memoing at certain key junctures, perhaps after reading through a certain number of fieldnotes (e.g., every third day of fieldnotes, you set aside two hours to read through the notes and memo). These memos can then be appended to relevant fieldnotes. You will be grateful for them when it comes time to analyze your data, as they are a preliminary by-the-seat-of-your-pants analysis. They also help steer you toward the study you want to pursue rather than allow you to wallow in unfocused data.

Ethics of Fieldwork

Because most fieldwork requires multiple and intense interactions (even if merely observational) with real living people as they go about their business, there are potentially more ethical choices to be made. In addition to the ethics of gaining entry and permission discussed above, there are issues of accurate representation, of respecting privacy, of adequate financial compensation, and sometimes of financial and other forms of assistance (when observing/interacting with low-income persons or other marginalized populations). In other words, the ethical decision of fieldwork is never concluded by obtaining a signature on a consent form. Read this brief selection from Pascale’s ( 2021 ) methods description (observation plus interviews) to see how many ethical decisions she made:

Throughout I kept detailed ethnographic field and interview records, which included written notes, recorded notes, and photographs. I asked everyone who was willing to sit for a formal interview to speak only for themselves and offered each of them a prepaid Visa Card worth $25–40. I also offered everyone the opportunity to keep the card and erase the tape completely at any time they were dissatisfied with the interview in any way. No one asked for the tape to be erased; rather, people remarked on the interview being a really good experience because they felt heard. Each interview was professionally transcribed and for the most part the excerpts in this book are literal transcriptions. In a few places, the excerpta have been edited to reduce colloquial features of speech (e.g., you know, like, um) and some recursive elements common to spoken language. A few excerpts were placed into standard English for clarity. I made this choice for the benefit of readers who might otherwise find the insights and ideas harder to parse in the original. However, I have to acknowledge this as an act of class-based violence. I tried to keep the original phrasing whenever possible. ( 235 )

Summary Checklist for Successful Participant Observation

The following are ten suggestions for being successful in the field, slightly paraphrased from Patton ( 2002:331 ). Here, I take those ten suggestions and turn them into an extended “checklist” to use when designing and conducting fieldwork.

• Consider all possible approaches to your field and your position relative to that field (see figure 13.2). Choose wisely and purposely. If you have access to a particular site or are part of a particular culture, consider the advantages (and disadvantages) of pursuing research in that area. Clarify the amount of disclosure you are willing to share with those you are observing, and justify that decision.
• Take thorough and descriptive field notes. Consider how you will record them. Where your research is located will affect what kinds of field notes you can take and when, but do not fail to write them! Commit to a regular recording time. Your field notes will probably be the primary data source you collect, so your study’s success will depend on thick descriptions and analytical memos you write to yourself about what you are observing.
• Permit yourself to be flexible. Consider alternative lines of inquiry as you proceed. You might enter the field expecting to find something only to have your attention grabbed by something else entirely. This is perfectly fine (and, in some traditions, absolutely crucial for excellent results). When you do see your attention shift to an emerging new focus, take a step back, look at your original research design, and make careful decisions about what might need revising to adapt to these new circumstances.
• Include triangulated data as a means of checking your observations. If you are that ICU nurse watching patient/doctor interactions, you might want to add a few interviews with patients to verify your interpretation of the interaction. Or perhaps pull some public data on the number of arrests for jaywalking if you are the student accompanying police on their rounds to find out if the large number of arrests you witnessed was typical.
• Respect the people you are witnessing and recording, and allow them to speak for themselves whenever possible. Using direct quotes (recorded in your field notes or as supplementary recorded interviews) is another way to check the validity of the analyses of your observations. When designing your research, think about how you can ensure the voices of those you are interested in get included.
•  Choose your informants wisely. Who are they relative to the field you are exploring? What are the limitations (ethical and strategic) in using those particular informants, guides, and gatekeepers? Limit your reliance on them to the extent possible.
• Consider all the stages of fieldwork, and have appropriate plans for each. Recognize that different talents are required at different stages of the data-collection process. In the beginning, you will probably spend a great deal of time building trust and rapport and will have less time to focus on what is actually occurring. That’s normal. Later, however, you will want to be more focused on and disciplined in collecting data while also still attending to maintaining relationships necessary for your study’s success. Sometimes, especially when you have been invited to the site, those granting access to you will ask for feedback. Be strategic about when giving that feedback is appropriate. Consider how to extricate yourself from the site and the participants when your study is coming to an end. Have an ethical exit plan.
• Allow yourself to be immersed in the scene you are observing. This is true even if you are observing a site as an outsider just one time. Make an effort to see things through the eyes of the participants while at the same time maintaining an analytical stance. This is a tricky balance to do, of course, and is more of an art than a science. Practice it. Read about how others have achieved it.
• Create a practice of separating your descriptive notes from your analytical observations. This may be as clear as dividing a sheet of paper into two columns, one for description only and the other for questions or interpretation (as we saw in chapter 11 on interviewing), or it may mean separating out the time you dedicate to descriptions from the time you reread and think deeply about those detailed descriptions. However you decide to do it, recognize that these are two separate activities, both of which are essential to your study’s success.
• As always with qualitative research, be reflective and reflexive. Do not forget how your own experience and social location may affect both your interpretation of what you observe and the very things you observe themselves (e.g., where a patient says more forgiving things about an observably rude doctor because they read you, a nursing student, as likely to report any negative comments back to the doctor). Keep a research journal!

