hypothesis nature article

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts

The energetics of genome complexity

• William Martin

Evidence for an early prokaryotic endosymbiosis

• James A. Lake

A hierarchical model for evolution of 23S ribosomal RNA

• Konstantin Bokov
• Sergey V. Steinberg

The equilibria that allow bacterial persistence in human hosts

• Martin J. Blaser
• Denise Kirschner

Introns and the origin of nucleus–cytosol compartmentalization

• Eugene V. Koonin

Developmental plasticity and human health

• Patrick Bateson
• David Barker
• Sonia E. Sultan

Binary switches and modification cassettes in histone biology and beyond

• Wolfgang Fischle
• Yanming Wang
• C. David Allis

Whole-mantle convection and the transition-zone water filter

• David Bercovici
• Shun-ichiro Karato

The transorientation hypothesis for codon recognition during protein synthesis

• Anne B. Simonson

Cause of neural death in neurodegenerative diseases attributable to expansion of glutamine repeats

• M. F. Perutz
• A. H. Windle

Inferring the statistical interpretation of quantum mechanics from the classical limit

• Kurt Gottfried

The origins of insect metamorphosis

• James W. Truman
• Lynn M. Riddiford

The hydrogen hypothesis for the first eukaryote

• Miklós Müller

Constraints on cortical and thalamic projections: the no-strong-loops hypothesis

• Francis Crick
• Christof Koch

A tension-based theory of morphogenesis and compact wiring in the central nervous system

Many structural features of the mammalian central nervous system can be explained by a morphogenetic mechanism that involves mechanical tension along axons, dendrites and glial processes. In the cerebral cortex, for example, tension along axons in the white matter can explain how and why the cortex folds in a characteristic species-specific pattern. In the cerebellum, tension along parallel fibres can explain why the cortex is highly elongated but folded like an accordion. By keeping the aggregate length of axonal and dendritic wiring low, tension should contribute to the compactness of neural circuitry throughout the adult brain.

• David C. Van Essen

Implications of the late Palaeozoic oxygen pulse for physiology and evolution

• Jeffrey B. Graham
• Nancy M. Aguilar

Implications of the Copernican principle for our future prospects

Making only the assumption that you are a random intelligent observer, limits for the total longevity of our species of 0.2 million to 8 million years can be derived at the 95% confidence level. Further consideration indicates that we are unlikely to colonize the Galaxy, and that we are likely to have a higher population than the median for intelligent species.

• J. Richard Gott III

Polar path in geomagnetic reversals

• S. K. Runcorn

The extragalactic Universe: an alternative view

We discuss evidence to show that the generally accepted view of the Big Bang model for the origin of the Universe is unsatisfactory. We suggest an alternative model that satisfies the constraints better.

• G. Burbidge
• N. C. Wickramasinghe

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

• Bipolar Disorder
• Therapy Center
• When To See a Therapist
• Types of Therapy
• Best Online Therapy
• Best Couples Therapy
• Best Family Therapy
• Managing Stress
• Sleep and Dreaming
• Understanding Emotions
• Self-Improvement
• Healthy Relationships
• Student Resources
• Personality Types
• Guided Meditations
• Verywell Mind Insights
• 2023 Verywell Mind 25
• Mental Health in the Classroom
• Editorial Process
• Meet Our Review Board
• Crisis Support

How to Write a Great Hypothesis

Hypothesis Format, Examples, and Tips

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk,  "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

Verywell / Alex Dos Diaz

• The Scientific Method

Hypothesis Format

Falsifiability of a hypothesis, operational definitions, types of hypotheses, hypotheses examples.

• Collecting Data

Frequently Asked Questions

A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more  variables. It is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in a study.

One hypothesis example would be a study designed to look at the relationship between sleep deprivation and test performance might have a hypothesis that states: "This study is designed to assess the hypothesis that sleep-deprived people will perform worse on a test than individuals who are not sleep-deprived."

This article explores how a hypothesis is used in psychology research, how to write a good hypothesis, and the different types of hypotheses you might use.

The Hypothesis in the Scientific Method

In the scientific method , whether it involves research in psychology, biology, or some other area, a hypothesis represents what the researchers think will happen in an experiment. The scientific method involves the following steps:

• Forming a question
• Performing background research
• Creating a hypothesis
• Designing an experiment
• Collecting data
• Analyzing the results
• Drawing conclusions
• Communicating the results

The hypothesis is a prediction, but it involves more than a guess. Most of the time, the hypothesis begins with a question which is then explored through background research. It is only at this point that researchers begin to develop a testable hypothesis. Unless you are creating an exploratory study, your hypothesis should always explain what you  expect  to happen.

In a study exploring the effects of a particular drug, the hypothesis might be that researchers expect the drug to have some type of effect on the symptoms of a specific illness. In psychology, the hypothesis might focus on how a certain aspect of the environment might influence a particular behavior.

Remember, a hypothesis does not have to be correct. While the hypothesis predicts what the researchers expect to see, the goal of the research is to determine whether this guess is right or wrong. When conducting an experiment, researchers might explore a number of factors to determine which ones might contribute to the ultimate outcome.

In many cases, researchers may find that the results of an experiment  do not  support the original hypothesis. When writing up these results, the researchers might suggest other options that should be explored in future studies.

In many cases, researchers might draw a hypothesis from a specific theory or build on previous research. For example, prior research has shown that stress can impact the immune system. So a researcher might hypothesize: "People with high-stress levels will be more likely to contract a common cold after being exposed to the virus than people who have low-stress levels."

In other instances, researchers might look at commonly held beliefs or folk wisdom. "Birds of a feather flock together" is one example of folk wisdom that a psychologist might try to investigate. The researcher might pose a specific hypothesis that "People tend to select romantic partners who are similar to them in interests and educational level."

Elements of a Good Hypothesis

So how do you write a good hypothesis? When trying to come up with a hypothesis for your research or experiments, ask yourself the following questions:

• Is your hypothesis based on your research on a topic?
• Can your hypothesis be tested?
• Does your hypothesis include independent and dependent variables?

Before you come up with a specific hypothesis, spend some time doing background research. Once you have completed a literature review, start thinking about potential questions you still have. Pay attention to the discussion section in the  journal articles you read . Many authors will suggest questions that still need to be explored.

To form a hypothesis, you should take these steps:

• Collect as many observations about a topic or problem as you can.
• Evaluate these observations and look for possible causes of the problem.
• Create a list of possible explanations that you might want to explore.
• After you have developed some possible hypotheses, think of ways that you could confirm or disprove each hypothesis through experimentation. This is known as falsifiability.

In the scientific method ,  falsifiability is an important part of any valid hypothesis.   In order to test a claim scientifically, it must be possible that the claim could be proven false.

Students sometimes confuse the idea of falsifiability with the idea that it means that something is false, which is not the case. What falsifiability means is that  if  something was false, then it is possible to demonstrate that it is false.

