problem solving vs problem based learning

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Problem-Based Learning Clearinghouse of Activities, University of Delaware

Problem-Based Learning

Problem-based learning  (PBL) is a student-centered approach in which students learn about a subject by working in groups to solve an open-ended problem. This problem is what drives the motivation and the learning. 

Why Use Problem-Based Learning?

Nilson (2010) lists the following learning outcomes that are associated with PBL. A well-designed PBL project provides students with the opportunity to develop skills related to:

Working in teams.
Managing projects and holding leadership roles.
Oral and written communication.
Self-awareness and evaluation of group processes.
Working independently.
Critical thinking and analysis.
Explaining concepts.
Self-directed learning.
Applying course content to real-world examples.
Researching and information literacy.
Problem solving across disciplines.

Considerations for Using Problem-Based Learning

Rather than teaching relevant material and subsequently having students apply the knowledge to solve problems, the problem is presented first. PBL assignments can be short, or they can be more involved and take a whole semester. PBL is often group-oriented, so it is beneficial to set aside classroom time to prepare students to  work in groups  and to allow them to engage in their PBL project.

Students generally must:

Examine and define the problem.
Explore what they already know about underlying issues related to it.
Determine what they need to learn and where they can acquire the information and tools necessary to solve the problem.
Evaluate possible ways to solve the problem.
Solve the problem.
Report on their findings.

Getting Started with Problem-Based Learning

Articulate the learning outcomes of the project. What do you want students to know or be able to do as a result of participating in the assignment?
Create the problem. Ideally, this will be a real-world situation that resembles something students may encounter in their future careers or lives. Cases are often the basis of PBL activities. Previously developed PBL activities can be found online through the University of Delaware’s PBL Clearinghouse of Activities .
Establish ground rules at the beginning to prepare students to work effectively in groups.
Introduce students to group processes and do some warm up exercises to allow them to practice assessing both their own work and that of their peers.
Consider having students take on different roles or divide up the work up amongst themselves. Alternatively, the project might require students to assume various perspectives, such as those of government officials, local business owners, etc.
Establish how you will evaluate and assess the assignment. Consider making the self and peer assessments a part of the assignment grade.

Nilson, L. B. (2010). Teaching at its best: A research-based resource for college instructors (2nd ed.).  San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 

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Problem solving learning versus problem-based learning

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Taking this axis into account, problem solving seems not to affect it whilst in determined context a pure PBL curriculum may do, especially in the morphophysiological stage. This exactly occurred in our medical school since 2002 onwards, leading from then on to the proposal of a hybrid format for ameliorating this failure1, 2, 3, 4

1. Carrera LI, Tellez TE, D¡¯Ottavio AE: Implementing a problem - based learning curriculum in an Argentinean medical school: implications for developing countries. Academic Medicine 78: 1-4, 2003

2. D¡¯Ottavio AE: Issues on curricular changes. Are they unique to Argentina? (Letter to the Editor) Singapore Medical Journal 48: 7: 704- 704, 2007

3. Carrera LI, Tellez TE, D¡¯Ottavio AE: A hybrid curriculum would be a more suitable format for developing countries (Response to Diana F Wood¡¯s Editorial: Problem based learning. BMJ 2008;336:971 (3 May) British Medical Journal on line 336 (7651), 3 may 2008

4. D¡¯Ottavio AE: Transformaciones curriculares: an¨¢lisis y reflexiones. Revista Elementos. 72 (15): 35-38, 2008

Competing interests: No competing interests

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What is Problem-Based Learning? A Complete Guide for Educators

Published on: 11/30/2023

By Scott Winstead

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As an educator, you’re always looking for the most effective ways to help your students master the material and develop the skills they need to succeed. With so many different instructional approaches to choose from, it can be tough to decide which one is right for your class. One approach that has shown promise in a variety of educational settings is problem-based learning (PBL) — a method that involves having students work through real-world, open-ended problems and scenarios as a means of learning new concepts.

In fact, studies have shown that problem based learning is often more effective than traditional lecturing.

How can you use problem-based learning it as a teacher, instructional designer , course creator , or trainer? In the guide below, I’ll talk more what problem-based learning is, how it can be used in the classroom, its pros and cons, and more.

What is Problem-Based Learning?

With problem-based learning, students work on a real-world, open-ended problem or issue and try to solve it.

By challenging students to come up with solutions to real problems, they learn to think critically and creatively. They also learn to work together and communicate effectively.

This form of experienced-based education can help students better master the material and develop the skills they need to succeed in college and their careers.

In my experience, when students are engaged in problem-based learning, they tend to be more motivated and enthusiastic about learning. And they retain information better too.

When using PBL, the instructor’s role switches from the more conventional paradigm. The teacher gives relevant content, tells the class what has to be done, and offers excellent knowledge for solving a particular problem.

The instructor serves as a facilitator in PBL. The learning is student-driven, intending to address the issue (note: the problem is established at the onset of learning instead of being presented last in the traditional model). Furthermore, the tasks range from a few weeks to a semester, with daily instructional time dedicated to group work.

If you’re looking for a way to help your students learn more effectively, problem-based learning may be the answer.

How to Use Problem-Based Learning in the Classroom

There are a few different ways you can incorporate problem-based learning into your classroom.

One option is to have students work on problems individually or in small groups.

Another option is to use problem-based learning as a whole-class activity.

This is a great way to get all of your students engaged and involved in the lesson.

Before you can implement problem-based learning, you should:

Identify what it is exactly that you want the students to learn
Determine what real-world problem or issue you want them to solve that ties into the learning objective.
Come up with a plan and rules for how the students will work together on the problem.
Define how the assignment will be evaluated.

Once you have a plan in place, you can start incorporating problem-based learning into your lessons.

The Pros and Cons of Problem-Based Learning

When it comes to teaching, there’s no one-size-fits-all approach.

What works for one teacher in one classroom might not work for another teacher in a different classroom.

The same goes for problem-based learning. While this instructional approach has its benefits, there are also some potential drawbacks to consider.

Pros of Problem-Based Learning:

Helps students learn how to think critically and solve problems
Encourages students to be creative
Teaches students how to work together
Helps students learn how to communicate effectively

Cons of Problem-Based Learning:

May be challenging for some teachers to implement
May be too much for some students who struggle with problem-solving
If not done correctly, can lead to students feeling overwhelmed or frustrated

Before you decide to use problem-based learning in your classroom, weigh the pros and cons to see if it’s the right instructional approach for you and your students.

Final Thoughts on Problem-Based Learning

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered teaching method that encourages students to learn by actively solving real-world problems.

Unlike traditional instructional methods, PBL does not focus on delivering content but rather on facilitating student learning through problem-solving.

This type of learning has been shown to be particularly effective in promoting higher-order thinking skills such as critical thinking and creativity.

In addition, PBL can help to build students’ confidence and self-efficacy as they learn to tackle challenging problems.

For teachers, PBL can be a useful tool for differentiating instruction and meeting the needs of all learners.

When designed and implemented effectively, PBL can provide an engaging and rewarding learning experience for both teachers and students.

Other Useful Resources

What is Adaptive Learning?
What is Inquiry Based Learning?
What is Just in Time Learning?
What is Microlearning?
What is Project Based Learning?
What is Service Learning?

Do you have any experience using problem-based learning in your classroom? Share your thoughts by leaving a comment below.

5 Scenarios Where Agile for Instructional Designers Makes Sense

What is service learning a complete guide for educators, leave a comment cancel reply.

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Acknowledgements

Introduction

List of Authors
Author Index
I. Definitions and History
1. The Proper Way to Become an Instructional Technologist
2. What Is This Thing Called Instructional Design?
3. History of LIDT
4. A Short History of the Learning Sciences
5. LIDT Timeline
6. Programmed Instruction
7. Edgar Dale and the Cone of Experience
8. Twenty Years of EdTech
II. Learning and Instruction
10. Intelligence
11. Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism
12. Sociocultural Perspectives of Learning
13. Learning Communities
14. Communities of Innovation
15. Motivation Theories and Instructional Design
16. Motivation Theories on Learning
17. Informal Learning
18. Overview of Problem-Based Learning
19. Connectivism
20. An Instructional Theory for the Post-Industrial Age
21. Using the First Principles of Instruction to Make Instruction Effective, Efficient, and Engaging
III. Design
22. Instructional Design Models
23. Design Thinking and Agile Design
24. What and how do designers design?
25. The Development of Design-Based Research
26. A Survey of Educational Change Models
27. Performance Technology
28. Defining and Differentiating the Makerspace
29. User Experience Design
IV. Technology and Media
30. United States National Educational Technology Plan
31. Technology Integration in Schools
32. K-12 Technology Frameworks
33. What Is Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge?
34. The Learner-Centered Paradigm of Education
35. Distance Learning
36. Old Concerns with New Distance Education Research
37. Open Educational Resources
38. The Value of Serious Play
39. Video Games and the Future of Learning
40. Educational Data Mining and Learning Analytics
41. Opportunities and Challenges with Digital Open Badges
V. Becoming an LIDT Professional
42. The Moral Dimensions of Instructional Design
43. Creating an Intentional Web Presence
44. Where Should Educational Technologists Publish Their Research?
45. Rigor, Influence, and Prestige in Academic Publishing
46. Educational Technology Conferences
47. Networking at Conferences
48. PIDT, the Important Unconference for Academics
VI. Preparing for an LIDT Career
49. What Are the Skills of an Instructional Designer?
50. Careers in Academia: The Secret Handshake
51. Careers in K-12 Education
52. Careers in Museum Learning
53. Careers in Consulting
Final Reading Assignment
Index of Topics
Translations

Overview of Problem-Based Learning

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problem solving vs problem based learning

Editor’s Note

This article was originally published in the Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning [https://edtechbooks.org/-vJ] .

Savery, J. R. (2006). Overview of problem-based learning: Definitions and distinctions. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning , 1 (1), 9–20. Retrieved from https://edtechbooks.org/-vJ

When asked to provide an overview of problem-based learning for the introductory issue of this journal, I readily agreed, thinking it was a wonderful opportunity to write about a subject I care about deeply. As I began to jot down ideas about “What is PBL?” it became clear that I had a problem. Some of what I knew about PBL was learned through teaching and practicing PBL, but so much more had been acquired by reading the many papers authored by experts with decades of experience conducting research and practicing problem-based learning. These authors had frequently begun their papers with a context-setting discussion of “What is PBL?” What more was there to say?

Origins of PBL

In discussing the origins of PBL, Boud and Feletti (1997) stated:

PBL as it is generally known today evolved from innovative health sciences curricula introduced in North America over 30 years ago. Medical education, with its intensive pattern of basic science lectures followed by an equally exhaustive clinical teaching programme, was rapidly becoming an ineffective and inhumane way to prepare students, given the explosion in medical information and new technology and the rapidly changing demands of future practice. Medical faculty at McMaster University in Canada introduced the tutorial process, not only as a specific instructional method (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980) but also as central to their philosophy for structuring an entire curriculum promoting student-centered, multidisciplinary education, and lifelong learning in professional practice. (p. 2)

Barrows (1994; 1996) recognized that the process of patient diagnosis (doctors’ work) relied on a combination of a hypothetical-deductive reasoning process and expert knowledge in multiple domains. Teaching discipline specific content (anatomy, neurology, pharmacology, psychology, etc.) separately, using a “traditional” lecture approach, did little to provide learners with a context for the content or for its clinical application. Further confounding this traditional approach was the rapidly changing knowledge base in science and medicine, which was driving changes in both theory and practice.

During the 1980s and 1990s the PBL approach was adopted in other medical schools and became an accepted instructional approach across North America and in Europe. There were some who questioned whether or not a physician trained using PBL was as well prepared for professional practice as a physician trained using traditional approaches. This was a fair question, and extensive research was conducted to answer it. A meta-analysis of 20 years of PBL evaluation studies was conducted by Albanese and Mitchell (1993), and also by Vernon and Blake (1993), and concluded that a problem-based approach to instruction was equal to traditional approaches in terms of conventional tests of knowledge (i.e., scores on medical board examinations), and that students who studied using PBL exhibited better clinical problem-solving skills. A smaller study of graduates of a physical therapy program that utilized PBL (Denton, Adams, Blatt, & Lorish, 2000) showed that graduates of the program performed equally well with PBL or traditional approaches but students reported a preference for the problem-centered approach. Anecdotal reports from PBL practitioners suggest that students are more engaged in learning the expected content (Torp & Sage, 2002).

However, a recent report on a systematic review and meta-analysis on the effectiveness of PBL used in higher education programs for health professionals (Newman, 2003) stated that “existing overviews of the field do not provide high quality evidence with which to provide robust answers to questions about the effectiveness of PBL” (p. 5). Specifically this analysis of research studies attempted to compare PBL with traditional approaches to discover if PBL increased performance in adapting to and participating in change; dealing with problems and making reasoned decisions in unfamiliar situations; reasoning critically and creatively; adopting a more universal or holistic approach; practicing empathy, appreciating the other person’s point of view; collaborating productively in groups or teams; and identifying one’s own strengths and weaknesses and undertaking appropriate remediation (self-directed learning). A lack of well-designed studies posed a challenge to this research analysis, and an article on the same topic by Sanson-Fisher and Lynagh (2005) concluded that “Available evidence, although methodologically flawed, offers little support for the superiority of PBL over traditional curricula” (p. 260). This gap in the research on the short-term and long-term effectiveness of using a PBL approach with a range of learner populations definitely indicates a need for further study.

Despite this lack of evidence, the adoption of PBL has expanded into elementary schools, middle schools, high schools, universities, and professional schools (Torp & Sage, 2002). The University of Delaware (http://www.udel.edu/pbl/) has an active PBL program and conducts annual training institutes for instructors wanting to become tutors. Samford University in Birmingham, Alabama (http://www.samford.edu/pbl/) has incorporated PBL into various undergraduate programs within the Schools of Arts and Sciences, Business, Education, Nursing, and Pharmacy. The Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy (http://www.imsa.edu/center/) has been providing high school students with a complete PBL curriculum since 1985 and serves thousands of students and teachers as a center for research on problem-based learning. The Problem-based Learning Institute (PBLI) (http://www.pbli.org/) has developed curricular materials (i.e., problems) and teacher-training programs in PBL for all core disciplines in high school (Barrows & Kelson, 1993). PBL is used in multiple domains of medical education (dentists, nurses, paramedics, radiologists, etc.) and in content domains as diverse as MBA programs (Stinson & Milter, 1996), higher education (Bridges & Hallinger, 1996), chemical engineering (Woods, 1994), economics (Gijselaers, 1996), architecture (Kingsland, 1989), and pre-service teacher education (Hmelo-Silver, 2004). This list is by no means exhaustive, but is illustrative of the multiple contexts in which the PBL instructional approach is being utilized.

The widespread adoption of the PBL instructional approach by different disciplines, for different age levels, and in different content domains has produced some misapplications and misconceptions of PBL (Maudsley, 1999). Certain practices that are called PBL may fail to achieve the anticipated learning outcomes for a variety of reasons. Boud and Feletti (1997, p. 5) described several possible sources for the confusion:

Confusing PBL as an approach to curriculum design with the teaching of problem-solving,
Adoption of a PBL proposal without sufficient commitment of staff at all levels,
Lack of research and development on the nature and type of problems to be used,
Insufficient investment in the design, preparation and ongoing renewal of learning resources,
Inappropriate assessment methods which do not match the learning outcomes sought in problem-based programs, and
Evaluation strategies which do not focus on the key learning issues and which are implemented and acted upon far too late.

The possible sources of confusion listed above appear to hold a naïve view of the rigor required to teach with this learner-centered approach. In the next section I will discuss some of the essential characteristics and features of PBL.

Characteristics of PBL

PBL is an instructional (and curricular) learner-centered approach that empowers learners to conduct research, integrate theory and practice, and apply knowledge and skills to develop a viable solution to a defined problem. Critical to the success of the approach is the selection of ill-structured problems (often interdisciplinary) and a tutor who guides the learning process and conducts a thorough debriefing at the conclusion of the learning experience. Several authors have described the characteristics and features required for a successful PBL approach to instruction. The reader is encouraged to read the source documents, as brief quotes do not do justice to the level of detail provided by the authors. Boud and Feletti (1997) provided a list of the practices considered characteristic of the philosophy, strategies, and tactics of problem-based learning. Duch, Groh, and Allen (2001) described the methods used in PBL and the specific skills developed, including the ability to think critically, analyze and solve complex, real-world problems, to find, evaluate, and use appropriate learning resources; to work cooperatively, to demonstrate effective communication skills, and to use content knowledge and intellectual skills to become continual learners. Torp and Sage (2002) described PBL as focused, experiential learning organized around the investigation and resolution of messy, real-world problems. They describe students as engaged problem solvers, seeking to identify the root problem and the conditions needed for a good solution and in the process becoming self-directed learners. Hmelo-Silver (2004) described PBL as an instructional method in which students learn through facilitated problem solving that centers on a complex problem that does not have a single correct answer. She noted that students work in collaborative groups to identify what they need to learn in order to solve a problem, engage in self-directed learning, apply their new knowledge to the problem, and reflect on what they learned and the effectiveness of the strategies employed.