Further Readings

Emerson, Robert M., Rachel I. Fretz, and Linda L. Shaw. 2011. Writing Ethnographic Fieldnotes . 2nd ed. University of Chicago Press. Excellent guide that uses actual unfinished fieldnote to illustrate various options for composing, reviewing, and incorporating fieldnote into publications.

Lareau, Annette. 2021. Listening to People: A Practical Guide to Interviewing, Participant Observation, Data Analysis, and Writing It All Up . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Includes actual fieldnote from various studies with a really helpful accompanying discussion about how to improve them!

Wolfinger, Nicholas H. 2002. “On Writing Fieldnotes: Collection Strategies and Background Expectancies.” Qualitative Research 2(1):85–95. Uses fieldnote from various sources to show how the researcher’s expectations and preexisting knowledge affect what gets written about; offers strategies for taking useful fieldnote.

• Note that leaving one’s office to interview someone in a coffee shop would not be considered fieldwork because the coffee shop is not an element of the study. If one sat down in a coffee shop and recorded observations, then this would be fieldwork. ↵
• This is one reason why I have chosen to discuss deep ethnography in a separate chapter (chapter 14). ↵
• This person is sometimes referred to as the [pb_glossary id="389"]informant [/pb_glossary](and more on these characters in chapter 14). ↵

Methodological tradition of inquiry that holds the view that all social interaction is dependent on shared views of the world and each other, characterized through people’s use of language and non-verbal communication.   Through interactions, society comes to be.  The goal of the researcher in this tradition is to trace that construction, as in the case of documenting how gender is “done” or performed, demonstrating the fluidity of the concept (and how it is constantly being made and remade through daily interactions).

Used primarily in ethnography , as in the goal of fieldnotes is to produce a thick description of what is both observed directly (actions, actors, setting, etc.) and the meanings and interpretations being made by those actors at the time.  In this way, the observed cultural and social relationships are contextualized for future interpretation.  The opposite of a thick description is a thin description, in which observations are recorded without any social context or cues to help explain them.  The term was coined by anthropologist Clifford Geertz (see chapter 14 ).

Reflective summaries of findings that emerge during analysis of qualitative data; they can include reminders to oneself for future analyses or considerations, reinterpretations or generations of codes, or brainstorms and concept mapping.

Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods Copyright © 2023 by Allison Hurst is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Qualitative Research: Methods and Examples

Qualitative research is one of the most common methods of gathering information. Often used by social scientists, it finds application…

Qualitative research is one of the most common methods of gathering information. Often used by social scientists, it finds application in several other fields. It involves studying data collected from individuals’ experiences or observations. It’s an exploratory, open-ended approach to knowledge-building that entails positing a theory, gathering evidence, drawing conclusions and generating meaning.

Qualitative research methods rely on subjective collection of data. This approach requires in-depth research involving groups of people for conversations or observation. The aim is to record their views, feelings and opinions before a researcher decides what conclusions to draw from them.

Definition Of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research methodology, advantages and disadvantages of qualitative research.

Want to know more about what is qualitative research? Let’s dive in.

Qualitative research methods are ideal for understanding phenomena that can’t be standardized or quantified. This is where they differ from methods used in the other dominant research—quantitative research.

When researchers want to study a phenomenon that can be easily translated into numbers, they opt for quantitative research. The meaning of qualitative research is that it can be used to understand the world beyond numbers. Ideas, thoughts, feelings and perceptions can all be tackled through qualitative research methodology.