One of the hallmarks of pseudoscience is that it makes claims that cannot be refuted or proven false.

A variable is a factor or element that can be changed and manipulated in ways that are observable and measurable. However, the researcher must also define how the variable will be manipulated and measured in the study.

For example, a researcher might operationally define the variable " test anxiety " as the results of a self-report measure of anxiety experienced during an exam. A "study habits" variable might be defined by the amount of studying that actually occurs as measured by time.

These precise descriptions are important because many things can be measured in a number of different ways. One of the basic principles of any type of scientific research is that the results must be replicable.   By clearly detailing the specifics of how the variables were measured and manipulated, other researchers can better understand the results and repeat the study if needed.

Some variables are more difficult than others to define. How would you operationally define a variable such as aggression ? For obvious ethical reasons, researchers cannot create a situation in which a person behaves aggressively toward others.

In order to measure this variable, the researcher must devise a measurement that assesses aggressive behavior without harming other people. In this situation, the researcher might utilize a simulated task to measure aggressiveness.

Hypothesis Checklist

• Does your hypothesis focus on something that you can actually test?
• Does your hypothesis include both an independent and dependent variable?
• Can you manipulate the variables?
• Can your hypothesis be tested without violating ethical standards?

The hypothesis you use will depend on what you are investigating and hoping to find. Some of the main types of hypotheses that you might use include:

• Simple hypothesis : This type of hypothesis suggests that there is a relationship between one independent variable and one dependent variable.
• Complex hypothesis : This type of hypothesis suggests a relationship between three or more variables, such as two independent variables and a dependent variable.
• Null hypothesis : This hypothesis suggests no relationship exists between two or more variables.
• Alternative hypothesis : This hypothesis states the opposite of the null hypothesis.
• Statistical hypothesis : This hypothesis uses statistical analysis to evaluate a representative sample of the population and then generalizes the findings to the larger group.
• Logical hypothesis : This hypothesis assumes a relationship between variables without collecting data or evidence.

A hypothesis often follows a basic format of "If {this happens} then {this will happen}." One way to structure your hypothesis is to describe what will happen to the  dependent variable  if you change the  independent variable .

The basic format might be: "If {these changes are made to a certain independent variable}, then we will observe {a change in a specific dependent variable}."

A few examples of simple hypotheses:

• "Students who eat breakfast will perform better on a math exam than students who do not eat breakfast."
• Complex hypothesis: "Students who experience test anxiety before an English exam will get lower scores than students who do not experience test anxiety."​
• "Motorists who talk on the phone while driving will be more likely to make errors on a driving course than those who do not talk on the phone."

Examples of a complex hypothesis include:

• "People with high-sugar diets and sedentary activity levels are more likely to develop depression."
• "Younger people who are regularly exposed to green, outdoor areas have better subjective well-being than older adults who have limited exposure to green spaces."

Examples of a null hypothesis include:

• "Children who receive a new reading intervention will have scores different than students who do not receive the intervention."
• "There will be no difference in scores on a memory recall task between children and adults."

Examples of an alternative hypothesis:

• "Children who receive a new reading intervention will perform better than students who did not receive the intervention."
• "Adults will perform better on a memory task than children." 

Collecting Data on Your Hypothesis

Once a researcher has formed a testable hypothesis, the next step is to select a research design and start collecting data. The research method depends largely on exactly what they are studying. There are two basic types of research methods: descriptive research and experimental research.

Descriptive Research Methods

Descriptive research such as  case studies ,  naturalistic observations , and surveys are often used when it would be impossible or difficult to  conduct an experiment . These methods are best used to describe different aspects of a behavior or psychological phenomenon.

Once a researcher has collected data using descriptive methods, a correlational study can then be used to look at how the variables are related. This type of research method might be used to investigate a hypothesis that is difficult to test experimentally.

Experimental Research Methods

Experimental methods  are used to demonstrate causal relationships between variables. In an experiment, the researcher systematically manipulates a variable of interest (known as the independent variable) and measures the effect on another variable (known as the dependent variable).

Unlike correlational studies, which can only be used to determine if there is a relationship between two variables, experimental methods can be used to determine the actual nature of the relationship—whether changes in one variable actually  cause  another to change.

A Word From Verywell

The hypothesis is a critical part of any scientific exploration. It represents what researchers expect to find in a study or experiment. In situations where the hypothesis is unsupported by the research, the research still has value. Such research helps us better understand how different aspects of the natural world relate to one another. It also helps us develop new hypotheses that can then be tested in the future.

Some examples of how to write a hypothesis include:

• "Staying up late will lead to worse test performance the next day."
• "People who consume one apple each day will visit the doctor fewer times each year."
• "Breaking study sessions up into three 20-minute sessions will lead to better test results than a single 60-minute study session."

The four parts of a hypothesis are:

• The research question
• The independent variable (IV)
• The dependent variable (DV)
• The proposed relationship between the IV and DV

Castillo M. The scientific method: a need for something better? . AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2013;34(9):1669-71. doi:10.3174/ajnr.A3401

Nevid J. Psychology: Concepts and Applications. Wadworth, 2013.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Solar Eclipse Will Pass Over Every US City Named Nineveh on April 8, 2024?

A total solar eclipse is caused by the moon and the sun being in exactly the right place at exactly the right time., published april 6, 2024.

About this rating

For a couple of minutes on April 8, 2024 , in a narrow, curved band across North America, one of the greatest spectacles in nature will occur: a total solar eclipse. Being in that path at exactly the right time is the only way people on the continent will be able to look directly at the sun without damaging their eyeballs until the next North American eclipse in 2044, and so millions of people from around the world will flock to cities in the path of totality, including Dallas and Indianapolis.

Eclipses do not discriminate, so anyone in the path of totality will be able to see the sun fully obstructed by the moon. However, some people  have claimed online that there's one interesting coincidence about the eclipse's path of totality: It will pass through every city in the United States named Nineveh. That name is shared by an ancient city in modern-day Iraq that was described in the bible as "evil." 

Snopes received an email from a reader who requested that we check the claim about cities named Nineveh in the eclipse path. In our research, we discovered that many of the people making the claim were Christians who were interpreting the eclipse as a bad omen . 

Contrary to the claims, Snopes discovered that the path of totality in the eclipse does not pass through seven cities in the United States named Nineveh — it passes through just two. But before counting places named Nineveh, we must first briefly clarify how eclipses work.

How Eclipses Work

A total solar eclipse is caused by the moon and the sun being in exactly the right place at exactly the right time. The moon fully blocks the light from the sun, casting a large shadow on the earth.

Those completely inside the moon's shadow, called the umbra, are the only ones who will be able to look directly at the sun without eye protection. It's the small path of the umbra that people travel to in order to see the total solar eclipse. The website GreatAmericanEclipse.com created a visualization of the shadow's path across North America.