On the website for the PBL Initiative (http://www.pbli.org/pbl/generic_pbl.htm) Barrows (nd) describes in detail a set of Generic PBL Essentials, reduced to bullet points below. Each of these essential characteristics has been extended briefly to provide additional information and resources.

Students must have the responsibility for their own learning. PBL is a learner-centered approach—students engage with the problem with whatever their current knowledge/experience affords. Learner motivation increases when responsibility for the solution to the problem and the process rests with the learner (Savery & Duffy, 1995) and as student ownership for learning increases (Savery, 1998; 1999). Inherent in the design of PBL is a public articulation by the learners of what they know and about what they need to learn more. Individuals accept responsibility for seeking relevant information and bringing that back to the group to help inform the development of a viable solution.
The problem simulations used in problem-based learning must be ill-structured and allow for free inquiry. Problems in the real world are ill-structured (or they would not be problems). A critical skill developed through PBL is the ability to identify the problem and set parameters on the development of a solution. When a problem is well-structured learners are less motivated and less invested in the development of the solution. (See the section on Problems vs. Cases below.)
Learning should be integrated from a wide range of disciplines or subjects. Barrows notes that during self-directed learning, students should be able to access, study and integrate information from all the disciplines that might be related to understanding and resolving a particular problem—just as people in the real world must recall and apply information integrated from diverse sources in their work. The rapid expansion of information has encouraged a cross-fertilization of ideas and led to the development of new disciplines. Multiple perspectives lead to a more thorough understanding of the issues and the development of a more robust solution.
Collaboration is essential. In the world after school most learners will find themselves in jobs where they need to share information and work productively with others. PBL provides a format for the development of these essential skills. During a PBL session the tutor will ask questions of any and all members to ensure that information has been shared between members in relation to the group’s problem.
What students learn during their self-directed learning must be applied back to the problem with reanalysis and resolution. The point of self-directed research is for individuals to collect information that will inform the group’s decision-making process in relation to the problem. It is essential that each individual share coherently what he or she has learned and how that information might impact on developing a solution to the problem.
A closing analysis of what has been learned from work with the problem and a discussion of what concepts and principles have been learned are essential. Given that PBL is a very engaging, motivating and involving form of experiential learning, learners are often very close to the immediate details of the problem and the proposed solution. The purpose of the post-experience debriefing process (see Steinwachs, 1992; Thiagarajan, 1993 for details on debriefing) is to consolidate the learning and ensure that the experience has been reflected upon. Barrows (1988) advises that learners examine all facets of the PBL process to better understand what they know, what they learned, and how they performed.
Self and peer assessment should be carried out at the completion of each problem and at the end of every curricular unit. These assessment activities related to the PBL process are closely related to the previous essential characteristic of reflection on knowledge gains. The significance of this activity is to reinforce the self-reflective nature of learning and sharpen a range of metacognitive processing skills.
The activities carried out in problem-based learning must be those valued in the real world. A rationale and guidelines for the selection of authentic problems in PBL is discussed extensively in Savery & Duffy (1995), Stinson and Milter (1996), Wilkerson and Gijselaers (1996), and MacDonald (1997). The transfer of skills learned through PBL to a real-world context is also noted by Bransford, Brown, & Cocking (2000, p. 77).
Student examinations must measure student progress towards the goals of problem-based learning. The goals of PBL are both knowledge-based and process-based. Students need to be assessed on both dimensions at regular intervals to ensure that they are benefiting as intended from the PBL approach. Students are responsible for the content in the curriculum that they have “covered” through engagement with problems. They need to be able to recognize and articulate what they know and what they have learned.
Problem-based learning must be the pedagogical base in the curriculum and not part of a didactic curriculum.

The author states, “The problem simulations used in problem-based learning must be ill-structured and allow for free inquiry.” Create your own “messy, real-world” problem. Decide on a main curriculum area (most good problems are interdisciplinary) and an age group. Construct a problem that could be used in a problem-based classroom. Share it with two people and get their feedback. Revise the problem and submit.

These descriptions of the characteristics of PBL identify clearly 1) the role of the tutor as a facilitator of learning, 2) the responsibilities of the learners to be self-directed and self-regulated in their learning, and 3) the essential elements in the design of ill-structured instructional problems as the driving force for inquiry. The challenge for many instructors when they adopt a PBL approach is to make the transition from teacher as knowledge provider to tutor as manager and facilitator of learning (see Ertmer & Simons, 2006). If teaching with PBL were as simple as presenting the learners with a “problem” and students could be relied upon to work consistently at a high level of cognitive self-monitoring and self-regulation, then many teachers would be taking early retirement. The reality is that learners who are new to PBL require significant instructional scaffolding to support the development of problem-solving skills, self-directed learning skills, and teamwork/collaboration skills to a level of self-sufficiency where the scaffolds can be removed. Teaching institutions that have adopted a PBL approach to curriculum and instruction (including those noted earlier) have developed extensive tutor-training programs in recognition of the critical importance of this role in facilitating the PBL learning experience. An excellent resource is The Tutorial Process by Barrows (1988), which explains the importance of the tutor as the metacognitive coach for the learners.

Given that change to teaching patterns in public education moves at a glacial pace, it will take time for institutions to commit to a full problem-based learning approach. However, there are several closely related learner-centered instructional strategies, such as project-based learning, case-based learning, and inquiry-based learning, that are used in a variety of content domains that can begin to move students along the path to becoming more self-directed in their learning. In the next section I examine some of similarities and differences among these approaches.

Problem-based Learning vs. Case-based and Project-based Learning

Both case-based and project-based approaches are valid instructional strategies that promote active learning and engage the learners in higher-order thinking such as analysis and synthesis. A well-constructed case will help learners to understand the important elements of the problem/situation so that they are better prepared for similar situations in the future. Case studies can help learners develop critical thinking skills in assessing the information provided and in identifying logic flaws or false assumptions. Working through the case study will help learners build discipline/context-specific vocabulary/terminology, and an understanding of the relationships between elements presented in the case study. When a case study is done as a group project, learners may develop improved communication and collaboration skills. Cases may be used to assess student learning after instruction, or as a practice exercise to prepare learners for a more authentic application of the skills and knowledge gained by working on the case.

Project-based learning is similar to problem-based learning in that the learning activities are organized around achieving a shared goal (project). This instructional approach was described by Kilpatrick (1921), as the Project Method and elaborated upon by several researchers, including Blumenfeld, Soloway, Marx, Krajcik, Guzdial, and Palinscar (1991). Within a project-based approach learners are usually provided with specifications for a desired end product (build a rocket, design a website, etc.) and the learning process is more oriented to following correct procedures. While working on a project, learners are likely to encounter several “problems” that generate “teachable moments” (see Lehman, George, Buchanan, & Rush, this issue). Teachers are more likely to be instructors and coaches (rather than tutors) who provide expert guidance, feedback and suggestions for “better” ways to achieve the final product. The teaching (modeling, scaffolding, questioning, etc.) is provided according to learner need and within the context of the project. Similar to case-based instruction learners are able to add an experience to their memory that will serve them in future situations.

While cases and projects are excellent learner-centered instructional strategies, they tend to diminish the learner’s role in setting the goals and outcomes for the “problem.” When the expected outcomes are clearly defined, then there is less need or incentive for the learner to set his/her own parameters. In the real world it is recognized that the ability to both define the problem and develop a solution (or range of possible solutions) is important.

Problem-based Learning vs. Inquiry-based Learning

These two approaches are very similar. Inquiry-based learning is grounded in the philosophy of John Dewey (as is PBL), who believed that education begins with the curiosity of the learner. Inquiry-based learning is a student-centered, active learning approach focused on questioning, critical thinking, and problem solving. Inquiry-based learning activities begin with a question followed by investigating solutions, creating new knowledge as information is gathered and understood, discussing discoveries and experiences, and reflecting on new-found knowledge. Inquiry-based learning is frequently used in science education (see, for example, the Center for Inquiry-Based Learning http://www.biology.duke.edu/cibl/) and encourages a hands-on approach where students practice the scientific method on authentic problems (questions). The primary difference between PBL and inquiry-based learning relates to the role of the tutor. In an inquiry-based approach the tutor is both a facilitator of learning (encouraging/expecting higher-order thinking) and a provider of information. In a PBL approach the tutor supports the process and expects learners to make their thinking clear, but the tutor does not provide information related to the problem—that is the responsibility of the learners. A more detailed discussion comparing and contrasting these two approaches would be an excellent topic for a future article in this journal.

Challenges Still Ahead for PBL

Problem-based learning appears to be more than a passing fad in education. This instructional approach has a solid philosophical and epistemological foundation (which, due to space constraints, is not discussed fully here; see Duffy & Cunningham, 1996, Savery & Duffy, 1995; Torp & Sage, 2002) and an impressive track record of successful graduates in medical education and many other fields of study. In commenting on the adoption of PBL in undergraduate education, White (1996) observed:

Many of the concerns that prompted the development of problem-based learning in medical schools are echoed today in undergraduate education. Content-laden lectures delivered to large enrollment classes typify science courses at most universities and many colleges. Professional organizations, government agencies, and others call for a change in how science is taught as well as what is taught. While problem-based learning is well known in medical education, it is almost unknown in the undergraduate curriculum. (p. 75)

The use of PBL in undergraduate education is changing gradually (e.g., Samford University, University of Delaware) in part because of the realization by industry and government leaders that this information age is for real. At the Wingspread Conference (1994) leaders from state and federal governments and experts from corporate, philanthropic, higher education, and accreditation communities were asked for their opinions and visions of undergraduate education and to identify some important characteristics of quality performance for college and university graduates. Their report identified as important high-level skills in communication, computation, technological literacy, and information retrieval that would enable individuals to gain and apply new knowledge and skills as needed. The report also cited as important the ability to arrive at informed judgments by effectively defining problems, gathering and evaluating information related to those problems, and developing solutions; the ability to function in a global community; adaptability; ease with diversity; motivation and persistence (for example being a self-starter); ethical and civil behavior; creativity and resourcefulness; technical competence; and the ability to work with others, especially in team settings. Lastly, the Wingspread Conference report noted the importance of a demonstrated ability to deploy all of the previous characteristics to address specific problems in complex, real-world settings, in which the development of workable solutions is required. Given this set of characteristics and the apparent success of a PBL approach at producing graduates with these characteristics one could hope for increased support in the use of PBL in undergraduate education.

The adoption of PBL (and any other instructional innovation) in public education is a complicated undertaking. Most state-funded elementary schools, middle schools, and high schools are constrained by a state-mandated curriculum and an expectation that they will produce a uniform product. High-stakes standardized testing tends to support instructional approaches that teach to the test. These approaches focus primarily on memorization through drill and practice, and rehearsal using practice tests. The instructional day is divided into specific blocks of time and organized around subjects. There is not much room in this structure for teachers or students to immerse themselves in an engaging problem. However, there are many efforts underway to work around the constraints of traditional classrooms (see, for example, PBL Design and Invention Center -http://www.pblnet.org/, or the PBL Initiative—http://www.pbli.org/core.htm), as well as the article by Lehman and his colleagues in this issue. I hope in future issues of this journal to learn more about implementations of PBL in K–12 educational settings.

We do live in interesting times—students can now access massive amounts of information that was unheard-of a decade ago, and there are more than enough problems to choose from in a range of disciplines. In my opinion, it is vitally important that current and future generations of students experience a problem-based learning approach and engage in constructive solution-seeking activities. The bar has been raised as the 21st century gathers momentum and more than ever, higher-order thinking skills, self-regulated learning habits, and problem-solving skills are necessary for all students. Providing students with opportunities to develop and refine these skills will take the efforts of many individuals—especially those who would choose to read a journal named the Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning.

Application Exercises

What are the pros and cons of PBL?
For a specific learner audience and set of learning objectives, design four class activities, one that would follow each of the following four learning theories: case-based learning, project-based learning, inquiry-based learning, and problem-based learning.

Albanese, M. A., & Mitchell, S. (1993). Problem-based learning: A review of the literature on its outcomes and implementation issues. Academic Medicine, 68 (1), 52-81.

Barrows, H. S. (1988). The tutorial process. Springfield: Southern Illinois University School of Medicine.

Barrows, H. S. (1994). Practice-based learning: Problem-based learning applied to medical education. Springfield: Southern Illinois University School of Medicine.

Barrows, H. S. (1996). Problem-based learning in medicine and beyond: A brief overview. In L. Wilkerson & W. Gijselaers (Eds.), Bringing problem-based learning to higher education: Theory and practice. New Directions For Teaching and Learning Series, No. 68 (pp. 3-11). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Barrows, H. S., & Kelson, A. (1993). Problem-based learning in secondary education and the Problem-based Learning Institute (Monograph). Springfield: Southern Illinois University School of Medicine.

Barrows, H. S., & Tamblyn, R. M. (1980). Problem-based learning: An approach to medical education. New York: Springer.

Blumenfeld, P. C., Soloway, E., Marx, R. W., Krajcik, J. S., Guzdial, M., & Palinscar, A. (1991). Motivating project-based learning: Sustaining the doing, supporting the learning. Educational Psychologist, 26 (3/4), 369-398.

Boud, D., & Feletti, G. (1997). The challenge of problem-based learning (2nd ed.). London: Kogan Page.

Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (Eds.). (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Bridges, E.M., & Hallinger, P. (1996). Problem-based learning in leadership education. In L. Wilkerson & W. Gijselaers (Eds.), Bringing problem-based learning to higher education: Theory and practice. New Directions in Teaching and Learning, No. 68 (pp. 53-61). San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

Denton, B. G., Adams, C. C., Blatt, P. J., & Lorish, C. D. (2000). Does the introduction of problem-based learning change graduate performance outcomes in a professional curriculum? Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 11 (2&3), 147-162.

Duch, B. J., Groh, S. E., & Allen, D. E. (2001). Why problem-based learning? A case study of institutional change in undergraduate education. In B. Duch, S. Groh, & D. Allen (Eds.), The power of problem-based learning (pp. 3-11). Sterling, VA: Stylus.

Duffy, T. M., & Cunningham, D. J. (1996). Constructivism: Implications for the design and delivery of instruction. In D. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research for educational communications and technology. New York: Macmillan.

Ertmer, P. A., & Simons, K. D. (2006). Jumping the PBL implementation hurdle: Supporting the efforts of K–12 teachers. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning, 1 (1), 40-54.

Gijselaers, W. H. (1996). Connecting problem-based practices with educational theory. In L. Wilkerson & W. Gijselaers (Eds.), Bringing problem-based learning to higher education: Theory and practice. New Directions in Teaching and Learning. No. 68, Winter 1996 (pp. 13-21). San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn? Educational Psychology Review, 16(3), 235-266.

Kingsland, A. J. (1989). The assessment process in architecture at Newcastle. In B. Wallis (Ed.), Problem-based learning: The Newcastle workshop. Proceedings of the ten-year anniversary conference (pp. 121-130) Faculty of Medicine, University of Newcastle.

Kilpatrick, W. H. (1921). Dangers and difficulties of the project method and how to overcome them: Introductory statement: Definition of terms. Teachers College Record, 22 (4), p. 283-287 (ID Number: 3982) Retrieved January 23, 2006 from http://www.tcrecord.org.

MacDonald, P. J. (1997). Selection of health problems for a problem based curriculum. In D. Boud & G. Feletti (Eds.), The challenge of problem-based learning (2nd ed.) (pp. 93-102). London: Kogan Page.

Maudsley, G. (1999) Do we all mean the same thing by “problem-based learning”? A review of the concepts and a formulation of the ground rules. Academic Medicine, 74(2), 178-85.

Newman, M. (2003). A pilot systematic review and meta-analysis on the effectiveness of problem-based learning. Retrieved December 12, 2005 from http://www.ltsn-01.ac.uk/docs/pbl_report.pdf.

Sanson-Fisher R. W., & Lynagh, M., C. (2005). Problem-based learning: A dissemination success story? Medical Journal of Australia, 183(5), 258-260.

Savery, J.R., & Duffy, T.M. (1995). Problem-based learning: An instructional model and its constructivist framework. In B. Wilson (Ed.), Constructivist learning environments: Case studies in instructional design (pp. 135-148). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

Savery, J. R. (1998). Fostering ownership with computer supported collaborative writing in higher education. In C. J. Bonk & K. S. King (Eds.), Electronic collaborators: Learner-centered technologies for literacy, apprenticeship, and discourse (pp. 103-127). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Savery, J. R. (1999). Enhancing motivation and learning through collaboration and the use of problems. In S. Fellows & K. Ahmet (Eds.), Inspiring students: Case studies in motivating the learner (pp. 33-42). London: Kogan Page.

Steinwachs, B. (1992). How to facilitate a debriefing. Simulation & Gaming, 23(2) 186-195.

