difference between research and findings

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Dissertations 5: findings, analysis and discussion: home.

• Results/Findings

Alternative Structures

The time has come to show and discuss the findings of your research. How to structure this part of your dissertation? 

Dissertations can have different structures, as you can see in the dissertation  structure  guide.

Dissertations organised by sections

Many dissertations are organised by sections. In this case, we suggest three options. Note that, if within your course you have been instructed to use a specific structure, you should do that. Also note that sometimes there is considerable freedom on the structure, so you can come up with other structures too. 

A) More common for scientific dissertations and quantitative methods:

- Results chapter 

- Discussion chapter

Example: 

• Introduction
• Literature review
• Methodology
• (Recommendations)

if you write a scientific dissertation, or anyway using quantitative methods, you will have some  objective  results that you will present in the Results chapter. You will then interpret the results in the Discussion chapter.  

B) More common for qualitative methods

- Analysis chapter. This can have more descriptive/thematic subheadings.

- Discussion chapter. This can have more descriptive/thematic subheadings.

• Case study of Company X (fashion brand) environmental strategies 
• Successful elements
• Lessons learnt
• Criticisms of Company X environmental strategies 
• Possible alternatives

C) More common for qualitative methods

- Analysis and discussion chapter. This can have more descriptive/thematic titles.

• Case study of Company X (fashion brand) environmental strategies 

If your dissertation uses qualitative methods, it is harder to identify and report objective data. Instead, it may be more productive and meaningful to present the findings in the same sections where you also analyse, and possibly discuss, them. You will probably have different sections dealing with different themes. The different themes can be subheadings of the Analysis and Discussion (together or separate) chapter(s). 

Thematic dissertations

If the structure of your dissertation is thematic ,  you will have several chapters analysing and discussing the issues raised by your research. The chapters will have descriptive/thematic titles. 

• Background on the conflict in Yemen (2004-present day)
• Classification of the conflict in international law  
• International law violations
• Options for enforcement of international law
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• Last Updated: Aug 4, 2023 2:17 PM
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How To Write The Results/Findings Chapter

For quantitative studies (dissertations & theses).

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Expert Reviewed By: Kerryn Warren (PhD) | July 2021

So, you’ve completed your quantitative data analysis and it’s time to report on your findings. But where do you start? In this post, we’ll walk you through the results chapter (also called the findings or analysis chapter), step by step, so that you can craft this section of your dissertation or thesis with confidence. If you’re looking for information regarding the results chapter for qualitative studies, you can find that here .

Overview: Quantitative Results Chapter

• What exactly the results chapter is
• What you need to include in your chapter
• How to structure the chapter
• Tips and tricks for writing a top-notch chapter
• Free results chapter template

What exactly is the results chapter?

The results chapter (also referred to as the findings or analysis chapter) is one of the most important chapters of your dissertation or thesis because it shows the reader what you’ve found in terms of the quantitative data you’ve collected. It presents the data using a clear text narrative, supported by tables, graphs and charts. In doing so, it also highlights any potential issues (such as outliers or unusual findings) you’ve come across.

But how’s that different from the discussion chapter?

Well, in the results chapter, you only present your statistical findings. Only the numbers, so to speak – no more, no less. Contrasted to this, in the discussion chapter , you interpret your findings and link them to prior research (i.e. your literature review), as well as your research objectives and research questions . In other words, the results chapter presents and describes the data, while the discussion chapter interprets the data.

Let’s look at an example.

In your results chapter, you may have a plot that shows how respondents to a survey  responded: the numbers of respondents per category, for instance. You may also state whether this supports a hypothesis by using a p-value from a statistical test. But it is only in the discussion chapter where you will say why this is relevant or how it compares with the literature or the broader picture. So, in your results chapter, make sure that you don’t present anything other than the hard facts – this is not the place for subjectivity.

It’s worth mentioning that some universities prefer you to combine the results and discussion chapters. Even so, it is good practice to separate the results and discussion elements within the chapter, as this ensures your findings are fully described. Typically, though, the results and discussion chapters are split up in quantitative studies. If you’re unsure, chat with your research supervisor or chair to find out what their preference is.

What should you include in the results chapter?

Following your analysis, it’s likely you’ll have far more data than are necessary to include in your chapter. In all likelihood, you’ll have a mountain of SPSS or R output data, and it’s your job to decide what’s most relevant. You’ll need to cut through the noise and focus on the data that matters.

This doesn’t mean that those analyses were a waste of time – on the contrary, those analyses ensure that you have a good understanding of your dataset and how to interpret it. However, that doesn’t mean your reader or examiner needs to see the 165 histograms you created! Relevance is key.

How do I decide what’s relevant?

At this point, it can be difficult to strike a balance between what is and isn’t important. But the most important thing is to ensure your results reflect and align with the purpose of your study .  So, you need to revisit your research aims, objectives and research questions and use these as a litmus test for relevance. Make sure that you refer back to these constantly when writing up your chapter so that you stay on track.

As a general guide, your results chapter will typically include the following:

• Some demographic data about your sample
• Reliability tests (if you used measurement scales)
• Descriptive statistics
• Inferential statistics (if your research objectives and questions require these)
• Hypothesis tests (again, if your research objectives and questions require these)

We’ll discuss each of these points in more detail in the next section.

Importantly, your results chapter needs to lay the foundation for your discussion chapter . This means that, in your results chapter, you need to include all the data that you will use as the basis for your interpretation in the discussion chapter.

For example, if you plan to highlight the strong relationship between Variable X and Variable Y in your discussion chapter, you need to present the respective analysis in your results chapter – perhaps a correlation or regression analysis.

Need a helping hand?

How do I write the results chapter?

There are multiple steps involved in writing up the results chapter for your quantitative research. The exact number of steps applicable to you will vary from study to study and will depend on the nature of the research aims, objectives and research questions . However, we’ll outline the generic steps below.

Step 1 – Revisit your research questions

The first step in writing your results chapter is to revisit your research objectives and research questions . These will be (or at least, should be!) the driving force behind your results and discussion chapters, so you need to review them and then ask yourself which statistical analyses and tests (from your mountain of data) would specifically help you address these . For each research objective and research question, list the specific piece (or pieces) of analysis that address it.

At this stage, it’s also useful to think about the key points that you want to raise in your discussion chapter and note these down so that you have a clear reminder of which data points and analyses you want to highlight in the results chapter. Again, list your points and then list the specific piece of analysis that addresses each point. 

Next, you should draw up a rough outline of how you plan to structure your chapter . Which analyses and statistical tests will you present and in what order? We’ll discuss the “standard structure” in more detail later, but it’s worth mentioning now that it’s always useful to draw up a rough outline before you start writing (this advice applies to any chapter).

Step 2 – Craft an overview introduction

As with all chapters in your dissertation or thesis, you should start your quantitative results chapter by providing a brief overview of what you’ll do in the chapter and why . For example, you’d explain that you will start by presenting demographic data to understand the representativeness of the sample, before moving onto X, Y and Z.

This section shouldn’t be lengthy – a paragraph or two maximum. Also, it’s a good idea to weave the research questions into this section so that there’s a golden thread that runs through the document.

Step 3 – Present the sample demographic data

The first set of data that you’ll present is an overview of the sample demographics – in other words, the demographics of your respondents.

For example:

• What age range are they?
• How is gender distributed?
• How is ethnicity distributed?
• What areas do the participants live in?

The purpose of this is to assess how representative the sample is of the broader population. This is important for the sake of the generalisability of the results. If your sample is not representative of the population, you will not be able to generalise your findings. This is not necessarily the end of the world, but it is a limitation you’ll need to acknowledge.

Of course, to make this representativeness assessment, you’ll need to have a clear view of the demographics of the population. So, make sure that you design your survey to capture the correct demographic information that you will compare your sample to.

But what if I’m not interested in generalisability?

Well, even if your purpose is not necessarily to extrapolate your findings to the broader population, understanding your sample will allow you to interpret your findings appropriately, considering who responded. In other words, it will help you contextualise your findings . For example, if 80% of your sample was aged over 65, this may be a significant contextual factor to consider when interpreting the data. Therefore, it’s important to understand and present the demographic data.

 Step 4 – Review composite measures and the data “shape”.

Before you undertake any statistical analysis, you’ll need to do some checks to ensure that your data are suitable for the analysis methods and techniques you plan to use. If you try to analyse data that doesn’t meet the assumptions of a specific statistical technique, your results will be largely meaningless. Therefore, you may need to show that the methods and techniques you’ll use are “allowed”.