Outside the umbra, in a much larger area where the moon blocks only some of the sun, viewers will experience a partial solar eclipse, where the sun looks like it has a giant bite taken out of it. You cannot view a partial solar eclipse without special eclipse glasses. The entirety of the continental United States will be able to see a partial solar eclipse on April 8, just as the entirety of the United States (even Alaska and Hawaii) was able to see a partial solar eclipse in  2017 . 

The cool part (partial) of an eclipse can be seen from a very large area, as long as you wear eclipse glasses. The really cool part (total) of an eclipse can be seen only in a small area. It is the total eclipse that people have thought held religious significance since practically as long as humans have had eyes to see and religions to follow.

To quote the essayist Annie Dillard :

A partial eclipse is very interesting. It bears almost no relation to a total eclipse. Seeing a partial eclipse bears the same relation to seeing a total eclipse as kissing a man does to marrying him, or as flying in an airplane does to falling out of an airplane. Although the one experience precedes the other, it in no way prepares you for it. 

Places Named Nineveh

We started with Wikipedia's list of places named Nineveh to get a general idea of where to look. Of course, we cross checked those results with more-reliable sources of knowledge, including Google Maps and data from the U.S. Census Bureau.

Wikipedia listed just six places in the U.S. named Nineveh, which made our claim of seven dubious to begin with. Checking the locations of those places on Google Maps, we found that three were actually townships, a term used for county subdivisons in some states. 

The first was the largest, Indiana's Nineveh Township (south of Indianapolis), which contains a small hamlet of the same name. Both the township and the hamlet will indeed fall in the path of the total eclipse.

Next, Wikipedia listed two townships in Missouri — one in Adair County (about halfway between Kansas City and Davenport, Iowa) and one in Lincoln County (about an hour northwest of St. Louis). But neither of the two townships contained a village named Nineveh on any of the maps we looked at. Furthermore, neither of the townships fell in the path of the total eclipse. 

The fourth place on Wikipedia's list, Nineveh, New York, is about 30 minutes east of Binghamton. We found it marked on maps but, again, it did not lie in the path of totality.

Fifth: Nineveh, Pennsylvania, roughly halfway between Pittsburgh and Morgantown, West Virginia. This Nineveh was marked on maps, but it was also outside of the total eclipse. It was also the last Nineveh listed by the U.S. Census Bureau.

Sixth, we found Nineveh, Virginia, an hour and a half west of Washington, D.C. This was the easiest to check: Nobody in the state of Virginia will be able to see full totality during the eclipse. We did not find a label for Nineveh on maps, and buildings located in the area had their postal addresses listed as White Post, Virginia.

That completed the Wikipedia list, but various posts about the supposed line-up listed two more Ninevehs located in the U.S.: one in Texas and one in Ohio.

Nineveh, Texas, was not marked on maps, nor did it have a post office. It was located not far off of Interstate 45 halfway between Houston and Dallas. This one was close, but we eventually confirmed that it would be outside of the zone of totality by referencing nearby cities that also were outside of totality.

Nineveh, Ohio, was a similar story: not found on maps, no post office, no Census data. But this Nineveh, 30 minutes northwest of Dayton, was finally our second hit.

In total, we counted two places named Nineveh in the United States that could be found in the path of totality.

2024 Total Eclipse . https://science.nasa.gov/eclipses/future-eclipses/eclipse-2024/. Accessed 28 Mar. 2024.

"A Total Eclipse Is near. For Some, It's Evidence of Higher Power. For Others It's a Warning." USA TODAY , https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2024/03/23/2024-total-solar-exclipse-religious-implications/72869724007/. Accessed 28 Mar. 2024.

April 8, 2024 Eclipse Will Pass Over 7 United States Cities Named Nineveh . www.youtube.com , https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3n6dp85XynY. Accessed 28 Mar. 2024.

April 8 Eclipse and Third-Day Events in Scripture . https://www.biblejournalclasses.com/blog/april-8-eclipse-and-third-day-events-in-scripture-2. Accessed 28 Mar. 2024.

Dawson, Brandon. "THE JONAH ECLIPSE - 40 DAYS - GODS URGENT WARNING TO AMERICA!" Tribe of Christians , 2 Mar. 2024, https://www.tribeofchristians.com/single-post/the-jonah-eclipse-god-s-great-warning-to-america-april-8th-2024.

Dillard, Annie. "Total Eclipse." The Atlantic , 8 Aug. 2017, https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2017/08/annie-dillards-total-eclipse/536148/.

Eclipse 2017 . https://eclipse2017.nasa.gov/. Accessed 28 Mar. 2024.

Mark, Joshua J. "Nineveh." World History Encyclopedia , https://www.worldhistory.org/nineveh/. Accessed 28 Mar. 2024.

"Nineveh (Disambiguation)." Wikipedia , 29 Oct. 2023. Wikipedia , https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nineveh_(disambiguation)&oldid=1182408744.

Noah. "The Upcoming U.S. Eclipse Just Got Even Stranger!" WLT Report , 4 Mar. 2024, https://wltreport.com/2024/03/04/upcoming-u-s-eclipse-just-got-even-stranger/.

The APRIL 8, 2024 ECLIPSE & The 7 Cities Named Nineveh | The APRIL 8, 2024 ECLIPSE & The 7 Cities Named Nineveh | By Messiah GuguFacebook . www.facebook.com , https://www.facebook.com/100067092253715/videos/the-april-8-2024-eclipse-the-7-cities-named-nineveh/397509926249711/. Accessed 28 Mar. 2024.

The April 8 2024 Eclipse and the 7 Cities Named Nineveh . www.youtube.com , https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eLkxKT65IFc. Accessed 28 Mar. 2024.

"Total Solar Eclipse 2024 US." Great American Eclipse , https://www.greatamericaneclipse.com/april-8-2024. Accessed 28 Mar. 2024.

By Jack Izzo

Jack Izzo is a Chicago-based journalist and two-time "Jeopardy!" alumnus.

Article Tags

Mapping America’s access to nature, neighborhood by neighborhood

A city is a science experiment. What happens when we separate human beings from the environment in which they evolved? Can people be healthy without nature? The results have been bleak. Countless studies have shown that people who spend less time in nature die younger and suffer higher rates of mental and physical ailments.

“There’s a really, really strong case for proximity to nature influencing health in a really big way,” said Jared Hanley, the co-founder and CEO of NatureQuant, an Oregon start-up whose mission is to discover what kind of nature best supports human health, map where it is and persuade people to spend more time in it.

Using satellite imagery and data on dozens of factors — including air and noise pollution, park space, open water and tree canopy — NatureQuant has distilled the elements of health-supporting nature into a single variable called NatureScore. Aggregated to the level of Census tracts — roughly the size of a neighborhood — the data provide a high-resolution image of where nature is abundant and where it is lacking across the United States.

Quantifying nature reveals unsettling truths — about how the densest neighborhoods are often bereft of nature, and about how the poorest city dwellers have the least access to the nature’s health benefits. But it could also help pinpoint which parts of our urban landscapes would benefit most from an infusion of nature.

