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New Product Development

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First Online: 01 January 2016
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C. Anthony Di Benedetto 3

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New product development is a phased process for bringing new products to market. The process begins with opportunity analysis and strategic planning. Product ideas are generated, screened and developed into concepts. Concepts are refined and evaluated, and selected for development according to business and strategic criteria. During development, technical work is done while marketing staff prepare for the product launch. The principle underlying this process is to keep the amount of financial and human resources at stake low while uncertainty is high, and to reduce uncertainty while increasing resource commitment as the product moves through the process.

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Di Benedetto, C.A. (2016). New Product Development. In: Augier, M., Teece, D. (eds) The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Strategic Management. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-94848-2_357-1

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-94848-2_357-1

Received : 04 March 2016

Accepted : 04 March 2016

Published : 30 June 2016

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NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT An Empirical Study of the Effects of Innovation Strategy, Organization Learning, and Market Conditions

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Kaustubh Dhargalkar ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3461-8832 1 ,
Kasturi Shinde 1 &
Yoshita Arora 1

Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship volume 5 , Article number: 27 ( 2016 ) Cite this article

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When confronted with new product development (NPD), managers generally adopt quick fixes such as benchmarking with competing products and then attempting incremental changes over the competitors’ product features. There are several approaches propounded in the past. Some focus on manufacturing, some on marketing and perception, and some on idea generation and stage-gating these concepts. However, a comprehensive approach seems to be missing. This paper attempts to suggest a comprehensive framework that could be used for products as well as services, by start-ups and conglomerates alike, for processes as well as organization design. This study includes an analysis of existing literature on NPD and an exploratory activity to identify all possible attributes of a product or service. The exploratory study was conducted with multiple groups of participants. Each group was given a different product or a service for analysis. They were asked to brainstorm in a systematic manner and list down everything that they liked/disliked or had suggestions about the product or service that they were analyzing. A comprehensive master-list of these attributes was then created to form the framework. An exhaustive list of forty-five attributes was compiled. These attributes are representatives of the latent needs and aspirations of consumers and can be used as a starting point of any new product or service development/upgradation process. This framework is equally applicable for processes and organizational design as it is for products and services. It can be used by managers in large as well as small organizations. It can also be used by faculty in management schools who teach Innovation and NPD as also faculty in a design school. The proposed framework can be used while designing systems for community-building too.

“To exist is to change, to change is to mature, to mature is to go on creating one self endlessly”, as mentioned by Bergson ( 1911 ). This saying holds true not only for people but also for a product or a service. In an, ever-changing world, technologies change, customer demands change, ecosystems change, competitors change and while all this is changing, if your product/service remains the same, it will cease to exist. Hence, new product development and upgradation of existing products has to be pursued relentlessly. Usually, new product development is seen as correcting the mistakes in the existing products, plugging the gaps, and trying to catch up with competitors. But, it is much more than that. NPD should mean giving the customer an altogether different experience. It should mean breaking the clutter and differentiating your product from others. Today customer demands keep evolving continuously, compressing product lifecycles. Product development is not an easy process. The success rate ranges between 45 and 62% (Cooper and Edgett 2010 ). To enhance the success rate, there exist various product development models that can help organizations in their quest to develop new products. The traditional staged process for product development had dominated industry from the seventies till the late 1990s. In the last decade, however, there have been attempts to explore other avenues. Value engineering has been suggested by Ibusuki and Kaminski ( 2007 ) as an attempt to widen the horizon of the conventional NPD process. Erat and Kavadias ( 2008 ) have pointed out deficiencies in the older processes followed from the perspective of changing business scenarios. A few models have been discussed herewith and their advantages/disadvantages analyzed by the authors. Certain models do capture the attributes to be incorporated into a new product; however, they do not provide a universal framework of attributes that an ideal product should have. Achrol and Kotler ( 1999 ) in their book, New Product Development Model propose a process for NPD; however, the process ends where product sales meet expectations and does not elucidate the process of making the product more relevant to the consumer. Mizuno and Akao ( 1994 ) in their Quality Function Deployment do mention taking into account the voice of the customer. However, the main shortcoming of this method is that the “voice of the customer” is tapped through the use of conventional surveys. Many a time customers are unable to voice their requirements. Moreover, these surveys contain pre-determined product attributes and the customers are only expected to react to these. Hence, companies may not be able to have a comprehensive list of customer aspirations and latent needs. The Game Board Model Building proposed by Beckley et al. ( 2012 ) helps change a specific product but does not provide a framework that can be universally applicable for any product or service. Literature emphasizes the need to capture the knowledge of customers’ needs along with the technological competence when it comes to NPD (Su et al. 2007 ). It becomes essential to identify the features that fit to the needs of the customers while designing a framework for product development. Wells ( 2008 ) has mentioned in his research work that knowing the requirements of the customers is one of the most critical factors for innovation. Similarly, the study by Song and Parry ( 1996 ) mentions that understanding the needs of the customers and awareness about the market is a consistent theme for the success of product development. All these frameworks emphasize on deep consumer understanding. Understanding consumers takes a lot of effort, time, and money. All this effort is made to find the attributes that the consumers want in new products or services and is definitely worth. However, in today’s constantly changing world, the time required to find the desired attributes is at a premium. The authors have approached post graduating students as they are the frequent users of the chosen products under study and would identify the features according to their usage. This paper is an exploratory study with its focus on generating a holistic framework of attributes of a product or a service that can be used as a starting point for any new product development process. A first principles-based approach has been used by the authors, to capture the attributes that people desire in a product or service.