Most commonly, there are two areas you need to pay attention to:

#1: Composite measures

The first is when you have multiple scale-based measures that combine to capture one construct – this is called a composite measure .  For example, you may have four Likert scale-based measures that (should) all measure the same thing, but in different ways. In other words, in a survey, these four scales should all receive similar ratings. This is called “ internal consistency ”.

Internal consistency is not guaranteed though (especially if you developed the measures yourself), so you need to assess the reliability of each composite measure using a test. Typically, Cronbach’s Alpha is a common test used to assess internal consistency – i.e., to show that the items you’re combining are more or less saying the same thing. A high alpha score means that your measure is internally consistent. A low alpha score means you may need to consider scrapping one or more of the measures.

#2: Data shape

The second matter that you should address early on in your results chapter is data shape. In other words, you need to assess whether the data in your set are symmetrical (i.e. normally distributed) or not, as this will directly impact what type of analyses you can use. For many common inferential tests such as T-tests or ANOVAs (we’ll discuss these a bit later), your data needs to be normally distributed. If it’s not, you’ll need to adjust your strategy and use alternative tests.

To assess the shape of the data, you’ll usually assess a variety of descriptive statistics (such as the mean, median and skewness), which is what we’ll look at next.

Step 5 – Present the descriptive statistics

Now that you’ve laid the foundation by discussing the representativeness of your sample, as well as the reliability of your measures and the shape of your data, you can get started with the actual statistical analysis. The first step is to present the descriptive statistics for your variables.

For scaled data, this usually includes statistics such as:

• The mean – this is simply the mathematical average of a range of numbers.
• The median – this is the midpoint in a range of numbers when the numbers are arranged in order.
• The mode – this is the most commonly repeated number in the data set.
• Standard deviation – this metric indicates how dispersed a range of numbers is. In other words, how close all the numbers are to the mean (the average).
• Skewness – this indicates how symmetrical a range of numbers is. In other words, do they tend to cluster into a smooth bell curve shape in the middle of the graph (this is called a normal or parametric distribution), or do they lean to the left or right (this is called a non-normal or non-parametric distribution).
• Kurtosis – this metric indicates whether the data are heavily or lightly-tailed, relative to the normal distribution. In other words, how peaked or flat the distribution is.

A large table that indicates all the above for multiple variables can be a very effective way to present your data economically. You can also use colour coding to help make the data more easily digestible.

For categorical data, where you show the percentage of people who chose or fit into a category, for instance, you can either just plain describe the percentages or numbers of people who responded to something or use graphs and charts (such as bar graphs and pie charts) to present your data in this section of the chapter.

When using figures, make sure that you label them simply and clearly , so that your reader can easily understand them. There’s nothing more frustrating than a graph that’s missing axis labels! Keep in mind that although you’ll be presenting charts and graphs, your text content needs to present a clear narrative that can stand on its own. In other words, don’t rely purely on your figures and tables to convey your key points: highlight the crucial trends and values in the text. Figures and tables should complement the writing, not carry it .

Depending on your research aims, objectives and research questions, you may stop your analysis at this point (i.e. descriptive statistics). However, if your study requires inferential statistics, then it’s time to deep dive into those .

Step 6 – Present the inferential statistics

Inferential statistics are used to make generalisations about a population , whereas descriptive statistics focus purely on the sample . Inferential statistical techniques, broadly speaking, can be broken down into two groups .

First, there are those that compare measurements between groups , such as t-tests (which measure differences between two groups) and ANOVAs (which measure differences between multiple groups). Second, there are techniques that assess the relationships between variables , such as correlation analysis and regression analysis. Within each of these, some tests can be used for normally distributed (parametric) data and some tests are designed specifically for use on non-parametric data.

There are a seemingly endless number of tests that you can use to crunch your data, so it’s easy to run down a rabbit hole and end up with piles of test data. Ultimately, the most important thing is to make sure that you adopt the tests and techniques that allow you to achieve your research objectives and answer your research questions .

In this section of the results chapter, you should try to make use of figures and visual components as effectively as possible. For example, if you present a correlation table, use colour coding to highlight the significance of the correlation values, or scatterplots to visually demonstrate what the trend is. The easier you make it for your reader to digest your findings, the more effectively you’ll be able to make your arguments in the next chapter.

Step 7 – Test your hypotheses

If your study requires it, the next stage is hypothesis testing. A hypothesis is a statement , often indicating a difference between groups or relationship between variables, that can be supported or rejected by a statistical test. However, not all studies will involve hypotheses (again, it depends on the research objectives), so don’t feel like you “must” present and test hypotheses just because you’re undertaking quantitative research.

The basic process for hypothesis testing is as follows:

• Specify your null hypothesis (for example, “The chemical psilocybin has no effect on time perception).
• Specify your alternative hypothesis (e.g., “The chemical psilocybin has an effect on time perception)
• Set your significance level (this is usually 0.05)
• Calculate your statistics and find your p-value (e.g., p=0.01)
• Draw your conclusions (e.g., “The chemical psilocybin does have an effect on time perception”)

Finally, if the aim of your study is to develop and test a conceptual framework , this is the time to present it, following the testing of your hypotheses. While you don’t need to develop or discuss these findings further in the results chapter, indicating whether the tests (and their p-values) support or reject the hypotheses is crucial.

Step 8 – Provide a chapter summary

To wrap up your results chapter and transition to the discussion chapter, you should provide a brief summary of the key findings . “Brief” is the keyword here – much like the chapter introduction, this shouldn’t be lengthy – a paragraph or two maximum. Highlight the findings most relevant to your research objectives and research questions, and wrap it up.

Some final thoughts, tips and tricks

Now that you’ve got the essentials down, here are a few tips and tricks to make your quantitative results chapter shine:

• When writing your results chapter, report your findings in the past tense . You’re talking about what you’ve found in your data, not what you are currently looking for or trying to find.
• Structure your results chapter systematically and sequentially . If you had two experiments where findings from the one generated inputs into the other, report on them in order.
• Make your own tables and graphs rather than copying and pasting them from statistical analysis programmes like SPSS. Check out the DataIsBeautiful reddit for some inspiration.
• Once you’re done writing, review your work to make sure that you have provided enough information to answer your research questions , but also that you didn’t include superfluous information.

If you’ve got any questions about writing up the quantitative results chapter, please leave a comment below. If you’d like 1-on-1 assistance with your quantitative analysis and discussion, check out our hands-on coaching service , or book a free consultation with a friendly coach.

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Research Skills

Results, discussion, and conclusion, results/findings.

The Results (or Findings) section follows the Methods and precedes the Discussion section. This is where the authors provide the data collected during their study. That data can sometimes be difficult to understand because it is often quite technical. Do not let this intimidate you; you will discover the significance of the results next.

The Discussion section follows the Results and precedes the Conclusions and Recommendations section. It is here that the authors indicate the significance of their results. They answer the question, “Why did we get the results we did?” This section provides logical explanations for the results from the study. Those explanations are often reached by comparing and contrasting the results to prior studies’ findings, so citations to the studies discussed in the Literature Review generally reappear here. This section also usually discusses the limitations of the study and speculates on what the results say about the problem(s) identified in the research question(s). This section is very important because it is finally moving towards an argument. Since the researchers interpret their results according to theoretical underpinnings in this section, there is more room for difference of opinion. The way the authors interpret their results may be quite different from the way you would interpret them or the way another researcher would interpret them.

Note: Some articles collapse the Discussion and Conclusion sections together under a single heading (usually “Conclusion”). If you don’t see a separate Discussion section, don’t worry.  Instead, look in the nearby sections for the types of information described in the paragraph above.

When you first skim an article, it may be useful to go straight to the Conclusion and see if you can figure out what the thesis is since it is usually in this final section. The research gap identified in the introduction indicates what the researchers wanted to look at; what did they claim, ultimately, when they completed their research? What did it show them—and what are they showing us—about the topic? Did they get the results they expected? Why or why not? The thesis is not a sweeping proclamation; rather, it is likely a very reasonable and conditional claim.

Nearly every research article ends by inviting other scholars to continue the work by saying that more research needs to be done on the matter. However, do not mistake this directive for the thesis; it’s a convention. Often, the authors provide specific details about future possible studies that could or should be conducted in order to make more sense of their own study’s conclusions.

• Parts of An Article. Authored by : Kerry Bowers. Provided by : University of Mississippi. Project : WRIT 250 Committee OER Project. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

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The results section is where you report the findings of your study based upon the methodology [or methodologies] you applied to gather information. The results section should state the findings of the research arranged in a logical sequence without bias or interpretation. A section describing results should be particularly detailed if your paper includes data generated from your own research.