You can use these two kinds of research separately or together to understand the subject of your study. Qualitative research allows you to draw inferences, form hypotheses and then test them, just like quantitative research. Moreover, you may notice threads in responses that might be overlooked by researchers focused on statistical significance.

The qualitative research methodology is chosen depending upon three factors:

• The purpose of the research
• The characteristics of the person who might be involved in the process (respondent, observer, participant)
• The nature of the unit (an individual or a group)

These scenarios will help you better understand the definition of qualitative research:

• The study of problems in business or public policy by collecting what people say about their experiences.
• Studies on social change and practices.
• Attempts to learn how customers feel about a certain product or service and what they would like to see changed, improved or offered in the future.
• Insights on customer preference before starting the development process for a new product.
• Studies on markets and current trends in an industry.
• Learning what customers think of an organization or brand.
• Finding out how customers act or react to changes in products, services or markets.
• Studying the impact of promotional activities on customers.

Quantitative research can provide a rudimentary understanding in these examples of qualitative research. But, to gather deeper insights and information that gives the complete picture, qualitative research adds another dimension to our knowledge.

Examples of qualitative research are many. It’s easy to demonstrate how useful it can be. ( Clonazepam ) It can capture much richer data and more subtle phenomena than quantitative methods. Doing this thoroughly and fairly can present several challenges. The following are examples of qualitative research methods:

1. Personal Interviews

This technique involves the researcher interacting with primary or secondary source respondents to collect information or data for analysis or interpretation of an issue. The researcher has a preconceived idea about the individuals being interviewed and the type of information they might offer. This technique is often used in surveys to get information or data for analysis. It can be quick or time-consuming, depending on the subject matter.

2. Observation

There are two types of observations: participant observation and independent observation. In participant observation, the researcher gets involved in the daily activities of participants they’re observing. They work with the cohort to gain its trust alongside the study. Independent observers are simply observers who aren’t part of an ongoing relationship with participants being observed. They don’t impact their environment in any way for the duration of the study.

3. Ethnographic Research

This is a more immersive version of observation where researchers are embedded in the society or group they’re studying for an extended period of time. It’s a practice that grew out of sociological research but is now applied elsewhere as well.

4. Focus Group Discussion

A focus group is a set of people brought together to take part in a discussion on a specific topic. Their discussion points, interaction and reactions can all be recorded for study. For example, there could be a focus group of 10 people discussing their views on the rough cut of a film. Often, studios will conduct such discussions and then suggest changes to the director if the audience doesn’t respond to the existing footage in the desired way.

5. Case Study Research

Case studies are descriptive, in-depth analyses of individuals, groups, events and experiences. They’re written by the researcher, but they take the viewpoint of an individual respondent.

6. Study Of Existing Literature

Qualitative research methods are used to study the existing work on a subject, often before a new study is conducted. In some cases, it can form a part of the report. It can also comprise the entire research if the subject calls for it. For instance, a study of the colonial impact on recorded history might only involve examining existing written history books.

While these are the common qualitative research methods , various tools can be used to conduct and record the findings. For instance, interviews can be conducted through a survey and recorded through a questionnaire. Respondents might also be recorded in audio or video formats.

The true meaning of qualitative research is realized when respondents’ voices are heard. This is most powerful when the researcher lets the data speak for itself and doesn’t force it into pre-existing theories. However, as with all research, it’s necessary to verify the assumptions by testing the same hypotheses using other research designs.

There are certain subjects of study that lend themselves well to numbers. For instance, in studying the efficacy of a vaccine in keeping patients out of hospitals with a disease, quantitative data is the need of the hour. However, to study its side-effects, a combination of quantitative data and qualitative data is necessary. Relying too heavily on one method when you need a balanced approach leads to problems. Let’s take a closer look at some pitfalls of qualitative data:

• Qualitative research can be overused. This can lead to data that is so broad that it’s hard to pinpoint what it means. It can also be hard to find facts within the data that has been collected
• Qualitative research can be too subjective. This makes it difficult to reach a consensus as the data will vary from researcher to researcher and reader to reader
• Some have argued that qualitative research is better than quantitative research because it provides a depth of understanding that numbers can’t. This is the result of detailed data analysis, which is a much more insightful and rigorous process than what’s possible with quantitative methods. However, only quantification can render an issue in a logical form that’s comparable with other phenomena to find patterns and structures
• The scientific method requires that the results of studies be replicated. Often, with qualitative research , this just isn’t possible