What’s at stake

The scientific basis for nature’s health benefits is now overwhelming. Study after peer-reviewed study has shown that nature exposure is linked to living longer , sleeping better , displaying improved cognitive function , and enjoying lower rates of heart disease , obesity , depression and stress .

In rural areas, both rich and poor can easily spend time in nature. But in cities, NatureScores are higher where people have more education, are more likely to be White and earn more money.

Why does nature make us healthy? One answer is the “old friends hypothesis” that our immune systems grow stronger when regularly exposed to the natural pathogens with which we evolved. Or maybe it’s that being in nature nudges us to exercise and socialize. A third theory is that cities are just unhealthy, exposing us to lead, asbestos and vehicle exhaust, not to mention the stress of traffic and noisy construction.

Yet like space dust accreting to form planets, humans seem compelled to gather in cities. Two hundred years ago, just 7 percent of people in the United States lived in an urbanized area. By 1970, when Joni Mitchell was lamenting that we’d “paved paradise,” that figure was up to 75 percent. Today, 86 percent of us live in cities, and the share continues to rise.

The denser the city, the less health-supporting nature you are likely to find. Among the 500 most populous cities in the United States, Suffolk, Va., with just 147 people per square mile, has the highest NatureScore. Union City, N.J., is by far the densest — almost 30,000 people per square mile — and has one of the lowest NatureScores.

But density is not destiny. New York, for instance, has a better NatureScore than Los Angeles and Chicago, even though its population density is higher. And the best way to boost a city’s NatureScore is to plant trees.

The Arbor Day Foundation, which directs millions of dollars to tree planting projects around the world, started using NatureQuant’s data in 2021. If a donor comes to the Arbor Day Foundation with a plan to plant trees in a posh part of town, the data can help make the argument that the trees would do more good elsewhere.

“Everybody wants to plant in their neighborhood,” said Jeff Salem, director of communications for the Arbor Day Foundation. “But this helps that conversation of, ‘Hey, you might live in North Chicago in a really great neighborhood, but really, as you can see here, there’s some neighborhoods on the South Side that really could use your support with trees.’”

In rural America, it doesn’t matter if you are rich or poor, Black or White, dropped out of high school or have a PhD: you are still likely to have access to health-supporting nature. But in cities, differences in access to nature are as stark as other forms of inequality.

For example, among the fifth of Census tracts with the lowest levels of education, the average NatureScore is just 37, compared with an average score of 68 in the most educated Census tracts. The Census tracts with the lowest share of White people have an average NatureScore of 45, compared with 73 in the tracts with highest share of Whites.

NatureScores can identify neighborhoods that need trees. Planting them is another matter. “We use [the data] as a starting point. But, you know, the devil is in the details,” said Christina Smith, the executive director of Groundwork Bridgeport, an environmental nonprofit in Bridgeport, Conn., where she grew up.

Suppose you want to boost a neighborhood’s NatureScore by lining the sidewalk with trees. Before you buy the first sapling, you need to make sure the sidewalk is wide enough to fit a tree and still comply with the Americans With Disabilities Act. And you’ll need money to hire workers or face the dangerous prospect of twenty high school volunteers packed into a narrow sidewalk with cars whizzing by.

What about just giving free trees to neighborhood residents? If most people rent, they won’t have the authority to plant on their property. If you manage to track down property owners, they might not want the burden of planting and caring for trees.

Yet Groundwork Bridgeport has figured out how to host successful tree giveaways (door knocking works better than direct mail, and it helps to have friends at community gardens). Last year, they distributed 100 trees to residents on the east side of the city. If all those trees are still around in 30 years, it will boost the area’s NatureScore by 15 points, amounting to an increase of a year of life expectancy for people in the neighborhood, NatureQuant told me.

Thirty years is a long time to wait, which is one of the reasons cash-strapped city governments often view tree planting as a frivolous expense compared to more pressing matters like crime and homelessness. “Trees are not a silver bullet. Trees are not going to solve poverty,” said Dan Lambe, the Arbor Day Foundation’s CEO.

But quantifying nature can make sure trees are going where they’re needed most, Lambe said: “We know we can make a difference in people’s lives by emphasizing neighborhoods that have been disadvantaged, who have been ignored, that just simply don’t have the tree benefits.”

Check my work

The NatureScores by Census tract were provided by NatureQuant, Inc., which described its methodology in this paper . Those data are as of July 31, 2023. You can find my analysis of those data along with 2020 socioeconomic data from the U.S. Census Bureau in this computational notebook . The top 500 U.S. cities were also provided by NatureQuant and are based on 2020 NatureScore data. You can find my analysis of the city data in this notebook .

You can use the code and data to produce your own analyses and charts — and to make sure mine are accurate. If you do, email me at [email protected] .

• Share full article

Advertisement

Supported by

Four Takeaways From the Vatican’s Document on Human Dignity

The document restated the Roman Catholic Church’s rejection of abortion, gender fluidity and transition surgery.

By Jason Horowitz and Elisabetta Povoledo

Jason Horowitz reported from Rome, and Elisabetta Povoledo from Verbania, Italy.

The document issued on Monday by the Vatican puts human dignity at the center of Catholic life , but in doing so, it broaches some of the most difficult and sensitive social issues, those that Pope Francis has spent his papacy avoiding.

On Monday, though, his church leaned hard into them in the document, called “Infinite Dignity.” It argued that the exploitation of the poor, the outcast and the vulnerable amounted to an erosion of human dignity. But it was the restating of the church’s rejection of abortion, the death penalty and euthanasia, and especially gender fluidity, transition surgery and surrogacy, that church liberals worried would be used as ammunition by the right.

Here are four takeaways.

The pope’s inclusivity has limits.

Pope Francis’ inclusive message, which has included allowing L.G.B.T.Q. Catholics to receive blessings from priests and transgender people to be baptized and act as godparents , has a limit: Catholic doctrine.

The pope’s conservative critics have for a decade argued that his tendency to speak off the cuff and in overly welcoming ways toward L.G.B.T.Q. people, the divorced and remarried, along with others who sin in the church’s eyes, had sent the wrong signal.

But the document released on Monday, and remarks by Cardinal Víctor Manuel Fernández, the prefect of the Vatican department with oversight over doctrine, underlined that the pope’s message was just that — a signal that the church was more open to the world, but that the substance, what it considers immutable “truth,” remained the same.

That dissonance, though, between Francis’ style and his defense of Catholic doctrine was highlighted by the document, and for many supporters of great change within the church, it amounted to a declaration that they would not get what they want.

As if to highlight that tension, Cardinal Fernández responded to a question on Monday about the church’s teaching that homosexual acts are “intrinsically disordered” — what many supporters of L.G.B.T.Q. faithful consider the insurmountable obstacle to true acceptance — by saying that the problem may be the terminology, not the meaning.

It was, he said, a “very strong expression” and that perhaps “more suitable words” could be found to express the thought that homosexual sex could not produce the “mystery” of childbirth.

