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Overview of the Problem-Solving Mental Process

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

problem solving techniques and motivation

Rachel Goldman, PhD FTOS, is a licensed psychologist, clinical assistant professor, speaker, wellness expert specializing in eating behaviors, stress management, and health behavior change.

Identify the Problem
Define the Problem
Form a Strategy
Organize Information
Allocate Resources
Monitor Progress
Evaluate the Results

Frequently Asked Questions

Problem-solving is a mental process that involves discovering, analyzing, and solving problems. The ultimate goal of problem-solving is to overcome obstacles and find a solution that best resolves the issue.

The best strategy for solving a problem depends largely on the unique situation. In some cases, people are better off learning everything they can about the issue and then using factual knowledge to come up with a solution. In other instances, creativity and insight are the best options.

It is not necessary to follow problem-solving steps sequentially, It is common to skip steps or even go back through steps multiple times until the desired solution is reached.

In order to correctly solve a problem, it is often important to follow a series of steps. Researchers sometimes refer to this as the problem-solving cycle. While this cycle is portrayed sequentially, people rarely follow a rigid series of steps to find a solution.

The following steps include developing strategies and organizing knowledge.

1. Identifying the Problem

While it may seem like an obvious step, identifying the problem is not always as simple as it sounds. In some cases, people might mistakenly identify the wrong source of a problem, which will make attempts to solve it inefficient or even useless.

Some strategies that you might use to figure out the source of a problem include :

Asking questions about the problem
Breaking the problem down into smaller pieces
Looking at the problem from different perspectives
Conducting research to figure out what relationships exist between different variables

2. Defining the Problem

After the problem has been identified, it is important to fully define the problem so that it can be solved. You can define a problem by operationally defining each aspect of the problem and setting goals for what aspects of the problem you will address

At this point, you should focus on figuring out which aspects of the problems are facts and which are opinions. State the problem clearly and identify the scope of the solution.

3. Forming a Strategy

After the problem has been identified, it is time to start brainstorming potential solutions. This step usually involves generating as many ideas as possible without judging their quality. Once several possibilities have been generated, they can be evaluated and narrowed down.

The next step is to develop a strategy to solve the problem. The approach used will vary depending upon the situation and the individual's unique preferences. Common problem-solving strategies include heuristics and algorithms.

Heuristics are mental shortcuts that are often based on solutions that have worked in the past. They can work well if the problem is similar to something you have encountered before and are often the best choice if you need a fast solution.
Algorithms are step-by-step strategies that are guaranteed to produce a correct result. While this approach is great for accuracy, it can also consume time and resources.

Heuristics are often best used when time is of the essence, while algorithms are a better choice when a decision needs to be as accurate as possible.

4. Organizing Information

Before coming up with a solution, you need to first organize the available information. What do you know about the problem? What do you not know? The more information that is available the better prepared you will be to come up with an accurate solution.

When approaching a problem, it is important to make sure that you have all the data you need. Making a decision without adequate information can lead to biased or inaccurate results.

5. Allocating Resources

Of course, we don't always have unlimited money, time, and other resources to solve a problem. Before you begin to solve a problem, you need to determine how high priority it is.

If it is an important problem, it is probably worth allocating more resources to solving it. If, however, it is a fairly unimportant problem, then you do not want to spend too much of your available resources on coming up with a solution.

At this stage, it is important to consider all of the factors that might affect the problem at hand. This includes looking at the available resources, deadlines that need to be met, and any possible risks involved in each solution. After careful evaluation, a decision can be made about which solution to pursue.

6. Monitoring Progress

After selecting a problem-solving strategy, it is time to put the plan into action and see if it works. This step might involve trying out different solutions to see which one is the most effective.

It is also important to monitor the situation after implementing a solution to ensure that the problem has been solved and that no new problems have arisen as a result of the proposed solution.

Effective problem-solvers tend to monitor their progress as they work towards a solution. If they are not making good progress toward reaching their goal, they will reevaluate their approach or look for new strategies .

7. Evaluating the Results

After a solution has been reached, it is important to evaluate the results to determine if it is the best possible solution to the problem. This evaluation might be immediate, such as checking the results of a math problem to ensure the answer is correct, or it can be delayed, such as evaluating the success of a therapy program after several months of treatment.

Once a problem has been solved, it is important to take some time to reflect on the process that was used and evaluate the results. This will help you to improve your problem-solving skills and become more efficient at solving future problems.

A Word From Verywell

It is important to remember that there are many different problem-solving processes with different steps, and this is just one example. Problem-solving in real-world situations requires a great deal of resourcefulness, flexibility, resilience, and continuous interaction with the environment.

Get Advice From The Verywell Mind Podcast

Hosted by therapist Amy Morin, LCSW, this episode of The Verywell Mind Podcast shares how you can stop dwelling in a negative mindset.

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You can become a better problem solving by:

Practicing brainstorming and coming up with multiple potential solutions to problems
Being open-minded and considering all possible options before making a decision
Breaking down problems into smaller, more manageable pieces
Asking for help when needed
Researching different problem-solving techniques and trying out new ones
Learning from mistakes and using them as opportunities to grow

It's important to communicate openly and honestly with your partner about what's going on. Try to see things from their perspective as well as your own. Work together to find a resolution that works for both of you. Be willing to compromise and accept that there may not be a perfect solution.

Take breaks if things are getting too heated, and come back to the problem when you feel calm and collected. Don't try to fix every problem on your own—consider asking a therapist or counselor for help and insight.

If you've tried everything and there doesn't seem to be a way to fix the problem, you may have to learn to accept it. This can be difficult, but try to focus on the positive aspects of your life and remember that every situation is temporary. Don't dwell on what's going wrong—instead, think about what's going right. Find support by talking to friends or family. Seek professional help if you're having trouble coping.

Davidson JE, Sternberg RJ, editors. The Psychology of Problem Solving . Cambridge University Press; 2003. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511615771

Sarathy V. Real world problem-solving . Front Hum Neurosci . 2018;12:261. Published 2018 Jun 26. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2018.00261

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

35 problem-solving techniques and methods for solving complex problems

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How do you identify problems?

How do you identify the right solution.

Tips for more effective problem-solving

Complete problem-solving methods

Problem-solving techniques to identify and analyze problems
Problem-solving techniques for developing solutions

Problem-solving warm-up activities

Closing activities for a problem-solving process.

Before you can move towards finding the right solution for a given problem, you first need to identify and define the problem you wish to solve.

Here, you want to clearly articulate what the problem is and allow your group to do the same. Remember that everyone in a group is likely to have differing perspectives and alignment is necessary in order to help the group move forward.

Identifying a problem accurately also requires that all members of a group are able to contribute their views in an open and safe manner. It can be scary for people to stand up and contribute, especially if the problems or challenges are emotive or personal in nature. Be sure to try and create a psychologically safe space for these kinds of discussions.

Remember that problem analysis and further discussion are also important. Not taking the time to fully analyze and discuss a challenge can result in the development of solutions that are not fit for purpose or do not address the underlying issue.

Successfully identifying and then analyzing a problem means facilitating a group through activities designed to help them clearly and honestly articulate their thoughts and produce usable insight.

With this data, you might then produce a problem statement that clearly describes the problem you wish to be addressed and also state the goal of any process you undertake to tackle this issue.

Finding solutions is the end goal of any process. Complex organizational challenges can only be solved with an appropriate solution but discovering them requires using the right problem-solving tool.

After you’ve explored a problem and discussed ideas, you need to help a team discuss and choose the right solution. Consensus tools and methods such as those below help a group explore possible solutions before then voting for the best. They’re a great way to tap into the collective intelligence of the group for great results!

Remember that the process is often iterative. Great problem solvers often roadtest a viable solution in a measured way to see what works too. While you might not get the right solution on your first try, the methods below help teams land on the most likely to succeed solution while also holding space for improvement.

Every effective problem solving process begins with an agenda . A well-structured workshop is one of the best methods for successfully guiding a group from exploring a problem to implementing a solution.

In SessionLab, it’s easy to go from an idea to a complete agenda . Start by dragging and dropping your core problem solving activities into place . Add timings, breaks and necessary materials before sharing your agenda with your colleagues.

The resulting agenda will be your guide to an effective and productive problem solving session that will also help you stay organized on the day!

Tips for more effective problem solving

Problem-solving activities are only one part of the puzzle. While a great method can help unlock your team’s ability to solve problems, without a thoughtful approach and strong facilitation the solutions may not be fit for purpose.

Let’s take a look at some problem-solving tips you can apply to any process to help it be a success!

Clearly define the problem

Jumping straight to solutions can be tempting, though without first clearly articulating a problem, the solution might not be the right one. Many of the problem-solving activities below include sections where the problem is explored and clearly defined before moving on.

This is a vital part of the problem-solving process and taking the time to fully define an issue can save time and effort later. A clear definition helps identify irrelevant information and it also ensures that your team sets off on the right track.

Don’t jump to conclusions

It’s easy for groups to exhibit cognitive bias or have preconceived ideas about both problems and potential solutions. Be sure to back up any problem statements or potential solutions with facts, research, and adequate forethought.

The best techniques ask participants to be methodical and challenge preconceived notions. Make sure you give the group enough time and space to collect relevant information and consider the problem in a new way. By approaching the process with a clear, rational mindset, you’ll often find that better solutions are more forthcoming.

Try different approaches

Problems come in all shapes and sizes and so too should the methods you use to solve them. If you find that one approach isn’t yielding results and your team isn’t finding different solutions, try mixing it up. You’ll be surprised at how using a new creative activity can unblock your team and generate great solutions.

Don’t take it personally

Depending on the nature of your team or organizational problems, it’s easy for conversations to get heated. While it’s good for participants to be engaged in the discussions, ensure that emotions don’t run too high and that blame isn’t thrown around while finding solutions.

You’re all in it together, and even if your team or area is seeing problems, that isn’t necessarily a disparagement of you personally. Using facilitation skills to manage group dynamics is one effective method of helping conversations be more constructive.

Get the right people in the room

Your problem-solving method is often only as effective as the group using it. Getting the right people on the job and managing the number of people present is important too!

If the group is too small, you may not get enough different perspectives to effectively solve a problem. If the group is too large, you can go round and round during the ideation stages.

Creating the right group makeup is also important in ensuring you have the necessary expertise and skillset to both identify and follow up on potential solutions. Carefully consider who to include at each stage to help ensure your problem-solving method is followed and positioned for success.

Document everything

The best solutions can take refinement, iteration, and reflection to come out. Get into a habit of documenting your process in order to keep all the learnings from the session and to allow ideas to mature and develop. Many of the methods below involve the creation of documents or shared resources. Be sure to keep and share these so everyone can benefit from the work done!

Bring a facilitator

Facilitation is all about making group processes easier. With a subject as potentially emotive and important as problem-solving, having an impartial third party in the form of a facilitator can make all the difference in finding great solutions and keeping the process moving. Consider bringing a facilitator to your problem-solving session to get better results and generate meaningful solutions!

Develop your problem-solving skills

It takes time and practice to be an effective problem solver. While some roles or participants might more naturally gravitate towards problem-solving, it can take development and planning to help everyone create better solutions.

You might develop a training program, run a problem-solving workshop or simply ask your team to practice using the techniques below. Check out our post on problem-solving skills to see how you and your group can develop the right mental process and be more resilient to issues too!

Design a great agenda

Workshops are a great format for solving problems. With the right approach, you can focus a group and help them find the solutions to their own problems. But designing a process can be time-consuming and finding the right activities can be difficult.

Check out our workshop planning guide to level-up your agenda design and start running more effective workshops. Need inspiration? Check out templates designed by expert facilitators to help you kickstart your process!

In this section, we’ll look at in-depth problem-solving methods that provide a complete end-to-end process for developing effective solutions. These will help guide your team from the discovery and definition of a problem through to delivering the right solution.

If you’re looking for an all-encompassing method or problem-solving model, these processes are a great place to start. They’ll ask your team to challenge preconceived ideas and adopt a mindset for solving problems more effectively.

Six Thinking Hats
Lightning Decision Jam
Problem Definition Process
Discovery & Action Dialogue

Design Sprint 2.0

Open Space Technology

1. Six Thinking Hats

Individual approaches to solving a problem can be very different based on what team or role an individual holds. It can be easy for existing biases or perspectives to find their way into the mix, or for internal politics to direct a conversation.

Six Thinking Hats is a classic method for identifying the problems that need to be solved and enables your team to consider them from different angles, whether that is by focusing on facts and data, creative solutions, or by considering why a particular solution might not work.

Like all problem-solving frameworks, Six Thinking Hats is effective at helping teams remove roadblocks from a conversation or discussion and come to terms with all the aspects necessary to solve complex problems.

2. Lightning Decision Jam

Featured courtesy of Jonathan Courtney of AJ&Smart Berlin, Lightning Decision Jam is one of those strategies that should be in every facilitation toolbox. Exploring problems and finding solutions is often creative in nature, though as with any creative process, there is the potential to lose focus and get lost.

Unstructured discussions might get you there in the end, but it’s much more effective to use a method that creates a clear process and team focus.

In Lightning Decision Jam, participants are invited to begin by writing challenges, concerns, or mistakes on post-its without discussing them before then being invited by the moderator to present them to the group.

From there, the team vote on which problems to solve and are guided through steps that will allow them to reframe those problems, create solutions and then decide what to execute on.

By deciding the problems that need to be solved as a team before moving on, this group process is great for ensuring the whole team is aligned and can take ownership over the next stages.

Lightning Decision Jam (LDJ) #action #decision making #problem solving #issue analysis #innovation #design #remote-friendly The problem with anything that requires creative thinking is that it’s easy to get lost—lose focus and fall into the trap of having useless, open-ended, unstructured discussions. Here’s the most effective solution I’ve found: Replace all open, unstructured discussion with a clear process. What to use this exercise for: Anything which requires a group of people to make decisions, solve problems or discuss challenges. It’s always good to frame an LDJ session with a broad topic, here are some examples: The conversion flow of our checkout Our internal design process How we organise events Keeping up with our competition Improving sales flow

3. Problem Definition Process

While problems can be complex, the problem-solving methods you use to identify and solve those problems can often be simple in design.

By taking the time to truly identify and define a problem before asking the group to reframe the challenge as an opportunity, this method is a great way to enable change.

Begin by identifying a focus question and exploring the ways in which it manifests before splitting into five teams who will each consider the problem using a different method: escape, reversal, exaggeration, distortion or wishful. Teams develop a problem objective and create ideas in line with their method before then feeding them back to the group.

This method is great for enabling in-depth discussions while also creating space for finding creative solutions too!

Problem Definition #problem solving #idea generation #creativity #online #remote-friendly A problem solving technique to define a problem, challenge or opportunity and to generate ideas.

4. The 5 Whys

Sometimes, a group needs to go further with their strategies and analyze the root cause at the heart of organizational issues. An RCA or root cause analysis is the process of identifying what is at the heart of business problems or recurring challenges.

The 5 Whys is a simple and effective method of helping a group go find the root cause of any problem or challenge and conduct analysis that will deliver results.

By beginning with the creation of a problem statement and going through five stages to refine it, The 5 Whys provides everything you need to truly discover the cause of an issue.

The 5 Whys #hyperisland #innovation This simple and powerful method is useful for getting to the core of a problem or challenge. As the title suggests, the group defines a problems, then asks the question “why” five times, often using the resulting explanation as a starting point for creative problem solving.

5. World Cafe

World Cafe is a simple but powerful facilitation technique to help bigger groups to focus their energy and attention on solving complex problems.

World Cafe enables this approach by creating a relaxed atmosphere where participants are able to self-organize and explore topics relevant and important to them which are themed around a central problem-solving purpose. Create the right atmosphere by modeling your space after a cafe and after guiding the group through the method, let them take the lead!

Making problem-solving a part of your organization’s culture in the long term can be a difficult undertaking. More approachable formats like World Cafe can be especially effective in bringing people unfamiliar with workshops into the fold.

World Cafe #hyperisland #innovation #issue analysis World Café is a simple yet powerful method, originated by Juanita Brown, for enabling meaningful conversations driven completely by participants and the topics that are relevant and important to them. Facilitators create a cafe-style space and provide simple guidelines. Participants then self-organize and explore a set of relevant topics or questions for conversation.

6. Discovery & Action Dialogue (DAD)

One of the best approaches is to create a safe space for a group to share and discover practices and behaviors that can help them find their own solutions.

With DAD, you can help a group choose which problems they wish to solve and which approaches they will take to do so. It’s great at helping remove resistance to change and can help get buy-in at every level too!

This process of enabling frontline ownership is great in ensuring follow-through and is one of the methods you will want in your toolbox as a facilitator.

Discovery & Action Dialogue (DAD) #idea generation #liberating structures #action #issue analysis #remote-friendly DADs make it easy for a group or community to discover practices and behaviors that enable some individuals (without access to special resources and facing the same constraints) to find better solutions than their peers to common problems. These are called positive deviant (PD) behaviors and practices. DADs make it possible for people in the group, unit, or community to discover by themselves these PD practices. DADs also create favorable conditions for stimulating participants’ creativity in spaces where they can feel safe to invent new and more effective practices. Resistance to change evaporates as participants are unleashed to choose freely which practices they will adopt or try and which problems they will tackle. DADs make it possible to achieve frontline ownership of solutions.

7. Design Sprint 2.0

Want to see how a team can solve big problems and move forward with prototyping and testing solutions in a few days? The Design Sprint 2.0 template from Jake Knapp, author of Sprint, is a complete agenda for a with proven results.

Developing the right agenda can involve difficult but necessary planning. Ensuring all the correct steps are followed can also be stressful or time-consuming depending on your level of experience.

Use this complete 4-day workshop template if you are finding there is no obvious solution to your challenge and want to focus your team around a specific problem that might require a shortcut to launching a minimum viable product or waiting for the organization-wide implementation of a solution.

8. Open space technology

Open space technology- developed by Harrison Owen – creates a space where large groups are invited to take ownership of their problem solving and lead individual sessions. Open space technology is a great format when you have a great deal of expertise and insight in the room and want to allow for different takes and approaches on a particular theme or problem you need to be solved.

Start by bringing your participants together to align around a central theme and focus their efforts. Explain the ground rules to help guide the problem-solving process and then invite members to identify any issue connecting to the central theme that they are interested in and are prepared to take responsibility for.

Once participants have decided on their approach to the core theme, they write their issue on a piece of paper, announce it to the group, pick a session time and place, and post the paper on the wall. As the wall fills up with sessions, the group is then invited to join the sessions that interest them the most and which they can contribute to, then you’re ready to begin!

Everyone joins the problem-solving group they’ve signed up to, record the discussion and if appropriate, findings can then be shared with the rest of the group afterward.

Open Space Technology #action plan #idea generation #problem solving #issue analysis #large group #online #remote-friendly Open Space is a methodology for large groups to create their agenda discerning important topics for discussion, suitable for conferences, community gatherings and whole system facilitation

Techniques to identify and analyze problems

Using a problem-solving method to help a team identify and analyze a problem can be a quick and effective addition to any workshop or meeting.