But the advantages of qualitative research are equally notable. Let’s end by summing up its plus points:

• It provides rich observations that are difficult to obtain with just quantitative data
• It allows for the study of issues that are too complex to break down, such as policy issues, business dynamics and change management
• Data analysis makes it easier for researchers to identify patterns in complex phenomena
• It’s more reflective and provides possibilities for further understanding and exploration
• Data collection is more open. Qualitative data can be gathered from as many subjects as possible
• More time is spent in data analysis within context, which allows the researcher to find patterns and meaning behind the subjects, words and events described. Qualitative research allows the researcher to be more open-minded about the results of the study as it provides them with new insights into what they’re researching
• Qualitative research provides an opportunity to identify problems in a field and recommend solutions
• Qualitative research methods can be more cost-effective than quantitative research

Learning to work with data from research is a skill that will hold every manager in good stead. Understanding what is qualitative research and how it can be used will help you break down complex problems and analyze what’s the best move for the future. It encourages decision-making and leadership with vision and purpose. With Harappa’s Thinking Critically course, learners will master all this and more with our experienced faculty showing the way. Help your teams work smarter today.

Explore Harappa Diaries to learn more about topics such as Objectives Of Research Methodology , Examples Of Experimental Research , Case Study Research Methods and Importance Of Critical Thinking to upgrade your knowledge and skills.

Qualitative Market Research Methods + Examples

Qualitative market research is one of the most effective ways to understand consumer sentiment . If you really want to know how people feel about a product or business; and the ‘why’ behind it, qualitative research will tell you what you need to know.

This guide covers qualitative market research methods, including the different tools and techniques, their benefits, and examples of qualitative research in action.

What is qualitative market research?

Qualitative market research uncovers key insights into how people feel about a product or brand. It’s more of a touchy-feely type of market research than quantitative research , often performed with a small, handpicked group of respondents.

There are many different ways to conduct qualitative research. These include focus groups, interviews, ethnographic, observational research, and even biometrics. Although it takes time to conduct and analyze results, it’s one of the most popular types of market research .

Qualitative market research methods

Market research surveys are the most widely used qualitative market research method. Perhaps that’s down to their ease of use, availability, or the low cost of getting them out, in, and analyzed. But let’s be honest; all types of market research have pros and cons, which is exactly why picking the right technique is key.

Focus groups

What it is: Focus groups can be done in person or online. Participants are selected from within a target market or audience. Typically, people answer questions about the how, what, and why of a specific topic. While focus group formats vary, participant numbers should always be limited to ensure each person has the chance to contribute.

Best for: This type of qualitative market research is beneficial for testing new concepts or products in a market. It’s also good for getting feedback on existing products and things like usability, functionality, and ease of use.

Good to know: Online focus groups are becoming increasingly popular. As no interaction is required between participants, running them online allows responses to be collected in minutes without impacting data quality. It also reduces costs and means more people can attend due to fewer travel or time constraints.

What it is: Interviews are a tried-and-trusted qualitative research method that can be done in person or over the phone. It’s a highly personal approach that takes a conversational format between just two or three people. Researchers ask pre-set questions designed to collect intel and insights for further analysis. Interview formats vary depending on the research questions .

Best for Granular feedback from people within a target market or a target persona. Researchers obtain details about a person’s intentions, beliefs, motivations, and preferences.

Helpful Scroll to the qualitative market research examples section and view a copy of our template for customer interviews at Similarweb.

Read more: 83 Qualitative Research Questions & Examples

What it is: Most people have used or consumed case study content in the past without necessarily realizing it’s a type of qualitative research. It analyzes contextual factors relevant to a specific problem or outcome in detail. Case study research can be carried out by marketing professionals or researchers and typically follows a structured approach, exploring a problem, the solution, and its impact.

Case studies can take anything from one month upwards to a year to develop and often involve using other types of qualitative market research, such as focus groups or interviews, to inform key content.

Best for: They’re more commonly used as a marketing tool to showcase a solution or service’s impact within a target market or use case. But, new product or service developments are two other popular applications.

What it is: One of the lesser-known methods of qualitative market research is biometrics. There’s an article about this on Bloomberg , showcasing how Expedia uses biometrics in its market research stack. The format for their project takes the trusty focus group scenario, adding a modern twist.

In this example, research participants were asked to attach a set of skin response sensors to their hands. But there could also be eye-tracking, emotional analysis, heat mapping, or facial sensors being used to track responses in tandem. Individuals were tasked with surfing the web; a researcher requested they do specific tasks or carry out a search in a self-directing manner. Responses are recorded, analyzed, and translated into meaningful insights.