Gender fluidity erodes human dignity, the document says.

The Vatican argues that gender fluidity, or the idea that people can decide their own sex, erodes human dignity because it blurs the difference between men and women, which it considers a gift from God.

Francis, while personally welcoming to transgender people — he has met many throughout his papacy — is convinced that powerful lobbies are pushing what the Vatican calls “gender theory” as a form of “cultural colonization” on more traditionalist societies.

This ideology, the Vatican said in the document issued on Monday, “envisages a society without sexual differences, thereby eliminating the anthropological basis of the family.” It was unacceptable, the Vatican said, that such ideologies managed to “assert themselves as absolute and unquestionable, even dictating how children should be raised.”

The Vatican ties surrogacy to commercialization.

The Vatican document reiterates its opposition to surrogacy, arguing that even though the process may fulfill the wishes of couples longing to have children, it does so at the cost of a wider human dignity because it reduces women, in the Vatican’s view, to simply carriers and children to what Francis has called products of “commercialization.”

The church’s opposition to surrogacy and in vitro fertilization stems from its ethical and theological teachings on the issue of life. Though Francis has made it clear that while the church opposes surrogacy, children born from surrogacy can be baptized.

“First and foremost, the practice of surrogacy violates the dignity of the child,” who “has the right to have a fully human (and not artificially induced) origin and to receive the gift of a life that manifests both the dignity of the giver and that of the receiver,” the document states.

“Surrogacy also violates the dignity of the woman, whether she is coerced into it or chooses to subject herself to it freely,” as it detaches the women “from the child growing in her and becomes a mere means subservient to the arbitrary gain or desire of others.”

The sex a person is born with is seen as a gift from God.

The Vatican document is adamant in its rejection of transition surgeries, what it calls “Sex Change.” It argues that the physical sex a person is born with — male or female — is an equal gift from God, who has made the human in his image. It is not a gift you can give back, the Vatican says.

Changing sex, the church argues, is to put individualism before “the need to respect the natural order of the human person,” and “any sex-change intervention, as a rule, risks threatening the unique dignity the person has received from the moment of conception.”

The church, however, made an exception for people with “genital abnormalities that are already evident at birth or that develop later,” which could be resolved through “health care professionals” because it would “not constitute a sex change in the sense intended here.”

Jason Horowitz is the Rome bureau chief for The Times, covering Italy, the Vatican, Greece and other parts of Southern Europe. More about Jason Horowitz

Elisabetta Povoledo is a reporter based in Rome, covering Italy, the Vatican and the culture of the region. She has been a journalist for 35 years. More about Elisabetta Povoledo

• Skip to main content
• Keyboard shortcuts for audio player

The Vatican says surrogacy and gender theory are 'grave threats' to human dignity

Jason DeRose

The crowd looks in direction of the window of the apostolic palace overlooking St. Peter's square during Pope Francis' prayer on April 1 in The Vatican. TizianaI Fabi/AFP via Getty Images hide caption

The crowd looks in direction of the window of the apostolic palace overlooking St. Peter's square during Pope Francis' prayer on April 1 in The Vatican.

The Vatican has released a new document calling poverty, war and the plight of migrants "threats to human dignity." But it also calls abortion, surrogacy and gender theory "grave threats" facing humanity today.

The document, titled " Infinite Dignity " says that each person's dignity comes from the love of the creator "who has imprinted the indelible features of his image on every person." This language is familiar to Christians accustomed to hearing that humans are all made in God's image.

The document goes on to say that this dignity is inalienable, beyond any circumstance or situation the person might encounter. Simply put, because a person exists, a human has intrinsic dignity.

"Infinite Dignity" details a long list of what it calls grave threats to that dignity, some of which might be expected given other Catholic teachings. It talks about the drama of poverty and how the unequal distribution of wealth denies humans their God-given dignity. It also describes war, the abuse of migrants, sexual abuse, violence against women, the marginalizing of people with disabilities, assisted suicide and abortion all as affronts to human dignity.

But then the document turns to other issues that have become more highly politicized in recent years: surrogacy, gender theory, and what it calls "sex change."

The pope wants surrogacy banned. Here's why one advocate says that's misguided

The document's framework holds that if a person is made in God's image, gender theory and gender reassignment surgery call into question why God would create a person with the wrong gender.

It says that the understanding of humanity as divided into two sexes — male and female — is biblical and deeply meaningful, especially in terms of procreation. Gender theory argues that a person's gender can be different from the sex that person was assigned at birth.

"Infinite Dignity" says the concept of human dignity can be misused to justify what it calls an "arbitrary proliferation of new rights," describing those, rather, as "individual preference" or "desire." That language is very similar to how conservatives often talk about being transgender as a choice, which is something major medical and psychological groups dispute.

The document makes a clear distinction between the issue of sexual orientation (whether a person is gay, lesbian or bisexual) and the issue of gender identity (whether a person's sex assigned at birth matches what that person understands his or her gender to be).

The document will be seen by some more conservative Catholic as a win after years of feeling embattled during Pope Francis's leadership. Just last year, the Vatican said priests could baptize transgender Catholics and allowed for priests to bless people in same-sex relationships .

Catholic Church works to explain what same-sex blessings are and are not

But many transgender Catholics and their families as well as more progressive Catholics are displeased with "Infinite Dignity."

Executive director of the LGBTQ Catholic group New Ways Ministry, Francis DeBernardo says of the document, "When it gets to the section on people who are transgender or non-binary, it doesn't apply the principles of human dignity to them."

New Ways Ministry's mission is, in part, to help pastors and religious teachers better understand gender identity and sexuality. It also fosters, "holiness and wholeness within the Catholic LGBTQ+ community."

DeBernardo argues "Infinite Dignity" does not live up to its own name. "In a sense, it's not infinite dignity," he says. "It's a very limited dignity that the church is offering."

He fears this document will be used to further persecute transgender people, and he thinks it will cause transgender Catholics and their families to leave the church.

The Vatican says priests can baptize transgender people

DeBernardo also worries the sections on gender theory and what it calls "sex change" will eclipse what he describes as the very good parts of the document on war, poverty and migrants.

The group Catholics for Choice, is also disappointed and calls into question how the document was created. "Yet again," said the group's president Jamie Manson in a written statement, "a group of all-male, celibate clergymen are telling women and gender-expansive people that their lived experiences are not real or valid."

Catholics for Choice advocates within the church on a variety of issues regarding sexual and reproductive health, including abortion rights. The group holds – and argues that Catholic teaching supports – people's individual consciences should be their guide in such decisions.

"It is clear to me that the women and trans people who continue to identify as Catholic — despite documents like this completely disregarding our experiences — only do so because of a deep love for our faith and its traditions," continues Manson in her statement. "It is devastating that our leaders do not offer the same respect and love in return."

• gender confirmation surgery

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• v.53(4); 2010 Aug

Research questions, hypotheses and objectives

Patricia farrugia.

* Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine, the

Bradley A. Petrisor

† Division of Orthopaedic Surgery and the

Forough Farrokhyar

‡ Departments of Surgery and

§ Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ont

Mohit Bhandari

There is an increasing familiarity with the principles of evidence-based medicine in the surgical community. As surgeons become more aware of the hierarchy of evidence, grades of recommendations and the principles of critical appraisal, they develop an increasing familiarity with research design. Surgeons and clinicians are looking more and more to the literature and clinical trials to guide their practice; as such, it is becoming a responsibility of the clinical research community to attempt to answer questions that are not only well thought out but also clinically relevant. The development of the research question, including a supportive hypothesis and objectives, is a necessary key step in producing clinically relevant results to be used in evidence-based practice. A well-defined and specific research question is more likely to help guide us in making decisions about study design and population and subsequently what data will be collected and analyzed. 1

Objectives of this article

In this article, we discuss important considerations in the development of a research question and hypothesis and in defining objectives for research. By the end of this article, the reader will be able to appreciate the significance of constructing a good research question and developing hypotheses and research objectives for the successful design of a research study. The following article is divided into 3 sections: research question, research hypothesis and research objectives.

Research question

Interest in a particular topic usually begins the research process, but it is the familiarity with the subject that helps define an appropriate research question for a study. 1 Questions then arise out of a perceived knowledge deficit within a subject area or field of study. 2 Indeed, Haynes suggests that it is important to know “where the boundary between current knowledge and ignorance lies.” 1 The challenge in developing an appropriate research question is in determining which clinical uncertainties could or should be studied and also rationalizing the need for their investigation.

Increasing one’s knowledge about the subject of interest can be accomplished in many ways. Appropriate methods include systematically searching the literature, in-depth interviews and focus groups with patients (and proxies) and interviews with experts in the field. In addition, awareness of current trends and technological advances can assist with the development of research questions. 2 It is imperative to understand what has been studied about a topic to date in order to further the knowledge that has been previously gathered on a topic. Indeed, some granting institutions (e.g., Canadian Institute for Health Research) encourage applicants to conduct a systematic review of the available evidence if a recent review does not already exist and preferably a pilot or feasibility study before applying for a grant for a full trial.

In-depth knowledge about a subject may generate a number of questions. It then becomes necessary to ask whether these questions can be answered through one study or if more than one study needed. 1 Additional research questions can be developed, but several basic principles should be taken into consideration. 1 All questions, primary and secondary, should be developed at the beginning and planning stages of a study. Any additional questions should never compromise the primary question because it is the primary research question that forms the basis of the hypothesis and study objectives. It must be kept in mind that within the scope of one study, the presence of a number of research questions will affect and potentially increase the complexity of both the study design and subsequent statistical analyses, not to mention the actual feasibility of answering every question. 1 A sensible strategy is to establish a single primary research question around which to focus the study plan. 3 In a study, the primary research question should be clearly stated at the end of the introduction of the grant proposal, and it usually specifies the population to be studied, the intervention to be implemented and other circumstantial factors. 4

Hulley and colleagues 2 have suggested the use of the FINER criteria in the development of a good research question ( Box 1 ). The FINER criteria highlight useful points that may increase the chances of developing a successful research project. A good research question should specify the population of interest, be of interest to the scientific community and potentially to the public, have clinical relevance and further current knowledge in the field (and of course be compliant with the standards of ethical boards and national research standards).

FINER criteria for a good research question

Adapted with permission from Wolters Kluwer Health. 2

Whereas the FINER criteria outline the important aspects of the question in general, a useful format to use in the development of a specific research question is the PICO format — consider the population (P) of interest, the intervention (I) being studied, the comparison (C) group (or to what is the intervention being compared) and the outcome of interest (O). 3 , 5 , 6 Often timing (T) is added to PICO ( Box 2 ) — that is, “Over what time frame will the study take place?” 1 The PICOT approach helps generate a question that aids in constructing the framework of the study and subsequently in protocol development by alluding to the inclusion and exclusion criteria and identifying the groups of patients to be included. Knowing the specific population of interest, intervention (and comparator) and outcome of interest may also help the researcher identify an appropriate outcome measurement tool. 7 The more defined the population of interest, and thus the more stringent the inclusion and exclusion criteria, the greater the effect on the interpretation and subsequent applicability and generalizability of the research findings. 1 , 2 A restricted study population (and exclusion criteria) may limit bias and increase the internal validity of the study; however, this approach will limit external validity of the study and, thus, the generalizability of the findings to the practical clinical setting. Conversely, a broadly defined study population and inclusion criteria may be representative of practical clinical practice but may increase bias and reduce the internal validity of the study.

PICOT criteria 1

A poorly devised research question may affect the choice of study design, potentially lead to futile situations and, thus, hamper the chance of determining anything of clinical significance, which will then affect the potential for publication. Without devoting appropriate resources to developing the research question, the quality of the study and subsequent results may be compromised. During the initial stages of any research study, it is therefore imperative to formulate a research question that is both clinically relevant and answerable.

Research hypothesis

The primary research question should be driven by the hypothesis rather than the data. 1 , 2 That is, the research question and hypothesis should be developed before the start of the study. This sounds intuitive; however, if we take, for example, a database of information, it is potentially possible to perform multiple statistical comparisons of groups within the database to find a statistically significant association. This could then lead one to work backward from the data and develop the “question.” This is counterintuitive to the process because the question is asked specifically to then find the answer, thus collecting data along the way (i.e., in a prospective manner). Multiple statistical testing of associations from data previously collected could potentially lead to spuriously positive findings of association through chance alone. 2 Therefore, a good hypothesis must be based on a good research question at the start of a trial and, indeed, drive data collection for the study.

The research or clinical hypothesis is developed from the research question and then the main elements of the study — sampling strategy, intervention (if applicable), comparison and outcome variables — are summarized in a form that establishes the basis for testing, statistical and ultimately clinical significance. 3 For example, in a research study comparing computer-assisted acetabular component insertion versus freehand acetabular component placement in patients in need of total hip arthroplasty, the experimental group would be computer-assisted insertion and the control/conventional group would be free-hand placement. The investigative team would first state a research hypothesis. This could be expressed as a single outcome (e.g., computer-assisted acetabular component placement leads to improved functional outcome) or potentially as a complex/composite outcome; that is, more than one outcome (e.g., computer-assisted acetabular component placement leads to both improved radiographic cup placement and improved functional outcome).