While further actions are always necessary, you can generate momentum and alignment easily, and these activities are a great place to get started.

We’ve put together this list of techniques to help you and your team with problem identification, analysis, and discussion that sets the foundation for developing effective solutions.

Let’s take a look!

The Creativity Dice
Fishbone Analysis
Problem Tree
SWOT Analysis
Agreement-Certainty Matrix
The Journalistic Six
LEGO Challenge
What, So What, Now What?
Journalists

Individual and group perspectives are incredibly important, but what happens if people are set in their minds and need a change of perspective in order to approach a problem more effectively?

Flip It is a method we love because it is both simple to understand and run, and allows groups to understand how their perspectives and biases are formed.

Participants in Flip It are first invited to consider concerns, issues, or problems from a perspective of fear and write them on a flip chart. Then, the group is asked to consider those same issues from a perspective of hope and flip their understanding.

No problem and solution is free from existing bias and by changing perspectives with Flip It, you can then develop a problem solving model quickly and effectively.

Flip It! #gamestorming #problem solving #action Often, a change in a problem or situation comes simply from a change in our perspectives. Flip It! is a quick game designed to show players that perspectives are made, not born.

10. The Creativity Dice

One of the most useful problem solving skills you can teach your team is of approaching challenges with creativity, flexibility, and openness. Games like The Creativity Dice allow teams to overcome the potential hurdle of too much linear thinking and approach the process with a sense of fun and speed.

In The Creativity Dice, participants are organized around a topic and roll a dice to determine what they will work on for a period of 3 minutes at a time. They might roll a 3 and work on investigating factual information on the chosen topic. They might roll a 1 and work on identifying the specific goals, standards, or criteria for the session.

Encouraging rapid work and iteration while asking participants to be flexible are great skills to cultivate. Having a stage for idea incubation in this game is also important. Moments of pause can help ensure the ideas that are put forward are the most suitable.

The Creativity Dice #creativity #problem solving #thiagi #issue analysis Too much linear thinking is hazardous to creative problem solving. To be creative, you should approach the problem (or the opportunity) from different points of view. You should leave a thought hanging in mid-air and move to another. This skipping around prevents premature closure and lets your brain incubate one line of thought while you consciously pursue another.

11. Fishbone Analysis

Organizational or team challenges are rarely simple, and it’s important to remember that one problem can be an indication of something that goes deeper and may require further consideration to be solved.

Fishbone Analysis helps groups to dig deeper and understand the origins of a problem. It’s a great example of a root cause analysis method that is simple for everyone on a team to get their head around.

Participants in this activity are asked to annotate a diagram of a fish, first adding the problem or issue to be worked on at the head of a fish before then brainstorming the root causes of the problem and adding them as bones on the fish.

Using abstractions such as a diagram of a fish can really help a team break out of their regular thinking and develop a creative approach.

Fishbone Analysis #problem solving ##root cause analysis #decision making #online facilitation A process to help identify and understand the origins of problems, issues or observations.

12. Problem Tree

Encouraging visual thinking can be an essential part of many strategies. By simply reframing and clarifying problems, a group can move towards developing a problem solving model that works for them.

In Problem Tree, groups are asked to first brainstorm a list of problems – these can be design problems, team problems or larger business problems – and then organize them into a hierarchy. The hierarchy could be from most important to least important or abstract to practical, though the key thing with problem solving games that involve this aspect is that your group has some way of managing and sorting all the issues that are raised.

Once you have a list of problems that need to be solved and have organized them accordingly, you’re then well-positioned for the next problem solving steps.

Problem tree #define intentions #create #design #issue analysis A problem tree is a tool to clarify the hierarchy of problems addressed by the team within a design project; it represents high level problems or related sublevel problems.

13. SWOT Analysis

Chances are you’ve heard of the SWOT Analysis before. This problem-solving method focuses on identifying strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats is a tried and tested method for both individuals and teams.

Start by creating a desired end state or outcome and bare this in mind – any process solving model is made more effective by knowing what you are moving towards. Create a quadrant made up of the four categories of a SWOT analysis and ask participants to generate ideas based on each of those quadrants.

Once you have those ideas assembled in their quadrants, cluster them together based on their affinity with other ideas. These clusters are then used to facilitate group conversations and move things forward.

SWOT analysis #gamestorming #problem solving #action #meeting facilitation The SWOT Analysis is a long-standing technique of looking at what we have, with respect to the desired end state, as well as what we could improve on. It gives us an opportunity to gauge approaching opportunities and dangers, and assess the seriousness of the conditions that affect our future. When we understand those conditions, we can influence what comes next.

14. Agreement-Certainty Matrix

Not every problem-solving approach is right for every challenge, and deciding on the right method for the challenge at hand is a key part of being an effective team.

The Agreement Certainty matrix helps teams align on the nature of the challenges facing them. By sorting problems from simple to chaotic, your team can understand what methods are suitable for each problem and what they can do to ensure effective results.

If you are already using Liberating Structures techniques as part of your problem-solving strategy, the Agreement-Certainty Matrix can be an invaluable addition to your process. We’ve found it particularly if you are having issues with recurring problems in your organization and want to go deeper in understanding the root cause.

Agreement-Certainty Matrix #issue analysis #liberating structures #problem solving You can help individuals or groups avoid the frequent mistake of trying to solve a problem with methods that are not adapted to the nature of their challenge. The combination of two questions makes it possible to easily sort challenges into four categories: simple, complicated, complex , and chaotic . A problem is simple when it can be solved reliably with practices that are easy to duplicate. It is complicated when experts are required to devise a sophisticated solution that will yield the desired results predictably. A problem is complex when there are several valid ways to proceed but outcomes are not predictable in detail. Chaotic is when the context is too turbulent to identify a path forward. A loose analogy may be used to describe these differences: simple is like following a recipe, complicated like sending a rocket to the moon, complex like raising a child, and chaotic is like the game “Pin the Tail on the Donkey.” The Liberating Structures Matching Matrix in Chapter 5 can be used as the first step to clarify the nature of a challenge and avoid the mismatches between problems and solutions that are frequently at the root of chronic, recurring problems.

Organizing and charting a team’s progress can be important in ensuring its success. SQUID (Sequential Question and Insight Diagram) is a great model that allows a team to effectively switch between giving questions and answers and develop the skills they need to stay on track throughout the process.

Begin with two different colored sticky notes – one for questions and one for answers – and with your central topic (the head of the squid) on the board. Ask the group to first come up with a series of questions connected to their best guess of how to approach the topic. Ask the group to come up with answers to those questions, fix them to the board and connect them with a line. After some discussion, go back to question mode by responding to the generated answers or other points on the board.

It’s rewarding to see a diagram grow throughout the exercise, and a completed SQUID can provide a visual resource for future effort and as an example for other teams.

SQUID #gamestorming #project planning #issue analysis #problem solving When exploring an information space, it’s important for a group to know where they are at any given time. By using SQUID, a group charts out the territory as they go and can navigate accordingly. SQUID stands for Sequential Question and Insight Diagram.

16. Speed Boat

To continue with our nautical theme, Speed Boat is a short and sweet activity that can help a team quickly identify what employees, clients or service users might have a problem with and analyze what might be standing in the way of achieving a solution.

Methods that allow for a group to make observations, have insights and obtain those eureka moments quickly are invaluable when trying to solve complex problems.

In Speed Boat, the approach is to first consider what anchors and challenges might be holding an organization (or boat) back. Bonus points if you are able to identify any sharks in the water and develop ideas that can also deal with competitors!

Speed Boat #gamestorming #problem solving #action Speedboat is a short and sweet way to identify what your employees or clients don’t like about your product/service or what’s standing in the way of a desired goal.

17. The Journalistic Six

Some of the most effective ways of solving problems is by encouraging teams to be more inclusive and diverse in their thinking.

Based on the six key questions journalism students are taught to answer in articles and news stories, The Journalistic Six helps create teams to see the whole picture. By using who, what, when, where, why, and how to facilitate the conversation and encourage creative thinking, your team can make sure that the problem identification and problem analysis stages of the are covered exhaustively and thoughtfully. Reporter’s notebook and dictaphone optional.

The Journalistic Six – Who What When Where Why How #idea generation #issue analysis #problem solving #online #creative thinking #remote-friendly A questioning method for generating, explaining, investigating ideas.

18. LEGO Challenge

Now for an activity that is a little out of the (toy) box. LEGO Serious Play is a facilitation methodology that can be used to improve creative thinking and problem-solving skills.

The LEGO Challenge includes giving each member of the team an assignment that is hidden from the rest of the group while they create a structure without speaking.

What the LEGO challenge brings to the table is a fun working example of working with stakeholders who might not be on the same page to solve problems. Also, it’s LEGO! Who doesn’t love LEGO!

LEGO Challenge #hyperisland #team A team-building activity in which groups must work together to build a structure out of LEGO, but each individual has a secret “assignment” which makes the collaborative process more challenging. It emphasizes group communication, leadership dynamics, conflict, cooperation, patience and problem solving strategy.

19. What, So What, Now What?

If not carefully managed, the problem identification and problem analysis stages of the problem-solving process can actually create more problems and misunderstandings.

The What, So What, Now What? problem-solving activity is designed to help collect insights and move forward while also eliminating the possibility of disagreement when it comes to identifying, clarifying, and analyzing organizational or work problems.

Facilitation is all about bringing groups together so that might work on a shared goal and the best problem-solving strategies ensure that teams are aligned in purpose, if not initially in opinion or insight.

Throughout the three steps of this game, you give everyone on a team to reflect on a problem by asking what happened, why it is important, and what actions should then be taken.

This can be a great activity for bringing our individual perceptions about a problem or challenge and contextualizing it in a larger group setting. This is one of the most important problem-solving skills you can bring to your organization.

W³ – What, So What, Now What? #issue analysis #innovation #liberating structures You can help groups reflect on a shared experience in a way that builds understanding and spurs coordinated action while avoiding unproductive conflict. It is possible for every voice to be heard while simultaneously sifting for insights and shaping new direction. Progressing in stages makes this practical—from collecting facts about What Happened to making sense of these facts with So What and finally to what actions logically follow with Now What . The shared progression eliminates most of the misunderstandings that otherwise fuel disagreements about what to do. Voila!

20. Journalists

Problem analysis can be one of the most important and decisive stages of all problem-solving tools. Sometimes, a team can become bogged down in the details and are unable to move forward.

Journalists is an activity that can avoid a group from getting stuck in the problem identification or problem analysis stages of the process.

In Journalists, the group is invited to draft the front page of a fictional newspaper and figure out what stories deserve to be on the cover and what headlines those stories will have. By reframing how your problems and challenges are approached, you can help a team move productively through the process and be better prepared for the steps to follow.

Journalists #vision #big picture #issue analysis #remote-friendly This is an exercise to use when the group gets stuck in details and struggles to see the big picture. Also good for defining a vision.

Problem-solving techniques for developing solutions

The success of any problem-solving process can be measured by the solutions it produces. After you’ve defined the issue, explored existing ideas, and ideated, it’s time to narrow down to the correct solution.

Use these problem-solving techniques when you want to help your team find consensus, compare possible solutions, and move towards taking action on a particular problem.

Improved Solutions
Four-Step Sketch
15% Solutions
How-Now-Wow matrix
Impact Effort Matrix

21. Mindspin

Brainstorming is part of the bread and butter of the problem-solving process and all problem-solving strategies benefit from getting ideas out and challenging a team to generate solutions quickly.

With Mindspin, participants are encouraged not only to generate ideas but to do so under time constraints and by slamming down cards and passing them on. By doing multiple rounds, your team can begin with a free generation of possible solutions before moving on to developing those solutions and encouraging further ideation.

This is one of our favorite problem-solving activities and can be great for keeping the energy up throughout the workshop. Remember the importance of helping people become engaged in the process – energizing problem-solving techniques like Mindspin can help ensure your team stays engaged and happy, even when the problems they’re coming together to solve are complex.

MindSpin #teampedia #idea generation #problem solving #action A fast and loud method to enhance brainstorming within a team. Since this activity has more than round ideas that are repetitive can be ruled out leaving more creative and innovative answers to the challenge.

22. Improved Solutions

After a team has successfully identified a problem and come up with a few solutions, it can be tempting to call the work of the problem-solving process complete. That said, the first solution is not necessarily the best, and by including a further review and reflection activity into your problem-solving model, you can ensure your group reaches the best possible result.

One of a number of problem-solving games from Thiagi Group, Improved Solutions helps you go the extra mile and develop suggested solutions with close consideration and peer review. By supporting the discussion of several problems at once and by shifting team roles throughout, this problem-solving technique is a dynamic way of finding the best solution.

Improved Solutions #creativity #thiagi #problem solving #action #team You can improve any solution by objectively reviewing its strengths and weaknesses and making suitable adjustments. In this creativity framegame, you improve the solutions to several problems. To maintain objective detachment, you deal with a different problem during each of six rounds and assume different roles (problem owner, consultant, basher, booster, enhancer, and evaluator) during each round. At the conclusion of the activity, each player ends up with two solutions to her problem.

23. Four Step Sketch

Creative thinking and visual ideation does not need to be confined to the opening stages of your problem-solving strategies. Exercises that include sketching and prototyping on paper can be effective at the solution finding and development stage of the process, and can be great for keeping a team engaged.

By going from simple notes to a crazy 8s round that involves rapidly sketching 8 variations on their ideas before then producing a final solution sketch, the group is able to iterate quickly and visually. Problem-solving techniques like Four-Step Sketch are great if you have a group of different thinkers and want to change things up from a more textual or discussion-based approach.

Four-Step Sketch #design sprint #innovation #idea generation #remote-friendly The four-step sketch is an exercise that helps people to create well-formed concepts through a structured process that includes: Review key information Start design work on paper, Consider multiple variations , Create a detailed solution . This exercise is preceded by a set of other activities allowing the group to clarify the challenge they want to solve. See how the Four Step Sketch exercise fits into a Design Sprint

24. 15% Solutions

Some problems are simpler than others and with the right problem-solving activities, you can empower people to take immediate actions that can help create organizational change.

Part of the liberating structures toolkit, 15% solutions is a problem-solving technique that focuses on finding and implementing solutions quickly. A process of iterating and making small changes quickly can help generate momentum and an appetite for solving complex problems.

Problem-solving strategies can live and die on whether people are onboard. Getting some quick wins is a great way of getting people behind the process.

It can be extremely empowering for a team to realize that problem-solving techniques can be deployed quickly and easily and delineate between things they can positively impact and those things they cannot change.

15% Solutions #action #liberating structures #remote-friendly You can reveal the actions, however small, that everyone can do immediately. At a minimum, these will create momentum, and that may make a BIG difference. 15% Solutions show that there is no reason to wait around, feel powerless, or fearful. They help people pick it up a level. They get individuals and the group to focus on what is within their discretion instead of what they cannot change. With a very simple question, you can flip the conversation to what can be done and find solutions to big problems that are often distributed widely in places not known in advance. Shifting a few grains of sand may trigger a landslide and change the whole landscape.

25. How-Now-Wow Matrix

The problem-solving process is often creative, as complex problems usually require a change of thinking and creative response in order to find the best solutions. While it’s common for the first stages to encourage creative thinking, groups can often gravitate to familiar solutions when it comes to the end of the process.

When selecting solutions, you don’t want to lose your creative energy! The How-Now-Wow Matrix from Gamestorming is a great problem-solving activity that enables a group to stay creative and think out of the box when it comes to selecting the right solution for a given problem.

Problem-solving techniques that encourage creative thinking and the ideation and selection of new solutions can be the most effective in organisational change. Give the How-Now-Wow Matrix a go, and not just for how pleasant it is to say out loud.

How-Now-Wow Matrix #gamestorming #idea generation #remote-friendly When people want to develop new ideas, they most often think out of the box in the brainstorming or divergent phase. However, when it comes to convergence, people often end up picking ideas that are most familiar to them. This is called a ‘creative paradox’ or a ‘creadox’. The How-Now-Wow matrix is an idea selection tool that breaks the creadox by forcing people to weigh each idea on 2 parameters.

26. Impact and Effort Matrix

All problem-solving techniques hope to not only find solutions to a given problem or challenge but to find the best solution. When it comes to finding a solution, groups are invited to put on their decision-making hats and really think about how a proposed idea would work in practice.

The Impact and Effort Matrix is one of the problem-solving techniques that fall into this camp, empowering participants to first generate ideas and then categorize them into a 2×2 matrix based on impact and effort.

Activities that invite critical thinking while remaining simple are invaluable. Use the Impact and Effort Matrix to move from ideation and towards evaluating potential solutions before then committing to them.

Impact and Effort Matrix #gamestorming #decision making #action #remote-friendly In this decision-making exercise, possible actions are mapped based on two factors: effort required to implement and potential impact. Categorizing ideas along these lines is a useful technique in decision making, as it obliges contributors to balance and evaluate suggested actions before committing to them.

27. Dotmocracy

If you’ve followed each of the problem-solving steps with your group successfully, you should move towards the end of your process with heaps of possible solutions developed with a specific problem in mind. But how do you help a group go from ideation to putting a solution into action?

Dotmocracy – or Dot Voting -is a tried and tested method of helping a team in the problem-solving process make decisions and put actions in place with a degree of oversight and consensus.

One of the problem-solving techniques that should be in every facilitator’s toolbox, Dot Voting is fast and effective and can help identify the most popular and best solutions and help bring a group to a decision effectively.

Dotmocracy #action #decision making #group prioritization #hyperisland #remote-friendly Dotmocracy is a simple method for group prioritization or decision-making. It is not an activity on its own, but a method to use in processes where prioritization or decision-making is the aim. The method supports a group to quickly see which options are most popular or relevant. The options or ideas are written on post-its and stuck up on a wall for the whole group to see. Each person votes for the options they think are the strongest, and that information is used to inform a decision.

All facilitators know that warm-ups and icebreakers are useful for any workshop or group process. Problem-solving workshops are no different.

Use these problem-solving techniques to warm up a group and prepare them for the rest of the process. Activating your group by tapping into some of the top problem-solving skills can be one of the best ways to see great outcomes from your session.

Check-in/Check-out
Doodling Together
Show and Tell
Constellations
Draw a Tree

28. Check-in / Check-out

Solid processes are planned from beginning to end, and the best facilitators know that setting the tone and establishing a safe, open environment can be integral to a successful problem-solving process.

Check-in / Check-out is a great way to begin and/or bookend a problem-solving workshop. Checking in to a session emphasizes that everyone will be seen, heard, and expected to contribute.

If you are running a series of meetings, setting a consistent pattern of checking in and checking out can really help your team get into a groove. We recommend this opening-closing activity for small to medium-sized groups though it can work with large groups if they’re disciplined!

Check-in / Check-out #team #opening #closing #hyperisland #remote-friendly Either checking-in or checking-out is a simple way for a team to open or close a process, symbolically and in a collaborative way. Checking-in/out invites each member in a group to be present, seen and heard, and to express a reflection or a feeling. Checking-in emphasizes presence, focus and group commitment; checking-out emphasizes reflection and symbolic closure.