Depending on the tech being used, the direction, and the goal of the research, this type of qualitative market research can show:

• How people surf the web or use a site
• The way people react in a specific situation
• How they respond to content, CTAs, layouts, promotions, tasks, or experiences
• Insights into what drives people to take action on a site

Best for: Larger digital-first companies with a budget to suit; those who want to perform UX testing to improve the content, customer journey, experience, or layout of a website.

Insightful The adoption of biometric technology in market research was at an all-time high in 2020. With the technology becoming more widely available, the adoption cost will likely fall, making it more accessible to a larger pool of organizations.

Ethnography

What it is: Enthnograprhic market research (EMR) is one of the costliest types of qualitative research. An experienced ethnographic researcher is needed to design and conduct the study. It analyzes people in their own environment, be it at home, an office, or another location of interest.

Research can take place over a few hours, months, or even years. It’s typically used during the early-stage development of a user-centric design project. But it can also be useful in identifying or analyzing issues arising once a product or service has gone to market.

Best for: It’s widely adopted within useability, service design, and user-focused fields. Getting under the skin of a design problem helps develop a deeper understanding of issues a product should solve. Outcomes help to build improvements or new features in products or services.

Grounded theory

What it is: Researchers use various qualitative market research methods, such as surveys or interviews, and combine them with other types of secondary market research to inform outcomes. Typically, participant groups are between 20-60, making it a larger sample size than focus groups. Responses are collated, and a series of specialist coding techniques are used to formulate a theory that explains behavioral patterns.

Best for: Organizations can better understand a target audience by using research to generate a theory. The findings provide explanations that can inform design decisions or spark new innovation through features or improvements to products or services. A typical use case could be when particularly heavy use of a product occurs or frustrations arise with usability – grounded theory is then used to explore the reasoning behind these behaviors.

Observational

What it is: Contrary to belief, this type of qualitative market research can occur remotely or on-site. A researcher will observe people via camera or being physically present in a shopping mall, store, or other location. Systematic data are collated using subjective methods that monitor how people react in a natural setting. Researchers usually remain out of sight to ensure they go undetected by the people they observe.

Best for: Low-budget market research projects. Suited to those with a physical store or who seek to examine consumer behavior in a public setting. Researchers can see how people react to products or how they navigate around a store. It can also provide insights into shopping behavior, and record the purchase experience.

Useful to know: Observational research provides more effective feedback than market research surveys. This is because instinctive reactions are more reflective of real-world behaviors.

Online Forums

What it is: A web message board or online forum is quick and easy to set up. Most people know how they work, and users’ names can be anonymized. This makes it a safe space to conduct group research and gain consensus or garner opinions on things like creative concepts, promotions, new features, or other topics of interest. The researcher moderates it to ensure discussions remain focused and the right questions are asked to thoroughly explore a topic.

Organizations typically invite between 10-30 participants, and forums are open for anything between 1-5 days. The researcher initiates various threads and may later divide people into subgroups once initial responses are given.

Here’s an example.

If a group of male participants indicates they dislike a specific content on the forum. The moderator would create a subgroup on the fly, with the intent of probing into the viewpoints of that group in more detail.

Best for: Discussing sensitive research topics that people may feel uncomfortable sharing in a group or interview. Getting feedback from people from a broad area and diverse backgrounds is easy. And a more cost-effective way to run focus groups with similar aims and outcomes.

What it is: For a survey to be considered a type of qualitative market research, questions should remain open and closed-ended. Surveys are typically sent digitally but can also be done in person or via direct mail. Feedback can be anonymous or with user details exposed. Surveys are a type of primary research and should be tailored to the research goals and the audience. Segmentation is a great way to uncover more about a select group of people that make up a target persona or market.

Best for: A low-cost way to question a large group of people and gain insights into how they feel about a topic or product. It can be used to flesh out usability issues, explore the viability of new features, or better understand a target audience in almost any sector. Surveys can also be used to explore UX or employee experience in greater detail.

Read more: 18 Ways Businesses Can Use Market Research Surveys

Diary or journal logging

What it is: When you think about it, almost all qualitative research methods aim to help you understand the experiences, lives, and motivations of people. What better way is there to connect with how people think and feel than a journal? Yes, it’s pretty much exactly what it claims to be; a simple note-taking exercise that records regular input, insights, feelings, and thoughts over a period of time.