Stinson, J. E., & Milter, R. G. (1996). Problem-based learning in business education: Curriculum design and implementation issues. In L. Wilkerson & W. H. Gijselaers (Eds.), Bringing problem-based learning to higher education: Theory and practice. New Directions For Teaching and Learning Series, No. 68 (pp. 32-42). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Thiagarajan, S. (1993). How to maximize transfer from simulation games through systematic debriefing. In F. Percival, S. Lodge & D. Saunders (Eds.), The Simulation and Gaming Yearbook, vol. 1 (pp. 45-52). London: Kogan Page.

Torp, L., & Sage, S. (2002). Problems as possibilities: Problem-based learning for K-16 education (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Vernon, D. T. A., & Blake, R. L. (1993). Does problem-based learning work? A meta-analysis of evaluation research. Academic Medicine, 68(7), 550-563.

White, H. B. (1996). Dan tries problem-based learning: A case study. In L. Richlin (Ed.), To Improve the Academy, vol. 15 (pp. 75-91). Stillwater, OK: New Forums Press and the Professional and Organizational Network in Higher Education.

Wilkerson, L., & Gijselaers, W. (Eds.). (1996). Bringing problem-based learning to higher education: Theory and practice. New Directions For Teaching and Learning Series, No. 68. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Williams, S. M. (1992). Putting case-based instruction into context: Examples from legal and medical education. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 2, 367-427.

Wingspread Conference. (1994). Quality assurance in undergraduate education: What the public expects. Denver, CO: Education Commission of the States.

Woods, D. R. 1994. Problem-based learning: How to gain the most from PBL. Waterdown, Ontario: Donald R. Woods.

John R. Savery is an assistant professor in the College of Education, the University of Akron. Email: [email protected].

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to John R. Savery, The University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325-6240.

University of Akron

Dr. John R. Savery is a professor of education at the University of Akron in Akron, Ohio, where he specializes in problem-based learning, student ownership, rich learning environments, and e-learning. Prior to his current position, Dr. Savery has served as a director of instructional services, an instructional designer in both the university and corporate realms, and in a variety of faculty positions at both DePaul University in Chicago, Illinois, and the University of Akron.

This content is provided to you freely by BYU Open Learning Network.

Access it online or download it at https://open.byu.edu/lidtfoundations/overview_of_problem-based_learning .

Our Mission

Project-Based Learning vs. Problem-Based Learning vs. X-BL

At the Buck Institute for Education (BIE), we've been keeping a list of the many types of "_____- based learning" we've run across over the years:

Case-based learning
Challenge-based learning
Community-based learning
Design-based learning
Game-based learning
Inquiry-based learning
Land-based learning
Passion-based learning
Place-based learning
Problem-based learning
Proficiency-based learning
Service-based learning
Studio-based learning
Team-based learning
Work-based learning

. . . and our new fave . . .

Zombie-based learning (look it up!)

Let's Try to Sort This Out

The term "project learning" derives from the work of John Dewey and dates back to William Kilpatrick, who first used the term in 1918. At BIE, we see project-based learning as a broad category which, as long as there is an extended "project" at the heart of it, could take several forms or be a combination of:

Designing and/or creating a tangible product, performance or event
Solving a real-world problem (may be simulated or fully authentic)
Investigating a topic or issue to develop an answer to an open-ended question

So according to our "big tent" model of PBL, some of the newer "X-BLs" -- problem-, challenge- and design-based -- are basically modern versions of the same concept. They feature, to varying degrees, all of BIE's Essential Elements of PBL , although each has its own distinct flavor. (And by the way, each of these three, along with project-based learning, falls under the general category of inquiry-based learning -- which also includes research papers, scientific investigations, Socratic Seminars or other text-based discussions, etc. The other X-BLs might involve some inquiry, too, but now we're getting into the weeds . . .)

Other X-BLs are so named because they use a specific context for learning, such as a particular place or type of activity. They may contain projects within them, or have some of the 8 Essential Elements, but not necessarily. For example, within a community- or service-based learning experience, students may plan and conduct a project that improves their local community or helps the people in it, but they may also do other activities that are not part of a project. Conversely, students may learn content and skills via a game-based or work-based program that does not involve anything like what we would call a PBL-style project.

Problem-Based Learning vs. Project-Based Learning

Because they have the same acronym, we get a lot of questions about the similarities and differences between the two PBLs. We even had questions ourselves -- some years ago we created units for high school economics and government that we called "problem-based." But we later changed the name to " Project-Based Economics " and " Project-Based Government " to eliminate confusion about which PBL it was.

We decided to call problem-based learning a subset of project-based learning -- that is, one of the ways a teacher could frame a project is "to solve a problem." But problem-BL does have its own history and set of typically-followed procedures, which are more formally observed than in other types of projects. The use of case studies and simulations as "problems" dates back to medical schools in the 1960s, and problem-BL is still more often seen in the post-secondary world than in K-12, where project-BL is more common.

Problem-based learning typically follow prescribed steps:

Presentation of an "ill-structured" (open-ended, "messy") problem
Problem definition or formulation (the problem statement)
Generation of a "knowledge inventory" (a list of "what we know about the problem" and "what we need to know")
Generation of possible solutions
Formulation of learning issues for self-directed and coached learning
Sharing of findings and solutions

If you're a project-BL teacher, this probably looks pretty familiar, even though the process goes by different names. Other than the framing and the more formalized steps in problem-BL, there's really not much conceptual difference between the two PBLs -- it’s more a question of style and scope:

A Note on Math and the Two PBLs

Teachers at some K-12 schools that use project-BL as a primary instructional method, such as the New Technology Network and Envision Schools , have begun saying that they use problem-BL for math. Especially at the secondary level, teaching math primarily through multi-disciplinary projects has proved challenging. (Not that occasional multi-disciplinary projects including math are a bad idea!) By using problem-BL, these teachers feel they can design single-subject math projects -- aka "problems" -- that effectively teach more math content by being more limited in scope than many typical project-BL units. Tackling a "problem," for example, may not involve as much independent student inquiry, nor the creation of a complex product for presentation to a public audience.

How Does This Tale of Two PBLs End?

One could argue that completing any type of project involves solving a problem. If students are investigating an issue -- say, immigration policy -- the problem is deciding where they stand on it and how to communicate their views to a particular audience in a video. Or if students are building a new play structure for a playground, the problem is how to build it properly, given the users' wants and needs and the various constraints of safe, approved construction. Or even if they're writing stories for a book to be published about the Driving Question "How do we grow up?", the problem is how to express a unique, rich answer to the question.

So the semantics aren't worth worrying about, at least not for very long. The two PBLs are really two sides of the same coin. What type of PBL you decide to call your, er . . . extended learning experience just depends on how you frame it. The bottom line is the same: both PBLs can powerfully engage and effectively teach your students!

Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

What is Problem-Based Learning (PBL)? PBL is a student-centered approach to learning that involves groups of students working to solve a real-world problem, quite different from the direct teaching method of a teacher presenting facts and concepts about a specific subject to a classroom of students. Through PBL, students not only strengthen their teamwork, communication, and research skills, but they also sharpen their critical thinking and problem-solving abilities essential for life-long learning.

By working with PBL, students will:

Become engaged with open-ended situations that assimilate the world of work
Participate in groups to pinpoint what is known/ not known and the methods of finding information to help solve the given problem.
Investigate a problem; through critical thinking and problem solving, brainstorm a list of unique solutions.
Analyze the situation to see if the real problem is framed or if there are other problems that need to be solved.

How to Begin PBL

Establish the learning outcomes (i.e., what is it that you want your students to really learn and to be able to do after completing the learning project).
Find a real-world problem that is relevant to the students; often the problems are ones that students may encounter in their own life or future career.
Discuss pertinent rules for working in groups to maximize learning success.
Practice group processes: listening, involving others, assessing their work/peers.
Explore different roles for students to accomplish the work that needs to be done and/or to see the problem from various perspectives depending on the problem (e.g., for a problem about pollution, different roles may be a mayor, business owner, parent, child, neighboring city government officials, etc.).
Determine how the project will be evaluated and assessed. Most likely, both self-assessment and peer-assessment will factor into the assignment grade.

Designing Classroom Instruction

How to Orchestrate a PBL Activity

Explain Problem-Based Learning to students: its rationale, daily instruction, class expectations, grading.
Serve as a model and resource to the PBL process; work in-tandem through the first problem
Help students secure various resources when needed.
Supply ample class time for collaborative group work.
Give feedback to each group after they share via the established format; critique the solution in quality and thoroughness. Reinforce to the students that the prior thinking and reasoning process in addition to the solution are important as well.

Teacher’s Role in PBL

The Role of the Students

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PBL vs TBL: What's the Difference?

Shreya verma.

Jul 18, 2022 • 6min read

Educators are always looking for effective teaching approaches and strategies that benefit their students. Two common approaches include Problem-based Learning (PBL) and Team-based Learning (TBL).

PBL and TBL share several common characteristics – they are both student-centered approaches that involve small groups of students working together to solve real-world problems. However, these approaches are used in various contexts and produce different learning outcomes.

In PBL, students need to solve complex, real-world problems. There is one teacher/facilitator per small group. Unlike traditional classes, where the teacher begins classes by presenting the relevant material needed by students to solve a problem, PBL assigns the problem to the students first. The students then identify the concepts they need to know, and then apply them to solve the problem.

202207_BlogArticleImage_TraditionalvsPBL

PBL requires students to have some prior knowledge about the subject. Thus, PBL works more effectively for higher level modules where students already understand basic concepts.

PBL problems are the classroom’s main subject matter, so they need to be structured well ( Duch, Groh and Allen, 2001 ).

202207_BlogArticleImage_CharacteristicsofGoodPBLProblems

Through PBL, students are able to sharpen their problem-solving and critical thinking abilities ( Kurt, 2020 ).

Team-based Learning, on the other hand, is a structured form of small-group learning that emphasizes student preparation out of class and the application of knowledge in class. There is usually one teacher/facilitator assigned to all the small groups in a classroom. While PBL focuses on problem-solving through existing knowledge, TBL focuses on preparing the students through prework before testing them individually and as a team. The students will then solve a real-world problem. There is also a peer evaluation component in TBL.

TBL problems – or the application activities – need to follow the 4S framework .

Application activities require teams to make a specific choice about a significant problem. Teams need to work on the same problem and report their decisions simultaneously. This structure allows teams to articulate their thinking. Teams need to evaluate their own reasoning when confronted with different decisions that other teams may make.

Here is a table that summarizes the differences between PBL and TBL:

Before deciding whether to adopt TBL or PBL for your class, it is important to fully understand each approach. PBL might cause anxiety among students as classes can get messy without a proper structure. Prior learning experiences also may not prepare students well enough for PBL. TBL, on the other hand, is well-structured and requires students to conduct prework before classes. Thus, students start with the same knowledge, irrespective of their background.

Both students and facilitator are aware of the learning objectives that they are set out to achieve. This allows for a constructivist learning environment where students also become decision-makers in their learning journey. TBL also has a peer evaluation component which encourages students to take accountability for their learning.

If you would like to learn more about TBL, feel free to book a consultation with us here .

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Effective Learning Behavior in Problem-Based Learning: a Scoping Review

Published: 21 April 2021
Volume 31 , pages 1199–1211, ( 2021 )

Cite this article

Azril Shahreez Abdul Ghani ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9130-2175 1 , 2 ,
Ahmad Fuad Abdul Rahim ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7499-8895 2 ,
Muhamad Saiful Bahri Yusoff ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4969-9217 2 &
Siti Nurma Hanim Hadie ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9046-9379 3

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Problem-based learning (PBL) emphasizes learning behavior that leads to critical thinking, problem-solving, communication, and collaborative skills in preparing students for a professional medical career. However, learning behavior that develops these skills has not been systematically described. This review aimed to unearth the elements of effective learning behavior in a PBL context, using the protocol by Arksey and O’Malley. The protocol identified the research question, selected relevant studies, charted and collected data, and collated, summarized, and reported results. We discovered three categories of elements—intrinsic empowerment, entrustment, and functional skills—proven effective in the achievement of learning outcomes in PBL.

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Introduction

Problem-based learning (PBL) is an educational approach that utilizes the principles of collaborative learning in small groups, first introduced by McMaster Medical University [ 1 ]. The shift of the higher education curriculum from traditional, lecture-based approaches to an integrated, student-centered approach was triggered by concern over the content-driven nature of medical knowledge with minimal clinical application [ 2 ]. The PBL pedagogy uses a systematic approach, starting with an authentic, real-life problem scenario as a context in which learning is not separated from practice as students collaborate and learn [ 3 ]. The tutor acts as a facilitator who guides the students’ learning, while students are required to solve the problems by discussing them with group members [ 4 ]. The essential aspect of the PBL process is the ability of the students to recognize their current knowledge, determine the gaps in their knowledge and experience, and acquire new knowledge to bridge the gaps [ 5 ]. PBL is a holistic approach that gives students an active role in their learning.

Since its inception, PBL has been used in many undergraduate and postgraduate degree programs, such as medicine [ 6 , 7 ], nursing [ 8 ], social work education [ 9 ], law [ 10 ], architecture [ 11 ], economics [ 12 ], business [ 13 ], science [ 14 ], and engineering [ 15 ]. It has also been applied in elementary and secondary education [ 16 , 17 , 18 ]. Despite its many applications, its implementation is based on a single universal workflow framework that contains three elements: problem as the initiator for learning, tutor as a facilitator in the group versions, and group work as a stimulus for collaborative interaction [ 19 ]. However, there are various versions of PBL workflow, such as the seven-step technique based on the Maastricht “seven jumps” process. The tutor’s role is to ensure the achievement of learning objectives and to assess students’ performance [ 20 , 21 ].

The PBL process revolves around four types of learning principles: constructive, self-directed, collaborative, and contextual [ 19 ]. Through the constructive learning process, the students are encouraged to think about what is already known and integrate their prior knowledge with their new understanding. This process helps the student understand the content, form a new opinion, and acquire new knowledge [ 22 ]. The PBL process encourages students to become self-directed learners who plan, monitor, and evaluate their own learning, enabling them to become lifelong learners [ 23 ]. The contextualized collaborative learning process also promotes interaction among students, who share similar responsibilities to achieve common goals relevant to the learning context [ 24 ]. By exchanging ideas and providing feedback during the learning session, the students can attain a greater understanding of the subject matter [ 25 ].

Dolmans et al. [ 19 ] pointed out two issues related to the implementation of PBL: dominant facilitators and dysfunctional PBL groups. These problems inhibit students’ self-directed learning and reduce their satisfaction level with the PBL session. A case study by Eryilmaz [ 26 ] that evaluated engineering students’ and tutors’ experience of PBL discovered that PBL increased the students’ self-confidence and improved essential skills such as problem-solving, communications, critical thinking, and collaboration. Although most of the participants in the study found PBL satisfactory, many complained about the tutor’s poor guidance and lack of preparation. Additionally, it was noted that 64% of the first-year students were unable to adapt to the PBL system because they had been accustomed to conventional learning settings and that 43% of students were not adequately prepared for the sessions and thus were minimally involved in the discussion.

In a case study by Cónsul-giribet [ 27 ], newly graduated nursing professionals reported a lack of perceived theoretical basic science knowledge at the end of their program, despite learning through PBL. The nurses perceived that this lack of knowledge might affect their expertise, identity, and professional image.

Likewise, a study by McKendree [ 28 ] reported the outcomes of a workshop that explored the strengths and weaknesses of PBL in an allied health sciences curriculum in the UK. The workshop found that problems related to PBL were mainly caused by students, the majority of whom came from conventional educational backgrounds either during high school or their first degree. They felt anxious when they were involved in PBL, concerned about “not knowing when to stop” in exploring the learning needs. Apart from a lack of basic science knowledge, the knowledge acquired during PBL sessions remains unorganized [ 29 ]. Hence, tutors must guide students in overcoming this situation by instilling appropriate insights and essential skills for the achievement of the learning outcomes [ 30 ]. It was also evident that the combination of intention and motivation to learn and desirable learning behavior determined the quality of learning outcomes [ 31 , 32 ]. However, effective learning behaviors that help develop these skills have not been systematically described. Thus, this scoping review aimed to unearth the elements of effective learning behavior in the PBL context.

Scoping Review Protocol

This scoping review was performed using a protocol by Arksey and O’Malley [ 33 ]. The protocol comprises five phases: (i) identification of research questions, (ii) identification of relevant articles, (iii) selection of relevant studies, (iv) data collection and charting, and (v) collating, summarizing, and reporting the results.

Identification of Research Questions

This scoping review was designed to unearth the elements of effective learning behavior that can be generated from learning through PBL instruction. The review aimed to answer one research question: “What are the effective learning behavior elements related to PBL?” For the purpose of the review, an operational definition of effective learning behavior was constructed, whereby it was defined as any learning behavior that is related to PBL instruction and has been shown to successfully attain the desired learning outcomes (i.e., cognitive, skill, or affective)—either quantitatively or qualitatively—in any intervention conducted in higher education institutions.

The positive outcome variables include student viewpoint or perception, student learning experience and performance, lecturer viewpoint and expert judgment, and other indirect variables that may be important indicators of successful PBL learning (i.e., attendance to PBL session, participation in PBL activity, number of interactions in PBL activity, and improvement in communication skills in PBL).