29. Doodling Together

Thinking creatively and not being afraid to make suggestions are important problem-solving skills for any group or team, and warming up by encouraging these behaviors is a great way to start.

Doodling Together is one of our favorite creative ice breaker games – it’s quick, effective, and fun and can make all following problem-solving steps easier by encouraging a group to collaborate visually. By passing cards and adding additional items as they go, the workshop group gets into a groove of co-creation and idea development that is crucial to finding solutions to problems.

Doodling Together #collaboration #creativity #teamwork #fun #team #visual methods #energiser #icebreaker #remote-friendly Create wild, weird and often funny postcards together & establish a group’s creative confidence.

30. Show and Tell

You might remember some version of Show and Tell from being a kid in school and it’s a great problem-solving activity to kick off a session.

Asking participants to prepare a little something before a workshop by bringing an object for show and tell can help them warm up before the session has even begun! Games that include a physical object can also help encourage early engagement before moving onto more big-picture thinking.

By asking your participants to tell stories about why they chose to bring a particular item to the group, you can help teams see things from new perspectives and see both differences and similarities in the way they approach a topic. Great groundwork for approaching a problem-solving process as a team!

Show and Tell #gamestorming #action #opening #meeting facilitation Show and Tell taps into the power of metaphors to reveal players’ underlying assumptions and associations around a topic The aim of the game is to get a deeper understanding of stakeholders’ perspectives on anything—a new project, an organizational restructuring, a shift in the company’s vision or team dynamic.

31. Constellations

Who doesn’t love stars? Constellations is a great warm-up activity for any workshop as it gets people up off their feet, energized, and ready to engage in new ways with established topics. It’s also great for showing existing beliefs, biases, and patterns that can come into play as part of your session.

Using warm-up games that help build trust and connection while also allowing for non-verbal responses can be great for easing people into the problem-solving process and encouraging engagement from everyone in the group. Constellations is great in large spaces that allow for movement and is definitely a practical exercise to allow the group to see patterns that are otherwise invisible.

Constellations #trust #connection #opening #coaching #patterns #system Individuals express their response to a statement or idea by standing closer or further from a central object. Used with teams to reveal system, hidden patterns, perspectives.

32. Draw a Tree

Problem-solving games that help raise group awareness through a central, unifying metaphor can be effective ways to warm-up a group in any problem-solving model.

Draw a Tree is a simple warm-up activity you can use in any group and which can provide a quick jolt of energy. Start by asking your participants to draw a tree in just 45 seconds – they can choose whether it will be abstract or realistic.

Once the timer is up, ask the group how many people included the roots of the tree and use this as a means to discuss how we can ignore important parts of any system simply because they are not visible.

All problem-solving strategies are made more effective by thinking of problems critically and by exposing things that may not normally come to light. Warm-up games like Draw a Tree are great in that they quickly demonstrate some key problem-solving skills in an accessible and effective way.

Draw a Tree #thiagi #opening #perspectives #remote-friendly With this game you can raise awarness about being more mindful, and aware of the environment we live in.

Each step of the problem-solving workshop benefits from an intelligent deployment of activities, games, and techniques. Bringing your session to an effective close helps ensure that solutions are followed through on and that you also celebrate what has been achieved.

Here are some problem-solving activities you can use to effectively close a workshop or meeting and ensure the great work you’ve done can continue afterward.

One Breath Feedback
Who What When Matrix
Response Cards

How do I conclude a problem-solving process?

All good things must come to an end. With the bulk of the work done, it can be tempting to conclude your workshop swiftly and without a moment to debrief and align. This can be problematic in that it doesn’t allow your team to fully process the results or reflect on the process.

At the end of an effective session, your team will have gone through a process that, while productive, can be exhausting. It’s important to give your group a moment to take a breath, ensure that they are clear on future actions, and provide short feedback before leaving the space.

The primary purpose of any problem-solving method is to generate solutions and then implement them. Be sure to take the opportunity to ensure everyone is aligned and ready to effectively implement the solutions you produced in the workshop.

Remember that every process can be improved and by giving a short moment to collect feedback in the session, you can further refine your problem-solving methods and see further success in the future too.

33. One Breath Feedback

Maintaining attention and focus during the closing stages of a problem-solving workshop can be tricky and so being concise when giving feedback can be important. It’s easy to incur “death by feedback” should some team members go on for too long sharing their perspectives in a quick feedback round.

One Breath Feedback is a great closing activity for workshops. You give everyone an opportunity to provide feedback on what they’ve done but only in the space of a single breath. This keeps feedback short and to the point and means that everyone is encouraged to provide the most important piece of feedback to them.

One breath feedback #closing #feedback #action This is a feedback round in just one breath that excels in maintaining attention: each participants is able to speak during just one breath … for most people that’s around 20 to 25 seconds … unless of course you’ve been a deep sea diver in which case you’ll be able to do it for longer.

34. Who What When Matrix

Matrices feature as part of many effective problem-solving strategies and with good reason. They are easily recognizable, simple to use, and generate results.

The Who What When Matrix is a great tool to use when closing your problem-solving session by attributing a who, what and when to the actions and solutions you have decided upon. The resulting matrix is a simple, easy-to-follow way of ensuring your team can move forward.

Great solutions can’t be enacted without action and ownership. Your problem-solving process should include a stage for allocating tasks to individuals or teams and creating a realistic timeframe for those solutions to be implemented or checked out. Use this method to keep the solution implementation process clear and simple for all involved.

Who/What/When Matrix #gamestorming #action #project planning With Who/What/When matrix, you can connect people with clear actions they have defined and have committed to.

35. Response cards

Group discussion can comprise the bulk of most problem-solving activities and by the end of the process, you might find that your team is talked out!

Providing a means for your team to give feedback with short written notes can ensure everyone is head and can contribute without the need to stand up and talk. Depending on the needs of the group, giving an alternative can help ensure everyone can contribute to your problem-solving model in the way that makes the most sense for them.

Response Cards is a great way to close a workshop if you are looking for a gentle warm-down and want to get some swift discussion around some of the feedback that is raised.

Response Cards #debriefing #closing #structured sharing #questions and answers #thiagi #action It can be hard to involve everyone during a closing of a session. Some might stay in the background or get unheard because of louder participants. However, with the use of Response Cards, everyone will be involved in providing feedback or clarify questions at the end of a session.

Save time and effort discovering the right solutions

A structured problem solving process is a surefire way of solving tough problems, discovering creative solutions and driving organizational change. But how can you design for successful outcomes?

With SessionLab, it’s easy to design engaging workshops that deliver results. Drag, drop and reorder blocks to build your agenda. When you make changes or update your agenda, your session timing adjusts automatically , saving you time on manual adjustments.

Collaborating with stakeholders or clients? Share your agenda with a single click and collaborate in real-time. No more sending documents back and forth over email.

Explore how to use SessionLab to design effective problem solving workshops or watch this five minute video to see the planner in action!

Over to you

The problem-solving process can often be as complicated and multifaceted as the problems they are set-up to solve. With the right problem-solving techniques and a mix of creative exercises designed to guide discussion and generate purposeful ideas, we hope we’ve given you the tools to find the best solutions as simply and easily as possible.

Is there a problem-solving technique that you are missing here? Do you have a favorite activity or method you use when facilitating? Let us know in the comments below, we’d love to hear from you!

thank you very much for these excellent techniques

Certainly wonderful article, very detailed. Shared!

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How to Build Your Problem-Solving Skills

Get curious, think big, and get outside of your comfort zone..

Posted March 4, 2022 | Reviewed by Tyler Woods

What Is a Career
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Get curious to alternative perspectives and viewpoints.
Daydream without restrictions to break thought patterns.
Think of alternative ways to do things should you need to be flexible.

People say you can't teach an old dog new tricks. I prefer the expression "it takes more effort to teach an old dog new tricks." Any time you want to learn something new it takes your brain a great amount of energy to build new neural pathways. If you are trying to change something you've already learned, it takes extra effort to build pathways that override the previous ones.

There are many ways to help build new skills, particularly problem-solving skills; they start with getting curious, thinking big, and then trying new things.

Get Curious

It will be hard to learn anything unless you are genuinely interested in it. So find ways to get curious. You can align the new topic to something that already motivates you—this can be a passion, a value, an attribute you like about yourself, or a goal you have. For example, you may want to be that go-to expert or may want to develop deeper relationships with others. Choose whatever will keep you engaged in the learning and build upon that. From there, here are some tips on how to get curious:

Block out time in your calendar to get curious, either in isolation or with others
Ponder and expose yourself to how people from an opposing viewpoint see a topic
Ask others their opinion or their input before making a choice
Ask people to walk you through how they made previous decisions
Reflect back on successes and failures: were there themes?
Have coffee with colleagues once-removed to understand what they do and figure out how your roles may intertwine
Find connections between others or the bigger picture. For example, how do the other department's objectives impact your day-to-day? How do your customers' actions impact your role?
Read the news and determine how events/laws/policies impact you or your organization

To see if you are building on your knowledge from someone else's viewpoint, say summary statements of what you have heard and whether you have heard them correctly.

Once you have had time to get curious and gather information, it's time to dream big. What would you do with unlimited time, money, and resources? What would you do if there were no office politics or bureaucracy? "Blue sky" thinking can help you get outside existing processes and thought patterns to find new solutions. Some tips on how to build daydreaming into your routine are:

Schedule time for daydreaming and block out distractions (either individually or as part of a team)
Break the adrenaline rush of firefighting the small problems. The quick checklist items feel good in the moment but don't contribute to your sense of meaning or purpose in your work
Think one step ahead, about how others may react to your moves
Become a student of the competitor. Act as if you are an employee of the competitor and try to understand why they are choosing their strategy
Consider how your daydreams could become reality. How much effort and resources are needed and compare it to the potential payoff

To check yourself on this is to see whether you are actually spending the time daydreaming. Whether it's weekly/monthly/quarterly, hold yourself accountable for achieving this goal.

Work outside your comfort zone

It's one thing to have a well-thought-out plan, but it's another to be able to flex that plan at a moment's notice. If you have done your due diligence in getting curious and daydreaming, you will know the pros/cons of contingency plans by understanding the drivers, the downstream implications, and who needs to be looped in. Here are some ideas and tips on how to try different solutions:

Make "what if" plans for likely risks/bumps in the process
Take on a task that is ambiguous or has a high likelihood of failing
Do a feasibility study to determine potential risks/rewards of a new idea
If and when resources are limited, look for alternatives (e.g., what tasks can be done with tightened budgets)
Offer to do the budget or forecast
Get out of perfectionist thinking and recognize when 80 percent is good enough

You will know your problem-solving skills are developing when you begin to get excited about change and ambiguity rather than anxious .

As learning and trying new things becomes more exciting and second nature, you will find that this energy transfers across your whole life. You are more likely to gain empathy for others , you can build resilience during stressful times , and you gain confidence and self-esteem to take on bigger challenges.

Lauren Florko has a Ph.D. in Industrial/Organizational Psychology. She also owns her own company, Triple Threat Consulting, based out of Vancouver, British Columbia.

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Front Psychol

The Role of Motivation in Complex Problem Solving

C. dominik güss.

1 Department of Psychology, University of North Florida, Jacksonville, FL, United States

Madison Lee Burger

Dietrich dörner.

2 Trimberg Research Academy, University of Bamberg, Bamberg, Germany

The role of motivation in complex problem solving

Previous research on Complex Problem Solving (CPS) has primarily focused on cognitive factors as outlined below. The current paper discusses the role of motivation during CPS and argues that motivation, emotion, and cognition interact and cannot be studied in an isolated manner. Motivation is the process that determines the energization and direction of behavior (Heckhausen, 1991 ).

Three motivation theories and their relation to CPS are examined: McClelland's achievement motivation, Maslow's hierarchy of needs, and Dörner's needs as outlined in PSI-theory. We chose these three theories for several reasons. First, space forces us to be selective. Second, the three theories are among the most prominent motivational theories. Finally, they are need theories postulating several motivations and not just one. A thinking-aloud protocol is provided to illustrate the role of motivational and cognitive dynamics in CPS.

Problems are part of all the domains of human life. The field of CPS investigates problems that are complex, dynamic, and non-transparent (Dörner, 1996 ). Complex problems consist of many interactively interrelated variables. Dynamic ones change and develop further over time, regardless of whether the involved people take action. And non-transparent problems have many aspects of the problem situation that are unclear or unknown to the involved people.

CPS researchers focus exactly on such kinds of problems. Under a narrow perspective, CPS can be defined as thinking that aims to overcome barriers and to reach goals in situations that are complex, dynamic, and non-transparent (Frensch and Funke, 1995 ). Indeed, past research has shown the influential role of task properties (Berry and Broadbent, 1984 ; Funke, 1985 ) and of cognitive factors on CPS strategies and performance, such as intelligence (e.g., Süß, 2001 ; Stadler et al., 2015 ), domain-specific knowledge (e.g., Wenke et al., 2005 ), cognitive biases and errors (e.g., Dörner, 1996 ; Güss et al., 2015 ), or self-reflection (e.g., Donovan et al., 2015 ).

Under a broader perspective, CPS can be defined as the study of cognitive, emotional, motivational, and social processes when people are confronted with such complex, dynamic and non-transparent problem situations (Schoppek and Putz-Osterloh, 2003 ; Dörner and Güss, 2011 , 2013 ; Funke, 2012 ). The assumption here is that focusing solely on cognitive processes reveals an incomplete picture or an inaccurate one.

To study CPS, researchers have often used computer-simulated problem scenarios also called microworlds or virtual environments or strategy games. In these situations, participants are confronted with a complex problem simulated on the computer from which they gather information, and identify solutions. These decisions are then implemented into the system and result in changes to the problem situation.

Previous research on motivation and CPS

The idea to study the interaction of motivation, emotion, and cognition is not new (Simon, 1967 ). However, in practice this has been rarely examined in the field of CPS. One study assessed the need for cognition (i.e., the tendency to engage in thinking and reflecting) and showed how high need of cognition was related to broader information collection and better performance in a management simulation (Nair and Ramnarayan, 2000 ).

Vollmeyer and Rheinberg ( 1999 , 2000 ) explored in two studies the role of motivational factors in CPS. They assessed mastery confidence (similar to self-efficacy), incompetence fear, interest, and challenge as motivational factors. Their results demonstrated that mastery confidence and incompetence fear were good predictors for learning and for knowledge acquisition.

CPS assessment

Before we describe three theories of motivation and how they might be related and applicable to CPS, we will briefly describe the WINFIRE computer simulation (Gerdes et al., 1993 ; Schaub, 2009 ) and provide a part of a thinking-aloud protocol of one participant while working on WINFIRE. WINFIRE is the simulation of small cities surrounded by forests. Participants take the role of fire-fighting commanders who try to protect cities and forests from approaching fires. Participants can give a series of commands to several fire trucks and helicopters. In WINFIRE quick decisions and multitasking are required in order to avoid fires spreading. In one study, participants were also instructed to think aloud, i.e., to say aloud everything that went through their minds while working on WINFIRE. These thinking-aloud protocols, also called verbal protocols, were audiotaped and transcribed in five countries and compared (see Güss et al., 2010 ).

The following is a verbatim WINFIRE thinking-aloud protocol of a US participant (Güss et al., 2010 ):

Ok, I don't see any fires yet. I'm trying to figure out how the helicopters pick up the water from the ponds. I put helicopters on patrol mode. Not really sure what that does. It doesn't seem to be moving. Oh, there it goes, it's moving…I guess you have to wait till there's a fire showing…Ok, fire just started in the middle, so I have to get some people to extinguish it. Ok, now I have another fire going here. I'm in trouble here. Ok. Ok, when I click extinguish, it don't seem to respond. Guess I'm not clear how to get trucks right to the fire. Ok, one fire has been extinguished, but a new one started in the same area. I'm getting more trucks out there trying to figure out, how to get helicopters to the pond. I still haven't figured that out, because they have to pick up the water. Ok, got a pretty good fire going here, so I'm going to put all the trucks on action, ok, water thing is making me mad. Ok. I'm not sure how it goes? Ok, the forest is burning up now—extinguish! Ok, ok, I'm in big trouble here…

Psychological theories of motivation and their application to CPS

Mcclelland's human motivation theory.

In his Human Motivation theory, McClelland distinguishes three needs (power, affiliation, and achievement) and argues that human motivation is a response to changes in affective states. A specific situation will cause a change in the affective state through the non-specific response of the autonomic nervous system. This response will motivate a person toward a goal to reach a different affective state (McClelland et al., 1953 ). An affective state may either be positive or negative, determining the direction of motivated behavior as either approach oriented, i.e., to maintain the state, or avoidance oriented, i.e., to avoid or discontinue the state (McClelland et al., 1953 ).

Motivation intensity varies among individuals based on perception of the stimulus and the adaptive abilities of the individual. Hence, when a discrepancy exists between expectation and perception, then a person will be motivated to eliminate this discrepancy (McClelland et al., 1953 ). In the statement from the thinking-aloud protocol we can infer the participant's achievement motivation, “ Guess I'm not clear how to get trucks right to the fire. Ok, one fire has been extinguished, but a new one started in the same area.” The participant at first begins to give up and reduce effort, but then achieves a step toward the goal. This achievement causes the reevaluation of the discrepancy between ability and the goal as not too large to overcome. This realization motivates the participant to continue working through the scenario. Whereas, the need for achievement seems to guide CPS, the needs for power and affiliation cannot be observed in the current thinking-aloud protocol.

Based on the previous discussion we can derive the following predictions:

Prediction 1 : Approach-orientation will lead to greater engagement in CPS compared to avoidance-orientation.
Prediction 2 : Based on an individual's experience either power, affiliation, or achievement will become dominant and guide the strategic approach in CPS.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow, 1943 , 1954 ) suggests that everyone has five basic needs that act as motivating forces in a person's life. Maslow's hierarchy takes the form of a pyramid in which needs lower in the pyramid are primary motivators. They have to be met before higher needs can become motivating forces. At the bottom of the pyramid are the most basic needs beginning with physiological needs, such as hunger, and followed by safety needs. Then follow the psychological needs of belongingness and love, and then esteem. Once these four groups of needs have been met, a person may reach the self-fulfillment stage of self-actualization at which time a person can be motivated to achieve ones full potential (Maslow, 1943 ).

The first four groups of needs are external motivators because they motivate through both deficiency and fulfillment. In essence, a person fulfills a need which then releases the next unsatisfied need to be the dominant motivator (Maslow, 1943 , 1954 ). The safety need is often understood as seeking shelter, but Maslow also understands safety also as wanting “a predictable, orderly world” (Maslow, 1943 , p. 377), “an organized world rather than an unorganized or unstructured one” (Maslow, 1943 , p. 377). Safety refers to the “common preference for familiar rather than unfamiliar things” (Maslow, 1943 , p. 379).