A survey or focus group captures sentiment at a single point in time. Whereas journal logging gives way to more frequent input without any pressures of time to consider. It’s also more reliable data, as there’s no requirement for people to think about and recall data, as input occurs at the moment. Popular formats include digital diaries, paper journals, and voice journals.

Key parameters are set out from the start. And offer prompts so people know what to record, how often they need to make an entry, the time of day (if relevant), how much they should write, and the purpose or goal of the research.

Best for: Measuring change or impact over time. They’re also a great tool to establish things like:

• Usage scenarios
• Motivations
• Changes in perception
• Behavioral shifts
• Customer journeys  

Start building your story with Similarweb today

Benefits of qualitative market research.

• Flexible – It can be adjusted according to the situation. For example, if the questions being asked aren’t yielding useful information, the researcher can change direction with open questions and adapt as needed.
• Clear and open communication –  Forums like these can help a brand and its customers communicate effectively. The voice of the customer is paramount, and participants are encouraged to express their values and needs freely.
• Provides detailed information – One of the biggest draws of qualitative research is the level of detail given by respondents. Data collected can be vital in helping organizations gain an in-depth understanding of consumer pain points and perspectives.
• Improve retention – Qualitative research gets under the hood, helping an organization know how consumers think or feel about a business or its products. The intel can shape future offerings or improve service elements, thus boosting loyalty.

Qualitative market research examples

Whether you’ve carried out qualitative research in the past or not, it’s never a bad idea to look at what others are doing. Who knows, it could inspire your research project or give you an example of qualitative research in action to use as a base.

Here are three qualitative market research examples in action!

Example 1: This Voice of Customer questionnaire is an example of qualitative research we use here at Similarweb. 

Example 2: A market research survey used in retail. It’s sent out with a digital copy of a store receipt and aims to explore how people feel about their in-store experience.

Example 3: A case study report published by Forrester Consulting. It highlights the ROI of Similarweb following a period of use and a forward-looking estimation.

A smarter way to get Similar results in less time

While different in nature, qualitative and quantitative research go hand in hand. In short, qualitative can explain what quantitative research shows. While qualitative research costs vary, it takes time to plan, conduct, and analyze. Not everybody has the luxury of time or the resources to carry out their own qualitative market research. And with how fast markets and consumer behaviors shift, it’s not always the optimal solution.

Feature spotlight: Audience Analysis 

Similarweb’s audience behavior research tool shows you where people in your target market spend their time online. Uncovering critical, unbiased insights at pace.

• Audience metrics show you demographics , geographics , audience loyalty , and interests.
• Competitive insights allow you to see any rivals’ reach and unpack their successes.
• Visualize your target market like never before – layered with insights that show where and how they spend time online.
• Segment your audience to see industry-specific consumer interests.
• Discover untapped audiences to acquire and grow your share of market.

As a single source of truth, Similarweb Research Intelligence lets you get the measure of the digital world that matters to you most. At a glance, you can see what’s happening in any market, and drill down into any rival or audience group to spot trends, analyze changes, and inform key decisions; fast. As far as market research tools go, it’s the only platform that brings together feedback from mobile web, desktop, and mobile apps in a single place. Giving you a complete and comprehensive picture of your digital landscape.

Wrapping Up…

Compared to quantitative research, the qualitative approach can take more time and cost more money. But, there are distinct benefits that make it hard to dismiss. While statistical research can show you the ‘what,’ ‘who,’ and ‘when’, qualitative research complements this and helps uncover the ‘why’ and ‘how’ – giving you the complete picture.

From the high-hitting budget owners to the SMBs who need to research a market or audience, qualitative research is a vital tool that’ll help you uncover insights and focus on growth.

Digital intelligence platforms like Similarweb can give you a framework to outline a story that can be filled in with qualitative research later down the line.

What’s the difference between quantitative and qualitative research methods? Qualitative market research is a type of primary research method that explores how people think and feel about a topic. Quantitative research is statistics-based and analyses numerical data.

What are the different types of qualitative market research? The most popular types of qualitative market research include Focus groups, interviews, ethnography, case studies, grounded theory, observational, online forums, open-ended surveys, biometrics, narrative, thematic analysis, diary or journal logging, thematic analysis, and phenomenological study.

How is qualitative research used in marketing? Qualitative market research serves as a tool that helps marketing teams identify consumer needs, refine product messaging, generate ideas for campaigns, discover new channels, and develop targeted campaigns that resonate with target audiences.