Identification of Relevant Articles

An extensive literature search was conducted on articles published in English between 2015 and 2019. Three databases—Google Scholar, Scopus, and PubMed—were used for the literature search. Seven search terms with the Boolean combination were used, whereby the keywords were identified from the Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) and Education Resources Information Center (ERIC) databases. The search terms were tested and refined with multiple test searches. The final search terms with the Boolean operation were as follows: “problem-based learning” AND (“learning behavior” OR “learning behaviour”) AND (student OR “medical students” OR undergraduate OR “medical education”).

Selection of Relevant Articles

The articles from the three databases were exported manually into Microsoft Excel. The duplicates were removed, and the remaining articles were reviewed based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. These criteria were tested on titles and abstracts to ensure their robustness in capturing the articles related to learning behavior in PBL. The shortlisted articles were reviewed by two independent researchers, and a consensus was reached either to accept or reject each article based on the set criteria. When a disagreement occurred between the two reviewers, the particular article was re-evaluated independently by the third and fourth researchers (M.S.B.Y and A.F.A.R), who have vast experience in conducting qualitative research. The sets of criteria for selecting abstracts and final articles were developed. The inclusion and exclusion criteria are listed in Table 1 .

Data Charting

The selected final articles were reviewed, and several important data were extracted to provide an objective summary of the review. The extracted data were charted in a table, including the (i) title of the article, (ii) author(s), (iii) year of publication, (iv) aim or purpose of the study, (v) study design and method, (iv) intervention performed, and (v) study population and sample size.

Collating, Summarizing, and Reporting the Results

A content analysis was performed to identify the elements of effective learning behaviors in the literature by A.S.A.G and S.N.H.H, who have experience in conducting qualitative studies. The initial step of content analysis was to read the selected articles thoroughly to gain a general understanding of the articles and extract the elements of learning behavior which are available in the articles. Next, the elements of learning behavior that fulfil the inclusion criteria were extracted. The selected elements that were related to each other through their content or context were grouped into subtheme categories. Subsequently, the combinations of several subthemes expressing similar underlying meanings were grouped into themes. Each of the themes and subthemes was given a name, which was operationally defined based on the underlying elements. The selected themes and subthemes were presented to the independent researchers in the team (M.S.B.Y and A.F.A.R), and a consensus was reached either to accept or reformulate each of the themes and subthemes. The flow of the scoping review methods for this study is illustrated in Fig. 1 .

The flow of literature search and article selection

Literature Search

Based on the keyword search, 1750 articles were obtained. Duplicate articles that were not original articles found in different databases and resources were removed. Based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria of title selection, the eligibility of 1750 abstracts was evaluated. The articles that did not fulfil the criteria were removed, leaving 328 articles for abstract screening. A total of 284 articles were screened according to the eligibility criteria for abstract selection. Based on these criteria, 284 articles were selected and screened according to the eligibility criteria for full article selection. Fourteen articles were selected for the final review. The information about these articles is summarized in Table 2 .

Study Characteristics

The final 14 articles were published between 2015 and 2019. The majority of the studies were conducted in Western Asian countries ( n = 4), followed by China ( n = 3), European countries ( n = 2), Thailand ( n = 2), Indonesia ( n = 1), Singapore ( n = 1), and South Africa ( n = 1). Apart from traditional PBL, some studies incorporated other pedagogic modalities into their PBL sessions, such as online learning, blended learning, and gamification. The majority of the studies targeted a single-profession learner group, and one study was performed on mixed interprofessional health education learners.

Results of Thematic Analysis

The thematic analysis yielded three main themes of effective learning behavior: intrinsic empowerment, entrustment, and functional skills. Intrinsic empowerment overlies four proposed subthemes: proactivity, organization, diligence, and resourcefulness. For entrustment, there were four underlying subthemes: students as assessors, students as teachers, feedback-giving, and feedback-receiving. The functional skills theme contains four subthemes: time management, digital proficiency, data management, and collaboration.

Theme 1: Intrinsic Empowerment

Intrinsic empowerment enforces student learning behavior that can facilitate the achievement of learning outcomes. By empowering the development of these behaviors, students can become lifelong learners [ 34 ]. The first element of intrinsic empowerment is proactive behavior. In PBL, the students must be proactive in analyzing problems [ 35 , 36 ] and their learning needs [ 35 , 37 ], and this can be done by integrating prior knowledge and previous experience through a brainstorming session [ 35 , 38 ]. The students must be proactive in seeking guidance to ensure they stay focused and confident [ 39 , 40 ]. Finding ways to integrate content from different disciplines [ 35 , 41 ], formulate new explanations based on known facts [ 34 , 35 , 41 ], and incorporate hands-on activity [ 35 , 39 , 42 ] during a PBL session are also proactive behaviors.

The second element identified is “being organized” which reflects the ability of students to systematically manage their roles [ 43 ], ideas, and learning needs [ 34 ]. The students also need to understand the task for each learning role in PBL, such as chairperson or leader, scribe, recorder, and reflector. This role needs to be assigned appropriately to ensure that all members take part in the discussion [ 43 ]. Similarly, when discussing ideas or learning needs, the students need to follow the steps in the PBL process and organize and prioritize the information to ensure that the issues are discussed systematically and all aspects of the problems are covered accordingly [ 34 , 37 ]. This team organization and systematic thought process is an effective way for students to focus, plan, and finalize their learning tasks.

The third element of intrinsic empowerment is “being diligent.” Students must consistently conduct self-revision [ 40 ] and keep track of their learning plan to ensure the achievement of their learning goal [ 4 , 40 ]. The students must also be responsible for completing any given task and ensuring good understanding prior to their presentation [ 40 ]. Appropriate actions need to be undertaken to find solutions to unsolved problems [ 40 , 44 ]. This effort will help them think critically and apply their knowledge for problem-solving.

The fourth element identified is “being resourceful.” Students should be able to acquire knowledge from different resources, which include external resources (i.e., lecture notes, textbooks, journal articles, audiovisual instructions, the Internet) [ 38 , 40 , 45 ] and internal resources (i.e., students’ prior knowledge or experience) [ 35 , 39 ]. The resources must be evidence-based, and thus should be carefully selected by evaluating their cross-references and appraising them critically [ 37 ]. Students should also be able to understand and summarize the learned materials and explain them using their own words [ 4 , 34 ]. The subthemes of the intrinsic empowerment theme are summarized in Table 3 .

Theme 2: Entrustment

Entrustment emphasizes the various roles of students in PBL that can promote effective learning. The first entrusted role identified is “student as an assessor.” This means that students evaluate their own performance in PBL [ 46 ]. The evaluation of their own performance must be based on the achievement of the learning outcomes and reflect actual understanding of the content as well as the ability to apply the learned information in problem-solving [ 46 ].

The second element identified in this review is “student as a teacher.” To ensure successful peer teaching in PBL, students need to comprehensively understand the content of the learning materials and summarize the content in an organized manner. The students should be able to explain the gist of the discussed information using their own words [ 4 , 34 ] and utilize teaching methods to cater to differences in learning styles (i.e., visual, auditory, and kinesthetic) [ 41 ]. These strategies help capture their group members’ attention and evoke interactive discussions among them.

The third element of entrustment is to “give feedback.” Students should try giving constructive feedback on individual and group performance in PBL. Feedback on individual performance must reflect the quality of the content and task presented in the PBL. Feedback on group performance should reflect the ways in which the group members communicate and complete the group task [ 47 ]. To ensure continuous constructive feedback, students should be able to generate feedback questions beforehand and immediately deliver them during the PBL sessions [ 44 , 47 ]. In addition, the feedback must include specific measures for improvement to help their peers to take appropriate action for the future [ 47 ].

The fourth element of entrustment is “receive feedback.” Students should listen carefully to the feedback given and ask questions to clarify the feedback [ 47 ]. They need to be attentive and learn to deal with negative feedback [ 47 ]. Also, if the student does not receive feedback, they should request it either from peers or teachers and ask specific questions, such as what aspects to improve and how to improve [ 47 ]. The data on the subthemes of the entrustment theme are summarized in Table 4 .

Theme 3: Functional Skills

Functional skills refer to essential skills that can help students learn independently and competently. The first element identified is time management skills. In PBL, students must know how to prioritize learning tasks according to the needs and urgency of the tasks [ 40 ]. To ensure that students can self-pace their learning, a deadline should be set for each learning task within a manageable and achievable learning schedule [ 40 ].

Furthermore, students should have digital proficiency, the ability to utilize digital devices to support learning [ 38 , 40 , 44 ]. The student needs to know how to operate basic software (e.g., Words and PowerPoints) and the basic digital tools (i.e., social media, cloud storage, simulation, and online community learning platforms) to support their learning [ 39 , 40 ]. These skills are important for peer learning activities, which may require information sharing, information retrieval, online peer discussion, and online peer feedback [ 38 , 44 ].

The third functional skill identified is data management, the ability to collect key information in the PBL trigger and analyze that information to support the solution in a problem-solving activity [ 39 ]. Students need to work either individually or in a group to collect the key information from a different trigger or case format such as text lines, an interview, an investigation, or statistical results [ 39 ]. Subsequently, students also need to analyze the information and draw conclusions based on their analysis [ 39 ].

The fourth element of functional skill is collaboration. Students need to participate equally in the PBL discussion [ 41 , 46 ]. Through discussion, confusion and queries can be addressed and resolved by listening, respecting others’ viewpoints, and responding professionally [ 35 , 39 , 43 , 44 ]. In addition, the students need to learn from each other and reflect on their performance [ 48 ]. Table 5 summarizes the data on the subthemes of the functional skills theme.

This scoping review outlines three themes of effective learning behavior elements in the PBL context: intrinsic empowerment, entrustment, and functional skills. Hence, it is evident from this review that successful PBL instruction demands students’ commitment to empower themselves with value-driven behaviors, skills, and roles.

In this review, intrinsic empowerment is viewed as enforcement of students’ internal strength in performing positive learning behaviors related to PBL. This theme requires the student to proactively engage in the learning process, organize their learning activities systematically, persevere in learning, and be intelligently resourceful. One of the elements of intrinsic empowerment is the identification and analysis of problems related to complex scenarios. This element is aligned with a study by Meyer [ 49 ], who observed students’ engagement in problem identification and clarification prior to problem-solving activities in a PBL session related to multiple engineering design. Rubenstein and colleagues [ 50 ] discovered in a semi-structured interview the importance of undergoing a problem identification process before proposing a solution during learning. It was reported that the problem identification process in PBL may enhance the attainment of learning outcomes, specifically in the domain of concept understanding [ 51 ].

The ability of the students to acquire and manage learning resources is essential for building their understanding of the learned materials and enriching discussion among team members during PBL. This is aligned with a study by Jeong and Hmelo-Silver [ 52 ], who studied the use of learning resources by students in PBL. The study concluded that in a resource-rich environment, the students need to learn how to access and understand the resources to ensure effective learning. Secondly, they need to process the content of the resources, integrate various resources, and apply them in problem-solving activities. Finally, they need to use the resources in collaborative learning activities, such as sharing and relating to peer resources.

Wong [ 53 ] documented that excellent students spent considerably more time managing academic resources than low achievers. The ability of the student to identify and utilize their internal learning resources, such as prior knowledge and experience, is also important. A study by Lee et al. [ 54 ] has shown that participants with high domain-specific prior knowledge displayed a more systematic approach and high accuracy in visual and motor reactions in solving problems compared to novice learners.

During the discussion phase in PBL, organizing ideas—e.g., arranging relevant information gathered from the learning resources into relevant categories—is essential for communicating the idea clearly [ 34 ]. This finding is in line with a typology study conducted by Larue [ 55 ] on second-year nursing students’ learning strategies during a group discussion. The study discovered that although the content presented by the student is adequate, they unable to make further progress in the group discussion until they are instructed by the tutor on how to organize the information given into a category [ 55 ].

Hence, the empowerment of student intrinsic behavior may enhance students’ learning in PBL by allowing them to make a decision in their learning objectives and instilling confidence in them to achieve goals. A study conducted by Kirk et al. [ 56 ] proved that highly empowered students obtain better grades, increase learning participation, and target higher educational aspirations.

Entrustment is the learning role given to students to be engaging and identify gaps in their learning. This theme requires the student to engage in self-assessment, prepare to teach others, give constructive feedback, and value the feedback received. One of the elements of entrustment is the ability to self-assess. In a study conducted by Mohd et al. [ 57 ] looking at the factors in PBL that can strengthen the capability of IT students, they discovered that one of the critical factors that contribute to these skills is the ability of the student to perform self-assessment in PBL. As mentioned by Daud, Kassim, and Daud [ 58 ], the self-assessment may be more reliable if the assessment is performed based on the objectives set beforehand and if the criteria of the assessment are understood by the learner. This is important to avoid the fact that the result of the self-assessment is influenced by the students’ perception of themselves rather than reflecting their true performance. However, having an assessment based on the learning objective only focuses on the immediate learning requirements in the PBL. To foster lifelong learning skills, it should also be balanced with the long-term focus of assessment, such as utilizing the assessment to foster the application of knowledge in solving real-life situations. This is aligned with the review by Boud and Falchikov [ 59 ] suggesting that students need to become assessors within the concept of participation in practice, that is, the kind that is within the context of real life and work.

The second subtheme of entrustment is “students as a teacher” in PBL. In our review, the student needs to be well prepared with the teaching materials. A cross-sectional study conducted by Charoensakulchai and colleagues discovered that student preparation is considered among the important factors in PBL success, alongside other factors such as “objective and contents,” “student assessment,” and “attitude towards group work” [ 60 ]. This is also aligned with a study conducted by Sukrajh [ 61 ] using focus group discussion on fifth-year medical students to explore their perception of preparedness before conducting peer teaching activity. In this study, the student in the focus group expressed that the preparation made them more confident in teaching others because preparing stimulated them to activate and revise prior knowledge, discover their knowledge gaps, construct new knowledge, reflect on their learning, improve their memory, inspire them to search several resources, and motivate them to learn the topics.

The next element of “student as a teacher” is using various learning styles to teach other members in the group. A study conducted by Almomani [ 62 ] showed that the most preferred learning pattern by the high school student is the visual pattern, followed by auditory pattern and then kinesthetic. However, in the university setting, Hamdani [ 63 ] discovered that students prefer a combination of the three learning styles. Anbarasi [ 64 ] also explained that incorporating teaching methods based on the student’s preferred learning style further promotes active learning among the students and significantly improved the long-term retrieval of knowledge. However, among the three learning styles group, he discovered that the kinesthetic group with the kinesthetic teaching method showed a significantly higher post-test score compared to the traditional group with the didactic teaching method, and he concluded that this is because of the involvement of more active learning activity in the kinesthetic group.

The ability of students to give constructive feedback on individual tasks is an important element in promoting student contribution in PBL because feedback from peers or teachers is needed to reassure themselves that they are on the right track in the learning process. Kamp et al. [ 65 ] performed a study on the effectiveness of midterm peer feedback on student individual cognitive, collaborative, and motivational contributions in PBL. The experimental group that received midterm peer feedback combined with goal-setting with face-to-face discussion showed an increased amount of individual contributions in PBL. Another element of effective feedback is that the feedback is given immediately after the observed behavior. Parikh and colleagues survey student feedback in PBL environments among 103 final-year medical students in five Ontario schools, including the University of Toronto, McMaster University, Queens University, the University of Ottawa, and the University of Western Ontario. They discovered that there was a dramatic difference between McMaster University and other universities in the immediacy of feedback they practiced. Seventy percent of students at McMaster reported receiving immediate feedback in PBL, compared to less than 40 percent of students from the other universities, in which most of them received feedback within one week or several weeks after the PBL had been conducted [ 66 ]. Another study, conducted among students of the International Medical University of Kuala Lumpur examining the student expectation on feedback, discovered that immediate feedback is effective if the feedback is in written form, simple but focused on the area of improvement, and delivered by a content expert. If the feedback is delivered by a content non-expert and using a model answer, it must be supplemented with teacher dialogue sessions to clarify the feedback received [ 67 ].

Requesting feedback from peers and teachers is an important element of the PBL learning environment, enabling students to discover their learning gaps and ways to fill them. This is aligned with a study conducted by de Jong and colleagues [ 68 ], who discovered that high-performing students are more motivated to seek feedback than low-performing students. The main reason for this is because high-performing students seek feedback as a tool to learn from, whereas low-performing students do so as an academic requirement. This resulted in high-performing students collecting more feedback. A study by Bose and Gijselaers [ 69 ] examined the factors that promote feedback-seeking behavior in medical residency. They discovered that feedback-seeking behavior can be promoted by providing residents with high-quality feedback to motivate them to ask for feedback for improvement.

By assigning an active role to students as teachers, assessors, and feedback providers, teachers give them the ownership and responsibility to craft their learning. The learner will then learn the skills to monitor and reflect on their learning to achieve academic success. Furthermore, an active role encourages students to be evaluative experts in their own learning, and promoting deep learning [ 70 ].