Annesley, Thomas M. "Show Your Cards: The Results Section and the Poker Game." Clinical Chemistry 56 (July 2010): 1066-1070.

Importance of a Good Results Section

When formulating the results section, it's important to remember that the results of a study do not prove anything . Findings can only confirm or reject the hypothesis underpinning your study. However, the act of articulating the results helps you to understand the problem from within, to break it into pieces, and to view the research problem from various perspectives.

The page length of this section is set by the amount and types of data to be reported . Be concise. Use non-textual elements appropriately, such as figures and tables, to present findings more effectively. In deciding what data to describe in your results section, you must clearly distinguish information that would normally be included in a research paper from any raw data or other content that could be included as an appendix. In general, raw data that has not been summarized should not be included in the main text of your paper unless requested to do so by your professor.

Avoid providing data that is not critical to answering the research question . The background information you described in the introduction section should provide the reader with any additional context or explanation needed to understand the results. A good strategy is to always re-read the background section of your paper after you have written up your results to ensure that the reader has enough context to understand the results [and, later, how you interpreted the results in the discussion section of your paper that follows].

Bavdekar, Sandeep B. and Sneha Chandak. "Results: Unraveling the Findings." Journal of the Association of Physicians of India 63 (September 2015): 44-46; Brett, Paul. "A Genre Analysis of the Results Section of Sociology Articles." English for Specific Speakers 13 (1994): 47-59; Go to English for Specific Purposes on ScienceDirect;Burton, Neil et al. Doing Your Education Research Project . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2008; Results. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Results Section. San Francisco Edit; "Reporting Findings." In Making Sense of Social Research Malcolm Williams, editor. (London;: SAGE Publications, 2003) pp. 188-207.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Organization and Approach

For most research papers in the social and behavioral sciences, there are two possible ways of organizing the results . Both approaches are appropriate in how you report your findings, but use only one approach.

• Present a synopsis of the results followed by an explanation of key findings . This approach can be used to highlight important findings. For example, you may have noticed an unusual correlation between two variables during the analysis of your findings. It is appropriate to highlight this finding in the results section. However, speculating as to why this correlation exists and offering a hypothesis about what may be happening belongs in the discussion section of your paper.
• Present a result and then explain it, before presenting the next result then explaining it, and so on, then end with an overall synopsis . This is the preferred approach if you have multiple results of equal significance. It is more common in longer papers because it helps the reader to better understand each finding. In this model, it is helpful to provide a brief conclusion that ties each of the findings together and provides a narrative bridge to the discussion section of the your paper.

NOTE :   Just as the literature review should be arranged under conceptual categories rather than systematically describing each source, you should also organize your findings under key themes related to addressing the research problem. This can be done under either format noted above [i.e., a thorough explanation of the key results or a sequential, thematic description and explanation of each finding].

II.  Content

In general, the content of your results section should include the following:

• Introductory context for understanding the results by restating the research problem underpinning your study . This is useful in re-orientating the reader's focus back to the research problem after having read a review of the literature and your explanation of the methods used for gathering and analyzing information.
• Inclusion of non-textual elements, such as, figures, charts, photos, maps, tables, etc. to further illustrate key findings, if appropriate . Rather than relying entirely on descriptive text, consider how your findings can be presented visually. This is a helpful way of condensing a lot of data into one place that can then be referred to in the text. Consider referring to appendices if there is a lot of non-textual elements.
• A systematic description of your results, highlighting for the reader observations that are most relevant to the topic under investigation . Not all results that emerge from the methodology used to gather information may be related to answering the " So What? " question. Do not confuse observations with interpretations; observations in this context refers to highlighting important findings you discovered through a process of reviewing prior literature and gathering data.
• The page length of your results section is guided by the amount and types of data to be reported . However, focus on findings that are important and related to addressing the research problem. It is not uncommon to have unanticipated results that are not relevant to answering the research question. This is not to say that you don't acknowledge tangential findings and, in fact, can be referred to as areas for further research in the conclusion of your paper. However, spending time in the results section describing tangential findings clutters your overall results section and distracts the reader.
• A short paragraph that concludes the results section by synthesizing the key findings of the study . Highlight the most important findings you want readers to remember as they transition into the discussion section. This is particularly important if, for example, there are many results to report, the findings are complicated or unanticipated, or they are impactful or actionable in some way [i.e., able to be pursued in a feasible way applied to practice].

NOTE:   Always use the past tense when referring to your study's findings. Reference to findings should always be described as having already happened because the method used to gather the information has been completed.

III.  Problems to Avoid

When writing the results section, avoid doing the following :

• Discussing or interpreting your results . Save this for the discussion section of your paper, although where appropriate, you should compare or contrast specific results to those found in other studies [e.g., "Similar to the work of Smith [1990], one of the findings of this study is the strong correlation between motivation and academic achievement...."].
• Reporting background information or attempting to explain your findings. This should have been done in your introduction section, but don't panic! Often the results of a study point to the need for additional background information or to explain the topic further, so don't think you did something wrong. Writing up research is rarely a linear process. Always revise your introduction as needed.
• Ignoring negative results . A negative result generally refers to a finding that does not support the underlying assumptions of your study. Do not ignore them. Document these findings and then state in your discussion section why you believe a negative result emerged from your study. Note that negative results, and how you handle them, can give you an opportunity to write a more engaging discussion section, therefore, don't be hesitant to highlight them.
• Including raw data or intermediate calculations . Ask your professor if you need to include any raw data generated by your study, such as transcripts from interviews or data files. If raw data is to be included, place it in an appendix or set of appendices that are referred to in the text.
• Be as factual and concise as possible in reporting your findings . Do not use phrases that are vague or non-specific, such as, "appeared to be greater than other variables..." or "demonstrates promising trends that...." Subjective modifiers should be explained in the discussion section of the paper [i.e., why did one variable appear greater? Or, how does the finding demonstrate a promising trend?].
• Presenting the same data or repeating the same information more than once . If you want to highlight a particular finding, it is appropriate to do so in the results section. However, you should emphasize its significance in relation to addressing the research problem in the discussion section. Do not repeat it in your results section because you can do that in the conclusion of your paper.
• Confusing figures with tables . Be sure to properly label any non-textual elements in your paper. Don't call a chart an illustration or a figure a table. If you are not sure, go here .

Annesley, Thomas M. "Show Your Cards: The Results Section and the Poker Game." Clinical Chemistry 56 (July 2010): 1066-1070; Bavdekar, Sandeep B. and Sneha Chandak. "Results: Unraveling the Findings." Journal of the Association of Physicians of India 63 (September 2015): 44-46; Burton, Neil et al. Doing Your Education Research Project . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2008;  Caprette, David R. Writing Research Papers. Experimental Biosciences Resources. Rice University; Hancock, Dawson R. and Bob Algozzine. Doing Case Study Research: A Practical Guide for Beginning Researchers . 2nd ed. New York: Teachers College Press, 2011; Introduction to Nursing Research: Reporting Research Findings. Nursing Research: Open Access Nursing Research and Review Articles. (January 4, 2012); Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Results Section. San Francisco Edit ; Ng, K. H. and W. C. Peh. "Writing the Results." Singapore Medical Journal 49 (2008): 967-968; Reporting Research Findings. Wilder Research, in partnership with the Minnesota Department of Human Services. (February 2009); Results. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Schafer, Mickey S. Writing the Results. Thesis Writing in the Sciences. Course Syllabus. University of Florida.

Writing Tip

Why Don't I Just Combine the Results Section with the Discussion Section?

It's not unusual to find articles in scholarly social science journals where the author(s) have combined a description of the findings with a discussion about their significance and implications. You could do this. However, if you are inexperienced writing research papers, consider creating two distinct sections for each section in your paper as a way to better organize your thoughts and, by extension, your paper. Think of the results section as the place where you report what your study found; think of the discussion section as the place where you interpret the information and answer the "So What?" question. As you become more skilled writing research papers, you can consider melding the results of your study with a discussion of its implications.

Driscoll, Dana Lynn and Aleksandra Kasztalska. Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

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How to Write the Results/Findings Section in Research

What is the research paper Results section and what does it do?

The Results section of a scientific research paper represents the core findings of a study derived from the methods applied to gather and analyze information. It presents these findings in a logical sequence without bias or interpretation from the author, setting up the reader for later interpretation and evaluation in the Discussion section. A major purpose of the Results section is to break down the data into sentences that show its significance to the research question(s).