However, when formally testing statistical significance, the hypothesis should be stated as a “null” hypothesis. 2 The purpose of hypothesis testing is to make an inference about the population of interest on the basis of a random sample taken from that population. The null hypothesis for the preceding research hypothesis then would be that there is no difference in mean functional outcome between the computer-assisted insertion and free-hand placement techniques. After forming the null hypothesis, the researchers would form an alternate hypothesis stating the nature of the difference, if it should appear. The alternate hypothesis would be that there is a difference in mean functional outcome between these techniques. At the end of the study, the null hypothesis is then tested statistically. If the findings of the study are not statistically significant (i.e., there is no difference in functional outcome between the groups in a statistical sense), we cannot reject the null hypothesis, whereas if the findings were significant, we can reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate hypothesis (i.e., there is a difference in mean functional outcome between the study groups), errors in testing notwithstanding. In other words, hypothesis testing confirms or refutes the statement that the observed findings did not occur by chance alone but rather occurred because there was a true difference in outcomes between these surgical procedures. The concept of statistical hypothesis testing is complex, and the details are beyond the scope of this article.

Another important concept inherent in hypothesis testing is whether the hypotheses will be 1-sided or 2-sided. A 2-sided hypothesis states that there is a difference between the experimental group and the control group, but it does not specify in advance the expected direction of the difference. For example, we asked whether there is there an improvement in outcomes with computer-assisted surgery or whether the outcomes worse with computer-assisted surgery. We presented a 2-sided test in the above example because we did not specify the direction of the difference. A 1-sided hypothesis states a specific direction (e.g., there is an improvement in outcomes with computer-assisted surgery). A 2-sided hypothesis should be used unless there is a good justification for using a 1-sided hypothesis. As Bland and Atlman 8 stated, “One-sided hypothesis testing should never be used as a device to make a conventionally nonsignificant difference significant.”

The research hypothesis should be stated at the beginning of the study to guide the objectives for research. Whereas the investigators may state the hypothesis as being 1-sided (there is an improvement with treatment), the study and investigators must adhere to the concept of clinical equipoise. According to this principle, a clinical (or surgical) trial is ethical only if the expert community is uncertain about the relative therapeutic merits of the experimental and control groups being evaluated. 9 It means there must exist an honest and professional disagreement among expert clinicians about the preferred treatment. 9

Designing a research hypothesis is supported by a good research question and will influence the type of research design for the study. Acting on the principles of appropriate hypothesis development, the study can then confidently proceed to the development of the research objective.

Research objective

The primary objective should be coupled with the hypothesis of the study. Study objectives define the specific aims of the study and should be clearly stated in the introduction of the research protocol. 7 From our previous example and using the investigative hypothesis that there is a difference in functional outcomes between computer-assisted acetabular component placement and free-hand placement, the primary objective can be stated as follows: this study will compare the functional outcomes of computer-assisted acetabular component insertion versus free-hand placement in patients undergoing total hip arthroplasty. Note that the study objective is an active statement about how the study is going to answer the specific research question. Objectives can (and often do) state exactly which outcome measures are going to be used within their statements. They are important because they not only help guide the development of the protocol and design of study but also play a role in sample size calculations and determining the power of the study. 7 These concepts will be discussed in other articles in this series.

From the surgeon’s point of view, it is important for the study objectives to be focused on outcomes that are important to patients and clinically relevant. For example, the most methodologically sound randomized controlled trial comparing 2 techniques of distal radial fixation would have little or no clinical impact if the primary objective was to determine the effect of treatment A as compared to treatment B on intraoperative fluoroscopy time. However, if the objective was to determine the effect of treatment A as compared to treatment B on patient functional outcome at 1 year, this would have a much more significant impact on clinical decision-making. Second, more meaningful surgeon–patient discussions could ensue, incorporating patient values and preferences with the results from this study. 6 , 7 It is the precise objective and what the investigator is trying to measure that is of clinical relevance in the practical setting.

The following is an example from the literature about the relation between the research question, hypothesis and study objectives:

Study: Warden SJ, Metcalf BR, Kiss ZS, et al. Low-intensity pulsed ultrasound for chronic patellar tendinopathy: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Rheumatology 2008;47:467–71.

Research question: How does low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) compare with a placebo device in managing the symptoms of skeletally mature patients with patellar tendinopathy?

Research hypothesis: Pain levels are reduced in patients who receive daily active-LIPUS (treatment) for 12 weeks compared with individuals who receive inactive-LIPUS (placebo).

Objective: To investigate the clinical efficacy of LIPUS in the management of patellar tendinopathy symptoms.

The development of the research question is the most important aspect of a research project. A research project can fail if the objectives and hypothesis are poorly focused and underdeveloped. Useful tips for surgical researchers are provided in Box 3 . Designing and developing an appropriate and relevant research question, hypothesis and objectives can be a difficult task. The critical appraisal of the research question used in a study is vital to the application of the findings to clinical practice. Focusing resources, time and dedication to these 3 very important tasks will help to guide a successful research project, influence interpretation of the results and affect future publication efforts.

Tips for developing research questions, hypotheses and objectives for research studies

• Perform a systematic literature review (if one has not been done) to increase knowledge and familiarity with the topic and to assist with research development.
• Learn about current trends and technological advances on the topic.
• Seek careful input from experts, mentors, colleagues and collaborators to refine your research question as this will aid in developing the research question and guide the research study.
• Use the FINER criteria in the development of the research question.
• Ensure that the research question follows PICOT format.
• Develop a research hypothesis from the research question.
• Develop clear and well-defined primary and secondary (if needed) objectives.
• Ensure that the research question and objectives are answerable, feasible and clinically relevant.

FINER = feasible, interesting, novel, ethical, relevant; PICOT = population (patients), intervention (for intervention studies only), comparison group, outcome of interest, time.

Competing interests: No funding was received in preparation of this paper. Dr. Bhandari was funded, in part, by a Canada Research Chair, McMaster University.

• Election 2024
• Entertainment
• Newsletters
• Photography
• Personal Finance
• AP Investigations
• AP Buyline Personal Finance
• Press Releases
• Israel-Hamas War
• Russia-Ukraine War
• Global elections
• Asia Pacific
• Latin America
• Middle East
• Election Results
• Delegate Tracker
• AP & Elections
• March Madness
• AP Top 25 Poll
• Movie reviews
• Book reviews
• Personal finance
• Financial Markets
• Business Highlights
• Financial wellness
• Artificial Intelligence
• Social Media

Vatican blasts gender-affirming surgery, surrogacy and gender theory as violations of human dignity

The Vatican has declared that gender-affirming surgeries and surrogacy are grave violations of human dignity. A new document from the doctrine office puts them on a par with abortion and euthanasia as practices that violate God’s plan for human life. In its most eagerly anticipated section, the Vatican flat-out rejected “gender theory” or the idea that one’s gender can be changed.

The Vatican on Monday declared gender-affirming surgery and surrogacy as grave violations of human dignity, putting them on par with abortion and euthanasia as practices that reject God’s plan for human life. The Vatican’s doctrine office issued “Infinite Dignity,” a 20-page declaration that has been in the works for five years. After substantial revision in recent months, it was approved March 25 by Pope Francis, who ordered its publication.