Functional skills refer to essential abilities for competently performing a task in PBL. This theme requires the student to organize and plan time for specific learning tasks, be digitally literate, use data effectively to support problem-solving, and work together efficiently to achieve agreed objectives. One of the elements in this theme is to have a schedule of learning tasks with deadlines. In a study conducted by Tadjer and colleagues [ 71 ], they discovered that setting deadlines with a restricted time period in a group activity improved students’ cognitive abilities and soft skills. Although the deadline may initially cause anxiety, coping with it encourages students to become more creative and energetic in performing various learning strategies [ 72 , 73 ]. Ballard et al. [ 74 ] reported that students tend to work harder to complete learning tasks if they face multiple deadlines.

The students also need to be digitally literate—i.e., able to demonstrate the use of technological devices and tools in PBL. Taradi et al. [ 75 ] discovered that incorporating technology in learning—blending web technology with PBL—removes time and place barriers in the creation of a collaborative environment. It was found that students who participated in web discussions achieved a significantly higher mean grade on a physiology final examination than those who used traditional methods. Also, the incorporation of an online platform in PBL can facilitate students to develop investigation and inquiry skills with high-level cognitive thought processes, which is crucial to successful problem-solving [ 76 ].

In PBL, students need to work collaboratively with their peers to solve problems. A study by Hidayati et al. [ 77 ] demonstrated that effective collaborative skills improve cognitive learning outcomes and problem-solving ability among students who undergo PBL integrated with digital mind maps. To ensure successful collaborative learning in PBL, professional communication among students is pertinent. Research by Zheng and Huang [ 78 ] has proven that co-regulation (i.e., warm and responsive communication that provides support to peers) improved collaborative effort and group performance among undergraduate and master’s students majoring in education and psychology. This is also in line with a study by Maraj and colleagues [ 79 ], which showed the strong team interaction within the PBL group leads to a high level of team efficacy and academic self-efficacy. Moreover, strengthening communication competence, such as by developing negotiation skills among partners during discussion sessions, improves student scores [ 80 ].

PBL also includes opportunities for students to learn from each other (i.e., peer learning). A study by Maraj et al. [ 79 ] discovered that the majority of the students in their study perceived improvement in their understanding of the learned subject when they learned from each other. Another study by Lyonga [ 81 ] documented the successful formation of cohesive group learning, where students could express and share their ideas with their friends and help each other. It was suggested that each student should be paired with a more knowledgeable student who has mastered certain learning components to promote purposeful structured learning within the group.

From this scoping review, it is clear that functional skills equip the students with abilities and knowledge needed for successful PBL. Studies have shown that strong time management skills, digital literacy, data management, and collaborative skills lead to positive academic achievement [ 77 , 82 , 83 ].

Limitation of the Study

This scoping review is aimed to capture the recent effective learning behavior in problem-based learning; therefore, the literature before 2015 was not included. Without denying the importance of publication before 2015, we are relying on Okoli and Schabram [ 84 ] who highlighted the impossibility of retrieving all the published articles when conducting a literature search. Based on this ground, we decided to focus on the time frame between 2015 and 2019, which is aligned with the concepts of study maturity (i.e., the more mature the field, the higher the published articles and therefore more topics were investigated) by Kraus et al. [ 85 ]. In fact, it was noted that within this time frame, a significant number of articles have been found as relevant to PBL with the recent discovery of effective learning behavior. Nevertheless, our time frame did not include the timing of the coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) pandemic outbreak, which began at the end of 2019. Hence, we might miss some important elements of learning behavior that are required for the successful implementation of PBL during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Surprisingly, the results obtained from this study are also applicable for the PBL sessions administration during the COVID-19 pandemic situation as one of the functional skills identified is digital proficiency. This skill is indeed important for the successful implementation of online PBL session.

This review identified the essential learning behaviors required for effective PBL in higher education and clustered them into three main themes: (i) intrinsic empowerment, (ii) entrustment, and (iii) functional skills. These learning behaviors must coexist to ensure the achievement of desired learning outcomes. In fact, the findings of this study indicated two important implications for future practice. Firstly, the identified learning behaviors can be incorporated as functional elements in the PBL framework and implementation. Secondly, the learning behaviors change and adaption can be considered to be a new domain of formative assessment related to PBL. It is noteworthy to highlight that these learning behaviors could help in fostering the development of lifelong skills for future workplace challenges. Nevertheless, considerably more work should be carried out to design a solid guideline on how to systematically adopt the learning behaviors in PBL sessions, especially during this COVID-19 pandemic situation.

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This study was supported by Postgraduate Incentive Grant-PhD (GIPS-PhD, grant number: 311/PPSP/4404803).

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Azril Shahreez Abdul Ghani

Department of Medical Education, School of Medical Sciences, Health Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, Kota Bharu, 16150, Kelantan, Malaysia

Azril Shahreez Abdul Ghani, Ahmad Fuad Abdul Rahim & Muhamad Saiful Bahri Yusoff

Department of Anatomy, School of Medical Sciences, Health Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, 16150, Kota Bharu, Kelantan, Malaysia

Siti Nurma Hanim Hadie

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Ghani, A.S.A., Rahim, A.F.A., Yusoff, M.S.B. et al. Effective Learning Behavior in Problem-Based Learning: a Scoping Review. Med.Sci.Educ. 31 , 1199–1211 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40670-021-01292-0

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Project-Based vs. Problem-Based Learning: Which is Right for Your Classroom?

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Introduction to PBL

Project-based learning (PBL) is a inquiry-based and learner-centered instructional approach that immerses students in real-world projects that foster deeper learning and critical thinking skills.

In contrast to traditional instruction and rote memorization, project-based learning encourages learner agency, collaboration, and problem-solving, empowering students to become active participants in their own learning. Students collaborate to solve real world problems that require understanding content knowledge, critical thinking, creativity, and robust communication skills.

New Tech Network (NTN) schools employ a pedagogy of project-based learning and in math, this can result in enhanced student understanding by having learners make real-world connections to math content and skills. However, it can be difficult to do math on a deep level encompassing all the requisite mathematical standards. As a result, NTN strongly promotes primarily problem-based learning (PrBL) in math classrooms, although, at times there may be authentic ways to embed math in a project-based learning unit.

In this article we will highlight New Tech Network’s lens on PrBL, the similarities and differences between project-based learning and problem-based learning, and what both look like when implemented in the classroom.

What is Project-Based Learning (PBL)?

The basic principle of the project-based instruction lies in students actively participating in an authentic challenging problem that enables students to have experiential learning, connection to community members, higher classroom engagement, and a deeper understanding of content. The PBL approach diverges from traditional instruction by encouraging students to learn about and try to solve real world issues, use problem solving skills, communicate ideas, become proficient in technology tools, and make a personal connection to content. These skills prepare students for success in college and career.

To learn more about implementing project-based learning, project design, and project-based learning examples, explore the article: The Comprehensive Guide to Project-Based Learning: Empowering Student Choice through an Effective Teaching Method . For a more in-depth look at the benefits of project-based learning, read How Project-Based Learning is Effective in Education .

What is Problem-Based Learning (PrBL)?

Like project-based learning (PBL), problem-based learning (PrBL) engages students in complex tasks, employs student-centered instruction and small group work, and positions the teacher as a facilitator of learning. In addition, PrBL accurately reflects the types of explorations, discussions, questions, and interactions that are authentic to mathematics as a discipline. PrBL uses formative and performance-based assessments to give feedback and check student progress.

The key differences between project-based learning and PrBL are that PrBL focuses on one or two standards at a time and each problem takes place over a shorter time period (roughly one to four days). In PrBL, students are mainly exploring and discussing mathematical ideas, with an emphasis on the problem solving process and productive struggle, whereas in PBL there is a greater emphasis on creating a culminating product that answers a Driving Question.

Project-Based Learning vs Problem-Based Learning

NTN suggests a secondary math learning environment which utilizes problem-based learning (PrBL) and in elementary math, problems appear alongside projects and, when applicable, within a project-based learning curriculum.

Problem-based learning provides a rich problem solving environment that allows for and necessitates the learning and assessment of the New Tech Network Learning Outcomes of Agency, Written Communication, Oral Communication, Collaboration, and Knowledge and Thinking along with important content standards. There some key differences between project-based learning and problem-based learning, primarily in timing and scope, but far more similarities exist than differences as shown below:

Problem-Based Learning

Standards: 1-2 Standards
Time: 1-4 Days
Main Activity: Inquiry and Discourse
Emphasis: Problem-solving Process

Similarities

Engages students in complex tasks
Student-centered small-group work
Reflects the work of the discipline
Teacher as facilitator of learning
Formative and performance-based assessment

Project-Based Learning

Standards: 4+ Standards
Time: 4-6 Weeks
Main Activity: Applying Learning
Emphasis: Product

The Differences:

The easiest answer to the PBL vs PrBL question is scope. NTN often supports schools and districts in a project-based learning environment, which can cause a tricky situation in terms of scaling this to a problem or choosing to do a project. Projects are typically designed to learn about a larger cluster of standards that can be taught using a single context, warrant multiple weeks of learning, and culminate in a substantial product as a presentation of learning.

However, a project is often not sufficient to adequately develop the deep understanding required of some math concepts. This is where PrBL plays a key role. PrBL allows a teacher to scale down to focus on just a few standards and to focus on students’ processes as they tackle contextual scenarios over the course of a few problems while still enabling a real world application.

The Similarities:

There are far more similarities between PrBL and PBL than differences. Both project-based learning and problem-based learning include entry events, knows and need to knows, rubrics, etc. However, as the number of standards and duration is scaled down, entry events and rubrics must be scaled down as well. But while perhaps a bit shorter/quicker in a problem rather than project, we must not lose the intent of each similarity. Here are two examples to better illustrate this point.

Keeping the Intent of Entry Events and Knows and Need to Knows in PrBL

An entry event is the student introduction or “hook” to the project or problem. A well-crafted entry event will solicit student needs to be met in order to adequately address the content and skills presented in the project or problem’s plan. For a project, the introduction needs to kick off (and help to sustain) weeks of learning. Examples of entry events might include field trips, interview with community partners, or perhaps a debate.

Moving to PrBL, the purpose of the entry event remains the same, but the scale needs to shift. For a problem you might present students with text, an image, or a video that will prompt students to pose questions. This can be something as simple as the image at right of a restaurant promotion, as long as you can then prompt students what questions they have, and what additional information they need.

You’ll want to document these questions in some way, but note that in a problem the number of questions or “need to knows” will likely be fewer than for a project due to the scope of standards you’re addressing. Gather enough questions to allow students to have direction (know what they are starting to solve) and can begin to struggle in solving the problem.

Keeping the Intent of Rubrics in PrBL

As a problem scales down the number of standards you’re addressing, so too should you scale down the number of indicators you’re giving feedback around and assessing.

While the culminating product of a project often serves as a hefty assessment through a hefty rubric, a problem-based approach offers a teacher the opportunity to get really specific about the rubric indicators they are after, sometimes narrowing down to just 1 or 2 for a product. Similarly, PrBL teachers will need to narrow the focus of rubric indicators for the other New Tech Network Learning Outcomes.

For example, for collaboration you may also want to zoom in on just one or two indicators – few enough that you can authentically teach, provide feedback, and assess in the shorter time span of a problem.

New Tech Network's Problem-Based Learning Model

Problem-based learning as we think about it at NTN consists of three phases: Launch, Explore, and Discuss . Launch-Explore-Discuss allows students to engage in inquiry, build their self-regard, and have discourse in small and large groups.

In Launch, students are introduced to the problem in a learner-centered way. Explore is when learners have time to explore solution strategies (correct or incorrect) in small groups, asking questions of each other and you. The problem ends with a Discussion in which multiple strategies are shared by learners and the whole class makes connections between different strategies, puts formal vocabulary to their ideas, and makes generalizations to connect to math standards. Each phase is discussed more in depth below.

A problem-based lesson would begin with a launch, where the problem is introduced in a learner-centered way to support learners in making sense of the problem and what is being asked as well as building excitement and interest. In order for learners to engage meaningfully in a cognitively challenging task, they need time to process and make sense of the problem.

A key aspect of the launch is not to “get learners started” by showing the first step or an example problem. The goal and the teacher’s role is to spark inquiry, maintain productive struggle, and allow learners to pursue multiple solution strategies.

The next phase is “explore”, where learners have time to try potential solution strategies that may or may not be correct in pairs or small groups, asking questions of each other and of the teacher. This phase serves to create a math classroom centered on student thinking and ideas, by giving students time to come up with their own solution strategies.

Facilitators must lean into their role as facilitators vs “rescuers”, moving away from the idea of saving students by telling them what to do. It’s okay if some of them are wrong, as there will be time to revise during the discussion section. This is also a time for learners to practice their collaboration and discourse in a low stakes setting.

Finally, all students engage in a whole-class discussion. During this time, learners share strategies, make connections, and generalize a rule. This is a time to share academic vocabulary, formal notation, and make explicit connections to prior topics and standards. After having time to come up with strategies in “explore”, students can compare multiple strategies and collectively decide what works and what doesn’t.

By drawing connections between strategies, learners can strengthen and deepen their understanding of the content. Teachers support learners during discussion by making connections and giving formal language and notation to learner generated ideas.

These strategies are not always easy to implement. Students need to be taught how to problem solve independently, how to work collaboratively in a group, and how to understand, evaluate, and question others’ ideas. These skills are supported by cultivating and sustaining a supportive and inclusive classroom culture. In addition to a strong classroom culture, facilitators must also consider important shifts in math instruction.

Key shifts in Math encouraged in a PrBL classroom

Math classrooms enacting these shifts provide a rich problem-solving environment that allow for and necessitate the learning and assessment of the New Tech Network Learning Outcomes. The Key Shifts in math facilitation are meant to guide the ongoing, hard work of all New Tech Network (NTN) math facilitators, new or veteran. We don’t pretend that they are easy; in fact, they often run directly against how we were taught to teach or even how we were taught ourselves and take years to fully implement.

Longtime methods of presenting and practicing content, and the associated frustration of students and teachers alike, are familiar to many of us. With these shifts as a lens, we can all work to reduce math anxiety, restore student engagement, and connect to the beauty of the subject we teach.

NTN Secondary Math Key Shifts

Successfully Supporting All Students

Key Shift One: Emphasis on Self Regard

Key shift two: emphasis on discourse, key shift three: emphasis on inquiry, key shift #1: improve mathematical self-regard.

It’s important for a teacher to communicate explicitly that each of their students are budding mathematicians. This directly contradicts deeply embedded cultural messages about who is “good at math” and what it means to be good at math (Boaler 2016). As a result, teacher messages must be intentional and consistent, as well as paired with a more accurate depiction of mathematics that aligns with the discipline, rather than the way mathematics is traditionally presented in schools.

For example, in the discipline, deep thinking, questioning, and creativity are key aspects of mathematics. However, in schools math classes tend to emphasize speed, breadth, and passive learning (Banilower et al. 2006).

By presenting mathematics as a discipline that requires a wider variety of skills, more students can see themselves as members of a mathematical community (Horn 2012). This also allows students of many cultural backgrounds to use their assets to be successful in mathematics (Carpenter et al. 1989).

Key Shift #2: Emphasis on Discourse

Research shows that complex knowledge such as mathematics is learned through social interactions (Vygotsky and Cole 1978; Lave and Wenger 1991). In traditional US math classrooms, discussion is typically teacher-led and consists of short, fact based questions and answers (Horn 2012).

The shift is to transform those discussions into ones that are student-led and consist of students’ conceptual ideas, questions, and mistakes, evaluating their own and others’ ideas.

Like all the shifts, this is not easy to accomplish and requires explicit instruction and support for students to learn how to participate in a small group or whole class discussion. In addition, it requires a change to class structures and the types of problems that are presented. Both must make space for student discussion and ideas to drive their own learning.

Key Shift #3: Emphasis on Inquiry

In an inquiry-based classroom, students construct their own knowledge, rather than teachers transferring knowledge to students. In this setting, the teacher’s role is to create a learning environment in which students can come up with ideas, share them, and refine them together with each other and the teacher (NCTM 2015).

One challenge is that teachers must maintain the cognitive load of the task – where students are engaging in reasoning and problem solving without being given a specific path to follow.

While these shifts are challenging, they are also mutually reinforcing. Inquiry and discourse position students as the possessors and creators of knowledge, which increases their self regard as mathematicians.

A learning environment that encourages inquiry will also lead to discussion as students come up with ideas, share them, and refine them in pursuit of understanding. As students come to regard themselves as mathematicians, they will feel more empowered to engage in discourse and PrBL.

PrBL Examples and Resources

Squirrel Race Guy is an Algebra 1 problem, designed in NTN’s Problem Planning Form and models the Explore-Launch-Discuss model described above. The planning form also includes a page that models the anticipatory planning required to design and implement strong problems.