The Results section appears third in the section sequence in most scientific papers. It follows the presentation of the Methods and Materials and is presented before the Discussion section —although the Results and Discussion are presented together in many journals. This section answers the basic question “What did you find in your research?”

What is included in the Results section?

The Results section should include the findings of your study and ONLY the findings of your study. The findings include:

• Data presented in tables, charts, graphs, and other figures (may be placed into the text or on separate pages at the end of the manuscript)
• A contextual analysis of this data explaining its meaning in sentence form
• All data that corresponds to the central research question(s)
• All secondary findings (secondary outcomes, subgroup analyses, etc.)

If the scope of the study is broad, or if you studied a variety of variables, or if the methodology used yields a wide range of different results, the author should present only those results that are most relevant to the research question stated in the Introduction section .

As a general rule, any information that does not present the direct findings or outcome of the study should be left out of this section. Unless the journal requests that authors combine the Results and Discussion sections, explanations and interpretations should be omitted from the Results.

How are the results organized?

The best way to organize your Results section is “logically.” One logical and clear method of organizing research results is to provide them alongside the research questions—within each research question, present the type of data that addresses that research question.

Let’s look at an example. Your research question is based on a survey among patients who were treated at a hospital and received postoperative care. Let’s say your first research question is:

“What do hospital patients over age 55 think about postoperative care?”

This can actually be represented as a heading within your Results section, though it might be presented as a statement rather than a question:

Attitudes towards postoperative care in patients over the age of 55

Now present the results that address this specific research question first. In this case, perhaps a table illustrating data from a survey. Likert items can be included in this example. Tables can also present standard deviations, probabilities, correlation matrices, etc.

Following this, present a content analysis, in words, of one end of the spectrum of the survey or data table. In our example case, start with the POSITIVE survey responses regarding postoperative care, using descriptive phrases. For example:

“Sixty-five percent of patients over 55 responded positively to the question “ Are you satisfied with your hospital’s postoperative care ?” (Fig. 2)

Include other results such as subcategory analyses. The amount of textual description used will depend on how much interpretation of tables and figures is necessary and how many examples the reader needs in order to understand the significance of your research findings.

Next, present a content analysis of another part of the spectrum of the same research question, perhaps the NEGATIVE or NEUTRAL responses to the survey. For instance:

  “As Figure 1 shows, 15 out of 60 patients in Group A responded negatively to Question 2.”

After you have assessed the data in one figure and explained it sufficiently, move on to your next research question. For example:

  “How does patient satisfaction correspond to in-hospital improvements made to postoperative care?”

This kind of data may be presented through a figure or set of figures (for instance, a paired T-test table).

Explain the data you present, here in a table, with a concise content analysis:

“The p-value for the comparison between the before and after groups of patients was .03% (Fig. 2), indicating that the greater the dissatisfaction among patients, the more frequent the improvements that were made to postoperative care.”

Let’s examine another example of a Results section from a study on plant tolerance to heavy metal stress . In the Introduction section, the aims of the study are presented as “determining the physiological and morphological responses of Allium cepa L. towards increased cadmium toxicity” and “evaluating its potential to accumulate the metal and its associated environmental consequences.” The Results section presents data showing how these aims are achieved in tables alongside a content analysis, beginning with an overview of the findings:

“Cadmium caused inhibition of root and leave elongation, with increasing effects at higher exposure doses (Fig. 1a-c).”

The figure containing this data is cited in parentheses. Note that this author has combined three graphs into one single figure. Separating the data into separate graphs focusing on specific aspects makes it easier for the reader to assess the findings, and consolidating this information into one figure saves space and makes it easy to locate the most relevant results.

Following this overall summary, the relevant data in the tables is broken down into greater detail in text form in the Results section.

• “Results on the bio-accumulation of cadmium were found to be the highest (17.5 mg kgG1) in the bulb, when the concentration of cadmium in the solution was 1×10G2 M and lowest (0.11 mg kgG1) in the leaves when the concentration was 1×10G3 M.”

Captioning and Referencing Tables and Figures

Tables and figures are central components of your Results section and you need to carefully think about the most effective way to use graphs and tables to present your findings . Therefore, it is crucial to know how to write strong figure captions and to refer to them within the text of the Results section.

The most important advice one can give here as well as throughout the paper is to check the requirements and standards of the journal to which you are submitting your work. Every journal has its own design and layout standards, which you can find in the author instructions on the target journal’s website. Perusing a journal’s published articles will also give you an idea of the proper number, size, and complexity of your figures.

Regardless of which format you use, the figures should be placed in the order they are referenced in the Results section and be as clear and easy to understand as possible. If there are multiple variables being considered (within one or more research questions), it can be a good idea to split these up into separate figures. Subsequently, these can be referenced and analyzed under separate headings and paragraphs in the text.

To create a caption, consider the research question being asked and change it into a phrase. For instance, if one question is “Which color did participants choose?”, the caption might be “Color choice by participant group.” Or in our last research paper example, where the question was “What is the concentration of cadmium in different parts of the onion after 14 days?” the caption reads:

 “Fig. 1(a-c): Mean concentration of Cd determined in (a) bulbs, (b) leaves, and (c) roots of onions after a 14-day period.”

Steps for Composing the Results Section

Because each study is unique, there is no one-size-fits-all approach when it comes to designing a strategy for structuring and writing the section of a research paper where findings are presented. The content and layout of this section will be determined by the specific area of research, the design of the study and its particular methodologies, and the guidelines of the target journal and its editors. However, the following steps can be used to compose the results of most scientific research studies and are essential for researchers who are new to preparing a manuscript for publication or who need a reminder of how to construct the Results section.

Step 1 : Consult the guidelines or instructions that the target journal or publisher provides authors and read research papers it has published, especially those with similar topics, methods, or results to your study.

• The guidelines will generally outline specific requirements for the results or findings section, and the published articles will provide sound examples of successful approaches.
• Note length limitations on restrictions on content. For instance, while many journals require the Results and Discussion sections to be separate, others do not—qualitative research papers often include results and interpretations in the same section (“Results and Discussion”).
• Reading the aims and scope in the journal’s “ guide for authors ” section and understanding the interests of its readers will be invaluable in preparing to write the Results section.

Step 2 : Consider your research results in relation to the journal’s requirements and catalogue your results.

• Focus on experimental results and other findings that are especially relevant to your research questions and objectives and include them even if they are unexpected or do not support your ideas and hypotheses.
• Catalogue your findings—use subheadings to streamline and clarify your report. This will help you avoid excessive and peripheral details as you write and also help your reader understand and remember your findings. Create appendices that might interest specialists but prove too long or distracting for other readers.
• Decide how you will structure of your results. You might match the order of the research questions and hypotheses to your results, or you could arrange them according to the order presented in the Methods section. A chronological order or even a hierarchy of importance or meaningful grouping of main themes or categories might prove effective. Consider your audience, evidence, and most importantly, the objectives of your research when choosing a structure for presenting your findings.

Step 3 : Design figures and tables to present and illustrate your data.

• Tables and figures should be numbered according to the order in which they are mentioned in the main text of the paper.
• Information in figures should be relatively self-explanatory (with the aid of captions), and their design should include all definitions and other information necessary for readers to understand the findings without reading all of the text.
• Use tables and figures as a focal point to tell a clear and informative story about your research and avoid repeating information. But remember that while figures clarify and enhance the text, they cannot replace it.

Step 4 : Draft your Results section using the findings and figures you have organized.

• The goal is to communicate this complex information as clearly and precisely as possible; precise and compact phrases and sentences are most effective.
• In the opening paragraph of this section, restate your research questions or aims to focus the reader’s attention to what the results are trying to show. It is also a good idea to summarize key findings at the end of this section to create a logical transition to the interpretation and discussion that follows.
• Try to write in the past tense and the active voice to relay the findings since the research has already been done and the agent is usually clear. This will ensure that your explanations are also clear and logical.
• Make sure that any specialized terminology or abbreviation you have used here has been defined and clarified in the  Introduction section .

Step 5 : Review your draft; edit and revise until it reports results exactly as you would like to have them reported to your readers.

• Double-check the accuracy and consistency of all the data, as well as all of the visual elements included.
• Read your draft aloud to catch language errors (grammar, spelling, and mechanics), awkward phrases, and missing transitions.
• Ensure that your results are presented in the best order to focus on objectives and prepare readers for interpretations, valuations, and recommendations in the Discussion section . Look back over the paper’s Introduction and background while anticipating the Discussion and Conclusion sections to ensure that the presentation of your results is consistent and effective.
• Consider seeking additional guidance on your paper. Find additional readers to look over your Results section and see if it can be improved in any way. Peers, professors, or qualified experts can provide valuable insights.