Literature review

The new product development literature reflects the importance of introducing new products in the market for the success of any sustainable business. There are numerous studies done in the last few decades that document the relevance of NPD as a key factor in business planning, profit performance, and overall growth of the company (Urban et al. 1993 ; Cooper, 2001 ). However, there is fragmented presentation about the development of an upgradation process in the literature. Some of the existing models have been critically analyzed to identify the gaps with an intention to design a framework that would fit in to bridge those gaps in the upgradation process. The Linear Stage Gate Process that was developed by Cooper ( 2000 ), which is now a registered trademark of the Product Development Institute Inc., involves continuous review of the product development process. Regular reviews keep narrowing down the options generated. Product development thus becomes a logical progression meeting defined objectives. The emphasis is on getting the next new product out to the market in the shortest possible time. The process follows six key linear stages, viz. ideation, scoping, business case creation, development, testing and validation and launch. Scoping involves market projections and analysis of the technical advantages of the product. The business case creation stage assesses the feasibility of the product and spells out the product and project definition, justification, and plan. The development phase includes thorough planning for manufacturing and marketing. Customer reactions are mapped during the testing and validation phase. The launch phase involves the commercialization of the product. The advantages of this stage gate process are:

It speeds up the mind-to-market cycle

It reduces rework and other forms of waste

It increases the focus since projects with low projected returns are eliminated early. Besides these advantages, there are certain shortcomings embedded in this process such as:

Customer feedback is sought at the validation stage, which is too late, thus making the cost of change enormous

The project team is forced to take decisions early due to the in-built stages and gates, reducing the flexibility and further escalating the cost of change

Product development, in this process, goes through a sequential process, while in reality, it is otherwise

The rejected ideas may not get documented and may be lost forever, since the emphasis is on quickly moving forward through elimination, rather than building of concepts through user feedback

The New Product Development Model proposed by Achrol and Kotler ( 1999 ) postulates the use of a funnel through which new ideas and concepts are passed. Various initial new product ideas and concepts are thought of, which are then run through this funnel and high potential products are launched. This process is not always linear. There are eight stages of new product development. The process begins with idea generation. The second stage involves idea screening . Followed by concept development and testing phase , where consumers test the product and its benefits. This is followed by development of marketing strategy and business analysis. Then product development and market testing are followed by commercialization . Many companies use a spiral approach where they return to an earlier stage to make improvements before going ahead. The model is too open-ended and generalistic in nature; it does not give details of the intricacies at each stage. The process ends where product sales meet expectations and does not elucidate the process of making the product more relevant to the consumer.

The NPD process by Ulrich and Eppinger ( 1995 ) helps co-ordinate between cross-functional teams and plan from idea to launch phase. It entails thorough documentation at every stage. That helps in identifying opportunities for improvement. After the initial planning, the requirement concepts are developed using industrial designs. After which, the “winning concept” is chosen. Then the concept is converted into a computer aided design. After this, the cost of manufacturing and other relevant costs are evaluated. Prototypes are then constructed and refined as required. After the design passes the testing phase, production is initiated. However, this process is too design-specific and is aimed more at industrial products.