Designing a 3D Product in 2D: Sports Bag This 7th grade sample problem is from the Mathematics Assessment Project which is part of the Math Design Collaborative initiated by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. The project set out to design and develop well-engineered tools for formative and summative assessment that expose students’ mathematical knowledge and reasoning, helping teachers guide them towards improvement and monitor progress.

The Class Trip is a sample 3rd grade problem from Illustrative Math that models high-quality k-12 math problems aligned to NTN’s model of PrBL.

Resources for finding Math Problems to Adapt is a comprehensive list of resources curated by NTN for designing and adapting problems in your PrBL classroom.

Project-Based Learning is uses a real-world approach that requires students to use collaboration, problem solving and critical thinking skills that leads to a culminating product over an extended period of time. While Problem-Based Learning uses those same skills and narrows the focus to 1 or 2 standards over a shorter time period, emphasizing inquiry, exploration, and discussion of math concepts. Both approaches involve essential elements such as entry events that “hook” students with a real world problem or real math work and using rubrics for assessing learning outcomes.

New Tech Network’s Problem-Based Learning Model outlines three phases: Launch, Explore, and Discuss. Each phase plays a crucial role in engaging students in inquiry, building self-regard, and fostering discourse.

Both project-based learning and problem-based learning are both effective educational approaches that empower students to become active learners, critical thinkers, and effective collaborators. Using the resources from this article and creating a curriculum supported by projects and problems will allow students to strengthen their skills most needed for success in the 21st century.

About New Tech Network

New Tech Network is committed to meeting schools and districts where they are and helping them achieve their vision of student success. For a full list of our additional paths to impact or to speak with someone about how the NTN Model can make an impact in your district, please send an email to [email protected] .

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Open access
Published: 17 February 2022

Effectiveness of problem-based learning methodology in undergraduate medical education: a scoping review

Joan Carles Trullàs ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7380-3475 1 , 2 , 3 ,
Carles Blay ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3962-5887 1 , 4 ,
Elisabet Sarri ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2435-399X 3 &
Ramon Pujol ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2527-385X 1

BMC Medical Education volume 22 , Article number: 104 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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Problem-based learning (PBL) is a pedagogical approach that shifts the role of the teacher to the student (student-centered) and is based on self-directed learning. Although PBL has been adopted in undergraduate and postgraduate medical education, the effectiveness of the method is still under discussion. The author’s purpose was to appraise available international evidence concerning to the effectiveness and usefulness of PBL methodology in undergraduate medical teaching programs.

The authors applied the Arksey and O’Malley framework to undertake a scoping review. The search was carried out in February 2021 in PubMed and Web of Science including all publications in English and Spanish with no limits on publication date, study design or country of origin.

The literature search identified one hundred and twenty-four publications eligible for this review. Despite the fact that this review included many studies, their design was heterogeneous and only a few provided a high scientific evidence methodology (randomized design and/or systematic reviews with meta-analysis). Furthermore, most were single-center experiences with small sample size and there were no large multi-center studies. PBL methodology obtained a high level of satisfaction, especially among students. It was more effective than other more traditional (or lecture-based methods) at improving social and communication skills, problem-solving and self-learning skills. Knowledge retention and academic performance weren’t worse (and in many studies were better) than with traditional methods. PBL was not universally widespread, probably because requires greater human resources and continuous training for its implementation.

PBL is an effective and satisfactory methodology for medical education. It is likely that through PBL medical students will not only acquire knowledge but also other competencies that are needed in medical professionalism.

Peer Review reports

There has always been enormous interest in identifying the best learning methods. In the mid-twentieth century, US educator Edgar Dale proposed which actions would lead to deeper learning than others and published the well-known (and at the same time controversial) “Cone of Experience or Cone of Dale”. At the apex of the cone are oral representations (verbal descriptions, written descriptions, etc.) and at the base is direct experience (based on a person carrying out the activity that they aim to learn), which represents the greatest depth of our learning. In other words, each level of the cone corresponds to various learning methods. At the base are the most effective, participative methods (what we do and what we say) and at the apex are the least effective, abstract methods (what we read and what we hear) [ 1 ]. In 1990, psychologist George Miller proposed a framework pyramid to assess clinical competence. At the lowest level of the pyramid is knowledge (knows), followed by the competence (knows how), execution (shows how) and finally the action (does) [ 2 ]. Both Miller’s pyramid and Dale’s cone propose a very efficient way of training and, at the same time, of evaluation. Miller suggested that the learning curve passes through various levels, from the acquisition of theoretical knowledge to knowing how to put this knowledge into practice and demonstrate it. Dale stated that to remember a high percentage of the acquired knowledge, a theatrical representation should be carried out or real experiences should be simulated. It is difficult to situate methodologies such as problem-based learning (PBL), case-based learning (CBL) and team-based learning (TBL) in the context of these learning frameworks.

In the last 50 years, various university education models have emerged and have attempted to reconcile teaching with learning, according to the principle that students should lead their own learning process. Perhaps one of the most successful models is PBL that came out of the English-speaking environment. There are many descriptions of PBL in the literature, but in practice there is great variability in what people understand by this methodology. The original conception of PBL as an educational strategy in medicine was initiated at McMaster University (Canada) in 1969, leaving aside the traditional methodology (which is often based on lectures) and introducing student-centered learning. The new formulation of medical education proposed by McMaster did not separate the basic sciences from the clinical sciences, and partially abandoned theoretical classes, which were taught after the presentation of the problem. In its original version, PBL is a methodology in which the starting point is a problem or a problematic situation. The situation enables students to develop a hypothesis and identify learning needs so that they can better understand the problem and meet the established learning objectives [ 3 , 4 ]. PBL is taught using small groups (usually around 8–10 students) with a tutor. The aim of the group sessions is to identify a problem or scenario, define the key concepts identified, brainstorm ideas and discuss key learning objectives, research these and share this information with each other at subsequent sessions. Tutors are used to guide students, so they stay on track with the learning objectives of the task. Contemporary medical education also employs other small group learning methods including CBL and TBL. Characteristics common to the pedagogy of both CBL and TBL include the use of an authentic clinical case, active small-group learning, activation of existing knowledge and application of newly acquired knowledge. In CBL students are encouraged to engage in peer learning and apply new knowledge to these authentic clinical problems under the guidance of a facilitator. CBL encourages a structured and critical approach to clinical problem-solving, and, in contrast to PBL, is designed to allow the facilitator to correct and redirect students [ 5 ]. On the other hand, TBL offers a student-centered, instructional approach for large classes of students who are divided into small teams of typically five to seven students to solve clinically relevant problems. The overall similarities between PBL and TBL relate to the use of professionally relevant problems and small group learning, while the main difference relates to one teacher facilitating interactions between multiple self-managed teams in TBL, whereas each small group in PBL is facilitated by one teacher. Further differences are related to mandatory pre-reading assignments in TBL, testing of prior knowledge in TBL and activating prior knowledge in PBL, teacher-initiated clarifying of concepts that students struggled with in TBL versus students-generated issues that need further study in PBL, inter-team discussions in TBL and structured feedback and problems with related questions in TBL [ 6 ].

In the present study we have focused on PBL methodology, and, as attractive as the method may seem, we should consider whether it is really useful and effective as a learning method. Although PBL has been adopted in undergraduate and postgraduate medical education, the effectiveness (in terms of academic performance and/or skill improvement) of the method is still under discussion. This is due partly to the methodological difficulty in comparing PBL with traditional curricula based on lectures. To our knowledge, there is no systematic scoping review in the literature that has analyzed these aspects.

The main motivation for carrying out this research and writing this article was scientific but also professional interest. We believe that reviewing the state of the art of this methodology once it was already underway in our young Faculty of Medicine, could allow us to know if we were on the right track and if we should implement changes in the training of future doctors.

The primary goal of this study was to appraise available international evidence concerning to the effectiveness and usefulness of PBL methodology in undergraduate medical teaching programs. As the intention was to synthesize the scattered evidence available, the option was to conduct a scoping review. A scoping study tends to address broader topics where many different study designs might be applicable. Scoping studies may be particularly relevant to disciplines, such as medical education, in which the paucity of randomized controlled trials makes it difficult for researchers to undertake systematic reviews [ 7 , 8 ]. Even though the scoping review methodology is not widely used in medical education, it is well established for synthesizing heterogeneous research evidence [ 9 ].

The specific aims were: 1) to determine the effectiveness of PBL in academic performance (learning and retention of knowledge) in medical education; 2) to determine the effectiveness of PBL in other skills (social and communication skills, problem solving or self-learning) in medical education; 3) to know the level of satisfaction perceived by the medical students (and/or tutors) when they are taught with the PBL methodology (or when they teach in case of tutors).

This review was guided by Arksey and O’Malley’s methodological framework for conducting scoping reviews. The five main stages of the framework are: (1) identifying the research question; (2) ascertaining relevant studies; (3) determining study selection; (4) charting the data; and (5) collating, summarizing and reporting the results [ 7 ]. We reported our process according to the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews [ 10 ].

Stage 1: Identifying the research question

With the goals of the study established, the four members of the research team established the research questions. The primary research question was “What is the effectiveness of PBL methodology for learning in undergraduate medicine?” and the secondary question “What is the perception and satisfaction of medical students and tutors in relation to PBL methodology?”.

Stage 2: Identifying relevant studies

After the research questions and a search strategy were defined, the searches were conducted in PubMed and Web of Science using the MeSH terms “problem-based learning” and “Medicine” (the Boolean operator “AND” was applied to the search terms). No limits were set on language, publication date, study design or country of origin. The search was carried out on 14th February 2021. Citations were uploaded to the reference manager software Mendeley Desktop (version 1.19.8) for title and abstract screening, and data characterization.

Stage 3: Study selection

The searching strategy in our scoping study generated a total of 2399 references. The literature search and screening of title, abstract and full text for suitability was performed independently by one author (JCT) based on predetermined inclusion criteria. The inclusion criteria were: 1) PBL methodology was the major research topic; 2) participants were undergraduate medical students or tutors; 3) the main outcome was academic performance (learning and knowledge retention); 4) the secondary outcomes were one of the following: social and communication skills, problem solving or self-learning and/or student/tutor satisfaction; 5) all types of studies were included including descriptive papers, qualitative, quantitative and mixed studies methods, perspectives, opinion, commentary pieces and editorials. Exclusion criteria were studies including other types of participants such as postgraduate medical students, residents and other health non-medical specialties such as pharmacy, veterinary, dentistry or nursing. Studies published in languages other than Spanish and English were also excluded. Situations in which uncertainty arose, all authors (CB, ES, RP) discussed the publication together to reach a final consensus. The outcomes of the search results and screening are presented in Fig. 1 . One-hundred and twenty-four articles met the inclusion criteria and were included in the final analysis.

Study flow PRISMA diagram. Details the review process through the different stages of the review; includes the number of records identified, included and excluded

Stage 4: Charting the data

A data extraction table was developed by the research team. Data extracted from each of the 124 publications included general publication details (year, author, and country), sample size, study population, design/methodology, main and secondary outcomes and relevant results and/or conclusions. We compiled all data into a single spreadsheet in Microsoft Excel for coding and analysis. The characteristics and the study subject of the 124 articles included in this review are summarized in Tables 1 and 2 . The detailed results of the Microsoft Excel file is also available in Additional file 1 .

Stage 5: Collating, summarizing and reporting the results

As indicated in the search strategy (Fig. 1 ) this review resulted in the inclusion of 124 publications. Publication years of the final sample ranged from 1990 to 2020, the majority of the publications (51, 41%) were identified for the years 2010–2020 and the years in which there were more publications were 2001, 2009 and 2015. Countries from the six continents were represented in this review. Most of the publications were from Asia (especially China and Saudi Arabia) and North America followed by Europe, and few studies were from Africa, Oceania and South America. The country with more publications was the United States of America ( n = 27). The most frequent designs of the selected studies were surveys or questionnaires ( n = 45) and comparative studies ( n = 48, only 16 were randomized) with traditional or lecture-based learning methodologies (in two studies the comparison was with simulation) and the most frequently measured outcomes were academic performance followed by student satisfaction (48 studies measured more than one outcome). The few studies with the highest level of scientific evidence (systematic review and meta-analysis and randomized studies) were conducted mostly in Asian countries (Tables 1 and 2 ). The study subject was specified in 81 publications finding a high variability but at the same time great representability of almost all disciplines of the medical studies.

The sample size was available in 99 publications and the median [range] of the participants was 132 [14–2061]. According to study population, there were more participants in the students’ focused studies (median 134 and range 16–2061) in comparison with the tutors’ studies (median 53 and range 14–494).

Finally, after reviewing in detail the measured outcomes (main and secondary) according to the study design (Table 2 and Additional file 1 ) we present a narrative overview and a synthesis of the main findings.

Main outcome: academic performance (learning and knowledge retention)

Seventy-one of the 124 publications had learning and/or knowledge retention as a measured outcome, most of them ( n = 45) were comparative studies with traditional or lecture-based learning and 16 were randomized. These studies were varied in their methodology, were performed in different geographic zones, and normally analyzed the experience of just one education center. Most studies ( n = 49) reported superiority of PBL in learning and knowledge acquisition [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 ] but there was no difference between traditional and PBL curriculums in another 19 studies [ 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 ]. Only three studies reported that PBL was less effective [ 79 , 80 , 81 ], two of them were randomized (in one case favoring simulation-based learning [ 80 ] and another favoring lectures [ 81 ]) and the remaining study was based on tutors’ opinion rather than real academic performance [ 79 ]. It is noteworthy that the four systematic reviews and meta-analysis included in this scoping review, all carried out in China, found that PBL was more effective than lecture-based learning in improving knowledge and other skills (clinical, problem-solving, self-learning and collaborative) [ 40 , 51 , 53 , 58 ]. Another relevant example of the superiority of the PBL method over the traditional method is the experience reported by Hoffman et al. from the University of Missouri-Columbia. The authors analyzed the impact of implementing the PBL methodology in its Faculty of Medicine and revealed an improvement in the academic results that lasted for over a decade [ 31 ].

Secondary outcomes

Social and communication skills.

We found five studies in this scoping review that focused on these outcomes and all of them described that a curriculum centered on PBL seems to instill more confidence in social and communication skills among students. Students perceived PBL positively for teamwork, communication skills and interpersonal relations [ 44 , 45 , 67 , 75 , 82 ].

Student satisfaction

Sixty publications analyzed student satisfaction with PBL methodology. The most frequent methodology were surveys or questionnaires (30 studies) followed by comparative studies with traditional or lecture-based methodology (19 studies, 7 of them were randomized). Almost all the studies (51) have shown that PBL is generally well-received [ 11 , 13 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 26 , 29 , 34 , 37 , 39 , 41 , 42 , 46 , 50 , 56 , 58 , 63 , 64 , 66 , 78 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 100 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 106 , 107 , 108 , 109 , 110 ] but in 9 studies the overall satisfaction scores for the PBL program were neutral [ 76 , 111 , 112 , 113 , 114 , 115 , 116 ] or negative [ 117 , 118 ]. Some factors that have been identified as key components for PBL to be successful include: a small group size, the use of scenarios of realistic cases and good management of group dynamics. Despite a mostly positive assessment of the PBL methodology by the students, there were some negative aspects that could be criticized or improved. These include unclear communication of the learning methodology, objectives and assessment method; bad management and organization of the sessions; tutors having little experience of the method; and a lack of standardization in the implementation of the method by the tutors.

Tutor satisfaction

There are only 15 publications that analyze the satisfaction of tutors, most of them surveys or questionnaires [ 85 , 88 , 92 , 98 , 108 , 110 , 119 ]. In comparison with the satisfaction of the students, here the results are more neutral [ 112 , 113 , 115 , 120 , 121 ] and even unfavorable to the PBL methodology in two publications [ 117 , 122 ]. PBL teaching was favored by tutors when the institutions train them in the subject, when there was administrative support and adequate infrastructure and coordination [ 123 ]. In some experiences, the PBL modules created an unacceptable toll of anxiety, unhappiness and strained relations.

Other skills (problem solving and self-learning)

The effectiveness of the PBL methodology has also been explored in other outcomes such as the ability to solve problems and to self-directed learning. All studies have shown that PBL is more effective than lecture-based learning in problem-solving and self-learning skills [ 18 , 24 , 40 , 48 , 67 , 75 , 93 , 104 , 124 ]. One single study found a poor accuracy of the students’ self-assessment when compared to their own performance [ 125 ]. In addition, there are studies that support PBL methodology for integration between basic and clinical sciences [ 126 ].

Finally, other publications have reported the experience of some faculties in the implementation of the PBL methodology. Different experiences have demonstrated that it is both possible and feasible to shift from a traditional curriculum to a PBL program, recognizing that PBL methodology is complex to plan and structure, needs a large number of human and material resources, requiring an immense teacher effort [ 28 , 31 , 94 , 127 , 128 , 129 , 130 , 131 , 132 , 133 ]. In addition, and despite its cost implication, a PBL curriculum can be successfully implemented in resource-constrained settings [ 134 , 135 ].