One excellent option is to use a professional English proofreading and editing service  such as Wordvice, including our paper editing service . With hundreds of qualified editors from dozens of scientific fields, Wordvice has helped thousands of authors revise their manuscripts and get accepted into their target journals. Read more about the  proofreading and editing process  before proceeding with getting academic editing services and manuscript editing services for your manuscript.

As the representation of your study’s data output, the Results section presents the core information in your research paper. By writing with clarity and conciseness and by highlighting and explaining the crucial findings of their study, authors increase the impact and effectiveness of their research manuscripts.

For more articles and videos on writing your research manuscript, visit Wordvice’s Resources page.

Wordvice Resources

• How to Write a Research Paper Introduction 
• Which Verb Tenses to Use in a Research Paper
• How to Write an Abstract for a Research Paper
• How to Write a Research Paper Title
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• Active and Passive Voice in Research Papers
• 100+ Verbs That Will Make Your Research Writing Amazing
• Tips for Paraphrasing in Research Papers

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Data vs. findings vs. insights: the differences explained.

April 23, 2023 2023-04-23

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A shared vocabulary and understanding of data, findings, and insights will enable you to communicate where you are relative to where you need to be in your research analysis.

Data are simply a collection of data points which lack significance individually. As soon as researchers start to do any level of analysis on these data points, we have information. The type of information we have depends on the level of analysis completed. The first level of analysis yields findings, which are patterns among a specific set of data points that still lack critical context. The final level of analysis yields insights, which explain observed patterns and identify actionable opportunities. Insights are what researchers should strive to create.

In This Article:

Raw data lacks context, findings = what happened, not why, insights = opportunities to the business, how to mitigate bias in insights.

Definition: Data refers to an unanalyzed collection of observations about users that may include transcripts, notes, metrics, or survey output.

Data is comprised of single-observation points, otherwise known as data points. The data points are anything that gets captured — for example, user quotes or clicks in a user-testing session. There is no analysis or synthesis that happens at this stage, so no conclusions can be drawn.

Take, for instance, capturing data from a survey. The answers selected by participants would be the data points. If one question in the survey asked participants how likely they are to recommend the system to someone else ,  a single data point would represent the single response from a respondent for that question. The data would represent the collective responses from all respondents for all questions in the survey.

Data can be quantitative or qualitative.  User quotes or behaviors are qualitative data. But task time, success , analytics metrics , or responses to certain survey questions like the net- promoter–score (NPS) question above are quantitative.

Definition: Findings describe patterns in collected data or summaries across it. They lack consideration of background, past research, and organizational factors.

To come up with findings, researchers take the many distinct data points they collected and examine them for patterns. For   qualitative data , they rely on thematic-analysis techniques. Quantitative data is analyzed through statistics.

To extract findings, we look across everything captured, but we can look for patterns only across comparable things. In the survey example above, we could look at all the answers to the NPS question and find that the NPS score is 40, with a margin of error of 10. This is a summary of several data points, so it is a finding. However, there is no context that tells us details, such as whether this score is good and the reason behind this score. Thus, findings are not that useful by themselves.

Context is required to be able to interpret a finding. With findings alone, researchers are not able to determine why a pattern was observed or to make recommendations that are right for users and the business.

Definition: Insights are focused explanations of opportunities, based on other user research and business context.

While findings describe what is observed in the scope of a particular study or time frame of a live product, insights tie specific opportunities to specific user needs and they relate to valuable business objectives. Interpreting findings in context yields insights.

In the case of the NPS question above, consider these additional three pieces of context:

• This question was administered to users of a recently redesigned medical-appointment–booking site. The organization redesigned the website to decrease support call costs resulting from users who struggled to book appointments with specialist providers.
• Before the redesign, the NPS score was 35, with a margin of error of 15.
• Subsequent qualitative usability testing of the redesigned interface revealed that users struggled with it due to weak information scent and medical jargon .

Given this context, here is a potential insight:

Even though the NPS score increased, this difference was not statistically significant compared with the NPS for the older design.  (If you were to plot confidence intervals  for the two metrics, you would see that the one for the original NPS includes the one for the NPS of the redesign). Users struggled to understand the terminology used on the site and had a hard time identifying the correct specialist for their condition. The recommendation is to use plain language to align with users’ existent mental models.

This insight marries the finding around the NPS score with a usability finding that adds important context and highlights a clear opportunity connected to one of the organization’s goals.

Researchers should strategically use insights as a tool to connect their research to recommendations and opportunities. Insights are not meant to be prescriptive; rather, they narrow design possibilities, which can then be tested to find the best one. There are an infinitely many number of design possibilities for any problem, so some initial direction is highly beneficial for efficiency.

Given that the researcher designs the study, facilitates it, analyzes it, and interprets the data, there is inevitably some bias inherent to an insight. The threat posed by bias can be mitigated through the process of triangulation, which means relying on multiple sources of data, multiple approaches to analyzing the data, and multiple researchers doing the analysis, to reduce the chance that one particular researcher’s bias results in a faulty assessment.

Concerns around lack of scientific statistical significance and validity are common, but practically speaking, it is wise to make some recommendation that could have a positive business impact, rather than making no recommendation at all.

Data, findings, and insights are the language we use to communicate significantly different degrees of research analysis that your team as completed. For example, if you are currently working with findings, then you need to develop your analysis further to insights, because you can’t make decisions without understanding context.

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Difference between Thesis and Research Paper

A thesis is a comprehensive academic document that presents original research and contributes new knowledge to the field, whereas a research paper explores and discusses a topic based on existing literature. Both forms of academic writing serve different purposes and audiences, requiring distinct approaches in terms of depth of analysis, format, and completion timeline.

What is a Thesis?

A thesis is a comprehensive document written by a student pursuing a higher academic degree, such as a Master’s or Ph.D. It is the culmination of original research conducted by the student under the guidance of a supervisor or advisor. The primary purpose of a thesis is to present a scholarly argument or hypothesis on a specific topic or research question. It involves conducting in-depth research, analyzing data, and synthesizing findings to contribute new knowledge to the field of study. A thesis typically consists of several chapters, including an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.

Key Features of a Thesis:

• Original Research: A thesis involves original research conducted by the student, contributing new knowledge or insights to the academic field.
• Comprehensive Analysis: This typically includes a comprehensive analysis of existing literature, methodologies, data, and findings related to the research topic.
• Formal Defense: A thesis is defended orally before a committee of faculty members or experts, who evaluate the student’s research methods, findings, and conclusions.

What is a Research Paper?

A research paper is a shorter, more focused document that presents the findings of a specific research study or investigation. It is commonly written by students at the undergraduate or graduate level as part of a course assignment or academic project. The primary purpose of a research paper is to communicate the results of research, analysis, or experimentation on a particular topic or research question. It aims to contribute to the existing body of knowledge in a given field or area of study. A research paper typically follows a standardized format, including sections such as an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.

Key Features of a Research Paper:

• Focused Study: A research paper focuses on presenting the findings of a specific research study or investigation, often within a narrower scope than a thesis.
• Standardized Format: It follows a standardized format, including sections such as introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.
• Evaluation Criteria: Research papers are evaluated based on factors such as the clarity of writing, the rigor of research methods, the relevance of findings, and the contribution to the field, often as part of a course assignment or academic project.

Thesis and Research Paper – FAQs

Is a thesis longer than a research paper.

Yes, typically a thesis is more extensive and detailed compared to a research paper due to its original research component and comprehensive structure.

Do research papers require original research?

Research papers primarily rely on existing literature and sources, providing critical analysis or interpretation without necessarily presenting new findings.

Can a research paper be published in academic journals?

Yes, research papers can be submitted for publication in academic journals, providing they meet the journal’s criteria for quality and relevance.

What is the role of a thesis advisor or committee?

Thesis advisors and committee members provide guidance, feedback, and evaluation throughout the thesis process, ensuring academic rigor and quality.

Can a thesis be revised after completion?

Yes, a thesis may undergo revisions based on feedback from advisors or committee members before final submission and defense.

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Exercise for weight loss: Calories burned in 1 hour

Being active can help you lose weight and keep it off. Find out how much you need.

Being active is vital to losing weight and keeping it off. When active, the body uses more energy in the form of calories. And burning more calories than you take in leads to weight loss.