What Types of Questions are Asked in Qualitative Market Research? Qualitative market research often focuses on open-ended questions that allow respondents to provide detailed answers about their attitudes, opinions, and experiences. Examples of questions include: What factors influence your decision to purchase a particular product or service? How do you use a product or service? What do you like or dislike about a product or service?

What are the Limitations of Qualitative Market Research? Qualitative market research can be subjective and may be limited by the number of participants and the amount of time available for research. Additionally, qualitative research does not provide quantitative data, which can be useful for measuring and comparing consumer behavior.

Related Posts

What Is Data Management and Why Is It Important?

What is a Niche Market? And How to Find the Right One

The Future of UK Finance: Top Trends to Watch in 2024

From AI to Buy: The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Retail

How to Conduct a Social Media Competitor Analysis: 5 Quick Steps

Industry Research: The Data-Backed Approach

Wondering what similarweb can do for your business.

Give it a try or talk to our insights team — don’t worry, it’s free!

First Canadian Place 100 King Street West Suite 5600 Toronto, Ontario M5X 1C9 Canada

Qualitative Scenario Analysis: Getting Started

Published on April 20, 2020 - In Insights

Climate-related Financial Disclosures

Climate change has  emerged   as a top ESG factor. Several of the world’s largest institutional investors are committed to integrating climate-related risks and opportunities into investment decision making. Shareholder proposals related to climate change dominated the 2019 proxy season and the same is  expected  for the 2020 proxy season. Many of these ask companies to align to the recommendations of the Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures (TCFD).

The TCFD Recommendations provide a disclosure framework that will aid financial stakeholders in assessing and pricing corporate climate-related risks and opportunities. The 11 TCFD Recommendations are structured around four elements of disclosure: Governance, Strategy, Risk Management, and Metrics and Targets.

Many companies already report on some aspects of climate change and the TCFD Recommendations have provided an opportunity to improve the quality and consistency of reporting in the global capital markets. Climate-related disclosures have steadily increased since the TCFD Recommendations were released, but they still have a long way to go.

Based on the TCFD’s 2019  survey  of over 1,000 large public companies, the overall percentage of disclosure is not greater than 50% for any of the recommendations. Only 7% of survey respondents report having fully completed implementation of the recommendations, with 58% expecting it to take two to three years and 21% expecting over three years. These statistics reflect the understanding that full implementation of the TCFD Recommendations is a journey and align with the TCFD’s recommended five-year implementation timeframe.

In the  survey , the banks, energy and real estate companies demonstrated the strongest overall levels of disclosure. Recommendations relating to the Governance and Metrics and Targets disclosures had the highest levels of disclosure across companies surveyed. The recommendation that universally received the weakest response is the recommendation relating to climate-related scenario analysis.

Strategy c) Describe the resilience of the organization’s strategy, taking into consideration different climate-related scenarios,  including a 2°C or lower scenario.

Scenario Analysis

Scenario analysis has traditionally been used in business forecasting for a variety of purposes. Banks have applied stress testing to test resilience under a range of unfavourable economic scenarios. Energy companies have used scenario analysis to assess energy supply and demand scenarios. However, previously it was not common to apply scenario analysis to climate-related impacts and undertaking this analysis presents several challenges.

Sector-specific initiatives, such as those undertaken through the United Nations Environment Programme Finance Initiative (UNEP FI), and initiatives undertaken by a small number of individual companies (mainly in the oil and gas and financial sectors) have identified challenges related to the complexity of the issues, including the potentially long timeframes, inherent uncertainties, and the availability of adequate data. Safe to say, there is still work to be done in developing methodologies that will provide robust financial valuation of climate risk. In Canada, the Expert Panel on Sustainable Finance has  recommended  that a “made in Canada” climate scenario analysis methodology be developed to ensure quality and consistency.

While quantitative scenario analysis remains beyond the reach of many companies today, the use of qualitative climate scenario analysis is being increasingly used by companies as a starting point for strategic planning and to work toward fully implementing the TCFD Recommendations.

Qualitative climate scenario analysis allows companies to gain a better understanding of potential business impacts and opportunities based on predicted trends in environmental and socio-economic conditions, including for example:

• Predicted GHG emissions
• Changes in global temperatures
• Changes in physical weather and climate conditions (e.g. precipitation patterns, sea level rise)
• Changes in climate change policies and regulations
• Market or technology shifts
• Energy supply and demand
• Changes in population and/or GDP

Companies that are interested in developing a business narrative around qualitative climate scenario should:

• Be clear on their business objectives.
• Determine which reference scenario(s) to apply.
• Understand how interpret and communicate the results.