We conducted this scoping review to explore the effectiveness and satisfaction of PBL methodology for teaching in undergraduate medicine and, to our knowledge, it is the only study of its kind (systematic scoping review) that has been carried out in the last years. Similarly, Vernon et al. conducted a meta-analysis of articles published between 1970 and 1992 and their results generally supported the superiority of the PBL approach over more traditional methods of medical education [ 136 ]. PBL methodology is implemented in medical studies on the six continents but there is more experience (or at least more publications) from Asian countries and North America. Despite its apparent difficulties on implementation, a PBL curriculum can be successfully implemented in resource-constrained settings [ 134 , 135 ]. Although it is true that the few studies with the highest level of scientific evidence (randomized studies and meta-analysis) were carried out mainly in Asian countries (and some in North America and Europe), there were no significant differences in the main results according to geographical origin.

In this scoping review we have included a large number of publications that, despite their heterogeneity, tend to show favorable results for the usefulness of the PBL methodology in teaching and learning medicine. The results tend to be especially favorable to PBL methodology when it is compared with traditional or lecture-based teaching methods, but when compared with simulation it is not so clear. There are two studies that show neutral [ 71 ] or superior [ 80 ] results to simulation for the acquisition of specific clinical skills. It seems important to highlight that the four meta-analysis included in this review, which included a high number of participants, show results that are clearly favorable to the PBL methodology in terms of knowledge, clinical skills, problem-solving, self-learning and satisfaction [ 40 , 51 , 53 , 58 ].

Regarding the level of satisfaction described in the surveys or questionnaires, the overall satisfaction rate was higher in the PBL students when compared with traditional learning students. Students work in small groups, allowing and promoting teamwork and facilitating social and communication skills. As sessions are more attractive and dynamic than traditional classes, this could lead to a greater degree of motivation for learning.

These satisfaction results are not so favorable when tutors are asked and this may be due to different reasons; first, some studies are from the 90s, when the methodology was not yet fully implemented; second, the number of tutors included in these studies is low; and third, and perhaps most importantly, the complaints are not usually due to the methodology itself, but rather due to lack of administrative support, and/or work overload. PBL methodology implies more human and material resources. The lack of experience in guided self-learning by lecturers requires more training. Some teachers may not feel comfortable with the method and therefore do not apply it correctly.

Despite how effective and/or attractive the PBL methodology may seem, some (not many) authors are clearly detractors and have published opinion articles with fierce criticism to this methodology. Some of the arguments against are as follows: clinical problem solving is the wrong task for preclinical medical students, self-directed learning interpreted as self-teaching is not appropriate in undergraduate medical education, relegation to the role of facilitators is a misuse of the faculty, small-group experience is inherently variable and sometimes dysfunctional, etc. [ 137 ].

In light of the results found in our study, we believe that PBL is an adequate methodology for the training of future doctors and reinforces the idea that the PBL should have an important weight in the curriculum of our medical school. It is likely that training through PBL, the doctors of the future will not only have great knowledge but may also acquire greater capacity for communication, problem solving and self-learning, all of which are characteristics that are required in medical professionalism. For this purpose, Koh et al. analyzed the effect that PBL during medical school had on physician competencies after graduation, finding a positive effect mainly in social and cognitive dimensions [ 138 ].

Despite its defects and limitations, we must not abandon this methodology and, in any case, perhaps PBL should evolve, adapt, and improve to enhance its strengths and improve its weaknesses. It is likely that the new generations, trained in schools using new technologies and methodologies far from lectures, will feel more comfortable (either as students or as tutors) with methodologies more like PBL (small groups and work focused on problems or projects). It would be interesting to examine the implementation of technologies and even social media into PBL sessions, an issue that has been poorly explorer [ 139 ].

Limitations

Scoping reviews are not without limitations. Our review includes 124 articles from the 2399 initially identified and despite our efforts to be as comprehensive as possible, we may have missed some (probably few) articles. Even though this review includes many studies, their design is very heterogeneous, only a few include a large sample size and high scientific evidence methodology. Furthermore, most are single-center experiences and there are no large multi-center studies. Finally, the frequency of the PBL sessions (from once or twice a year to the whole curriculum) was not considered, in part, because most of the revised studies did not specify this information. This factor could affect the efficiency of PBL and the perceptions of students and tutors about PBL. However, the adoption of a scoping review methodology was effective in terms of summarizing the research findings, identifying limitations in studies’ methodologies and findings and provided a more rigorous vision of the international state of the art.

Conclusions

This systematic scoping review provides a broad overview of the efficacy of PBL methodology in undergraduate medicine teaching from different countries and institutions. PBL is not a new teaching method given that it has already been 50 years since it was implemented in medicine courses. It is a method that shifts the leading role from teachers to students and is based on guided self-learning. If it is applied properly, the degree of satisfaction is high, especially for students. PBL is more effective than traditional methods (based mainly on lectures) at improving social and communication skills, problem-solving and self-learning skills, and has no worse results (and in many studies better results) in relation to academic performance. Despite that, its use is not universally widespread, probably because it requires greater human resources and continuous training for its implementation. In any case, more comparative and randomized studies and/or other systematic reviews and meta-analysis are required to determine which educational strategies could be most suitable for the training of future doctors.

Abbreviations

Problem-based learning

Case-based learning

Team-based learning

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Comparison Between Problem-Based Learning and Lecture-Based Learning: Effect on Nursing Students’ Immediate Knowledge Retention

Yonatan solomon.

1 Department of Nursing, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Dire Dawa University, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia

The basic role of teaching at any degree of training is to bring a rudimentary change within the student. To facilitate the method of information transmission, educators ought to apply acceptable teaching strategies that best suit specific objectives and outcomes. Identifying the best method through comparison of problem-based learning (PBL) and the lecture method; so as to improve students’ overall academic performance appear to be important.

The aim of the study was to undertake comparison between problem-based and lecture-based learning methodologies for immediate knowledge retention of nursing students at Dire Dawa University.

Quantitative research method which used a pre-experimental two group pretest and post-test research design was employed to identify effective teaching methods for immediate knowledge retention on 38 nursing students from June 1 to June 15, 2019. The students were grouped randomly into problem-based learning and lecture methods. The pretest-posttest analysis was done after an intervention made: a two-hour lecture and four-hour problem-based learning accordingly. Content validity ratio and content validity index was conducted for authentication of instruments and Cronbach alpha was computed to verify its reliability. A paired t -test was conducted to identify mean score change, and p<0.05 was cut off value to determine if there is a significant mean change in the posttest.

Both methods showed significant knowledge score improvement (t=13.6, p< 0.001) for lecture-based method and (t=11.302, p< 0.001) for problem-based learning. But as compared to the lecture method, problem-based learning has little effect on students’ immediate knowledge retention, and 63.2% of the nursing students prefer the lecture method as the best teaching method.

The lecture method is the best teaching method for immediate knowledge retention for nursing students; it is also the most preferred method of teaching method by the students.

Introduction

Education is a constant strategy that includes achieving alluring changes in students using proper techniques. Advanced education staff endeavors to turn out to be more powerful instructors, so that, students can acquire and learn better, and many investigate techniques to improve their educational practice. 1

With the upheaval in innovation, education throughout the years has transformed hugely tremendously from paper-pen to computer. The conventional teaching techniques are supplanted by new progressed educating techniques. Current students are technologically progressed, which gives them account everything at a flash of speed. Cooperative learning and classroom teaching help more of practical knowledge. 2

The most acknowledged standard for the mensuration of smart teaching is that the quantity of student learning that occurs. There are reliably high relationships between students’ appraisals of the “amount learned” within the course and their general evaluations of the educator and the course. Those who have learned more gave their instructors higher evaluations. 4 This equivalent standard was likewise advanced by Thomas Angelo when he said; “teaching without learning is simply talking.” A teacher’s effectiveness is once more all about the presence of a student’s learning. 5

Teaching methods work successfully primarily on the off chance that they suit students’ desires needs since each student deciphers and reacts to inquiries in a very distinctive way. As such, the arrangement of teaching strategies with students’ desires and the most popular learning influence students’ scholastic achievements. 6

Most universities embrace methods by that students give anonymous feedback at the end of each course they complete. These ratings of teacher effectiveness have been a hotly debated issue since they were initially utilized in the mid-1920, and they produce a vast challenge for nearly every establishment that utilizes them. 7

Throughout the long-term student assessment of educators has changed considerably particularly in the regions of the purpose and methodology. They have changed from being principally used to help students in the choice of courses, to helping teachers’ further advance and improve their instructing abilities and assist managers concerning employees’ decisions. 8

The study conducted by Shahida on effective teaching methods at the university level showed that the majority of the students evaluated the lecture method as the best teaching method. Some of the reasons involved; the teacher gives all the information related to the subject, time-saving, students listen thoughtfully to lectures and take short notes, etc. 9

Lectures are one of the most broadly used teaching methods in medical and nursing education. It has been recommended that teaching methods that improve participation and boost self-facilitated learning can be ground-breaking in passing core knowledge and clarifying vague notions inciting augmentation of learning. 10 But currently, lectures are being continuously changed by team-based learning like the introduction of problem-based learning (PBL) which marks the revolution in some medical and nursing education. 11

PBL is one of the most regularly utilized instructive strategies in clinical schools. In this technique, students use clinical cases to describe their learning targets. The effectiveness of PBL relies upon the quality of the clinical cases. 12

PBL surges thorough training and helps students to accomplish better in assessments. 13 Although allies of PBL express that learning inspiration is one of the benefits of this method, others indicate that it is time-consuming, and does not give a better clinical competence. 14

Numerous investigations were conducted to compare PBL with lecture-based learning. Regarding knowledge acquisition, studies showed various outcomes; In some studies, PBL did not show any tendency over lecture-based learning on the learners’ knowledge. 15–17 On the other hand,; various studies revealed that students got an improved result in the PBL method. 18 , 19

A broad inquiry showed that researches in the field of education are very scarce and the same is true in nursing education. Accordingly, this study was conducted to compare the effect of PBL and the lecture methods on the immediate knowledge retention of nursing students at Dire Dawa University.

The finding of this study will give helpful experiences in understanding the effect of PBL and the lecture method on the immediate knowledge retention of nursing students. Additionally, by uncovering the reasons for perceiving any teaching method as the best one, important recommendations will be provided to higher education teachers for improving the quality of nursing education concerning students’ insight.

Research Questions

Which teaching method [PBL or Lecture] has a great impact on the students’ immediate knowledge retention? And which teaching method [PBL or Lecture] is more preferred by the students? And why?

Methods and Materials

Study setting.

This study was conducted at Dire Dawa University, College of Medicine and Health Sciences (CMHS), Department of Nursing, from June 1 to June 15, 2019. Dire Dawa is situated in the eastern part of the country with a distance of 515 km from Addis Ababa.

DDU is a young higher institution, established and started its teaching and learning activities in 2007 G.C. academic year. The establishment of the university is in line with the Ethiopian Government’s willingness and determination to expand higher education coverage and ensure its equitable distribution across the country to produce competent human resources and research outputs to meet the national development policy and poverty reduction strategy. Now in the 2018 academic year DDU has one Institute of Technology and Five College (College of Natural & Computational Science, College of Business & Economics, College of Social Sciences & Humanities, College of Law, and College of Medicine and Health Science) containing 33 different academic programs. The enrolment has grown to 12,500 regular students in 39 different academic programs. 20

Study Design

Quantitative research approach which uses the pre-experimental two groups: pre-test and post-test research design were employed.

First-year nursing students of the 2019 academic year.

Inclusion Criteria

First-year B.Sc. Nursing students who were admitted to the Dire Dawa University Nursing department, and those students who had completed the first year, first semester examination.

Sample Size

All 38 nursing students were included in the study.

Sampling Methods

Simple random technique was used to divide the students into two groups PBL and lecture method.

Data Collection Tools and Techniques

Questionnaire was one of the data collecting tools. Thus, the questionnaire had three sections: Section I comprises demographic data of the students [age, sex]; section II comprises questions that assess knowledge retention of a specific topic (organophosphate poisoning) for lecturing method and PBL; section III comprises questions that assess student’s preference of teaching methods using Likert scale and an open-ended questionnaire was used to assess student’s reasons for their preferences.

Quantitative content validity assessment was performed based on the content validity ratio (CVR) and content validity index (CVI = 0.81) and a reliability test was also conducted giving a Cronbach alpha result of 0.86.

Regarding the scoring of the questions, if students answer the question, they will get one (1) mark if not, they will get zero (0) mark.

To prevent any form of intervention/teaching bias; both sessions were given by Adult Health Nursing experts and the learning objectives were also similar as it is seen in the nursing curriculum. The author also approved the entire lesson plan for both teaching methods. Additionally, the instructor who delivers the PBL session was trained to run the session.

First, as a baseline demographic data were gathered and administered the pretest for both groups then after the administration of the intervention/lectures and PBL, a posttest was given for both groups.

Data Processing and Analysis

The data were analyzed using SPSS software version 21 for frequency and percentage and presented using table/descriptive statistics and paired t -test was computed to identify mean score change and p<0.05 was cut of value to determine there is a significant mean change in the posttest.

Ethical Consideration

The study strictly followed the principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki in addition to obtaining ethical clearance from Dire Dawa University department of Nursing on the date of 12/02/2019 with Ref No: DN/016/19. During the data collection, each respondent was informed about the aim of the study. Participants’ consent was obtained from the study participants before study commencement. The data collectors also discussed the issue of privacy, the confidentiality of the information obtained during the interview, and both verbal and written informed consent was obtained from respondents. Respondents were provided with an information sheet which contains the following main points: purpose/aim of the study, procedure and duration of the interview, risks and benefits of participation, confidentiality and rights of the participants, and contact address of the researcher for any questions and finally declaration of informed voluntary consent.

Socio-Demographic Characteristics

From the total of Nurse Student participants, 22 (57.9%) were males and the mean age were 20.45 year (SD 1.20) (see Table 1 ). When we see students, characteristics based on the two groups; Lecture Method: From a total of 19 participants 31.6% of them were 20 years of age while 68.4% of them were Males; Problem-Based Learning: From those students who participated in PBL 26.3% of them were 20 years of age and 52.6% of them were females.

Distribution of Participant Nurse Students by Their Characteristics of a Study Conducted on Effective Teaching Methods for Immediate Knowledge Retention Among Nursing Students of Dire Dawa University, Eastern Ethiopia 2019 (n=38)

Table 2 demonstrates that the knowledge score was increased from the pre-test (M=6.68, SD=2.05) to the posttest (M=14.89, SD=2.62). The difference was significant at (95%) confidence interval with (t=13.6, p<0.001) showing that the lecture method has a statistically significant effect on the immediate knowledge retention of nursing students.

Mean Score of Overall Knowledge Retention of Nursing Students in Lecture Method of a Study Conducted on Effective Teaching Methods for Immediate Knowledge Retention Among Nursing Students of Dire Dawa University, Eastern Ethiopia 2019 (n=38)

Table 3 also shows that the knowledge score was increased from the pre-test (M=6.89, SD=1.82) to the posttest (M=11.79, SD=2.85). The difference was significant at (95%) confidence interval with (t=11.30, p<0.001) showing that the PBL has a statistically significant effect on the immediate knowledge retention of nursing students. But when we compare the Lecture method with the PBL; PBL has a poor impact on immediate knowledge retention as compared to the Lecture method.

Mean Score of Overall Knowledge Retention of Nursing Students in PBL Method of a Study Conducted on Effective Teaching Methods for Immediate Knowledge Retention Among Nursing Students of Dire Dawa University, Eastern Ethiopia 2019 (n=38)

Nursing Students’ Preferred Teaching Method

Regarding nursing students’ preferences, 63.2% of them preferred the Lecture method as the most effective teaching method while 36.6% rate PBL as the best teaching method.

Reasons for Nursing Students’ Preferred Teaching Method

The Lecture method was regarded as the best method by 63.2% of nursing students for the subsequent reasons:

Instructors making the lesson simpler.
Instructors are well organized.
Instructors use references which are best and relies on their knowledge.
The use of an LCD projector makes it interesting and easy to follow.
Absence of alteration.
Short notes given by instructors are more important and handily comprehended just as it turns out to be simple during an assessment.
We generally rely upon the short notes of the instructor which we get thoroughly from the instructors.
Use of instructor’s short note is useful during exams.
Usually, lesson plans are well organized.
Overall management of classrooms which is mainly done by instructors form a conducive environment for the teaching-learning process.

Problem-based learning is regarded as the best method by 36.6% of nursing students for the subsequent reasons:

Students are vigorously engaged in the lesson, making it easier for understanding.
Greatly improves leadership abilities.
Enhances decision-making capacity.
Increases the confidence level of students.

The finding of the current study revealed that the lecture method has a better statistically significant effect on immediate knowledge retention as compared to problem-based learning. This means lecture method is more helpful for having an immediate knowledge retention than PBL. This finding is similar to other findings from Korea and Asia 15–17 but it is different from findings from other studies. 18 , 19 This might be because lecturing inclines to encourage “surface” learning, which enables the students to recall what was covered in the sessions.