In this sense the safety need becomes active when the person does not understand what is happening in the microworld, as the following passage of the thinking-aloud protocol illustrates. “ I put helicopters on patrol mode. Not really sure what that does. It doesn't seem to be moving.” The safety need is demonstrated in the person's desire for organization, since unknown and unexpected events are seen as threats to safety.

The esteem need as a motivator becomes evident through the statement, “ Guess I'm not clear how to get trucks right to the fire.” The participant becomes aware of his inability to control the situation which affects his self-esteem. The esteem need is never fulfilled in the described situation and remains the primary motivator. The following statements show how affected the participant's esteem need is by the inability to control the burning fires. “ Ok. I'm not sure how it goes? Ok, the forest is burning up now—extinguish! Ok, ok, I'm in big trouble .”

Prediction 3 : A strong safety need will be related to elaborate and detailed information collection in CPS compared to low safety need.
Prediction 4 : People with high esteem needs will be affected more by difficulties in CPS and engage more often in behaviors to protect their esteem compared to people with low esteem needs.

Dörner's theory of motivation as part of PSI-theory

PSI-theory described the interaction of cognitive, emotional, and motivational processes (Dörner, 2003 ; Dörner and Güss, 2011 ). Only a small part of the theory is examined here. Briefly, the theory encompasses five basic human needs: the existential needs (thirst, hunger, and pain avoidance), the sexuality need, and the social need for affiliation (group binding), the need for certainty (predictability), and the need for competence (mastery). If the environment is unpredictable, the certainty need becomes active. If we are not able to cope with problems, the competence need becomes active. The need for competence also becomes active when any other need becomes activated. With an increase in needs, the arousal increases.

The first three needs cannot be observed or inferred from the thinking-aloud protocol provided. Statements like, “I'm trying to figure out how the helicopters pick up the water from the ponds.” and “Guess I'm not clear how to get trucks right to the fire,” demonstrate the needs for certainty and competence, i.e., to make the environment predictable and controllable.

The following statements reflect the participant's need for competence, i.e., the inefficacy or incapability of coping with problems. “ I'm in trouble here…ok, water thing is making me mad .” Not being able to extinguish the fires that are approaching cities and are destroying forests is experienced as anger. The arousal rises as the resolution level of thinking decreases. So, the participant does not think about different options in an elaborate manner. Yet, the participant becomes aware of his failure. The competence need then causes the participant to search for possible solutions, “ I still haven't figured that out because they have to pick up the water…” The need for competence is satisfied when the problem solver is able to change either the environment or ones views of the environment.

Prediction 5 : A strong certainty need is positively related to a strong competence need.
Prediction 6 : High need for certainty paired with high need for competence can lead to safeguarding behavior, i.e., background monitoring.
Prediction 7 : An increase in the competence and uncertainty needs leads to increased arousal and a lower resolution level of thinking. CPS becomes one-dimensional and possible long-term and side-effects are not considered adequately.

Summary and evaluation

We have briefly discussed three motivation theories and their relation to CPS referring to one thinking-aloud protocol: McClelland's achievement motivation, Maslow's hierarchy of needs, and Dörner's needs as outlined in PSI-theory.

A Comparison of Three Need Theories in the Context of CPS.

Comparing the scope of the three theories and referring to the scope and different needs covered in the three theories, McClelland's theory describes three needs (power, affiliation, and achievement), Maslow's theory describes five groups of needs (physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem, self-actualization), and Dörner's theory describes five different needs (existential, sexuality, affiliation, certainty, and competence).

All three theories can be applied to CPS. McClelland's need for achievement, Maslow's needs for esteem and safety, and Dörner's needs for certainty and competence could be inferred from the thinking–aloud passage. The need for affiliation which is a part of each of the three theories could play an important role when groups solve complex problems.

The existential needs and the need for affiliation outlined in PSI-theory can also be found in Maslow's hierarchy of needs. These two theories differ in the adaptability of the needs. However, Maslow's esteem needs are only activated as the primary motivator as the physiological needs, belongingness, and love needs are met. The needs are more fluidly described as motivators in PSI-theory. One need becomes the dominant motive according to the expectancy–value principle. Expectancy stands for the estimated likelihood of success. The value of a motive stands for the strength of the need. According to McClelland's theory, the role of three motivations develops through life experience in a specific culture; and often times, one of the three becomes the main driving force for a person, almost like a personality trait. In that sense, there is not much flexibility.

Motivation and emotion are closely related as became partially clear in the discussion of McClelland's theory. Emotions are discussed in detail in PSI-theory, but space does not allow us to discuss those in detail here (see Dörner, 2003 ). Emotions are not described in detail in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.

Individual differences in motivation and needs are discussed in two of the three theories. According to McClelland, a person develops an individual achievement motive by learning one's own abilities from past achievements and failures. Based on different learning histories, different persons will have a different dominant motivation guiding behavior in a given situation. Learning history also influences the competence need in PSI-theory. Additionally PSI-theory assumes individual differences that are simulated through different individual motivational parameters in the theory. The certainty need, for example, becomes active when there is a deviation from a given set point. Individual differences are related to different set points and how sensitive the deviations are (e.g., deviation starts quickly vs. deviation starts slowly).

The thinking-aloud example from the WINFIRE microworld described earlier demonstrates that a person's CPS process is influenced by the person's needs. We have focused in our discussion on motivational processes that are considered in the framework of need theories. Beyond that, other motivational theories exist that focus on the importance of motivation for learning and achievement (e.g., expectancy, reasons for engagement, see Eccles and Wigfield, 2002 ). Thus, the applicability of these theories to CPS could be explored in future studies as well.

We discussed the three motivational theories of McClelland's Achievement Motivation, Maslow's Hierarchy of Need, and Dörner's Theory of Motivation as part of PSI-Theory. Although, the theories differ our discussion has shown that the three theories can be applied to CPS. Problem solving is a motivated process and determined by human motivations and needs.

Author contributions

The first author CG conceptualized the manuscript, selected the thinking-aloud passage, the second author MB primarily summarized McClellands and Maslow's theories. All authors contributed to writing up the manuscript.

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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17 Motivation Worksheets, Exercises & Activities (+ PDF)

All the same, it’s good to have a few tricks up our sleeve, whether trying to motivate ourselves or someone on our team, classroom, or at home.

Hard work beats talent when talent doesn’t work hard.

This article is a form of motivation toolbox that contains several motivational activities and worksheets as well as suggestions (new and old) for how to intervene in our motivational states.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Goal Achievement Exercises for free . These detailed, science-based exercises will help you or your clients create actionable goals and master techniques to create lasting behavior change.

This Article Contains:

Motivation worksheets, motivational activities, motivation board, motivation and meditation, motivation courses, motivational quotes, motivation resources, a take-home message.

In our search for the just-right recipe for motivation, we need to understand first what motivates us. We begin with awareness building tools in the form of questionnaires.

The first worksheet will help us assess the satisfaction of basic psychological needs. Then we will move to the exploration of our mechanisms that support or thwart motivation. We will explore our self-esteem and take an inventory of our curiosity before we dive into what else might get in the way and cause us to procrastinate.

Once equipped with a good map of our current motivational needs, we move on to interventions that help alter our emotional states toward the positive and bring on a sense of wellbeing, which can be used to increase our motivation toward goal pursuit.

Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction in General (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Gagné, 2003)

According to the self-determination theory, the needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness must be continually satisfied for people to develop and function in healthy and optimal ways (Deci & Ryan, 2000).

Please read each of the following items carefully, thinking about how it relates to your life, and then indicate how true it is for you. Use the following 7-point scale to respond, with the values 2 or 3 and 5 or 6 graded responses.

1 – Not true at all
4 – Somewhat true
7 – Very true

Scoring information: Form three subscale scores, one for the degree to which the person experiences satisfaction of each of the three needs. To do that, you must first reverse score all items that are worded in a negative way shown below with (R) following the items numbers.

To reverse score an item, simply subtract the item response from 8. Thus, for example, a two would be converted to a 6. Once you have reverse scored the items, average the items on the relevant subscale:

Autonomy: 1, 4(R), 8, 11(R), 14, 17, 20(R) Competence: 3(R), 5, 10, 13, 15(R), 19(R) Relatedness: 2, 6, 7(R), 9, 12, 16(R), 18(R), 21

The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965)

The scale is a ten-item Likert scale with items answered on a four-point scale – from strongly agree to strongly disagree.

Instructions: Below is a list of statements dealing with your general feelings about yourself. If you strongly agree, circle SA. If you agree with the statement, circle A. If you disagree, circle D. If you strongly disagree, circle SD.

Scoring: SA=3, A=2, D=1, SD=0. Items with an asterisk are reverse scored, that is, SA=0, A=1, D=2, SD=3. Sum the scores for the ten items. The higher the score, the higher the self-esteem. We also discuss the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale with questionnaires in detail in our blog.

Curiosity Inventory

Curiosity has been positively linked to intrinsic motivation and is considered by some a vital psychological mechanism for achieving more of it. Trait curiosity and exploration inventory designed by Kashdan to measure our inclination to inherently rewarding pursuits. Curiosity has been linked to many health and social benefits (2009).

Rate the following statements on how they describe how you generally feel. Score each response as follows:

Extremely characteristic
Moderately characteristic
Moderately uncharacteristic
Extremely uncharacteristic

Procrastination Scale (Lay, 1986)

Students may use the following statements to describe themselves. For each statement, decide whether the statement is uncharacteristic or characteristic of you using the following 5-point scale.

Note that the three on the scale is Neutral – the statement is neither characteristic nor uncharacteristic of you. To the right of each statement, write the number on the 5-point scale that best describes you.

Note: Reversed-keyed items: 3,4,6,8,11,13,14,15,18,20

Changes in emotion and perceptions of wellbeing can be used as feedback in the effort to motivate others in productive ways. Several subjective experiences of wellbeing can be achieved through practicing gratitude, cultivation of hope through visualization, or through learning to exercise one’s strengths. These, in turn, can be used to support increased motivation and produce a gradual change in behavior.

Here are some examples of worksheets used by Robert Biswas-Diener as tools for increasing positive emotions and cognitions from his manual for coaching positive psychology. These are prime examples of intervention that alter emotional states toward the positive or re-frame our way of thinking toward the more optimistic end of the spectrum.

Happiness is liquid

Happiness is liquid, in the same way, that monetary instruments such as stocks are liquid. Humans are built with emotional systems that include the capacity for happiness. It is a type of emotional currency that can be spent, like money, on the outcomes in life we truly value, such as our health, our relationships, and success at work.

One way to appreciate the existing wealth we all possess is to notice and magnify moments when we either receive from or give kindness to others.

Reflect on the following questions:

Who acknowledged you today?
How did it feel when you were acknowledged? Try visualizing that moment.
What else would you like to be acknowledged for?
Who had a hand in the day’s greatest successes?
Who rose to the occasion?
Who took initiative?
Who offered support?
How were these people acknowledged?
How does it make you feel when you think of these things?
What does it make you feel like doing?

Coaching Questions for the Ideal Self

Reflect on the image of your ideal self by answering the following questions. This can be done in the form of powerful open-ended questioning during a coaching session or assigned as a writing exercise.

How well articulated is the ideal self?
How important is it to you to achieve the ideal self?
When are you planning to make the changes associated with achieving the ideal self?
What resources and opportunities do you have that will help you work toward your ideal self?
What hurdles do you anticipate? How can these be part of the growth process?
What factors inform your vision of your ideal self?
How internal (as opposed to external) are the values that inform your ideal self?
What person, living or dead, is similar to your ideal self?
Name a single, small behavior you can change as the first step toward your ideal self.
How can you chart your progress toward your ideal self?

Creating an ideal self-imagine in the future

It may be the near future or several years from now. Imagine this is a future in which you have gotten many of the things you want from life and accomplished many of the things to which you aspire.

Take a couple of minutes to picture what you are like and what your life is like. Imagine where you would be living, where you would be working. Imagine what your commute is like, your health is like, your friendships are like. Imagine the skills you have and the opportunities you have for growth.

Picture the types of decisions you have made and the goals you have achieved.

This can be done in the form of powerful open-ended questioning during a coaching session or assigned as a writing exercise.

Describe where would you be living.
What is it you value in living arrangements and circumstances that you would like to achieve?
To what extent is this vision of your future living arrangements internal versus the product of some external factor or someone else’s values?
Describe your work life: your commute, your office, your position, the type of work you would do.
What is it you value in work that you would like to achieve in this ideal future?
To what extent is this vision of your future work the product of internal versus the product of some external factor or someone else’s values?

Now that the client has a vision of a desired future, we can help him or her move toward goal setting.

Setting SMART+R Goals

Setting SMART+R Goals offers a different take on SMART goals that assigns more importance to indicators of making progress and measuring progress against specific targets.

This flow also incorporates room for scheduled rewards, to encourage positive reinforcement when a target is reached.

Another way to track progress would be to use technology. Feedback tracking technologies have been designed to help address progress feedback.

The pursuit of quantifiable objectives often guides our lives. When something gets in the way of sustaining the motivation necessary for achieving those goals, we can use self-tracking technologies to motivate ourselves and others.

Goal progress feedback with valences and visualization features can influences commitment and persistence across a broad range of domains, including physical tasks and purchasing behaviors, according to recent data from social and consumer psychology research.

Here is a quick list of what’s out there:

Habit Tracker
GoalsOnTrack
Way Of Life

Building New Habits

Implementation Intentions, also known as ‘ If, then ‘ plans can be very helpful in planning for all the eventualities when something gets in the way of achieving our goals. Normally we would brainstorm ahead of time to have a back-up plan for when known detractors get in the way of getting things done.

We suggest that occasionally, we introduce a reward into this plan of action to even further motivate persistence on goal. This Building New Habits exercise helps you do this by working through the three steps of The Habit Loop: cue, behavior , and reward .

One model of goal setting conversation is the Auerbach GOOD coaching model (2015). It can be used for structuring coaching sessions in a way that progresses from goal setting and exploring options to action planning and accountability.

Auerbach GOOD coaching model:

Goals – define the most important goals a client wants to work toward

Options – explore option is available to help them move forward

Obstacles – name obstacles that might get in the way of progress

Do – specify what is the client going to do specifically and by when

To expand on these steps of the GOOD model, here are questions you can ask at each stage and all while practicing empathy, active listening, and providing support.

Goal phase:

What is a goal you want to focus on?
When you are successful with this goal, what will it look like?
What makes this goal important to you?
How does this goal fit into your vision?
When you reach your desired outcome, how would you like to feel?
What type of change would make your life even better?

Options phase:

What is some way your goal could be accomplished?
Tell me about a time you accomplished something similar?
What ways have you seen others approach such a task?
What action can you take to achieve your goal?
If you choose not to take some of the actions, what will be the impact?

Obstacles phase:

What could get in the way of you moving forward with pursuing your goal?
What external challenges might interfere?
What internal challenges might get in the way?
Who can you get support from?
What strategies are you willing to employ to reach your objective?
What specifically are you going to do, and when?
How will you know you’re making progress?
What is the most immediate action you can take, and when?
How long will it take, and when will you complete it?

Work-style scale questionnaire

Designed to distinguish four distinct types of motivational approaches to work: procrastinators, incubators, planners, and triflers (Biswas-Diener, 2010).

4= perfectly describes me 3= describes me somewhat 2= does not describe me 1= does not describe me at all

A= I always get my work completed on time B= The quality of my work is superior C= It takes a looming deadline to motivate me D= I do my best work under pressure E= I like to get started on the project right away

Use the following description to score the work-style questionnaire by looking for the following constellations of high scores:

Planners: are self-motivated, strategize their work, and tend to start right away even on the long-term project. Planners generally score high on items A, B, and E.

Incubators: thrive on deadlines, put off work till the last minute but always complete work on time, and produce high quality. Incubators generally score high on items A, B, C, and D.

Triflers: start work early but get distracted and lose interest easily. Triflers generally score high on item E and low on items A and B.

Procrastinators: put off work till the last minute and often hand in mediocre work. Procrastinators generally score high on items C and D and low on items A and B.

FLOW questionnaire

Intrinsically motivating activities can be identified through the experience sampling method originally used by Csikszentmihalyi to identify the states of flow (1990). The below questionnaire can help clients understand how they allocate attention throughout the day and if they spend a lot of time investing their energy effectively.

This should be done over at least a week but preferably two. Ask the client to set their phone to prompt him or her during the day at random times to notice what they are doing and jot down the answers to the following questions:

At this moment, what are you doing, and who are you with?
How satisfied are you on a scale of 1 to 10?
No skills needed
Some skills required
A moderate amount of skills used
Had to stretch to do this activity
Doing this because you have nothing else to do
Doing this because I am told to
Doing this because I have to
Doing this because I want to
How challenged are you by the activity on a scale of 1 to 10?
How much are you concentrating on a scale of 1 to 10?

A recent study where subjects were asked to deliberately not engage in intrinsically motivating activities showed a decrease in the sense of wellbeing in just two days (Pink, 2009).

Path that’s right for me

Using strengths, according to Govinji and Linley leads to wellbeing and vitality and promotes self-efficacy and believing that you can accomplish your goals (2007). Here is a questionnaire their study was based on, followed by reflection questions about using strengths in a new way which often leads to better progress toward goals:

I am regularly able to do what I do best
I always play to my strengths
I always try to use my strengths
I achieve what I want by using my strengths
I use my strengths every day
I use my strengths to get what I want every day
My work gives me a lot of opportunities to use my strengths
My life presents me with a lot way to use my strengths
Using my strengths comes naturally to me
I find it easy to use my strengths in the things I do
I am able to use my strengths in a lot of different situations
Most of my time is spent doing things I am good at doing
Using my strengths is something I am familiar with
I am able to use my strength in a lot of different ways

Here are questions that can be used for reflecting on leveraging strengths toward goal pursuit:

What are some new ways in which you can use strengths?
What strengths are you using today?
How can you spend more time this week doing things that you are good at?
How can you use your strengths this week to achieve your goal?

Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP)

Neuro linguistic programming techniques you can use instantly.

Although the methods themselves have not been scientifically tested, some of the techniques used by the neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) have shown to be effective in increasing positive emotional states and can be linked to well-known psychological phenomena.

NLP has been used to increase self-awareness and to help spot negative patterns, thoughts, and assumptions that may be worth replacing. We discuss two commonly used NLP methods below; first to alter emotional states toward the positive in the moment, and the second to combat thoughts that trigger anxiety by visualizing alternative responses.

Anchoring technique is based on the psychological concepts of operant conditioning, where a stimulus triggers specific responses that were conditioned through repetition. The goal of the practice is to learn to elicit positive emotional responses at will so one can use them as needed. Anchoring is intended to improve our ability to control emotions and allows us to take an active role in self-regulation.

How to use the anchoring technique:

Bring to mind a memory of the time you felt really good where you experienced intense positive feelings you want to trigger in other situations (e.g., feeling achievement the moment you got a promotion).
Try to remember details of what you saw, felt, smelt, and heard to bring in sensory cues associated with that memory and to intensify it to be as vivid as possible.
At this point, associate your feelings to an anchor, which could be a gesture of any kind like twisting a ring on your finger or pinching your earlobe, for example.
Take a short break and repeat the steps above.
Test the anchor by performing the action and observe if it elicits the positive feelings.
You can then use this method whenever you need an emotional pick-me-up.