To lose weight, most people need to cut the number of calories they eat and move more. This is according to the 2020-2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. Most often, that means cutting daily calories by 500 to 750 to lose 1 1/2 pounds (0.7 kilograms) a week.

Other factors might be involved in losing weight. Because of changes to the body over time, you might need to cut calories more as you age to keep losing weight or to stay at the same weight.

Diet or exercise: Does one matter more?

Both are important. Diet affects weight loss more than physical activity does. Physical activity, including exercise, has a stronger effect in keeping weight from coming back after weight loss.

Losing weight with diet alone and without physical activity can make people weaker. This is because of age-related losses in bone density and muscle mass. Adding resistance training and aerobic exercise to a weight-loss program helps prevent the loss of bone and muscle.

These are the exercise guidelines for most healthy adults from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services:

Aerobic activity. Get at least 150 minutes of moderate aerobic activity a week. Or get 75 minutes of vigorous aerobic activity a week. You also can get an equal mix of the two types.

Aim to exercise most days of the week. For even more health benefits, strive for 300 minutes a week or more of moderate aerobic activity or 150 minutes of vigorous activity. Exercising this much may help with weight loss or keeping off lost weight. But even small amounts of physical activity can be helpful. Being active for short periods of time during the day can add up and give you great health benefits.

• Strength training. Do strength training exercises for all major muscle groups at least two times a week. One set of each exercise is enough for health and fitness benefits. Use a weight or resistance level heavy enough to tire your muscles after about 12 to 15 repetitions.

Moderate aerobic exercise includes activities such as brisk walking, biking, swimming and mowing the lawn.

Vigorous aerobic exercise includes activities such as running, swimming hard laps, heavy yardwork and aerobic dancing.

Strength training can include use of weights or weight machines, your own body weight, resistance tubing, or activities such as rock climbing.

How much am I burning?

This list shows about how many calories are burned while doing certain exercises for one hour. This is based on a person who weighs 160 pounds (73 kilograms). The calories you burn depend on the exercise you do, how hard you do it, how much you weigh and other factors.

Based on Ainsworth BE, et al. 2011 compendium of physical activities: A second update of codes and MET values. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 2011;43:1575.

Remember, to lose weight or to keep weight from creeping up on you as you age, you need to eat less and move more. Moving more means adding more physical activity into your life.

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• Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans. 2nd ed. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://health.gov/paguidelines/second-edition. Accessed March 13, 2024.
• Physical activity for a healthy weight. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/healthyweight/physical_activity/index.html. Accessed March 13, 2024.
• Ainsworth BE, et al. 2011 compendium of physical activities: A second update of codes and MET values. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 2011;43:1575.
• 2020-2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture. https://www.dietaryguidelines.gov. Accessed March 13, 2024.
• Perreault L, et al. Obesity in adults: Role of physical activity and exercise. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/search. Accessed March 13, 2024.
• AskMayoExpert. Physical activity (adult). Mayo Clinic; 2022.

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Title: Comparative study on business culture and investors' behaviour toward sustainable index change: Japan vs. the USA and Europe

Authors : Miho Murashima

Addresses : Organization for Regional and Inter-regional Studies, Waseda University, 1-6-1 Nishiwaseda, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 169-8050, Japan

Abstract : This paper examines the difference in investors' attitudes toward sustainability index change between the USA, Europe and Japan based on their business culture, using the short-term event study method using the dataset of the DJSI index change and stock prices. The findings of this study indicate large differences between the US, European, and Japanese markets. The comparative analysis demonstrates speculative or temporal attitudes in the US market and positive valuation in the European market, reflecting their business culture, whereas less attention and negative response to inclusion in the sustainable index was found for the Japanese market, especially for Japanese institutional investors. The difference between Japanese investors and others are due to the immaturity of the Japanese capital and product markets.

Keywords : corporate social responsibility; CSR; business culture; cultural difference; investor behaviour; firm value; market reactions; event study; sustainability index; Dow Jones Sustainability Index; DJSI; Japan; the USA; Europe.

DOI : 10.1504/IJBG.2024.138526

International Journal of Business and Globalisation, 2024 Vol.37 No.1, pp.128 - 149

Received: 31 Mar 2020 Accepted: 20 Jul 2020 Published online: 09 May 2024 *

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• Published: 09 May 2024

Association between mukbang and cookbang viewing and body image perception and BMI in adolescents

• Hyesun Jeong 1 ,
• Eunyoung Lee 2 &
• Gyumin Han 3  

Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition volume  43 , Article number:  61 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

12 Accesses

Metrics details

Adolescence is a critical period for establishing healthy eating habits and weight management, essential for preventing obesity and promoting overall health. This study investigates the impact of mukbang and cookbang—popular online broadcasts in Korea that feature excessive consumption of food—on the dietary habits and body image perception of Korean adolescents. With digital media, especially platforms like YouTube, becoming an integral part of daily life, these broadcasts have the potential to significantly influence adolescent health behaviors.

Employing data from the 18th Korea Youth Risk Behavior Web-based Survey (2022), this descriptive survey research explores the relationship between watching mukbang and cookbang and various health-related factors among adolescents. The survey’s comprehensive dataset provided a unique opportunity to examine this association in a population that is increasingly exposed to digital media content. The analysis focused on the frequency of watching mukbang and cookbang, their impact on eating habits, body mass index (BMI), body shape perception, and body image distortion among adolescents.

The results revealed a significant engagement with mukbang and cookbang among adolescents, with notable gender differences in viewing habits and effects. Increased frequency of viewing was associated with negative impacts on eating habits and body image perception. Furthermore, psychological factors such as stress levels and sleep quality emerged as significant predictors of the frequency of watching these broadcasts.

Conclusions

This study highlights the need for further investigation into the causal relationships between mukbang and cookbang viewership and adolescent health outcomes. The findings suggest the importance of developing targeted interventions to mitigate the negative influences of such content on adolescents’ eating habits and body perceptions. Given the widespread popularity of these broadcasts, it is crucial to address their potential health implications through public health strategies, educational content, and policy development aimed at promoting healthier lifestyles among adolescents.

Adolescence is a critical period of rapid physical and psychological development, where nutrition management and weight control play significant roles. Adequate nutritional intake during adolescence supports healthy growth and development, and is known to reduce the risk of obesity and related diseases [ 1 ]. Furthermore, healthy eating habits in adolescence are evaluated as the foundation for a long-term healthy lifestyle [ 2 ]. Moreover, dietary habits during adolescence can have long-term effects on adult health [ 3 ], highlighting the importance of research on adolescents’ dietary habits.

The use of media is deeply embedded in the daily lives of adolescents in modern society, significantly impacting important health-related aspects such as eating habits, weight management, and body image perception [ 4 ]. Strict control and censorship of traditional media content limit exposure to sensational or inappropriate material, and related research has provided insights into how adolescents perceive and decide on food choices and eating behaviors, as well as how societal standards for weight and body image are formed. However, with the advent of platforms like YouTube, where individuals can freely produce and share content, adolescents are increasingly exposed to various forms of media. This shift has expanded the range of information accessible to adolescents but has also increased the risk of exposure to inappropriate content. Despite these changes, there is a relative lack of research specifically addressing the impact of these media forms on adolescent behavior.

One of the most popular content trends on online platforms in recent years is “mukbang” and “cookbang,” broadcasts that focus on eating or cooking [ 5 ]. “Mukbang” is a portmanteau of the Korean words for “eating” and “broadcast,” while “cookbang” refers to online cooking shows, both of which originated in Korea and have spread widely across various international online platforms like YouTube [ 6 ]. While mukbang and cookbang content can help alleviate the loneliness of those eating alone [ 7 ], the majority of these broadcasts involve the consumption of excessive amounts of high-calorie meals, significantly impacting adolescents’ eating habits [ 8 ]. According to a study on the patterns of mukbang and cookbang consumption among Korean adolescents, 39.6% reported watching mukbang or cookbang at least once a week, with a higher frequency of viewing associated with poorer eating habits (9). However, there is a lack of preliminary research exploring the association between watching mukbang and cookbang and various risk factors among adolescents, including not only eating habits but also body image perception and inappropriate weight control measures.