In contrast, PBL encourages “deep understanding” so that students focus on searching for meaning rather than reproduction. 21 , 22 , Another possible explanation is that Blake also recommended that PBL particularly enhanced students’ capacity on the application of knowledge rather than immediate knowledge retention. 23 Additionally, the variation of different styles of different instructors might affect the outcome of students’ learning.

PBL was prepared for advanced education and for students who already have developed self-directed learning skills, and it is not hard to conclude that those students would do better in a test that only requires simple retrieving of knowledge than in a test that has knowledge application and in-depth analysis (advanced stage).

The other explanation could be that the author believes that; for a long period the Ethiopian education system encourages memorization of knowledge rather than the application; noting the fact that PBL was introduced to the higher education system of Ethiopia too late than the developed world. Pre dominantly starting from lower grade to higher education; the students have been learned through lectures; which could be another factor.

The finding of this study showed that the majority of the students regarded the lecture method as the best method. The reason behind their preference includes; instructors making the lesson simpler, instructors are well organized, absence of alteration, use of instructor’s short note is useful during exams, usually, lesson plans are well organized, etc.

Similarly, a study conducted by Shahida S. revealed that most of the students rated the lecture method as the best teaching method. Reasons included; the teacher gives all the information related to the subject, time-saving, students listen thoughtfully to lectures and take short notes, etc. 9

Limitation of the Study

The author recognizes the small sample size of the study as a major limitation.

The lecture method has a remarkably good effect on immediate knowledge retention as compared to problem-based learning. Even though both lecture and PBL methods have a statistically significant effect on students’ immediate knowledge retention, nursing students rate the lecture method as the best one. Even though the lecture method is the most traditional, it is still preferred by nursing students over problem-based learning.

The author reports no conflicts of interest for this work.

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Case-based Teaching and Problem-based Learning

Case-based teaching.

With case-based teaching, students develop skills in analytical thinking and reflective judgment by reading and discussing complex, real-life scenarios. The articles in this section explain how to use cases in teaching and provide case studies for the natural sciences, social sciences, and other disciplines.

Teaching with Case Studies (Stanford University)

This article from the Stanford Center for Teaching and Learning describes the rationale for using case studies, the process for choosing appropriate cases, and tips for how to implement them in college courses.

The Case Method (University of Illinois)

Tips for teachers on how to be successful using the Case Method in the college/university classroom. Includes information about the Case Method values, uses, and additional resource links.

National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (National Science Teaching Association)

This site offers resources and examples specific to teaching in the sciences. This includes the “UB Case Study Collection,” an extensive list of ready-to-use cases in a variety of science disciplines. Each case features a PDF handout describing the case, as well as teaching notes.

The Michigan Sustainability Cases Initiative (CRLT Occasional Paper)

This paper describes the Michigan Sustainability Cases Initiative, including links to the full library of cases, and it offers advice both for writing cases and facilitating case discussions effectively.

The Case Method and the Interactive Classroom (Foran, 2001, NEA Higher Education Journal)

First-person account of how a sociology faculty member at University of California, Santa Barbara began using case studies in his teaching and how his methods have evolved over time as a professor.

Problem-based Learning

Problem-based learning (PBL) is both a teaching method and an approach to the curriculum. It consists of carefully designed problems that challenge students to use problem solving techniques, self-directed learning strategies, team participation skills, and disciplinary knowledge. The articles and links in this section describe the characteristics and objectives of PBL and the process for using PBL. There is also a list of printed and web resources.

Problem-Based Learning Network (Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy)

Site includes an interactive PBL Model, Professional Development links, and video vignettes to illustrate how to effectively use problem-based learning in the classroom. The goals of IMSA's PBLNetwork are to mentor educators in all disciplines, to explore problem-based learning strategies, and to connect PBL educators to one another.

Problem-Based Learning: An Introduction (Rhem, 1998, National Teaching and Learning Forum)

This piece summarizes the benefits of using problem-based learning, its historical origins, and the faculty/student roles in PBL. Overall, this is an easy to read introduction to problem-based learning.

Problem-Based Learning (Stanford University, 2001)

This issue of Speaking of Teaching identifies the central features of PBL, provides some guidelines for planning a PBL course, and discusses the impact of PBL on student learning and motivation.

Problem-Based Learning Clearinghouse (University of Delaware)

Collection of peer reviewed problems and articles to assist educators in using problem-based learning. Teaching notes and supplemental materials accompany each problem, providing insights and strategies that are innovative and classroom-tested. Free registration is required to view and download the Clearinghouse’s resources.

See also: The International Journal of Problem-Based Learning

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Problem-Based and Inquiry-Based Learning: What’s the difference?

Sep 30th, 2019 by Kathryn Mulholland

“If your goal is to engage students in critical thinking… you need to present interesting challenges to solve, rather than simply explaining how other smart people have already solved those challenges.” – Therese Huston

Problem-Based Learning (PBL) and Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) are both student-centered teaching pedagogies that encourage active learning and critical thinking through investigation. Both methods offer students interesting problems to consider. And research shows that both PBL and IBL are effective models of learning.

So, what’s the difference between the two?

According to Banchi and Bell [4], there are four different levels of inquiry.

Confirmation Inquiry: Students confirm a principle through an activity when the results are known in advance.
Structured Inquiry: Students investigate a teacher-presented question through a prescribed procedure.
Guided Inquiry: Students investigate a teacher-presented question using student designed or selected procedures.
Open Inquiry: Students investigate questions that are student formulated through student designed or selected procedures.

Most academics define Inquiry-Based-Learning as a pedagogy that is based on one of these levels. So IBL can be as methodical as guiding students through a procedure to discover a known result or as free-form as encouraging students to formulate original questions. For example, in a Physics laboratory, suppose the topic is Newton’s Second Law of Motion. The lab instructions could define a procedure to record the mass and impact force of various objects. Multiplying the mass by the acceleration due to gravity, the students should recover the force they recorded, thus confirming Newton’s Second Law.

Problem-Based-Learning can be classified as guided inquiry where the teacher-presented question is an unsolved, real-world problem. For example, in a Middle Eastern Studies course, the main problem posed by the instructor could be “Propose a solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.” This question will motivate the study of the history of the region, the theological differences between Judaism and Islam, and current events. At the end of the semester, students would be expected to present and justify their solution.

Therefore, using the definition above, PBL is a type of IBL .

PBL is great because it motivates course content and maximizes learning via investigation, explanation, and resolution of real and meaningful problems. At any level, inquiry can be an effective method of learning because it is student-centered and encourages the development of practical skills and higher-level thinking.

As you plan for your next class, I invite you to reflect on your method of content delivery. Is it motivated? How? Would your students benefit from a day based on inquiry?

References.

Inquiry Based Learning. University of Notre Dame Notes on Teaching and Learning. https://sites.nd.edu/kaneb/2014/11/10/inquiry-based-learning/ .
Problem-Based Learning. Cornell University Center for Teaching Innovation . https://teaching.cornell.edu/teaching-resources/engaging-students/problem-based-learning .
Hmelo-Silver, Cindy E.; Duncan, Ravit Golan; Chinn, Clark A. (2007). “Scaffolding and Achievement in Problem-Based and Inquiry Learning: A Response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006)”. Educational Psychologi st. 42 (2): 99–107. doi : 10.1080/00461520701263368 .
Banchi, H., & Bell R. (2008). The many levels of inquiry. Science and Children.

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Problem-based learning and project-based learning

Both problem-based learning and project-based learning are referred to as PBL, and some find it confusing to separate the two pedagogies.

So, what is the difference?

Problem-based learning originated in the 1960s and is a teaching pedagogy that is student-centred. Students learn about a topic through the solving of problems and generally work in groups to solve the problem where, often, there is no one correct answer. In short, ‘it empowers learners to conduct research, integrate theory and practice, and apply knowledge and skills to develop a viable solution to a defined problem,’ (Savery, 2006).

Project-based learning has its origins back in the work of John Dewey and William Kilpatrick and dates back to 1918 when the term was first used ( Edutopia , 2014). Project-based learning is an instructional approach where students learn by investigating a complex question, problem or challenge. It promotes active learning, engages students, and allows for higher order thinking (Savery, 2006). Students explore real-world problems and find answers through the completion of a project. Students also have some control over the project they will be working on, how the project will finish, as well as the end product.

The differences

The difference between problem-based learning and project-based learning is that students who complete problem-based learning often share the outcomes and jointly set the learning goals and outcomes with the teacher. On the other hand, project-based learning is an approach where the goals are set. It is also quite structured in the way that the teaching occurs.

Project-based learning is often multidisciplinary and longer, whereas problem based learning is more likely to be a single subject and shorter. Generally, project-based learning follows general steps while problem-based learning provides specific steps. Importantly, project-based learning often involves authentic tasks that solve real-world problems while problem-based learning uses scenarios and cases that are perhaps less related to real life (Larmer, 2014).

In conclusion, it is probably the importance of conducting active learning with students that is worthy and not the actual name of the task. Both problem-based and project-based learning have their place in today’s classroom and can promote 21st Century learning.

Larmer, J. (2014). Project-based learning vs. problem-based learning vs. X-BL. Retrieved from http://www.edutopia.org/blog/pbl-vs-pbl-vs-xbl-john-larmer

Savery, J. R. (2006). Overview of problem-based learning: Deﬁnitions and distinctions. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning, 1 (1). Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.7771/1541-5015.1002

Further information also available at:

Leggett, A. (2014). Active learning pedagogies: Problem-based learning. Retrieved from http://www.uq.edu.au/tediteach/flipped-classroom/problem-bl.html

Have you used project-based learning or problem-based learning in your classroom?

What activities did you use to engage the students?

Was there any evidence to suggest that students were more engaged?

Effective implementation of project-based learning

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Problem Solving and Problem-based Learning Journal Club

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Problem Solving and Problem-based Learning in the Geosciences

2012 Journal Club

From January to May, 2012, the Problem Solving and Problem-based Learning Journal Club will meet once a month to discuss readings from the geoscience, other natural sciences and cognitive science literature. We will explore aspects of problem solving and problem-based learning in the classroom that includes introducing problem solving, levels of scaffolding, and assessing students' success.

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COMMENTS

Problem-Based Learning: An Overview of its Process and Impact on
Problem-based learning (PBL) has been widely adopted in diverse fields and educational contexts to promote critical thinking and problem-solving in authentic learning situations. Its close affiliation with workplace collaboration and interdisciplinary learning contributed to its spread beyond the traditional realm of clinical education 1 to ...
Effective Learning Behavior in Problem-Based Learning: a Scoping Review
Problem-based learning (PBL) emphasizes learning behavior that leads to critical thinking, problem-solving, communication, and collaborative skills in preparing students for a professional medical career. However, learning behavior that develops these skills has not been systematically described. This review aimed to unearth the elements of ...
Problem-Based Learning
Nilson (2010) lists the following learning outcomes that are associated with PBL. A well-designed PBL project provides students with the opportunity to develop skills related to: Working in teams. Managing projects and holding leadership roles. Oral and written communication. Self-awareness and evaluation of group processes. Working independently.
Problem-based learning
Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered pedagogy in which students learn about a subject through the experience of solving an open-ended problem found in trigger material. The PBL process does not focus on problem solving with a defined solution, but it allows for the development of other desirable skills and attributes.
Problem solving learning versus problem-based learning
Problem solving learning versus problem-based learning. While problem solving learning is an advisable practice in any. curricular format, a pure problem-based learning (PBL) curriculum may. become a risky enterprise since many basic contents may not be learnt at. last.
What is Problem-Based Learning? A Complete Guide for Educators
Final Thoughts on Problem-Based Learning. Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered teaching method that encourages students to learn by actively solving real-world problems. Unlike traditional instructional methods, PBL does not focus on delivering content but rather on facilitating student learning through problem-solving.
Problem-Based Learning: What and How Do Students Learn?
Problem-based approaches to learning have a long history of advocating experience-based education. Psychological research and theory suggests that by having students learn through the experience of solving problems, they can learn both content and thinking strategies. Problem-based learning (PBL) is an instructional method in which students learn through facilitated problem solving. In PBL ...
PDF An Introductory Framework of Problem-Based Learning (PBL) https://doi
2004). Active learning teaching approaches range from short, simple activities, such as problem solving and paired discussions, to longer, involved activities or pedagogical frameworks like case studies, problem-based learning (PBL), flipped classrooms, and structured team-based learning (Lord et al. 2012). A student-centered approach typically
Problem-Based Learning and Case-Based Learning
Problem-based learning has originally been introduced in order to promote active learning and transfer of learning (see also Chap. 49, "First Principles of Instruction Revisited," by Merrill, this volume). Some of the design elements making PBL such as active learning approach (e.g., Silverthorn, 2020) are (1) active and applied problem-solving, (2) small-group learning, and (3 ...
Overview of Problem-Based Learning
Problem-based Learning vs. Case-based and Project-based Learning. ... Inquiry-based learning is a student-centered, active learning approach focused on questioning, critical thinking, and problem solving. Inquiry-based learning activities begin with a question followed by investigating solutions, creating new knowledge as information is ...
Project-Based Learning vs. Problem-Based Learning vs. X-BL
Solving a real-world problem (may be simulated or fully authentic) ... Problem-Based Learning vs. Project-Based Learning. Because they have the same acronym, we get a lot of questions about the similarities and differences between the two PBLs. We even had questions ourselves -- some years ago we created units for high school economics and ...
Problem-Based Learning (PBL)
PBL is a student-centered approach to learning that involves groups of students working to solve a real-world problem, quite different from the direct teaching method of a teacher presenting facts and concepts about a specific subject to a classroom of students. Through PBL, students not only strengthen their teamwork, communication, and ...
PBL vs TBL: What's the Difference?
While PBL focuses on problem-solving through existing knowledge, TBL focuses on preparing the students through prework before testing them individually and as a team. The students will then solve a real-world problem. There is also a peer evaluation component in TBL. TBL problems - or the application activities - need to follow the 4S ...
The effectiveness of problem-based learning compared with lecture-based
Introduction. Problem-based learning (PBL), a widely used approach to education and learning, was pioneered in 1969 by Barros, an American professor of neurology at McMaster University in Canada [].The first university in the United States to adopted a medical PBL curriculum was the University of New Mexico [].Subsequently, some countries from Europe and Asia also begun to promote PBL courses ...
Effective Learning Behavior in Problem-Based Learning: a ...
Problem-based learning (PBL) emphasizes learning behavior that leads to critical thinking, problem-solving, communication, and collaborative skills in preparing students for a professional medical career. However, learning behavior that develops these skills has not been systematically described. This review aimed to unearth the elements of effective learning behavior in a PBL context, using ...
PDF Problem Based Learning: A Student-Centered Approach
Keywords: problem based learning, curriculum, collaborative learning, team work, approach, method 1. Introduction Problem based learning is a student-centered educational method which aims to develop problem - solving skills through a self- directed learning as a life time habit and team work skills. Untidy, messy, ill structured situations
Project-Based vs. Problem-Based Learning: Which is Right for Your
Conclusion. Project-Based Learning is uses a real-world approach that requires students to use collaboration, problem solving and critical thinking skills that leads to a culminating product over an extended period of time. While Problem-Based Learning uses those same skills and narrows the focus to 1 or 2 standards over a shorter time period ...
Effectiveness of problem-based learning methodology in undergraduate
Problem-based learning (PBL) is a pedagogical approach that shifts the role of the teacher to the student (student-centered) and is based on self-directed learning. Although PBL has been adopted in undergraduate and postgraduate medical education, the effectiveness of the method is still under discussion. The author's purpose was to appraise available international evidence concerning to the ...
Comparison Between Problem-Based Learning and Lecture-Based Learning
Identifying the best method through comparison of problem-based learning (PBL) and the lecture method; so as to improve students' overall academic performance appear to be important. ... Song Y. Effects of problem-based learning vs. traditional lecture on Korean nursing students' critical thinking, problem-solving, and self-directed ...
Case-based Teaching and Problem-based Learning
Problem-based Learning. Problem-based learning (PBL) is both a teaching method and an approach to the curriculum. It consists of carefully designed problems that challenge students to use problem solving techniques, self-directed learning strategies, team participation skills, and disciplinary knowledge. The articles and links in this section ...
Problem-Based and Inquiry-Based Learning: What's the difference?
Problem-Based-Learning can be classified as guided inquiry where the teacher-presented question is an unsolved, real-world problem. For example, in a Middle Eastern Studies course, the main problem posed by the instructor could be "Propose a solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.". This question will motivate the study of the ...
Problem-based learning and project-based learning
Project-based learning is often multidisciplinary and longer, whereas problem based learning is more likely to be a single subject and shorter. Generally, project-based learning follows general steps while problem-based learning provides specific steps. Importantly, project-based learning often involves authentic tasks that solve real-world ...
Problem Solving & Problem-based Learning
Problem Solving and Problem-based Learning in the Geosciences. Learning approaches to address the messy problems of the real world is critical in students learning to "think like a scientist" (Hunter et al., 2006; Lopatto, 2004). Given the grand challenges facing society that include resource issues and climate change, geoscientists depend upon ...

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