The Swish Method attempts to identify mental and emotional triggers of negativity and replace them with a typical response.

In this technique, you don’t have to take any action but become aware of the alternatives available to you in terms of how you respond to negative thoughts and emotions.

Driven by the principle that seeing is believing, the Swish Method is a visualization technique based on the assumption that our mind often does not differentiate between real and visualized events, as they both activate the same parts of the brain.

How to put the Swish Method into action:

Identify a thought and the associated feelings that usually trigger anxiety for you. You’re about to deliver a speech and feel nervous and uneasy.
Notice how your mind and body react. This can be a sensation of butterflies in your stomach or brain fog.
Bring to mind a visual image of the context in which this happens. This could be as you walk into the room or get up to the podium.
Think about how you would ideally like to respond as you physically enter the context in which the negative thoughts take place. You may choose to be calm, confident, well-prepared, optimistic, etc.
This will become your replacement thought. In your mind, visualize the negative state and figuratively place the replacement thought over it, make sure it appears bigger, stronger, and more vibrant while making the negative emotion appear in black and white or blurry.
You will need to practice the Swish Method a few times to ensure the replacement thought becomes the default response. Do it at least five times and speed up the visualization with each round. To check for effectiveness, evoke the trigger thought/feeling and its context, and see how you feel about it.

Oblique Strategies

Oblique Strategies (subtitled Over One Hundred Worthwhile Dilemmas) is a card-based method for promoting creativity designed by Brian Eno and Peter Schmidt, first published in 1975.

Here are examples of these statements:

Don’t be afraid of things because they’re easy to do.
Honor thy error as a hidden intention.
Turn it upside down.
Go slowly all the way round the outside.
Make a sudden, destructive unpredictable action; incorporate.
What is the reality of the situation?
Look closely at the most embarrassing details and amplify them.
You can only make one dot at a time.
Are there sections? Consider transitions.
Infinitesimal gradations.
Ask your body.
Look at the order in which you do things.
What are you really thinking about just now? Incorporate.
Use unqualified people.
Disconnect from desire.
Into the impossible.
Work at a different speed.
Discover the recipes you are using and abandon them.
Make an exhaustive list of everything you might do and do the last thing on the list.
Do nothing for as long as possible.
Humanize something free of error.
Define an area as ‘safe’ and use it as an anchor.
Emphasize repetitions.
Take away the elements in order of apparent non-importance.
Ask people to work against their better judgment.
Listen to the quiet voice.
Trust in the you of now.
Abandon normal instruments.
Repetition is a form of change.
Make a blank valuable by putting it in an exquisite frame.
The inconsistency principle.
Not building a wall but making a brick.
Faced with a choice, do both.
Be less critical more often.

Some call it a vision board, and it is basically a visual incentive that can help you find excitement and enthusiasm through pictures of what you want, making it harder to ignore than words. It should be placed somewhere where you can see it every day because out of sight is out of mind.

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Practicing meditation can help increase and sustain motivation toward goal pursuit. Meditation helps with concentration and allows us to stay focused for longer. Meditation also reduces stress as it promotes relaxation. Meditation improves cognition and increases the ability to perform tasks that requires focus. Meditation allows us to become more aware of our emotions.

Meditation, when practiced for as little as 10 minutes per day, can help clear the mental clutter that distracts us from our goal, not to mention decrease anxiety and improve our cardiovascular health.

There are many guided meditations that target specific outcomes: learning relaxation, practicing focus and concentration, reducing stress, rumination, anxiety, and chronic pain, cultivating self-awareness and body awareness as well as insight meditation for practicing acceptance.

Many can be downloaded as an app or found on websites, meditative music playlists, podcasts , videos, blogs, and for those who are so inclined, nature is always a great option. There are courses and classes on meditation, both online and in-person, offered through local providers and even employers.

Ironically enough, many complain about not being able to find the motivation to meditate as there are some preconceived notions about the amount of effort required. It is often best to start small with something readily available, perhaps as a replacement of something that may not be the best use of our time, like browsing the social media while waiting for the next appointment.

Motivational Questions

They are always open-ended and often thought-provoking.

They are a well-known tool for any coach and, when expertly used, can be quite effective as a motivational technique at any point and in most situations.

It is a skill that requires some practice; however, empowering questions is rarely something we learn at home or school.

What value does this goal represent to you?
How will you celebrate your victory?
How would that contribute to the world?
What about this goal demonstrates what you stand for?
What keeps you going?
What really excites you about that?
What about this goal fits into your purpose?
What part of this relates to your dreams?
If you had all the time, energy and money to achieve your goals, what would you do?
Why is that important to you?
What do you want to experience?
What works well?
What’s another way to look at that?
How can you reframe that to help you move on?
How will you demonstrate motivation and perseverance?

Many coaching programs offer mastery courses, and it is often a part of the curriculum to teach self-mastery to coaches who impart their knowledge to their clients. Courses on motivation are also offered as online courses through:

Skillashare

And if you’re overwhelmed with choices offered through these platforms, you can go to Class Central website to see a complete list of MOOC courses.

You can also enroll in a personal mastery program, and some of the well-known institutions that offer those are:

Sounds true
The Rao Institute

There are also several Mastery Programs for teens. Those are most effective as in-person after school or summer camp type programs that allow the teens to develop self-mastery through activities that:

Give Responsible Tasks
Work in Groups
Positive Competition
Evaluation Programs
Switch Roles
Field Trips

Finally, there are many ways to hold Team building activities for employees. From local providers to HR or employee organized events, at the office or off-site, team building has been used to bond, promote collaboration, and spread fun through the office.

Some companies like Atlassian take team building to the next level. They use innovation fairs where teams go offsite and am given all the beer and chocolate cake they can handle, as long as they originate, develop, and deliver new products, new services, or business process improvements overnight.

Men’s best successes come after their disappointments.

Henry Ward Beecher

Do not wait to strike till the iron is hot; but make it hot by striking.

William B. Sprague

Motivation is a fire from within. If someone else tries to light that fire under you, chances are it will burn very briefly.

Stephen R. Covey

Success is not the key to happiness. Happiness is the key to success. If you love what you are doing, you will be successful.

Albert Schweitzer

Desire is the starting point of all achievement, not a hope, not a wish, but a keen pulsating desire which transcends everything.

Napoleon Hill

You can have anything you want if you are willing to give up the belief that you can’t have it.

Robert Anthony

Great spirits have always encountered violent opposition from mediocre minds.

Albert Einstein

When you want to succeed as bad as you want to breathe, then you’ll be successful.

Eric Thomas

A man can be as great as he wants to be. If you believe in yourself and have the courage, the determination, the dedication, the competitive drive and if you are willing to sacrifice the little things in life and pay the price for the things that are worthwhile, it can be done.

Vince Lombardi

The question isn’t who is going to let me; it’s who is going to stop me.

17 Tools To Increase Motivation and Goal Achievement

These 17 Motivation & Goal Achievement Exercises [PDF] contain all you need to help others set meaningful goals, increase self-drive, and experience greater accomplishment and life satisfaction.

Created by Experts. 100% Science-based.

Our suggestion for creating a toolbox of motivational resources would be to take the time to try out a few motivational strategies and choose a few that can be used in the moment as well as some that are more appropriate for long term goal setting, as well as cultivating motivational muscle and investing in the future ability to find motivation at will.

In the moment strategies could include:

Affirmations

Long term motivation

Ideal future-self visualization
Explore strengths and use them in novel ways
Find moments of flow through ESM method to get straight to intrinsic motivation

Investment in the future of growing the motivational muscle:

Assess the satisfaction of psychological needs
Hire a coach
Take a motivational course or mastery modeling program

While the suggestions for how to get motivated abound, the actual value of motivational tools comes from learning to use them and use them well.

I suppose it is tempting, if the only tool you have is a hammer, to treat everything as if it were a nail.

Abraham Maslow

The law of the instrument, otherwise known as Maslow’s hammer, remind us that we have a cognitive bias to over-rely on a familiar tool.

If you’re looking for more science-based ways to help others reach their goals, this collection contains 17 validated motivation & goals-achievement tools for practitioners. Use them to help others turn their dreams into reality by applying the latest science-based behavioral change techniques.

The irony in writing this article was trying to find the motivation to do it. Because having learned a lot about it was a small part of the process. We all know how to live our lives well, yet few of us can bring ourselves to do it. Although it is important to understand what motivation is, ultimately, it is much more important to experience what motivation does.

Do you have a favorite motivational strategy or technique? Please share it with us here.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Goal Achievement Exercises for free .

Auerbach, J. E. (2015). Positive Psychology in Coaching. Pismo Beach, CA; Executive College Press.
Biswas-Diener, R. (2016, September). Role of emotions in coaching. Paper presented at the ICF Advance: Science of Coaching conference, Phoenix, AZ.
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1990). Origins and functions of positive and negative affect: a control-process view. Psychological Review, 97(1), 19-35
Crandal, R. (1973). The measurement of self-esteem and related constructs, Pp. 80-82 in J.P. Robinson & P.R. Shaver (Eds), Measures of social psychological attitudes. Revised edition. Ann Arbor: ISR. Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Wylie, R. C. (1974). The self-concept. Revised edition. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behav i or. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227-268 .
Deci, E. L., Ryan, R. M., Gagné, M., Leone, D. R., Usunov, J., & Kornazheva, B. P. (2001). Need satisfaction, motivation, and well-being in the work organizations of a former Eastern Bloc country. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, in press.
Gagné, M. (2003). The role of autonomy support and autonomy orientation in prosocial behavior engagement. Motivation and Emotion, 27, 199-223 .
Ilardi, B. C., Leone, D., Kasser, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1993). Employee and supervisor ratings of motivation: Main effects and discrepancies associated with job satisfaction and adjustment in a factory setting. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 23, 1789-1805 .
Kasser, T., Davey, J., & Ryan, R. M. (1992). Motivation, dependability, and employee supervisor discrepancies in psychiatric vocational rehabilitation settings. Rehabilitation Psychology, 37, 175-187 .
Lay, C. (1986). At last, my research article on procrastination. Journal of Research in Personality, 20, 474-495 .
Locke, E., & Latham, G. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57(9), 705-717 .
Thogersen-Ntoumani, C., Ntoumanis, N., Cumming, J., & Chatzisarantis, N. L. D. (2011). When feeling attractive matters too much to women: A process underpinning the relation between psychological need satisfaction and unhealthy weight control behaviors. Motivation and Emotion, 35, 413–422 .

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I love it! I motivate myself when I organize things. I cannot live without a to-do-list, like Bordio for example. It changed my perspective on motivation.

A very nice different and varied work sheets about problem -solving skills this. I appreciate this. thanks a lot.

thank you for motivational activities articles and motivational worksheet. I feel happy to study about these .your tasks appreciated.

Thank you Ms. Souders for this informative article. It has set me to explore new areas that I did not know earlier . The quotes are insightful. The ones that inspired me the most are: Hard work beats talent when talent doesn’t work hard.-Tim Notke Do not wait to strike till the iron is hot; but make it hot by striking.-William B. Sprague

You motivated me to start Positive Psychology classes 🙂 , thanks a lot for your sincerity and efforts.

What a insightful reading especially at the begging of the year as the Student counselor . i will have a great guide how to motivate them

Thankyou, what a thorough, insightful read. It is so useful to me, Thankyou, much appreciated!

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Why Problem-Solving Skills Are Essential for Leaders in Any Industry

Business man leading team in problem-solving exercise with white board

17 Jan 2023

Any organization offering a product or service is in the business of solving problems.

Whether providing medical care to address health issues or quick convenience to those hungry for dinner, a business’s purpose is to satisfy customer needs .

In addition to solving customers’ problems, you’ll undoubtedly encounter challenges within your organization as it evolves to meet customer needs. You’re likely to experience growing pains in the form of missed targets, unattained goals, and team disagreements.

Yet, the ubiquity of problems doesn’t have to be discouraging; with the right frameworks and tools, you can build the skills to solve consumers' and your organization’s most challenging issues.

Here’s a primer on problem-solving in business, why it’s important, the skills you need, and how to build them.

Access your free e-book today.

What Is Problem-Solving in Business?

Problem-solving is the process of systematically removing barriers that prevent you or others from reaching goals.

Your business removes obstacles in customers’ lives through its products or services, just as you can remove obstacles that keep your team from achieving business goals.

Design Thinking

Design thinking , as described by Harvard Business School Dean Srikant Datar in the online course Design Thinking and Innovation , is a human-centered , solutions-based approach to problem-solving and innovation. Originally created for product design, design thinking’s use case has evolved . It’s now used to solve internal business problems, too.

The design thinking process has four stages :

Clarify: Clarify a problem through research and feedback from those impacted.
Ideate: Armed with new insights, generate as many solutions as possible.
Develop: Combine and cull your ideas into a short list of viable, feasible, and desirable options before building prototypes (if making physical products) and creating a plan of action (if solving an intangible problem).
Implement: Execute the strongest idea, ensuring clear communication with all stakeholders about its potential value and deliberate reasoning.

Using this framework, you can generate innovative ideas that wouldn’t have surfaced otherwise.

Creative Problem-Solving

Another, less structured approach to challenges is creative problem-solving , which employs a series of exercises to explore open-ended solutions and develop new perspectives. This is especially useful when a problem’s root cause has yet to be defined.

You can use creative problem-solving tools in design thinking’s “ideate” stage, which include:

Brainstorming: Instruct everyone to develop as many ideas as possible in an allotted time frame without passing judgment.
Divergent thinking exercises: Rather than arriving at the same conclusion (convergent thinking), instruct everyone to come up with a unique idea for a given prompt (divergent thinking). This type of exercise helps avoid the tendency to agree with others’ ideas without considering alternatives.
Alternate worlds: Ask your team to consider how various personas would manage the problem. For instance, how would a pilot approach it? What about a young child? What about a seasoned engineer?

It can be tempting to fall back on how problems have been solved before, especially if they worked well. However, if you’re striving for innovation, relying on existing systems can stunt your company’s growth.

Related: How to Be a More Creative Problem-Solver at Work: 8 Tips

Why Is Problem-Solving Important for Leaders?

While obstacles’ specifics vary between industries, strong problem-solving skills are crucial for leaders in any field.

Whether building a new product or dealing with internal issues, you’re bound to come up against challenges. Having frameworks and tools at your disposal when they arise can turn issues into opportunities.

As a leader, it’s rarely your responsibility to solve a problem single-handedly, so it’s crucial to know how to empower employees to work together to find the best solution.

Your job is to guide them through each step of the framework and set the parameters and prompts within which they can be creative. Then, you can develop a list of ideas together, test the best ones, and implement the chosen solution.

Related: 5 Design Thinking Skills for Business Professionals

4 Problem-Solving Skills All Leaders Need

1. problem framing.

One key skill for any leader is framing problems in a way that makes sense for their organization. Problem framing is defined in Design Thinking and Innovation as determining the scope, context, and perspective of the problem you’re trying to solve.

“Before you begin to generate solutions for your problem, you must always think hard about how you’re going to frame that problem,” Datar says in the course.

For instance, imagine you work for a company that sells children’s sneakers, and sales have plummeted. When framing the problem, consider:

What is the children’s sneaker market like right now?
Should we improve the quality of our sneakers?
Should we assess all children’s footwear?
Is this a marketing issue for children’s sneakers specifically?
Is this a bigger issue that impacts how we should market or produce all footwear?

While there’s no one right way to frame a problem, how you do can impact the solutions you generate. It’s imperative to accurately frame problems to align with organizational priorities and ensure your team generates useful ideas for your firm.

To solve a problem, you need to empathize with those impacted by it. Empathy is the ability to understand others’ emotions and experiences. While many believe empathy is a fixed trait, it’s a skill you can strengthen through practice.

When confronted with a problem, consider whom it impacts. Returning to the children’s sneaker example, think of who’s affected:

Your organization’s employees, because sales are down
The customers who typically buy your sneakers
The children who typically wear your sneakers

Empathy is required to get to the problem’s root and consider each group’s perspective. Assuming someone’s perspective often isn’t accurate, so the best way to get that information is by collecting user feedback.

For instance, if you asked customers who typically buy your children’s sneakers why they’ve stopped, they could say, “A new brand of children’s sneakers came onto the market that have soles with more traction. I want my child to be as safe as possible, so I bought those instead.”

When someone shares their feelings and experiences, you have an opportunity to empathize with them. This can yield solutions to their problem that directly address its root and shows you care. In this case, you may design a new line of children’s sneakers with extremely grippy soles for added safety, knowing that’s what your customers care most about.

Related: 3 Effective Methods for Assessing Customer Needs

3. Breaking Cognitive Fixedness

Cognitive fixedness is a state of mind in which you examine situations through the lens of past experiences. This locks you into one mindset rather than allowing you to consider alternative possibilities.

For instance, your cognitive fixedness may make you think rubber is the only material for sneaker treads. What else could you use? Is there a grippier alternative you haven’t considered?

Problem-solving is all about overcoming cognitive fixedness. You not only need to foster this skill in yourself but among your team.

4. Creating a Psychologically Safe Environment

As a leader, it’s your job to create an environment conducive to problem-solving. In a psychologically safe environment, all team members feel comfortable bringing ideas to the table, which are likely influenced by their personal opinions and experiences.

If employees are penalized for “bad” ideas or chastised for questioning long-held procedures and systems, innovation has no place to take root.

By employing the design thinking framework and creative problem-solving exercises, you can foster a setting in which your team feels comfortable sharing ideas and new, innovative solutions can grow.

Design Thinking and Innovation | Uncover creative solutions to your business problems | Learn More

How to Build Problem-Solving Skills

The most obvious answer to how to build your problem-solving skills is perhaps the most intimidating: You must practice.

Again and again, you’ll encounter challenges, use creative problem-solving tools and design thinking frameworks, and assess results to learn what to do differently next time.

While most of your practice will occur within your organization, you can learn in a lower-stakes setting by taking an online course, such as Design Thinking and Innovation . Datar guides you through each tool and framework, presenting real-world business examples to help you envision how you would approach the same types of problems in your organization.

Are you interested in uncovering innovative solutions for your organization’s business problems? Explore Design Thinking and Innovation —one of our online entrepreneurship and innovation courses —to learn how to leverage proven frameworks and tools to solve challenges. Not sure which course is right for you? Download our free flowchart .

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Mastery Motivation: Persistence and Problem Solving in Preschool

Problem solving is natural for preschoolers. As teachers know, everyday routines can bring difficult challenges, like learning how to zip up a coat or ask for help before frustration sets in. Each challenge builds children’s skills in different areas of development: language, social and emotional, cognitive, and physical. But sometimes a problem can seem too challenging.