Quality Function Deployment (QFD) method is a result of the obsession of the Japanese with quality. The exact date of the genesis of the concept has not been documented; however, it is widely believed that two Japanese professors, viz. Mizuno and Akao formulated the method in the 1960s. At that time, they realized that the then existing methods of quality assurance were reactive rather than pro-active, i.e., they were designed to fix the problem during or after manufacturing. The aim of Mizuno and Akao was to embed customer satisfaction into the manufacturing process. Later, QFD became a comprehensive design system that links customer satisfaction with various business processes and functions. It seeks the voice of customer through market surveys, compares these findings with the offerings of competitors, and maps these with the technical capability of the company. The main shortcoming of this method is that the voice of the customer is tapped through the use of conventional surveys. Many a time customers are unable to voice their requirements. Hence, companies may not be able to have a comprehensive list of customer aspirations and latent needs.

Beckley et al. ( 2012 ) have introduced the Game Board Model Building Technique to identify the desired attributes of a new product. However, they take an existing product and take into account consumer preferences to deconstruct and then reconstruct a product with their individual preferences and priorities for attributes and different combinations of attributes. The model helps change a specific product but does not provide a framework that can be universally applicable for any product or service.

Besides these models, literature also reflects upon the importance of generating a list of attributes that serves to generate new models. Pike and Steven ( 2003 ) in their paper have used Kelly ( 1977 ) to generate a list of attributes preferred by people to choose short break holiday destinations. They have emphasized on comparing options and not about generating a list of attributes. Moreover, that paper helps researchers to understand the priorities that consumers display among the attributes of competing alternatives. On similar grounds, Blijlevens et al. ( 2009 ) mentioned about the appearance attributes of designed products in the durable goods category. The study identified the perception of the consumers in a durable goods category. As reflected in the works of Alpert ( 1980 ), the determinant attributes have evoked the interests of researchers. He has highlighted that product attributes do create a preference among consumers and that attributes play an important role in product development.

Tsafarkis et al. ( 2011 ), in their study, titled, “Consumer behaviour and new product development: an integrated market simulation approach” have proposed a conjoint analysis model to better explain the market penetration of competing products in a similar category. They have assigned weights to consumer preferences to a few product attributes. However, these product attributes have been pre-determined by the researchers and have not been sought from the consumers. They conducted a real world application wherein they compared the expected market penetration of some milk products, however, this was based on four pre-determined attributes of the products and not an attempt to seek out the attributes sought by the consumer.

The present study builds on from the identified disadvantages of the existing models and the importance of studies that highlight the role of attributes toward product development. Crawford ( 1987 ) mentions about specific strategy that can enhance the new product development projects and divided it into five categories namely: new-to-the-world, new category entries, additions to product lines, product improvements, and repositioning of products. Booz et al ( 1982 ) new product development process serves as a guide for managers seeking to develop new products in a comprehensive and appropriate fashion. It has seven stages, namely new product strategy development, idea generation, screening and evaluation, business analysis, development, testing, and commercialization. This is a widely recognized model in the literature and captures most of the prevailing practices in the industry. The seven stages bring to light that the firms are different and the industries also varies from each other hence the NPD process must be adopted to meet specific company needs. However, it is a framework that suggests each of the seven stages should happen in a linear sequence. In reality, if this is practiced, it leads to a lot of sunk costs because testing happens only toward the end of the process, by which time a lot of costs have been incurred. Design thinking, on the other hand, makes use of extensive user research, feedback loops, and iteration cycles at an early stage in the New Product Development Process and is becoming popular in the industry (Martin, 2009 ), since it saves a lot of sunk costs. Brown ( 2008 ) in his landmark article in the Harvard Business Review too makes the same point. Kamrani and Vijayan ( 2006 ) have shown that the time required for new product development is drastically reduced by using the Design Thinking methodology. As compared to the linear, staged framework, the Design Thinking Approach encourages quick prototyping and feedback cycles that lead to faster iteration, thus saving a lot of time in the New Product Development Process. This approach can be summarized by the double diamond diagram put forth by the Design Council of UK ( 2005 ). The four stages are discover, define, develop, and deliver. It lays a lot of emphasis on the discovery phase, which involves immersive consumer research to find the real aspirations and pain points of users. This often leads to myth-busting insights that lead to great products. The researchers have tried to build a universal framework of attributes that will encapsulate all that people expect out of a product or service and can combine the “discover” and “define” phases from the Design Council’s approach.

From the above literature survey, it can be seen that the New Product Development Processes postulated by Booz et al. ( 1982 ), Crawford ( 1987 ), Achrol and Kotler ( 1999 ), and Ulrich and Eppinger ( 1995 ) and the Linear Stage Gate Process by Cooper ( 2000 ) provide a step-by-step approach to new product development but do not mention anything about the attributes required to be incorporated in a new product. Generally, the NPD models mentioned above focus on reducing the rate of failure and not on increasing the probability of success. Reducing the probability of failure is a typical approach that gives solutions that are sufficient but not necessarily the best ones, since they originate from the perspective of minimizing risks and conforming to standards.