Adolescents are particularly vulnerable to the influences of media, which can significantly shape their dietary behaviors and health perceptions. Accordingly, this study is dedicated to systematically examining the prevalence of mukbang (eating broadcasts) and cookbang (cooking broadcasts) viewing among Korean adolescents, and identifying the factors influencing this phenomenon. The research specifically investigates a comprehensive set of variables, including socio-demographic (such as age, gender, economic status), psychological (such as stress levels and sleep quality), and body image-related factors (such as self-perceived body image and actual body mass index). Importantly, the study acknowledges the potential variability in dietary habits and body image concerns across genders. Therefore, it conducts separate analyses for males and females to uncover gender-specific dynamics. This gender-focused analysis is pivotal as it provides critical insights that could guide the development of gender-specific health promotion programs aimed at more effectively addressing the unique needs of each group.

Aim and study design

This study is a descriptive survey research that attempts to clarify the relationship between the consumption of mukbang and cookbang and factors related to body image perception among Korean adolescents. It is a secondary analysis study utilizing the raw data from the 18th Korea Youth Risk Behavior Web-based Survey (2022) conducted by the Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency. This dataset was selected due to its comprehensive and relevant data on adolescent health behaviors, providing a robust foundation for analyzing the specific media influences on body image.

Setting and sample

The Korea Youth Risk Behavior Web-based Survey is an online self-administered survey conducted annually since 2005 by the Ministry of Education, Ministry of Health and Welfare, and Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency. It aims to understand the health behaviors of Korean adolescents from the first year of middle school to the third year of high school nationwide. For this study, raw data was requested and obtained through the youth health behavior online survey website ( http://yhs.cdc.go.kr ) in accordance with the Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency’s regulations for raw data release and management. The 18th survey (2022) statistical data was based on a stratified cluster sample extracted in August 2022, using the national population of middle and high school students as the sampling population. The primary sampling units were selected through systematic sampling from a list of schools categorized by region, school type (middle schools, general high schools, and specialized high schools), considering geographical accessibility, number of schools, population size, and living environment as stratification variables. The secondary sampling units were classes, with one class randomly selected from each grade within the selected schools. The survey was conducted anonymously online among students from 800 sampled schools, with 51,850 participants out of 56,213, showing a participation rate of 92.4%. For the analysis concerning body image distortion, data from 50,455 respondents were used after excluding those with missing values for height and weight.

Measurements

Demographic and sociological characteristics.

Gender was categorized into ‘male’ and ‘female’ as per the original response scale. School type was originally categorized into six grades across middle and high schools (1st to 3rd year for both), which was then reclassified into two categories, middle school and high school, to observe differences based on school level. Subjective academic performance and economic status were reclassified from the original response scale for comparison with prior studies: ‘high’ remained ‘high’, both ‘above average’ and ‘average’ were grouped into ‘medium’, and ‘below average’ and ‘low’ were grouped into ‘low’, resulting in three categories. Current living situation was reclassified into three categories: living with family, not living with family (including living in a relative’s house, boarding, or independently), and living in institutional settings such as childcare facilities or orphanages. The degree of fatigue recovery from sleep was categorized based on the question “In the past 7 days, do you think the amount of sleep you got was sufficient for fatigue recovery?” into ‘sufficient’ (very sufficient, sufficient), ‘average’ (so-so), and ‘insufficient’ (not sufficient, not at all sufficient). Perception of usual stress was reclassified from the original response scale ‘feel very stressed’ and ‘feel stressed’ to ‘high’, ‘feel a little stressed’ to ‘medium’, and ‘do not feel much stressed’ and ‘do not feel stressed at all’ to ‘low’.

Watching mukbang and cookbang

The frequency of watching mukbang (eating broadcasts) and cookbang (cooking broadcasts) over the past 12 months was assessed with the question, “How often have you watched mukbang and cookbang in the last 12 months?” The responses were reclassified into four categories: ‘Never watched’, ‘Occasionally watched (less than once a month, 1 to 3 times a month)’, ‘Frequently watched (1–2 times a week, 3–4 times a week)’, and ‘Almost daily watched (5–6 times a week, every day)’.

The impact of watching mukbang and cookbang on eating habits

The impact of watching mukbang and cookbang on eating habits was assessed with the question, “What is the biggest impact that watching mukbang (eating broadcasts) and cookbang (cooking broadcasts) has on your eating habits?” The original response scale was used as is, with options ‘No impact’, ‘Eating faster’, ‘Eating more’, ‘Following the food eaten or cooked in mukbang or cookbang’, ‘Eating stimulating foods such as spicy, salty, sweet, or rich foods’. Respondents who do not watch mukbang and cookbang were categorized as ‘Did not respond’.

Variables related to body image distortion

Body mass index (bmi).

BMI (Body Mass Index, weight in kg/[height in m] 2 ) was calculated using self-reported height and weight. Using the 2017 Korean growth charts for children and adolescents, BMI was categorized into underweight (less than the 5th percentile), normal weight (5th-84th percentile), overweight (85th-94th percentile), and obese (95th percentile or above) groups [ 9 ].

Body perception and body image distortion

Body shape perception was assessed with a 5-point Likert scale question and re-categorized into ‘Thin’ (‘Very thin’, ‘Slightly thin’), ‘Normal’ (‘Normal’), ‘Obese’ (‘Slightly overweight’, ‘Very overweight’). Body perception analysis compared the weight status categorized by BMI with the participant’s perceived weight status: an equal perception when the participant’s perception matched their BMI category, over-perception when individuals of normal weight perceived themselves as ‘Obese’ or individuals of underweight perceived themselves as ‘Normal’ or ‘Obese’, and under-perception when individuals of normal weight perceived themselves as ‘Thin’, or individuals of obese category perceived themselves as ‘Normal’ or ‘Thin’. Body image distortion was identified by distinguishing between over-perception or under-perception (indicating presence of body image distortion) and equal perception (indicating no body image distortion) [ 10 ].

Ethical considerations

This study was conducted after receiving an exemption from review by the Public Institutional Review Board designated by Ministry of Health and Welfare (P01-202401-01-040).

Data analysis

Since the sample for the Youth Health Behavior Online Survey was drawn using a complex sample design method, the analysis was conducted in accordance with the Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency’s guidelines for analyzing complex sample design data. This involved using stratification variables (strata), cluster variables (cluster), weights (w), and the finite population correction factor in the analysis.

Descriptive statistics for the frequency of watching mukbang and cookbang, the impact of cookbang watching on eating habits, and general characteristics were analyzed by gender using unweighted frequencies and weighted percentages. To compare characteristics according to the frequency of watching mukbang, the Rao-Scott χ2 test was conducted. Furthermore, we utilized hierarchical logistic regression to analyze the influences on adolescents’ consumption of mukbang and cookbang. The model sequentially adjusted for different categories of variables to explore their independent and cumulative impacts. Initially, sociodemographic characteristics such as grade of school, academic performance, socioeconomic status, and living type were incorporated to establish a baseline. Subsequent layers introduced psychological variables including perceived fatigue recovery by sleep and perceived stress. The final layer added body image-related variables, specifically BMI and body image perception. This structured approach allowed us to delineate the direct and interactive effects of these variables on the viewing habits of adolescents, providing a comprehensive understanding of the influences shaping media consumption.

The frequency of watching mukbang and cookbang and their impact on eating habits among male and female adolescents

As shown in Table 1 , the frequency of watching mukbang and cookbang among adolescents showed that 9,289 male students (37%) reported never watching, compared to 5,140 female students (21.5%), indicating a higher percentage among male students. Conversely, daily viewers were more common among female students, with 2,393 (9.5%) compared to 1,854 male students (7%) (χ 2  = 235.21, p  < .001).

General characteristics of adolescents by frequency of watching mukbang and cookbang

Analysis of general characteristics related to the frequency of watching mukbang and cookbang among male students revealed statistically significant differences in all areas except living situation, with notable differences in academic performance (χ 2  = 51.81, p  < .001) and perceived stress (χ 2  = 19.05, p  < .001) (Table 2 ). Similarly, among female students, significant differences were observed in all areas except living situation, especially in academic performance (χ 2  = 47.43, p  < .001) and perceived stress (χ 2  = 22.39, p  < .001) (Table 3 ).

The impact of watching mukbang and cookbang on eating habits by frequency among male and female adolescents

The impacts of mukbang and cookbang on eating habits among adolescents are summarized in Table 4 . Excluding those who reported never watching mukbang and cookbang (14,429), the analysis of 36,026 respondents showed that 4,933 male students (71.8%) who rarely watched reported no impact on their eating habits. In contrast, a significant impact was noted among those who frequently watched, with 1,182 (17.6%) and 594 (21%) indicating they often tried or cooked foods seen in mukbang or cookbang (χ 2  = 20.93, p  < .001). Among female students, 4,901 (63.4%) who rarely watched reported no impact, while 1,152 (30%) who watched almost daily reported a significant impact on trying or cooking foods seen in these broadcasts (χ 2  = 27.27, p  < .001), indicating a more substantial effect on females with higher viewing frequencies.