You may have seen this scenario play out in your classroom: Two preschoolers are trying to solve the same puzzle. Both make a mistake, but while one child gives up, the other child keeps trying different ways to solve the puzzle. Early childhood researchers call this persistence at mastering challenging tasks mastery motivation , and it plays a key role in children’s learning and in their later academic achievement. Early childhood teachers are in a great position to help children foster this important skill.

Here are five ways to support mastery motivation:

Provide lots of different types of challenging activities, like math games that have more than one way to solve a problem.
Support children’s independence and let them make their own choices in activities or during play.
Try to resist the urge to fix the problem—it can take away children’s sense that they are capable problem solvers.
Do provide gentle guidance when frustration starts to set in, such as holding the puzzle board steady while a child adds a puzzle piece or offering a well-timed, “What if you turned that piece the other way?”
Give children positive feedback by praising the problem-solving process and encouraging them to keep trying.

We know that children who are not provided with challenging activities or who receive negative or harsh feedback tend to show less mastery motivation. The same holds true for children receiving praise like “You’re so smart” and children whose environment is overly controlling.

When teachers appreciate children’s efforts, children learn that working hard and persisting are positive behaviors. As children grow, they will face more and more difficult problems. They need to know that it’s okay to struggle—it’s part of the learning process.

Photo © EDC

Jessica Mercer Young is a research scientist and developmental and educational psychologist specializing in early learning at Education Development Center.

Kristen E. Reed, project director at EDC, has worked as a teacher, curriculum developer, professional development facilitator, and researcher. For more ways to make math engaging, challenging, and fun, visit ym.edc.org . [email protected]

Vol. 11, No. 1

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The role of problem-solving ability, beyond academic motivation, in college students’ psychological adjustment

Open access
Published: 18 March 2022
Volume 42 , pages 17888–17897, ( 2023 )

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Amaia de la Fuente ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2727-6536 1 ,
Olga Cardeñoso 1 ,
Edward C. Chang 2 ,
Abigael G. Lucas 2 ,
Mingqi Li 3 &
Olivia D. Chang 2

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In the changing and demanding university context, various situations are experienced wherein abilities to maintain motivation and activate problem solving could be relevant in students’ adjustment. Beyond the widely analyzed role of academic motivation, this study focused on the added value of social problem-solving ability in student adjustment in the academic context. Analyses based on the responses obtained from 253 students (197 women and 56 men) indicated the significant role of social problem-solving ability in student adjustment, with a small additional amount ( f 2 = .09) 9% of variance in life satisfaction and medium additional amount ( f 2 = .17) 15% of variance in depressive symptoms, beyond academic motivation. In particular, negative problem orientation was an important predictor of depressive symptoms (β = .41, p < .001) and life satisfaction (β = − .26, p < .001); however, positive problem orientation was only an important predictor of life satisfaction (β = .21, p < .01). This study also showed the predictive role of the value, expectancy, and affection components of motivation in student adjustment. Overall, the findings highlight the relevance of training in problem-solving orientation and motivational components to improve college students’ general well-being.

Theories of Motivation in Education: an Integrative Framework

Detlef Urhahne & Lisette Wijnia

College Students’ Time Management: a Self-Regulated Learning Perspective

Christopher A. Wolters & Anna C. Brady

Understanding procrastination: A case of a study skills course

T. Hailikari, N. Katajavuori & H. Asikainen

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Beyond the widely analyzed role of academic motivation, this study focused on the added value of social problem-solving ability in student adjustment in the academic context. Analyses based on the responses obtained from 253 students (197 women and 56 men) indicated the significant role of social problem-solving ability in student adjustment, with a small additional amount ( f 2 = 0.09) 9% of variance in life satisfaction and medium additional amount ( f 2 = 0.17) 15% of variance in depressive symptoms, beyond academic motivation. In particular, negative problem orientation was an important predictor of depressive symptoms (β = 0.41, p < 0.001) and life satisfaction (β = − 0.26, p < 0.001); however, positive problem orientation was only an important predictor of life satisfaction (β = 0.21, p < 0.01). This study also showed the predictive role of the value, expectancy, and affection components of motivation in student adjustment. Overall, the findings highlight the relevance of training in problem-solving orientation and motivational components to improve college students’ general well-being.

In the current knowledge society where the flow of information is rapid and changing (Moravec, 2008 ), motivation continues to be highly valued among educational agents in driving constant learning of the student body (Robinson, et al., 2019 ). This value has been analyzed and corroborated by different researchers in recent decades (Duncan & McKeachie, 2005 ; Liu et al., 2020 ; Meece et al., 2006 ; Osborne & Jones, 2011 ), who have found that academic motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) represents a critical variable set to understand learning and performance of students (e.g., grades achieved and learning effectiveness). Using the multidimensional approach of motivation supported in the Motivation for Learning Questionnaire Scale (MSLQ; Pintrich et al., 1991 ), Pintrich et al. ( 1993 ) found that scores assessing components of academic motivation (viz., intrinsic and extrinsic goal orientation, task value, control of learning beliefs, self-efficacy for learning and performance, and test anxiety) were significantly associated with final course grades in college students.

However, in a university context that values not only the knowledge acquisition of the student body but also the intrinsic engagement in the learning process (Koenka, 2020 ), a certain level of adjustment is required from students to maintain motivation when inherent difficulties appear (Broughman et al., 2009 ; Evans & Kelly, 2004 ).

In this context, the role of motivational components in the psychological adjustment of students has also been highlighted (e.g., anxiety, depression symptoms, and suicidal risk; Klibert et al., 2011 ; Tao et al., 2000 ; Wang, 2012 ). For example, a study of 537 undergraduate students in North China reported that intrinsic goal orientation was negatively related to depression symptoms and anxiety (Huang et al., 2016 ) and provided life satisfaction (Garriott et al., 2015 ).

Nonetheless, whether academic motivational components represent the most robust set of predictors for researchers to consider when attempting to account for adjustment in a university context remains unclear (Baker, 2003 ). As skills for maintaining an adequate level of engagement are necessary when problems occur in this context, activating adaptive strategies in uncertain situations (Asimopoulos et al., 2018 ). Findings from studies on social problem solving, defined as a self-initiated cognitive–emotional–behavioral process in which individuals engage to solve real-life everyday problems (D’Zurilla et al., 2004 ) have also demonstrated a consistent association with psychological adjustment (Chang, 2017 ; Hasegawa et al., 2015 ).

This ability to solve social problems comprises two major components, namely, problem orientation and problem-solving skills (Nezu et al., 2013 ). Problem orientation is the generalized response that an individual applies to new problematic situations, which includes appraisals and expectations of problems. These appraisals have a functional dimension when an individual tends to view a problem as a challenge (positive problem orientation [PPO]) and a dysfunctional dimension when an individual tends to perceive a problem as a threat (negative problem orientation [NPO]).

The second component, problem-solving skills, analyzes the problem-solving styles, such as, rational problem solving (RPS), impulsive/carelessness style (ICS), and avoidance style (AS). The constructive dimension (i.e., RPS) implies a systematic, skillful application of problem-solving techniques. The dysfunctional dimension implies ineffective patterns, such that problem-solving strategies are applied quickly and thoughtlessly in ICS and by procrastination, passivity, and dependency in AS.

Each aforementioned component is related to psychological adjustment. Specifically, the dysfunctional dimensions (NPO, ICS, and AS) are related to psychological distress, including anxiety (Bedel, 2015 ) and depression (Calvete & Cardeñoso, 2005 ; Chang, 2017 ; de la Fuente et al., 2019 ; Hasegawa et al., 2015 ; Siu & Shek, 2010 ). Conversely, the functional dimensions are positively related to life satisfaction (Dreer et al., 2005 ; Hamarta, 2009 ).

Because of the diverse problematic situations experienced in academic life, such as academic overload (Evans & Kelly, 2004 ), preparing for oral presentations, and managing problems that arise in group work (Larruzea-Urkixo et al., 2020 ), it would be beneficial to know if the problem-solving ability used in the university context affects students’ general adjustment, beyond what is accounted for academic motivation. Conceptually, social problem solving (D’Zurilla et al., 2002 ) and academic motivation (Pintrich et al., 1991 ) should facilitate individuals’ ability to achieve desired goals and adequate solutions. Thus, as an explanatory variable, social problem-solving ability might be tantamount to, or even surpass, academic motivation in the psychological adjustment of college students.

Based on those concerns and limitations, this study examines the (1) relationships between academic motivation, social problem-solving ability in the academic context, and psychological adjustment (viz., life satisfaction and depressive symptoms) in a sample of college students; (2) predicting role of each component of academic motivation in psychological adjustment , and (3) incremental utility of social problem-solving ability in predicting psychological adjustment in an academic context, beyond what is accounted for in academic motivation .

We proposed three hypotheses in this study. First, in accordance with previous studies (D’Zurilla et al., 2002 ; Pintrich et al., 1991 ), we hypothesized that academic motivation is associated with social problem-solving components. For example, academic motivation involving self-efficacy for learning and performance and intrinsic goal orientation would be positively associated with viewing problems as solvable (PPO), whereas test anxiety would be positively associated with viewing problems as unsolvable (NPO). Similarly, in line with studies on academic motivation and social problem-solving ability (Hasegawa et al., 2015 ; Tao et al., 2000 ), we expected that these variables would show significant associations with psychological adjustment in college students.

Second, beyond those foreseeable associations, and according to the findings in the literature (Pintrich & De Groot, 1990 ; Van Nguyen et al., 2015 ), we hypothesized that academic motivation could account for a significant amount of variance in psychological adjustment . Although all components of academic motivation were expected to be significant in predicting such associations, we expected self-efficacy for learning and performance and intrinsic goal orientation to have a crucial role (Pintrich & De Groot, 1990 ; Pintrich et al., 1991 ).

Finally, we hypothesized that the inclusion of social problem-solving ability might increase the prediction of psychological adjustment in college students, beyond what is accounted for by academic motivation. Specifically, we expected functional dimensions (PPO and RPS) to be important predictors of psychological adjustment (Dreer et al., 2005 ; Hamarta, 2009 ) and dysfunctional dimensions (NPO, ICS, and AS) as predictors of depressive symptoms (Calvete & Cardeñoso, 2005 ; Hasegawa et al., 2015 ; Siu & Shek, 2010 ).

Participants

The researchers met 421 students pursuing a social education degree from two faculties and four academic courses of the University of the Basque Country, in Northern Spain. Of a sample of 421 participants, 253 participant’s answers were valid; the other participants’ answers were excluded because of missing data. The final sample size corresponded to the standards for the representation of the total sample with a 5% error margin (Morales-Vallejo, 2008). The final sample included 253 students (197 women and 56 men), aged from 18 to 36 years, with a mean of 21.3 years ( SD = 3.2).

Academic motivation

To assess academic motivation from a multidimensional approach, we used the concerning section of a self-reported instrument, that is, MSLQ (Pintrich et al., 1991 ). MSLQ was designed to assess college student motivational orientation and learning strategies on the basis of a general cognitive view of motivation and learning, in which the student represents an active processor of information whose beliefs and cognitions are important mediators of instructional input (Pintrich et al., 1993 ). This motivational section comprises 31-items based on three general motivational constructs (Pintrich, 1989 ) that are expectancy, value, and affect. In expectancy components, two subscales were used: Self-efficacy for Learning and Performance (expectancy for success and self-efficacy; 8 items, α = 0.82) and Control of Learning Beliefs (students’ beliefs about the positive outcomes of their efforts to learn; 4 items, α = 0.54). In the value components, three subscales were used: Intrinsic Goal Orientation (motivation based on challenges, curiosity, or mastery; 4 items, α = 0.64), Extrinsic Goal Orientation (motivation based on grades, rewards, evaluation by others, and competition; 4 items, α = 0.72), and Task Value (the usefulness of the task for the student; 6 items; α = 0.84). Finally, the affect construct was based on Test Anxiety (worry and preoccupation with performance; 5 items, α = 0.82). The Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of each scale in this study were in line with the results obtained when MSLQ was validated (Pintrich et al., 1993 ), considering each dimension as an indispensable part of the instrument. Participants were asked to rate items on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 ( not at all true for me ) to 7 ( extremely true for me ). We used the Spanish adapted version of MSLQ (Ramírez et al., 2013 ).

Social problem solving

To assess social problem-solving ability in the academic context, we used the Social Problem-Solving Inventory-Revised: Short Form (SPSI-R-SF; D’Zurilla et al., 2002 ) in its Spanish version (Calvete & Cardeñoso, 2001 ). The students were asked to complete it by focusing only on academic problems, not on any other type of problem in daily life. The SPSI-R-SF is a 25-item measure of real-life problem-solving ability and is based on the original Social Problem-Solving Inventory (D’Zurilla & Nezu, 1990 ). It comprises two functional scales—(a) Positive Problem Orientation (e.g., “When I have a problem, I usually believe that there is a solution to it”; α = 0.62) and (b) Rational Problem Solving (e.g., “When I have a problem to solve, one of the first things I do is get as many facts about the problem as possible”; α = 0.69)—and three dysfunctional scales: (c) Negative Problem Orientation (e.g., “When my first efforts to solve problem fail, I get very frustrated”; α = 0.79), (d) Impulsivity/Carelessness Style (e.g., “When making decisions, I do not evaluate all my options carefully enough”; α = 0.75), and (e) Avoidance Style (e.g., “I wait to see if a problem will resolve itself first, before attempting to solve it myself”; α = 0.81). The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of each subscale was consistent with the results in the validation of the instrument (Calvete & Cardeñoso, 2001 ; D’Zurilla et al., 2002 ). Participants were asked to indicate their agreement for each item across a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 0 ( not at all true of me) to 4 ( very true of me ). We used an adapted Spanish version of the SPSI-R-SF (Calvete & Cardeñoso, 2001 ).

Psychological adjustment

To assess the psychological adjustment, we employed the Satisfaction Life Scale (SWLS; Diener et al., 1985 ) and the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II; Beck et al., 1996 ).

SWLS is a 5-item measure of global life satisfaction or personal satisfaction with life as a whole (e.g., “I am satisfied with my life”). We asked participants to rate their level of agreement with the items across a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 ( strongly disagree ) to 7 ( strongly agree ). We used the Spanish version of SWLS (Atienza et al., 2000 ). In this study, in line with the version used, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient reported was 0.83. The higher the score on SWLS, the greater the life satisfaction.

BDI-II is a commonly used 21-item self-report measure of depressive symptomatology. We asked the participants to rate the extent to which they have experienced specific depressive symptoms in the past two weeks across a 4-point Likert-type scale (e.g., “ 0 = I am not disappointed in myself” to 3 = “I hate myself ”). We used an adapted Spanish version of BDI-II (Sanz & Vazquez, 2011 ); Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.87. High scores in BDI-II are indicative of great depressive symptoms.

All procedures performed in the investigation involving human participants were accepted by the Human Research Ethics Committee of the Research and Teaching Ethics Committee of the University of the Basque Country.

As the first step of the recruitment, the researchers contacted the social education teacher to permit us to explain the study to the students during their break. All students interested in participating in the study completed a survey comprising an informed consent form, questionnaires with instructions based on the version of the instrument used (i.e., SPSI-R-SF, MSLQ, SWLS, and BDI-II), and a demographic questionnaire. The written informed consent indicated that all responses would remain confidential and that the participants would have access to the results. The subsequent analysis of the results was performed using SPSS Version 26.

To develop the analyses, we checked the data for the violation of normality, linearity, homoscedasticity, and collinearity (Merino & Díaz, 2005 ). No evidence was found for the violation of the assumptions.

To fulfill the first objective of this study, we analyzed the relationship between the variables using Pearson correlations (Vargas, 2007 ). The coefficients, means, and standard deviations for all study measures are presented in Table 1 . First, intrinsic goal orientation and self-efficacy for learning and performance positively correlated with the two functional components of problem solving: PPO ( r = 0.29 and r = 0.31, p < 0.001) and RPS ( r = 0.32 and r = 0.25, p < 0.001). By contrast, that relation was negative with NPO ( r = − 0.22 and r = − 0.32, p < 0.001). Similarly, test anxiety correlated with NPO ( r = − 0.46, p < 0.001).

Second, all measures were significantly related to psychological adjustment. NPO had the highest correlation with life satisfaction ( r = − 35, p < 0.001) and depressive symptoms ( r = 0.49, p < 0.001). Life satisfaction also positively correlated with intrinsic goal orientation, self-efficacy for learning and performance, task value, PPO and RPS ( rs = 0.17 to 0.31, p < 0.001); this relation was negative with test anxiety and AS ( r = − 25, p < 0.001 and r = − 0.20, p < 0.01). Depressive symptoms were positively related to test anxiety and AS ( r = 0.32 and r = 0.26, p < 0.001), and the relation was negative with intrinsic goal orientation, task value, self-efficacy for learning and performance PPO and RPS ( rs = − 0.14 to − 0.33, p < 0.05 and p < 0.001).

Beyond academic motivation, is social problem solving a predictor of psychological adjustment in the university area?

To fulfill the second and third objectives of this study, we conducted a series of hierarchical regression analyses to determine the amount of variance of academic motivation in predicting psychological adjustment (viz., life satisfaction and depressive symptoms) and the additional amount of variance of social problem-solving ability in predicting them (Table 2 ). For each regression model, we controlled for demographic factors, namely, age and sex, in the first step. Next, based on the multidimensional approach of academic motivation, all six dimensions were entered in the second step. Finally, to analyze the incremental utility of social problem-solving ability, beyond academic motivation, we entered the five dimensions of social problem solving in the third step. To determine whether any predictors accounted for a small, medium, or large amount of variance in functioning, we used Cohen’s ( 1977 ) convention for small ( f 2 = 0.0 2), medium ( f 2 = 0.15), and large effects ( f 2 = 0.35).

In predicting life satisfaction, independent of demographic factors, academic motivation was observed to have a medium amount ( f 2 = 0.1 9) 16% of variance in life satisfaction, F (6, 244) = 7.62, p < 0.001. This result was driven by intrinsic goal orientation (β = 0.17, p < 0.05), self-efficacy for learning and performance (β = 0.17, p < 0.05), and test anxiety (β = − 0.14, p < 0.05). Finally, when social problem solving was entered in the third step, a small amount ( f 2 = 0.0 9) 9% of additional variance in life satisfaction, F (5, 239) = 5.87, p < 0.001, was observed. This result was driven by PPO (β = 0.21, p < 0.01) and NPO (β = − 0.26, p < 0.001). The full prediction model including demographic variables, academic motivation, and social problem solving accounted for a large amount ( f 2 = 0.3 3) 25%) of variance in life satisfaction, F (13, 239) = 2.07, p < 0.001.

At the time of predicting depressive symptoms, independent of demographic factors, academic motivation accounted for a medium amount ( f 2 = 0.2 1) 18% of variance in depressive symptoms, F (6, 244) = 8.75, p < 0.001. This result was determined by self-efficacy for learning and performance (β = − 0.24, p < 0.01) and test anxiety (β = 0.21, p < 0.01). Finally, when social problem solving was included, a medium amount ( f 2 = 0.1 7) 15% of additional variance in depressive symptoms, F (5, 239) = 10.60, p < 0.001, was observed. The full prediction model including demographic variables, academic motivation, and social problem solving accounted for a large amount ( f 2 = 0.4 3) 33% of variance in depressive symptoms, F (13, 239) = 8.97, p < 0.001.