For tapping into the attributes necessary for a new product, Mizuno and Akao ( 1994 ) in their Quality Function Deployment have described the need to take into account the voice of the customer. However, they have recommended the use of market surveys to compare competing product offerings. Such surveys rarely bring out the real latent needs of users. Alpert ( 1980 ) has pointed out the importance of product attributes, however, has not listed them out. Similarly, there has been an emphasis on comparing the product attributes with competing alternatives but not on creating a universal framework of attributes for new product development (Pike and Steven 2003 ; Blijlevens et al. 2009 ). The Game Board Model proposed by Beckley et al. ( 2012 ) helps change a specific product but does not provide a universal framework of attributes for new product development. The design thinking approach to new product development referred to above emphasizes the importance of in-depth consumer understanding through deep empathy and provides a structured approach to uncovering latent consumer needs and new product development (Design Council of UK, 2005; Kamrani and Vijayan, 2006 ; Brown, 2008 ; Martin, 2009 ). However, it does not provide a universal framework of attributes for the same.

NPD needs to be looked at from a perspective of an integrated approach that begins from a deep understanding of customer pain points and aspirations. In view of this, the present research is an attempt to create a framework that is holistic in nature and plugs the gaps identified in the above mentioned methods.

This is an exploratory study aimed at developing a grounded understanding of attributes of products and services that are desired by the consumers. As qualitative research methods focus on in-depth exploration, a small but diverse sample is recommended (McCracken 1988 ). Hence, we chose focus groups of frequent users of the products and services that would help us arrive at the framework. The methodology was aimed at tapping the latent, unarticulated needs of the consumers (something that they do not say but still have). The time period for this focused group activity is 3 years. As the prime author is a professor in a management institute; convenient sampling technique was exercised to identify the post graduating students as the respondents and it would also serve as best fit for the purpose of the research as the most frequent users of the products and services. The participating students were informed about this topic and on their consent the activity was carried out. This survey sample selection process was based on the ease and convenience of the reach of the authors for the said period. Moreover, the young post graduate students seemed to be the best fit for identifying the attributes of the products. Management students pursuing their studies in different verticals like E-business, business design, belonging to diverse demographic backgrounds, and hailing from different geographies across India were approached. A sample of such students has never been used in any previous study of this kind. We used students as our sample due to two reasons, viz.

They are frequent users of the chosen products and services

They keep trying out new products often due to which they would be a good sample to compare attributes of products or services across different categories

Detailed methodology

The study covered 215 participants over a 3-year period.

A total of 70 respondents were involved in the first year. Fourteen focus groups with five members each were assigned eight products and six services via mutual agreement on frequently used products and services. Water bottle, pen, remote control device, tablet computer, medicine capsule strip, mobile phone, laptop computer, and umbrella were the products and educational institute, college admission process, restaurant, hospital, courier service, and bank were the services that were studied in the first year (Table 1 ). In the brainstorming activity, the groups were instructed as follows:

Look at all the positive aspects of the product/service assigned

Look at all the negative aspects of the product/service assigned

List down all their aspirations from the products/services, i.e., what they wished the product/service could be

A combination of products and services were assigned to the groups.

During the second year, 70 respondents from the new batch of post graduate students were approached with the same technique. Fourteen focus groups with five members each were assigned eight products and six services via mutual agreement on frequently used products and services. The eight products and six services identified in the second year were; stapler, soft-board pins, chair, table, window, door knob, post-it note, shoe, garbage collection system, insurance, interactive voice response menu, billing services for a Mobile service provider, super market and power distribution company. Then, a brainstorming activity was performed similar to the previous year.

In the third year of the study, the authors approached 75 students, i.e., 15 focus groups with five members each for eight products and seven services and carried out the same exercise. The products and services studied were confetti, calendar, rope, scissors, dust bin, railway compartment, passenger vehicles, raincoat, salon, fire brigade, cinema theater, app-driven taxi operator, passport application service, automobile service center, and annual maintenance contract for a device. The students were informed about the products and services that were already studied and encouraged to identify the attributes of newer ones. Broadly, the study can be divided into two steps, viz.

Step 1. Identification of consumer needs and aspirations from a variety of products and services that they use, using Natural Language Processing to determine the true meaning of what the consumers have said. These expressions are the attributes that they desire in a product or a service.