BMI, body perception, and body image distortion by watching mukbang and cookbang among male and female adolescents

Body mass index, body image perception, and body image distortion relative to the frequency of mukbang and cookbang viewing are outlined in Table 5 . For male students, significant differences were found in BMI, body perception, and body image distortion according to mukbang and cookbang viewing frequency. For female students, significant differences were observed except for body image distortion, with daily watching females more likely to have an over-perception compared to under-perception, contrary to males who had more under-perception.

Predictive factors for watching mukbang and cookbang among male and female adolescents

Predictive factors influencing the likelihood of watching mukbang and cookbang among adolescents are analyzed in Table 6 . In a three-stage model analysis, no significant differences were observed across all stages for male students. However, living with relatives or boarding increased the likelihood of watching mukbang and cookbang by 1.56 times, and normal sleep compared to sufficient sleep showed a 1.25 times higher likelihood of viewing, both statistically significant. Being obese increased the likelihood by 1.14 times, whereas being underweight showed a reduced likelihood of 0.82 times, both significant. Under perception compared to equal perception was significantly lower at 0.87 times.

For female students, no significant differences were observed across the stages. Students with lower academic performance had a 1.96 times higher risk of watching compared to those with higher performance, a higher risk than male students. Underweight status significantly reduced the likelihood of viewing to 0.87 times, with no significant difference observed in obese and overweight categories. Under perception was significantly lower at 0.90 times compared to equal perception, with over perception not showing significant differences.

This study explored the impact of the recently popular mukbang and cookbang on Korean adolescents, particularly examining factors related to body perception associated with these trends. Given that mukbang and cookbang have been shown to influence eating habits negatively in adults [ 11 ], it can be argued that their impact on adolescents, who may have less self-regulation, is even more significant. Therefore, the significance of this study lies in identifying the predictive factors of mukbang and cookbang consumption based on national data representing Korean adolescents, aligning with current trends.

Firstly, the analysis of the frequency of watching mukbang and cookbang revealed a high proportion of adolescents frequently engaging with these types of content. Notably, the combined percentage of female students who watch mukbang and cookbang three to four times a week or daily amounted to 28.4%, which is higher than those who reported never watching these broadcasts. While there is a lack of specific research on mukbang and cookbang for an exact comparison, numerous studies have demonstrated the negative impact of media, games, and social networking services (SNS) on academics, psychology, and problematic behaviors among adolescents [ 12 ]. Given that watching mukbang and cookbang is a part of media consumption, it is anticipated to potentially have adverse effects on adolescents, similar to previous research findings. However, due to the current lack of evidence, it is considered necessary to focus research on the psychological, behavioral problems, and health behaviors of adolescents in relation to mukbang and cookbang consumption.

Analyzing the impact of watching mukbang and cookbang on eating habits, it was notably found that 30% of female students who watch these broadcasts almost daily reported eating and cooking similarly to the content viewed. Additionally, the combined percentage of those influenced to consume snacks, late-night meals, or spicy and stimulating foods was also high at 15.9%. These findings indicate a significant relationship between frequent consumption of mukbang and cookbang content and eating disorders in adults [ 13 ], suggesting the need for awareness regarding the frequent viewing of such content. Given that adolescents require proper nutrition intake more so than adults to avoid health deterioration due to inappropriate eating habits [ 14 ], special attention is needed for managing the eating habits of adolescents who frequently watch mukbang and cookbang.

The analysis of predictive factors based on whether adolescents watch mukbang and cookbang showed that psychological factors such as fatigue and stress were significant risk factors for both male and female adolescents. This means that adolescents who watch mukbang and cookbang tend to have insufficient recovery from fatigue through sleep and also experience higher levels of stress. Similar to recent research findings, the addictive watching of mukbang and cookbang has been significantly correlated with depression, anxiety, and stress among adults, suggesting that watching these broadcasts could be used as a maladaptive coping mechanism [ 15 ]. Particularly for adolescents, who are more affected by poor sleep quality and high stress levels than adults, these conditions can impact academic performance and various other factors [ 16 , 17 ]. Therefore, future research should clarify the causal relationships of the psychological factors among students who watch mukbang and cookbang, necessitating more specific studies in this area.

Additionally, the analysis revealed that obese male students have a higher risk of watching mukbang and cookbang compared to those with normal weight, and this was statistically significant. In contrast, for female students, only those who are underweight showed a lower risk factor for watching mukbang and cookbang compared to normal weight, indicating that, excluding underweight female students, BMI does not significantly affect the likelihood of watching mukbang and cookbang among girls. However, for boys, being obese increases the risk of engaging with these types of content. Frequent viewing of mukbang and cookbang can lead to increased appetite and decreased physical activity, raising the likelihood of obesity [ 18 ]. Therefore, it is essential to further investigate the relationship between watching mukbang and cookbang and obesity among adolescents to develop appropriate strategies.

In terms of body perception, it was predicted that male students with under perception are about 0.87 times less likely to watch mukbang and cookbang, which was statistically significant, and similar results were observed for female students. This suggests that students who perceive themselves as thinner than normal or perceive themselves as normal when obese might experience less stress related to their body image or engage in less comparative behavior [ 19 ]. Such characteristics could lead to less frequent watching of mukbang and cookbang among these students, with this result being particularly significant among male students. Given that female students tend to have less accurate body perception and higher dissatisfaction with their body image compared to male students [ 20 ], future longitudinal studies analyzing the relationship between body perception, body image distortion, and the viewing of mukbang and cookbang are necessary.

Although previous research suggests that living arrangements can influence overall media consumption and risk behaviors such as smartphone addiction [ 21 ] our study found that these factors do not significantly impact the specific behavior of watching mukbang and cookbang among adolescents. This indicates that the consumption of mukbang and cookbang might be influenced more by individual preferences or social trends rather than by traditional family structures or living conditions [ 11 ]. It suggests that the contents of mukbang and cookbang, which often includes elements of entertainment and social interaction, might appeal to adolescents independently of their living arrangements. Therefore, while traditional factors like family presence may influence general media habits, they do not appear to dictate specific patterns such as the consumption of mukbang and cookbang. This distinction underscores the need for further research to explore what unique factors drive adolescents towards these particular types of media content.

This study, being a secondary data analysis based on cross-sectional data collection, has limitations in explaining causal relationships between variables. Therefore, it is recommended to conduct longitudinal studies in the future to elucidate the changes and causal relationships among variables related to watching mukbang and cookbang during the growth process of adolescents. Nonetheless, this study is significant in that it analyzed the frequency of watching mukbang and cookbang and its impact on eating habits, BMI, and factors related to body perception, distinguishing between male and female adolescents. Based on the findings of this study, further research is needed to analyze the causal relationships of related variables specifically among adolescents who watch mukbang and cookbang. It is suggested that future interventions should be developed to address the eating habits, psychological aspects, and body perception related factors among these adolescents.

This study utilized the Youth Health Behavior Online Survey to analyze the general characteristics and psychological factors, particularly body perception, of adolescents who watch the currently popular mukbang and cookbang. A significant finding of this research is the high frequency of adolescents watching mukbang and cookbang content, which has been discovered to negatively affect the quality of sleep and stress levels among adolescents, as well as being associated with body perception.

Data availability

Please contact the corresponding author for data availability. This study was conducted using data from the 2022 Youth Health Risk Behavior web-base survey (URL: http://www.kdca. go.kr/yhs/).

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Acknowledgements

We extend our deepest gratitude to the participants of the 18th Korea Youth Risk Behavior Web-based Survey and the Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency for providing valuable data for this study.

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Hyesun Jeong

College of Nursing, Catholic University of Pusan, Busan, Republic of Korea

Eunyoung Lee

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GMH and HSJ were responsible for conceptualization, methodology, visualization, data curation and formal analysis; GMH and HSJ were responsible for investigation and validation; GMH was project administration and supervision; GMH, HSJ and EYL were responsible for resources and software; GMH, HSJ and EYL were responsible for writing the original and final manuscript drafts. All authors have read and accepted the final version of the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Gyumin Han .

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Jeong, H., Lee, E. & Han, G. Association between mukbang and cookbang viewing and body image perception and BMI in adolescents. J Health Popul Nutr 43 , 61 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41043-024-00552-0

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Received : 16 February 2024

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s41043-024-00552-0

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