Considering the importance of academic motivation and social problem-solving ability in the diverse situations inherent in the learning process of college students, we conducted this study to deepen the role of each variable in the academic context, specifically in the social problem-solving ability beyond academic motivation.

First, correlations between all variables were analyzed and found to be consistent with what we hypothesized. The results indicated that intrinsic goal orientation and self-efficacy for learning and performance were positively related to PPO and RPS and negatively to NPO and AS. Additionally, test anxiety correlated with NPO similar to the general anxiety studies (Calvete & Cardeñoso, 2001 ; Kant et al., 1997 ).

Second, concerning psychological adjustment in the university context, the patterns of correlations were in line with those in the literature (Dreer et al., 2005 ; Hamarta, 2009 ) and with what we hypothesized. Life satisfaction was positively related to the functional dimensions of social problem-solving ability and academic motivation (e.g., intrinsic goal orientation, self-efficacy for learning and performance, task value, PPO, and RPS), while depressive symptoms to the dysfunctional dimensions (e.g., test anxiety, NPO, and AS).

These findings demonstrate the relationship between motivation and social problem solving and the psycological adjustment of university students. Moreover, our findings suggest that social problem-solving ability is important in the adjustment of the university student body.

Is social problem solving, beyond academic motivation, a predictor of psychological adjustment in the university area?

Evidenced has supported the relationships of D’Zurilla’s model (D’Zurilla et al., 2002 ) of social problem solving and Pintrich’s multidimensional approach of academic motivation (Pintrich et al., 1991 ) to psychological adjustment. Our study further analyzes the predicting role of each component in university life, specifically that in the social problem-solving ability role.

In line with the literature and our hypotheses, the outcomes demonstrate that the motivational components have a significant role in predicting the psychological adjustment of college students (Klibert et al., 2011 ; Wang, 2012 ). The results demonstrated, as we expected, a significant influence of intrinsic goal orientation and self-efficacy for learning and performance (Cabanach et al., 2010 ; Chemers et al., 2001 ; Garriott et al., 2015 ; Weinstein & Ryan, 2010 ). Even if it was not expected, the results of this study have enhanced the important role of test anxiety as an affect that significantly impairs student adjustment to academic tasks (Pintrich & De Groot, 1990 ). Additionally, these results highlight more than the role of intrinsic and extrinsic goal orientation (Liu et al., 2020 ; Osborne & Jones, 2011 ); they emphasize the need to understand motivation from a multidimensional perspective (Pintrich, 2004 ). From that, the complexity of the role of motivation in student adjustment in the academic context would be accepted, considering the predictive role of the constructs centered on value, expectancy, and affect (Pintrich, 1989 ).

Beyond what was predicted by the motivational components, in line with expectations, this investigation proved the added value of social problem-solving ability in predicting the psychological adjustment of college students. The results highlight the importance of student’s orientation of academic problems to adjust optimally in the university area, unexpectedly not emphasizing the role of the problem-solving style. Similarly, these results are consistent with studies that have proved that the means used to evaluate daily problems, visualizing them as challenges or as threats, altered the overall adjustment of the population (Calvete & Cardeñoso, 2005 ; Hasegawa et al., 2015 ; Siu & Shek, 2010 ). Although NPO is the most robust predictor of student psychological adjustment (de la Fuente et al., 2019 ; Robichaud & Dugas, 2005 ), the outcomes indicate the relevant role of the positive orientation of the problem (Dreer et al., 2005 ; Hamarta, 2009 ). Notably, in this study, PPO obtained the predictive role in life satisfaction, emphasizing that to see the process as a challenge while learning from it (Nezu et al., 2013 ) could push the student body toward an adjustment in the university context; however, it would insufficient to minimize the impact of depressive symptomatology.

Assessing these results from an educational perspective highlights the added influence that social problem-solving ability training can have on students’ well-being. In particular, train based on PPO can help students cope with problems that may arise during academic activities by approaching such situations from a functional prism wherein the solvable nature of the problems would be accepted (Chang, 2017 ; Nezu et al., 2013 ), avoiding the visualization of the systematic threat. The aforementioned prism promotes commitment and control of the resolution process, providing habits and tools for students to avoid dysfunctional tendencies and their psychological consequences (Calvete & Cardeñoso, 2005 ; Chang, 2017 ; De la Fuente et al., 2019 ). Social problem-solving ability training could be enhanced with training involving the motivational components to ensure persistent solving process to achieve an adequate adjustment.

By understanding the university not only as a context in which to acquire theoretical knowledge but also a context to grow personally and socially (Lee et al., 2019 ) while experiencing constant social change, the influence of the training of variables we studied could be understood in a more global manner. Beyond influencing student adjustment in academic contexts, it could also provide tools for various situations in students’ daily life. Skills obtained through academic experiences could provide tools that enhance student well-being, increasing their healthy outlook on future professional and personal challenges (Fortune, 1984 ).

Limitations

This study provides important findings on the role of social problem-solving ability in college student adjustment, beyond what is accounted for in academic motivation ; yet, it has limitations. First, the findings are limited to the convenience sample of college students. Thus, because the results of this investigation might vary across ages, analyzing students in different age ranges (e.g., adolescents in secondary school) could provide further insights. Second, this research focuses on Spanish college students; thus, because some studies have remarked on the variation of results in different cultural groups (Hirsch et al., 2012 ), it would be beneficial to know if similar findings could emerge from examining other ethnic and cultural groups (e.g., those in the United States, China, and France). Finally, this study focuses on life satisfaction and depressive symptoms in college students; therefore, it would be beneficial to determine whether the predicting results we demonstrated could be replicated with other specific psychological outcomes in the academic area (e.g., anxiety and stress).

The results of this study are the first to imply the role of social problem-solving ability in the academic context while focusing on predicting student adjustment, beyond academic motivation. Broadly, our findings reveal the added predicting role of social problem-solving appraisal in students’ adjustment (i.e., life satisfaction and depressive symptoms) to university life. Specifically, college students with a tendency to perceive everyday problems as a threat are at a great risk for depression and have less sense of life satisfaction. By contrast, PPO has been observed to be a relevant component that boosts college students’ adjustment. The results of this study demonstrate the importance of social problem-solving ability training and highlight the significance of employing it in conjunction with the value, expectancy, and affect components of motivation to improve students’ academic adjustment. From a general viewpoint, understanding the university as a basis for individual growth, working on the components highlighted in this study could also increase the possibilities of adjustment in different future environments, facilitating the well-being of future professionals.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Code availability

Not applicable.

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de la Fuente, A., Cardeñoso, O., Chang, E.C. et al. The role of problem-solving ability, beyond academic motivation, in college students’ psychological adjustment. Curr Psychol 42 , 17888–17897 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-02945-y

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

The problem-solving method: efficacy for learning and motivation in the field of physical education.

$\nGhaith Ezeddine$

1 High Institute of Sport and Physical Education of Sfax, University of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
2 Research Unit of the National Sports Observatory (ONS), Tunis, Tunisia
3 Research Laboratory: Education, Motricity, Sport and Health, EM2S, LR19JS01, University of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
4 Department of Neuroscience, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics, Maternal and Child Health (DINOGMI), University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
5 Centre for Intelligent Healthcare, Coventry University, Coventry, United Kingdom
6 Laboratory for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, Department of Mathematics and Statistics, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
7 High Institute of Sport and Physical Education of Ksar Saîd, University Manouba, UMA, Manouba, Tunisia

Background: In pursuit of quality teaching and learning, teachers seek the best method to provide their students with a positive educational atmosphere and the most appropriate learning conditions.

Objectives: The purpose of this study is to compare the effects of the problem-solving method vs. the traditional method on motivation and learning during physical education courses.

Methods: Fifty-three students ( M age 15 ± 0.1 years), in their 1st year of the Tunisian secondary education system, voluntarily participated in this study, and randomly assigned to a control or experimental group. Participants in the control group were taught using the traditional methods, whereas participants in the experimental group were taught using the problem-solving method. Both groups took part in a 10-hour experiment over 5 weeks. To measure students' situational motivation, a questionnaire was used to evaluate intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, external regulation, and amotivation during the first (T0) and the last sessions (T2). Additionally, the degree of students' learning was determined via video analyses, recorded at T0, the fifth (T1), and T2.

Results: Motivational dimensions, including identified regulation and intrinsic motivation, were significantly greater (all p < 0.001) in the experimental vs. the control group. The students' motor engagement in learning situations, during which the learner, despite a degree of difficulty performs the motor activity with sufficient success, increased only in the experimental group ( p < 0.001). The waiting time in the experimental group decreased significantly at T1 and T2 vs. T0 (all p < 0.001), with lower values recorded in the experimental vs. the control group at the three-time points (all p < 0.001).

Conclusions: The problem-solving method is an efficient strategy for motor skills and performance enhancement, as well as motivation development during physical education courses.

1. Introduction

The education of children is a sensitive and poignant subject, where the wellbeing of the child in the school environment is a key issue ( Ergül and Kargin, 2014 ). For this, numerous research has sought to find solutions to the problems of the traditional method, which focuses on the teacher as an instructor, giver of knowledge, arbiter of truth, and ultimate evaluator of learning ( Ergül and Kargin, 2014 ; Cunningham and Sood, 2018 ). From this perspective, a teachers' job is to present students with a designated body of knowledge in a predetermined order ( Arvind and Kusum, 2017 ). For them, learners are seen as people with “knowledge gaps” that need to be filled with information. In this method, teaching is conceived as the act of transmitting knowledge from point A (responsible for the teacher) to point B (responsible for the students; Arvind and Kusum, 2017 ). According to Novak (2010) , in the traditional method, the teacher is the one who provokes the learning.

The traditional method focuses on lecture-based teaching as the center of instruction, emphasizing delivery of program and concept ( Johnson, 2010 ; Ilkiw et al., 2017 ; Dickinson et al., 2018 ). The student listens and takes notes, passively accepts and receives from the teacher undifferentiated and identical knowledge ( Bi et al., 2019 ). Course content and delivery are considered most important, and learners acquire knowledge through exercise and practice ( Johnson et al., 1998 ). In the traditional method, academic achievement is seen as the ability of students to demonstrate, replicate, or convey this designated body of knowledge to the teacher. It is based on a transmissive model, the teacher contenting themselves with exchanging and transmitting information to the learner. Here, only the “knowledge” and “teacher” poles of the pedagogical triangle are solicited. The teacher teaches the students, who play the role of the spectator. They receive information without participating in its creation ( Perrenoud, 2003 ). For this, researchers invented a new student-centered method with effects on improving students' graphic interpretation skills and conceptual understanding of kinematic motion represent an area of contemporary interest ( Tebabal and Kahssay, 2011 ). Indeed, in order to facilitate the process of knowledge transfer, teachers should use appropriate methods targeted to specific objectives of the school curricula.

For instance, it has been emphasized that the effectiveness of any educational process as a whole relies on the crucial role of using a well-designed pedagogical (teaching and/or learning) strategy ( Kolesnikova, 2016 ).

Alternate to a traditional method of teaching, Ergül and Kargin (2014 ), proposed the problem-solving method, which represents one of the most common student-centered learning strategies. Indeed, this method allows students to participate in the learning environment, giving them the responsibility for their own acquisition of knowledge, as well as the opportunity for the understanding and structuring of diverse information.

For Cunningham and Sood (2018) , the problem-solving method may be considered a fundamental tool for the acquisition of new knowledge, notably learning transfer. Moreover, the problem-solving method is purportedly efficient for the development of manual skills and experiential learning ( Ergül and Kargin, 2014 ), as well as the optimization of thinking ability. Additionally, the problem-solving method allows learners to participate in the learning environment, while giving them responsibility for their learning and making them understand and structure the information ( Pohan et al., 2020 ). In this context, Ali (2019) reported that, when faced with an obstacle, the student will have to invoke his/her knowledge and use his/her abilities to “break the deadlock.” He/she will therefore make the most of his/her potential, but also share and exchange with his/her colleagues ( Ali, 2019 ). Throughout the process, the student will learn new concepts and skills. The role of the teacher is paramount at the beginning of the activity, since activities will be created based on problematic situations according to the subject and the program. However, on the day of the activity, it does not have the main role, and the teacher will guide learners in difficulty and will allow them to manage themselves most of the time ( Ali, 2019 ).

The problem-solving method encourages group discussion and teamwork ( Fidan and Tuncel, 2019 ). Additionally, in this pedagogical approach, the role of the teacher is a facilitator of learning, and they take on a much more interactive and less rebarbative role ( Garrett, 2008 ).

For the teaching method to be effective, teaching should consist of an ongoing process of making desirable changes among learners using appropriate methods ( Ayeni, 2011 ; Norboev, 2021 ). To bring about positive changes in students, the methods used by teachers should be the best for the subject to be taught ( Adunola et al., 2012 ). Further, suggests that teaching methods work effectively, especially if they meet the needs of learners since each learner interprets and answers questions in a unique way. Improving problem-solving skills is a primary educational goal, as is the ability to use reasoning. To acquire this skill, students must solve problems to learn mathematics and problem-solving ( Hu, 2010 ); this encourages the students to actively participate and contribute to the activities suggested by the teacher. Without sufficient motivation, learning goals can no longer be optimally achieved, although learners may have exceptional abilities. The method of teaching employed by the teachers is decisive to achieve motivational consequences in physical education students ( Leo et al., 2022 ). Pérez-Jorge et al. (2021 ) posited that given we now live in a technological society in which children are used to receiving a large amount of stimuli, gaining and maintaining their attention and keeping them motivated at school becomes a challenge for teachers.

Fenouillet (2012) stated that academic motivation is linked to resources and methods that improve attention for school learning. Furthermore, Rolland (2009) and Bessa et al. (2021) reported a link between a learner's motivational dynamics and classroom activities. The models of learning situations, where the student is the main actor, directly refers to active teaching methods, and that there is a strong link between motivation and active teaching ( Rossa et al., 2021 ). In the same context, previous reports assert that the motivation of students in physical education is an important factor since the intra-individual motivation toward this discipline is recognized as a major determinant of physical activity for students ( Standage et al., 2012 ; Luo, 2019 ; Leo et al., 2022 ). Further, extensive research on the effectiveness of teaching methods shows that the quality of teaching often influences the performance of learners ( Norboev, 2021 ). Ayeni (2011) reported that education is a process that allows students to make changes desirable to achieve specific results. Thus, the consistency of teaching methods with student needs and learning influences student achievement. This has led several researchers to explore the impact of different teaching strategies, ranging from traditional methods to active learning techniques that can be used such as the problem-solving method ( Skinner, 1985 ; Darling-Hammond et al., 2020 ).

In the context of innovation, Blázquez (2016 ) emphasizes the importance of adopting active methods and implementing them as the main element promoting the development of skills, motivation and active participation. Pedagogical models are part of the active methods which, together with model-based practice, replace traditional teaching ( Hastie and Casey, 2014 ; Casey et al., 2021 ). Thus, many studies have identified pedagogical models as the most effective way to place students at the center of the teaching-learning process ( Metzler, 2017 ), making it possible to assess the impact of physical education on learning students ( Casey, 2014 ; Rivera-Pérez et al., 2020 ; Manninen and Campbell, 2021 ). Since each model is designed to focus on a specific program objective, each model has limitations when implemented in isolation ( Bunker and Thorpe, 1982 ; Rivera-Pérez et al., 2020 ). Therefore, focusing on developing students' social and emotional skills and capacities could help them avoid failure in physical education ( Ang and Penney, 2013 ). Thus, the current emergence of new pedagogical models goes with their hybridization with different methods, which is a wave of combinations proposed today as an innovative pedagogical strategy. The incorporation of this type of method in the current education system is becoming increasingly important because it gives students a greater role, participation, autonomy and self-regulation, and above all it improves their motivation ( Puigarnau et al., 2016 ). The teaching model of personal and social responsibility, for example, is closely related to the sports education model because both share certain approaches to responsibility ( Siedentop et al., 2011 ). One of the first studies to use these two models together was Rugby ( Gordon and Doyle, 2015 ), which found significant improvements in student behavior. Also, the recent study by Menendez and Fernandez-Rio (2017) on educational kickboxing.

Previous studies have indicated that hybridization can increase play, problem solving performance and motor skills ( Menendez and Fernandez-Rio, 2017 ; Ward et al., 2021 ) and generate positive psychosocial consequences, such as pleasure, intention to be physically active and responsibility ( Dyson and Grineski, 2001 ; Menendez and Fernandez-Rio, 2017 ).

But despite all these research results, the picture remains unclear, and it remains unknown which method is more effective in improving students' learning and motivation. Given the lack of published evidence on this topic, the aim of this study was to compare the effects of problem-solving vs. the traditional method on students' motivation and learning.

We hypothesized would that the problem-solving method would be more effective in improving students' motivation and learning better than the traditional method.

2. Materials and method

2.1. participants.

Fifty-three students, aged 15–16 ( M age 15 ± 0.1 years), in their 1st year of the Tunisian secondary education system, voluntarily participated in this study. All participants were randomly chosen. Repeating students, those who practice handball activity in civil/competitive/amateur clubs or in the high school sports association, and students who were absent, even for one session, were excluded. The first class consisted of 30 students (16 boys and 14 girls), who represented the experimental group and followed basic courses on a learning method by solving problems. The second class consisted of 23 students (10 boys and 13 girls), who represented the control group and followed the traditional teaching method. The total duration was spread over 5 weeks, or two sessions per week and each session lasted 50 min.

University research ethics board approval (CPPSUD: 0295/2021) was obtained before recruiting participants who were subsequently informed of the nature, objective, methodology, and constraints. Teacher, school director, parental/guardian, and child informed consent was obtained prior to participation in the study.

2.2. Procedure

Before the start of the experiment, the participants were familiarized with the equipment and the experimental protocol in order to ensure a good learning climate. For this and to mitigate the impact of the observer and the cameras on the students, the two researchers were involved prior to the data collection in a week of familiarization by making test recordings with the classes concerned.

An approach of a teaching cycle consisting of 10 sessions spread over 5 weeks, amounting to two sessions per week. Physical education classes were held in the morning from 8 a.m. to 9 a.m., with a single goal for each session that lasted 50 min. The cyclic programs were produced by the teacher responsible for carrying out the experiment with 18 years of service. To do this, the students had the same lessons with the same objectives, only pedagogy that differs: the experimental group worked using problem-solving pedagogy, while the control group was confronted with traditional pedagogy. The sessions took place in a handball field 40 m long and 20 m wide. Examples of training sessions using the problem-solving pedagogy and the traditional pedagogy are presented in Table 1 . In addition, a motivation questionnaire, the Situational Motivation Scale (SIMS; Guay et al., 2000 ), was administered to learners at the end of the session (i.e., in the beginning, and end of the cycle). Each student answered the questions alone and according to their own ideas. This questionnaire was taken in a classroom to prevent students from acting abnormally during the study. It lasted for a maximum of 10 min.