Business Objectives

Care and attention need to be given to the objectives of the assessment, as this will be critical in the selection of reference scenarios and their underlying assumptions, as well as the interpretation and communication of the results. Companies need to link scenario objectives to their key drivers of business performance. For example, for companies in the upstream oil and gas sector, key business performance drivers typically link to potential future demand, pricing, asset mix, costs, or investment in research and development and technological innovation.

In climate scenario analysis, these key drivers of business performance are then weighed against different scenarios relating to policy changes, market preferences, GHG emissions, physical impacts or climate targets. The key drivers of business performance will differ by sector and geography, and the strategic impacts to each company will differ based on their unique business model and operations.

Selection of Reference Scenarios

Selecting the right scenarios and understanding the key assumptions built into each is a critical step in qualitative climate scenario analysis. Different assumptions can result in major differences in outcomes. Commonly used reference scenarios can be divided into two broad categories: transition scenarios and physical scenarios.

Transition scenarios  model different pathways for achieving a defined outcome, such as the Paris Agreement targets of 2°C (or less) of global temperature warming. Different scenarios examine different combinations of policy, technology, energy mix, GDP and demographics, and other parameters over varying timeframes. The International Energy Agency (IEA) 2019 World Energy Outlook (WEO) scenarios and the 2018 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) scenarios (IPCC 2018, Global Warming of 1.5° C) are examples of transition scenarios.

Physical scenarios  start with a range of GHG concentrations and then predict the resulting changes to the earth’s climate over different time periods, such as increased temperatures, flooding, drought, or rising sea levels. The IPCC scenarios are the most commonly used physical climate models.

It should be noted that there are several scenarios in development that attempt to incorporate both transition and physical climate impacts. Robust climate scenario analysis should consider transition and physical elements, as well as the interconnection between the two.

Interpreting and Communicating Results

The results of qualitative climate scenario analysis need to be translated into decision-useful information. Results can be used for internal and external purposes.

Companies should begin developing a climate narrative based on the results of assessments using the transition and physical climate scenarios that they have selected. A company should look at trends over the short, medium and long term and discuss them in the context of their business strategy.

For example, the trends highlighted by a transition scenario over the medium and long term might validate a company’s business strategy to increase its focus on low carbon products and/or services, or to invest in technology that drives energy efficiency and reductions in carbon intensity. The trends highlighted by physical climate scenarios selected could be used to develop new business approaches, such as a decarbonization strategy or strategies to reduce the physical impacts of climate change, such as infrastructure hardening. Another example of a way to communicate results is by developing a “Climate Roadmap” that lays a path to maintaining market position or business advantage as the transition to a lower carbon economy occurs. Key pillars of the Climate Roadmap can be identified with accompanying qualitative and where possible, quantitative metrics to measure progress over time.

Looking Ahead

Uptake of the TCFD Recommendations appears poised to increase considering recent market developments. During a February 2020 speech, Mark Carney  noted  that work will be undertaken to determine the best approach to making climate disclosure mandatory in consultation with international standard setters (including the Financial Stability Board, the International Financial Reporting Standards and the International Organization of Securities Commissions) and national governments. The U.K. has also indicated a  willingness  to implement mandatory TCFD reporting and the U.K.’s Financial Conduct Authority is currently undertaking a market  consultation  regarding mandated TCFD disclosure on a “comply or explain” basis. While in its early days of development, climate scenario analysis is set to become a key tool in the assessment of climate-related risks and opportunities. It will continue to be applied at different scales, ranging from global, to national, portfolio, company and even asset levels. The quantitative aspects of climate scenario analysis are still in development. More consistent, accurate and accessible data and methodologies are likely to develop in the next few years given increased attention and resources being devoted to this area by the global capital markets.

There is an important place for qualitative scenario analysis today – as a tool to enable the integration of corporate strategy and climate change. Increasingly, investors are asking companies to provide evidence that they have considered the strategic impacts of climate-related risks and opportunities on their business model and long-term value. Given the significant  support  for the TCFD Recommendations from capital markets participants, proactive companies are getting started on the underlying analysis required for scenario analysis – before it is made mandatory in the future.

Download  PDF .

Learn more about  ESG Global Advisors .

This document is for general information purposes only and is not intended to provide legal, accounting, investment, financial or other advice.