The prefect of the Vatican’s Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith, Cardinal Victor Manuel Fernandez, presents the declaration ‘Dignitas Infinita’ (Infinite Dignity) during a press conference at the Vatican, Monday, April 8, 2024. (AP Photo/Gregorio Borgia)

• Copy Link copied

A copy of the 20-page “Infinite Dignity” declaration issued by the Vatican’s doctrine office sits on a journalist desk as the prefect of the Vatican’s Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith, Cardinal Victor Manuel Fernandez, meets the journalists during a press conference at the Vatican, Monday, April 8, 2024. (AP Photo/Gregorio Borgia)

VATICAN CITY (AP) — The Vatican on Monday declared gender-affirming surgery and surrogacy as grave violations of human dignity , putting them on par with abortion and euthanasia as practices that it said reject God’s plan for human life.

The Vatican’s doctrine office issued “Infinite Dignity,” a 20-page declaration that has been in the works for five years. After substantial revision in recent months, it was approved March 25 by Pope Francis, who ordered its publication.

From a pope who has made outreach to the LGBTQ+ community a hallmark of his papacy, the document was received as a setback, albeit predictable, by trans Catholics. But its message was also consistent with the Argentine Jesuit’s long-standing belief that while trans people should be welcomed in the church, so-called “gender ideologies” should not.

In its most eagerly anticipated section, the Vatican repeated its rejection of “gender theory,” or the idea that one’s biological sex can change. It said God created man and woman as biologically different, separate beings, and said people must not tinker with that or try to “make oneself God.”

“It follows that any sex-change intervention, as a rule, risks threatening the unique dignity the person has received from the moment of conception,” the document said.

It distinguished between gender-affirming surgeries, which it rejected, and “genital abnormalities” that are present at birth or that develop later. Those abnormalities can be “resolved” with the help of health care professionals, it said.

Advocates for LGBTQ+ Catholics immediately criticized the document as outdated, harmful and contrary to the stated goal of recognizing the “infinite dignity” of all of God’s children. They warned it could have real-world effects on trans people, fueling anti-trans violence and discrimination.

“While it lays out a wonderful rationale for why each human being, regardless of condition in life, must be respected, honored, and loved, it does not apply this principle to gender-diverse people,” said Francis DeBernardo of New Ways Ministry, which advocates for LGBTQ+ Catholics.

“It needs to be emphasized that biological sex and the sociocultural role of sex (gender) can be distinguished but not separated”

Nicolete Burbach, lead expert in social and environmental justice at the London Jesuit Centre, said the document showed the Vatican continues to fail to engage with queer and feminist approaches to the body “which it simply dismisses as supposedly subjecting both the body and human dignity itself to human whims.”

“I think the main difficulty faced by the document is that it attempts to affirm the church’s authentic commitment to human dignity in the face of a troubling history on the part of the church itself around attacks on that dignity,” said Burbach, a trans Catholic theologian who researches transness and the Catholic Church.

The document’s existence, rumored since 2019, was confirmed in recent weeks by the new prefect of the Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith, Argentine Cardinal Víctor Manuel Fernández, a close Francis confidant.

Fernández had cast the document as something of a nod to conservatives after he authored a more explosive document approving blessings for same-sex couples that sparked criticism from conservative bishops around the world, especially in Africa.

And yet, in an apparent attempt at balance, the document takes pointed aim at countries — including many in Africa — that criminalize homosexuality. It echoed Francis’ assertion in a 2023 interview with The Associated Press that “being homosexual is not a crime .”

The new document denounces “as contrary to human dignity the fact that, in some places, not a few people are imprisoned, tortured, and even deprived of the good of life solely because of their sexual orientation.”

The White House said President Joe Biden, a devout Catholic, was “pleased” to see that the declaration “furthers the Vatican’s call to ensure that LGBTQ+ (individuals) are protected from violence and imprisonment around the world,” press secretary Karine Jean-Pierre said.

On the specifics involving gender theory, Jean-Pierre stressed that it was not Biden’s role to “litigate internal church policy.”

Asked how its negative take on trans people squared with Francis’ message of welcome, Fernández said the welcome remained but that the pope fervently believed that the idea that gender was fluid “rather than helping to recognize dignity, impoverishes the vision” of a man and woman coming together to create new life.

The document is something of a repackaging of previously articulated Vatican positions, read now through the prism of human dignity. It restates well-known Catholic doctrine opposing abortion and euthanasia, and adds to the list some of Francis’ main concerns as pope: the threats to human dignity posed by poverty, war, human trafficking, the death penalty and forced migration.

In a newly articulated position, it says surrogacy violates both the dignity of the surrogate mother and the child .

While much attention about surrogacy has focused on possible exploitation of poor women as surrogates, the Vatican asserts that the child “has the right to have a fully human (and not artificially induced) origin and to receive the gift of a life that manifests both the dignity of the giver and that of the receiver.”

“Considering this, the legitimate desire to have a child cannot be transformed into a ‘right to a child’ that fails to respect the dignity of that child as the recipient of the gift of life,” it said.

The Vatican had previously published its most articulated position on gender in 2019, when the Congregation for Catholic Education rejected the idea that people can choose or change their genders and insisted on the complementarity of biologically male and female sex organs to create new life.

The new document from the more authoritative Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith quotes from that 2019 education document, but tempers the tone. Significantly, it doesn’t repeat Vatican doctrine that homosexual people deserve to be treated with dignity and respect but that homosexual actions are “intrinsically disordered.”

In a news conference to introduce the document, Fernández acknowledged that the “intrinsically disordered” language was very strong. He suggested there might be a better way, “with other words,” to express the church’s vision of sex between husband and wife to create new life.

Francis has ministered to trans Catholics, including trans sex workers, and insisted that the Catholic Church must welcome all children of God.

But he has also denounced “gender theory” as the “worst danger” facing humanity today, an “ugly ideology” that threatens to cancel out God-given differences between man and woman. He has blasted in particular what he calls the “ideological colonization” of the West in the developing world, where development aid is sometimes conditioned on adopting Western ideas about gender.

Transgender activists immediately called the document “hurtful” and devoid of the voices and experiences of real trans people, especially in the distinction it makes between gender-affirming surgeries and surgeries on intersex people.

“The suggestion that gender-affirming health care — which has saved the lives of so many wonderful trans people and enabled them to live in harmony with their bodies, their communities and (God) — might risk or diminish trans people’s dignity is not only hurtful but dangerously ignorant,” said Mara Klein, a nonbinary, transgender activist who has participated in Germany’s church reform project.

Klein said the Vatican “hypocrisy” was furthered by the document’s approval of surgery on intersex people, “which if performed without consent especially on minors often cause immense physical and psychological harm.”

The document comes at a time of some backlash against transgender people, including in the United States where Republican-led state legislatures are considering a new round of bills restricting medical care for transgender youths — and in some cases, adults.

“On top of the rising hostility towards our communities, we are faced with a church that does not listen and refuses to see the beauty of creation that can be found in our biographies,” Klein said in an email.

AP writer Darlene Superville contributed from Air Force One.