Table 1 . Example of activities for the different sessions.

Two diametrically opposed cameras were installed so to film all the movements and behaviors of each student and teacher during the three sessions [(i) test at the start of the cycle (T0), (ii) in the middle of the cycle (T1), and (iii) test at the end of the cycle (T2)]. These sessions had the same content and each consisted of four phases: the getting started, the warm-up, the work up (which consisted of three situations: first, the work was goes up the ball to two to score in the goal following a shot. Second, the same principle as the previous situation but in the presence of a defender. Finally, third, a match 7 ≠ 7), and the cooling down These recordings were analyzed using a Learning Time Analysis System grid (LTAS; Brunelle et al., 1988 ). This made it possible to measure individual learning by coding observable variables of the behavior of learners in a learning situation.

2.3. Data collection and analysis

2.3.1. the motivation questionnaire.

In this study, in order to measure the situational motivation of students, the situational motivation scale (SIMS; Guay et al., 2000 ), which used. This questionnaire assesses intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, external regulation and amotivation. SIMS has demonstrated good reliability and factor validity in the context of physical education in adolescents ( Lonsdale et al., 2011 ). The participants received exact instructions from the researchers in accordance with written instructions on how to conduct the data collection. Participants completed the SIMS anonymously at the start of a physical education class. All students had the opportunity to write down their answers without being observed and to ask questions if anything was unclear. To minimize the tendency to give socially desirable answers, they were asked to answer as honestly as possible, with the confidence that the teacher would not be able to read their answers and that their grades would not be affected by how they responded. The SIMS questionnaire was filled at T0 and T2. This scale is made up of 16 items divided into four dimensions: intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, external regulation and amotivation. Each item is rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (which is the weakest factor) “not at all” to 7 (which is the strongest factor) “exactly matches.”

In order to assess the internal consistency of the scales, a Cronbach alpha test was conducted ( Cronbach, 1951 ). The internal consistency of the scales was acceptable with reliability coefficients ranging from 0.719 to 0.87. The coefficient of reliability was 0.8.

In the present study, Cronbach's alphas were: intrinsic motivation = 0.790; regulation identified = 0.870; external regulation = 0.749; and amotivation = 0.719.

2.3.2. Camcorders

The audio-visual data collection was conducted using two Sony camcorders (Model; Handcam 4K) with a wireless microphone with a DJ transmitter-receiver (VHF 10HL F4 Micro HF) with a range of 80 m ( Maddeh et al., 2020 ). The collection took place over a period of 5 weeks, with three captures for each class (three sessions of 50 min for each at T0, T1, and T2). Two researchers were trained in the procedures and video capture techniques. The cameras were positioned diagonally, in order to film all the behavior of the students and teacher on the set.

2.3.3. The Learning Time Analysis System (LTAS)

To measure the degree of student learning, the analysis of videos recorded using the LTAS grid by Brunelle et al. (1988) was used, at T0, T1, and T2. This observation system with predetermined categories uses the technique of observation by small intervals (i.e., 6 s) and allows to measure individual learning by coding observable variables of their behaviors when they have been in a learning situation. This grid also permits the specification of the quantity and quality with which the participants engaged in the requested work and was graded, broadly, on two characteristics: the type of situation offered to the group by the teacher and the behavior of the target participant. The situation offered to the group was subdivided into three parts: preparatory situations; knowledge development situations, and motor development situations.

The observations and coding of behaviors are carried out “at intervals.” This technique is used extensively in research on behavior analysis. The coder observes the teaching situation and a particular student during each interval ( Brunelle et al., 1988 ). It then makes a decision concerning the characteristic of the observed behavior. The 6-s observation interval is followed by a coding interval of 6 s too. A cassette tape recorder is used to regulate the observation and recording intervals. It is recorded for this purpose with the indices “observe” and “code” at the start of each 6-s period. During each coding unit, the observer answered the following questions: What is the type of situation in which the class group finds itself? If the class group is in a learning situation proper, in what form of commitment does the observed student find himself? The abbreviations representing the various categories of behavior have been entered in the spaces which correspond to them. The coder was asked to enter a hyphen instead of the abbreviation when the same categories of behavior follow one another in consecutive intervals ( Brunelle et al., 1988 ).

During the preparatory period, the following behaviors were identified and analyzed:

- Deviant behavior: The student adopts a behavior incompatible with a listening attitude or with the smooth running of the preparatory situations.

- Waiting time: The student is waiting without listening or observing.

- Organized during: The student is involved in a complementary activity that does not represent a contribution to learning (e.g., regaining his place in a line, fetching a ball that has just left the field, replacing a piece of equipment).

During the motor development situations, the following behaviors were identified and analyzed:

- Motor engagement 1: The participant performs the motor activity with such easy that it can be inferred that their actions have little chance to engage in a learning process.

- Motor engagement 2: The participant-despite a certain degree of difficulty, performs the motor activity with sufficient success, which makes it possible to infer that they are in the process of learning.

- Motor engagement 3: The participant performs the motor activity with such difficulty that their efforts have very little chance of being part of a learning process.

2.4. Statistical analysis

Statistical tests were performed using statistical software 26.0 for windows (SPSS, Inc, Chicago, IL, USA). Data are presented in text and tables as means ± standard deviations and in figures as means and standard errors. Once the normal distribution of data was confirmed by the Shapiro-Wilk W -test, parametric tests were performed. Analysis of the results was performed using a mixed 2-way analysis of variance (ANOVA): Groups × Time with repeated measures.

For the learning parameters, the ANOVA took the following form: 2 Groups (Control Group vs. Experimental Group) × 3 Times (T0, T1, and T2).

For the dimensions of motivation, the ANOVA took the following form: 2 Groups (Control Group vs. Experimental Group) × 2 Time (T0 vs. T2).

In instances where the ANOVA showed a significant effect, a Bonferroni post-hoc test was applied in order to compare the experimental data in pairs, otherwise by an independent or paired Student's T -test. Effect sizes were calculated as partial eta-squared η p 2 to estimate the meaningfulness of significant findings, where η p 2 values of 0.01, 0.06, and 0.13 represent small, moderate, and large effect sizes, respectively ( Lakens, 2013 ). All observed differences were considered statistically significant for a probability threshold lower than p < 0.05.

Table 2 shows the results of learning variables during the preparatory and the development learning periods at T0, T1, and T2, in the control group and the experimental group.

Table 2 . Comparison of learning variables using two teaching methods in physical education.

The analysis of variance of two factors with repeated measures showed a significant effect of group, learning, and group learning interaction for the deviant behavior. The post-hoc test revealed significantly less frequent deviant behaviors in the experimental than in the control group at T0, T1, and T2 (all p < 0.001). Additionally, the deviant behavior decreased significantly at T1 and T2 compared to T0 for both groups (all p < 0.001).

For appropriate engagement, there were no significant group effect, a significant learning effect, and a significant group learning interaction effect. The post-hoc test revealed that compared to T0, Appropriate engagement recorded at T1 and T2 increased significantly ( p = 0.032; p = 0.031, respectively) in the experimental group, whilst it decreased significantly in the control group ( p < 0.001). Additionally, Appropriate engagement was higher in the experimental vs. control group at T1 and T2 (all p < 0.001).

For waiting time, a significant interaction in terms of group effect, learning, and group learning was found. The post-hoc test revealed that waiting time was higher at T1 and T2 vs. T0 (all p < 0.001) in the control group. In addition, waiting time in the experimental group decreased significantly at T1 and T2 vs. T0 (all p < 0.001), with higher values recorded at T2 vs. T1 ( p = 0.025). Additionally, lower values were recorded in the experimental group vs. the control group at the three-time points (all p < 0.001).

For Motor engagement 2, a significant group, learning, and group-learning interaction effect was noted. The post-hoc test revealed that Motor engagement 2 increased significantly in both groups at T1 ( p < 0.0001) and T2 ( p < 0.0001) vs. T0 ( p = 0.045), with significantly higher values recorded in the experimental group at T1 and T2.

Regarding Motor engagement 3, a non-significant group effect was reported. Contrariwise, a significant learning effect and group learning interaction was reported ( Table 1 ). The post-hoc test revealed a significant decrease in the control group and the experimental group at T1 ( p = 0.294) at T2 ( p = 0.294) vs. T0 ( p = 0.0543). In addition, a non-significant difference between the two groups was found.

A significant group and learning effect was noted for the organized during, and a non-significant group learning interaction. For organized during, the paired Student T -test showed a significant decrease in the control group and the experimental group (all p < 0.001). The independent Student T -test revealed a non-significant difference between groups at the three-time points.

Results of the motivational dimensions in the control group and the experimental group recorded at T0 and T2 are presented in Table 3 .

Table 3 . Comparison of the four motivational dimensions in two teaching methods in physical education.

For intrinsic motivation, a significant group effect and group learning interaction and also a non-significant learning effect was found. The post-hoc test indicated that the intrinsic motivation decreased significantly in the control group ( p = 0.029), whilst it increased in the experimental group ( p = 0.04). Additionally, the intrinsic motivation of the experimental group was higher at T0 ( p = 0.026) and T2 ( p < 0.001) compared to that of the control group.

For the identified regulation, a significant group effect, a non-significant learning effect and group learning interaction were reported. The paired Student's T -test revealed that from T0 to T1, the identified motivation increased significantly only in the experimental group ( p = 0.022), while it remained unchanged in the control group. The independent Student's T -test revealed that the identified regulation recorded in the experimental group at T0 ( p = 0.012) and T2 ( p < 0.001) was higher compared to that of the control group.

The external regulation presents a significant group effect. In addition, a non-significant learning effect and group learning interaction were reported. The paired Student's T -test showed that the external regulation decreased significantly in the experimental group ( p = 0.038), whereas it remained unchanged in the control group. Further, the independent Student's T -test revealed that the external regulation recorded at T2 was higher in the control group vs. the experimental group ( p < 0.001).

Relating to amotivation, results showed a significant group effect. Furthermore, a non-significant learning effect and group learning interaction were reported. The paired Student's T -test showed that, from T0 to T2, amotivation decreased significantly in the experimental group ( p = 0.011) and did not change in the control group. The independent Student T -test revealed that amotivation recorded at T2 was lower in the experimental compared to the control group ( p = 0.002).

4. Discussion

The main purpose of this study was to compare the effects of the problem-solving vs. traditional method on motivation and learning during physical education courses. The results revealed that the problem-solving method is more effective than the traditional method in increasing students' motivation and improving their learning. Moreover, the results showed that mean wait times and deviant behaviors decreased using the problem-solving method. Interestingly, the average time spent on appropriate engagement increased using the problem-solving method compared to the traditional method. When using the traditional method, the average wait times increased and, as a result, the time spent on appropriate engagement decreased. Then, following the decrease in deviant behaviors and waiting times, an increase in the time spent warming up was evident (i.e., appropriate engagement). Indeed, there was an improvement in engagement time using the problem-solving method and a decrease using the traditional method. On the other hand, there was a decrease in motor engagement 3 in favor of motor engagement 2. Indeed, it has been shown that the problem-solving method has been used in the learning process and allows for its improvement ( Docktor et al., 2015 ). In addition, it could also produce better quality solutions and has higher scores on conceptual and problem-solving measures. It is also a good method for the learning process to enhance students' academic performance ( Docktor et al., 2015 ; Ali, 2019 ). In contrast, the traditional method limits the ability of teachers to reach and engage all students ( Cook and Artino, 2016 ). Furthermore, it produces passive learning with an understanding of basic knowledge which is characterized by its weakness ( Goldstein, 2016 ). Taken together, it appears that the problem-solving method promotes and improves learning more than the traditional method.

It should be acknowledged that other factors, such as motivation, could influence learning. In this context, our results showed that the method of problem-solving could improve the motivation of the learners. This motivation includes several variables that change depending on the situation, namely the intrinsic motivation that pushes the learner to engage in an activity for the interest and pleasure linked to the practice of the latter ( Komarraju et al., 2009 ; Guiffrida et al., 2013 ; Chedru, 2015 ). The student, therefore, likes to learn through problem-solving and neglects that of the traditional method. These results are concordant with others ( Deci and Ryan, 1985 ; Chedru, 2015 ; Ryan and Deci, 2020 ). Regarding the three forms of extrinsic motivation: first, extrinsic motivation by an identified regulation which manifests itself in a high degree of self-determination where the learner engages in the activity because it is important for him ( Deci and Ryan, 1985 ; Chedru, 2015 ). This explains the significant difference between the two groups. Then, the motivation by external regulation which is characterized by a low degree of self-determination such as the behavior of the learner is manipulated by external circumstances such as obtaining rewards or the removal of sanctions ( Deci and Ryan, 1985 ; Chedru, 2015 ). For this, the means of this variable decreased for the experimental group which is intrinsically motivated. He does not need any reward to work and is not afraid of punishment because he is self-confident. Third, amotivation is at the opposite end of the self-determination continuum. Unmotivated students are the most likely to feel negative emotions ( Ratelle et al., 2007 ; David, 2010 ), to have low self-esteem ( Deci and Ryan, 1995 ), and who attempts to abandon their studies ( Vallerand et al., 1997 ; Blanchard et al., 2005 ). So, more students are motivated by external regulation or demotivated, less interest they show and less effort they make, and more likely they are to fail ( Grolnick et al., 1991 ; Miserandino, 1996 ; Guay et al., 2000 ; Blanchard et al., 2005 ).

It is worth noting that there is a close link between motivation and learning ( Bessa et al., 2021 ; Rossa et al., 2021 ). Indeed, when the learner's motivation is high, so will his learning. However, all this depends on the method used ( Norboev, 2021 ). For example, the method of problem-solving increase motivation more than the traditional method, as evidenced by several researchers ( Parish and Treasure, 2003 ; Artino and Stephens, 2009 ; Kim and Frick, 2011 ; Lemos and Veríssimo, 2014 ).

Given the effectiveness of the problem-solving method in improving students' learning and motivation, it should be used during physical education teaching. This could be achieved through the organization of comprehensive training programs, seminars, and workshops for teachers so to master and subsequently be able to use the problem-solving method during physical education lessons.

Despite its novelty, the present study suffers from a few limitations that should be acknowledged. First, a future study, consisting of a group taught using the mixed method would preferable so to better elucidate the true impact of this teaching and learning method. Second, no gender and/or age group comparisons were performed. This issue should be addressed in future investigations. Finally, the number of participants is limited. This may be due to working in a secondary school where the number of students in a class is limited to 30 students. Additionally, the number of participants fell to 53 after excluding certain students (exempted, absent for a session, exercising in civil clubs or member of the school association). Therefore, to account for classes of finite size, a cluster-based trial would be beneficial in the future. Moreover, future studies investigating the effect of the active method in reducing some behaviors (e.g., disruptive behaviors) and for the improvement of pupils' attention are warranted.

5. Conclusion

There was an improvement in student learning in favor of the problem-solving method. Additionally, we found that the motivation of learners who were taught using the problem-solving method was better than that of learners who were educated by the traditional method.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Ethics statement

University Research Ethics Board approval was obtained before recruiting participants who were subsequently informed of the nature, objective, methodology, and constraints. Teacher, school director, parental/guardian, and child informed consent was obtained prior to participation in the study. In addition, exclusion criteria included; the practice of handball activity in civil/competitive/amateur clubs or in the high school sports association. Written informed consent to participate in this study was provided by the participants' legal guardian/next of kin.

Author contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual contribution to the work and approved it for publication.

Acknowledgments

Special thanks for all students and physical education teaching staff from the 15 November 1955 Secondary School, who generously shared their time, experience, and materials for the proposes of this study.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

The reviewer MJ declared a shared affiliation, with no collaboration, with the authors GE, NS, LM, and KT to the handling editor at the time of review.

Publisher's note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: problem-solving method, traditional method, motivation, learning, students

Citation: Ezeddine G, Souissi N, Masmoudi L, Trabelsi K, Puce L, Clark CCT, Bragazzi NL and Mrayah M (2023) The problem-solving method: Efficacy for learning and motivation in the field of physical education. Front. Psychol. 13:1041252. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1041252

Received: 10 September 2022; Accepted: 15 December 2022; Published: 25 January 2023.

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Copyright © 2023 Ezeddine, Souissi, Masmoudi, Trabelsi, Puce, Clark, Bragazzi and Mrayah. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Boost Team Motivation During Complex Problem-Solving
Utilise problem-solving techniques like root cause analysis and brainstorming. Prioritise tasks based on impact and feasibility. Communicate effectively to ensure everyone is on the same page.
PDF Enhancing Students' Motivation and Problem Solving Skills in
Problem-solving skills are the ability to solve problems, especially in ill-defined problems or non-routine problems [14]. This ability describes how an individual understands a problem, looks for alternative solutions, plans a solution, resolves, and confirms the solution obtained [15]. In various studies, problem-solving is firm to science ...

Overview of the Problem-Solving Mental Process

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Identifying the Problem

2. Defining the Problem

3. Forming a Strategy

4. Organizing Information

5. Allocating Resources

6. Monitoring Progress

7. Evaluating the Results

A Word From Verywell​

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35 problem-solving techniques and methods for solving complex problems

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How do you identify problems?

Complete problem-solving methods

Problem-solving warm-up activities

Tips for more effective problem solving

Clearly define the problem

Don’t jump to conclusions

Try different approaches

Don’t take it personally

Get the right people in the room

Document everything

Bring a facilitator

Develop your problem-solving skills

Design a great agenda

1. Six Thinking Hats

2. Lightning Decision Jam

3. Problem Definition Process

4. The 5 Whys

5. World Cafe

6. Discovery & Action Dialogue (DAD)

7. Design Sprint 2.0

8. Open space technology

Techniques to identify and analyze problems

10. The Creativity Dice

11. Fishbone Analysis

12. Problem Tree

13. SWOT Analysis

14. Agreement-Certainty Matrix

16. Speed Boat

17. The Journalistic Six

18. LEGO Challenge

19. What, So What, Now What?

20. Journalists

Problem-solving techniques for developing solutions

21. Mindspin

22. Improved Solutions

23. Four Step Sketch

24. 15% Solutions

25. How-Now-Wow Matrix

26. Impact and Effort Matrix

27. Dotmocracy

28. Check-in / Check-out

29. Doodling Together

30. Show and Tell

31. Constellations

32. Draw a Tree

How do I conclude a problem-solving process?

33. One Breath Feedback

34. Who What When Matrix

35. Response cards

Save time and effort discovering the right solutions

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How to Build Your Problem-Solving Skills

Get Curious

Work outside your comfort zone

The Role of Motivation in Complex Problem Solving

Madison Lee Burger

The role of motivation in complex problem solving

Previous research on motivation and CPS

CPS assessment

Psychological theories of motivation and their application to CPS

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Dörner's theory of motivation as part of PSI-theory

Summary and evaluation

Author contributions

A Word From Verywell