Step 2. Combining all the attributes into an exhaustive master-list in the form of a framework, that is indicative of all the attributes that a product/service ought to have.

To identify consumer needs and aspirations, over a 6-year period, 43 groups (five participants per group) were assigned a product or a service. Overall sample size comprises of 215 respondents. There were 45 common attributes that appeared as the major findings of the study and are discussed in the section of findings.

Findings of the study

The attributes identified by each group were combined into an exhaustive master-list. Abridged findings from only six such groups (out of the 43 groups of students engaged) are listed below, in the interest of the length of the paper.

The attributes identified for an umbrella were capacity, durability, multiple utility, reliability, safety, portability, uniqueness, flexibility, customization, optimization, ergonomics, comfort, ease of use, availability, affordability, esthetics, ease of manufacturing, fun to use, ease of assembly for the user, and operating costs . The results are depicted in Fig. 1 in the annexures.

Attributes of an umbrella

The attributes identified for a laptop computer were convergence to other modes, comfort, flattening the “learning curve”, ease of use, availability, affordability, brand and line extension, portability, maintenance, ease of manufacturing, cycle time, after sales service, operating costs, modularity, capacity, ergonomics, durability, multiple utility, reliability, resale value, safety, esthetics, uniqueness, flexibility, fun to use, and traceability.

The results are depicted in Fig. 2 in the annexures.

Attributes of a laptop computer

The attributes identified for a mobile phone were comfort, flattening the “learning curve”, ease of use, availability, affordability, resale value, capacity, ergonomics, durability, multiple utility, reliability, eco-friendly, brand and line extension.

The results are depicted in Fig. 3 in the annexures

Attributes of a mobile phone

The attributes identified for a stapler were convergence to other modes, ergonomics, ease of use, availability, affordability, esthetics, uniqueness, cycle time, fun to use, after sales service, operating costs, capacity, modularity, durability, multiple utility, reliability, safety, maintenance, ease of manufacturing, mode of payment, customization, traceability.

The results are depicted in Fig. 4 in the annexures.

Attributes of a stapler

The attributes identified for an educational institute were modularity, flattening the “learning curve”, availability, affordability, safety, inter-systemic component interaction, ability to be of stand-alone use, dynamic display of usage, customization, capacity, ergonomics, non-verbal communication, reliability, brand and line extension, uniqueness, flexibility, mode of payment, fun to use, and operating costs.

The results are depicted in Fig. 5 in the annexures.

Attributes of an educational institute

The attributes associated with a hospital were modularity, non-verbal communication, availability, affordability, portability, inter-systemic component interaction, ability to be of stand-alone use, mode of payment, traceability, capacity, ease of use, multiple utility, reliability, safety, maintenance, flexibility, cycle time, dynamic display of usage, operating costs. The results are depicted in Fig. 6 in the annexures.

Attributes of a hospital

When findings from all the 43 groups were combined, there emerged a comprehensive list of 45 attributes that products and services have.

Explanations of some of the technical terms appearing in the above table

Convergence to other modes.

If a product is adaptable across different media, then it is said to be convergent to multiple modes , e.g., a website whose interface that fits on the large screen of a laptop as well as the small one of a mobile phone or the medium sized one of a tablet is convergent to multiple modes.

A product is said to be “modular” when it consists of standardized units or sections for easy construction. This allows the end-user to create multiple options using the same basic building blocks, e.g., LEGO. In a service offering, there could be different features which could be added or deleted to enhance the user-experience. Addition or deletion of any feature(s), in this case, does not affect the performance of the core offering.

Flattening the learning curve

When a product is so designed that the learning phase for using the same is very negligible, e.g., a writing pen, the moment one looks at it, one realizes how to use it. One does not have to read an instruction manual to understand how to use it.

Non-verbal communication

When a product communicates without any written or spoken text for completion of the usage cycle, e.g., a Duracell battery has small, dynamic strip on the surface, the length of which indicates the amount of charge that it holds at that point in time. The length of this strip reduces as the charge diminishes.

Inter-systemic component interaction

When a product is used, it is always used in a larger ecosystem, when the product interacts with its surroundings, there should be seamlessness (no damage), e.g., a pest control product that is stuck on walls should not damage or disfigure the walls.

If there were two companies offering pest control products of equal efficacy, but one of them left stains on the wall, a consumer would choose the one that did not, i.e., the one that did not interact adversely with the wall.

Ability to be of stand-alone use

When the usage of a product is not dependent on an external accessory, that product is said to have the ability to be of stand-alone use, e.g., calculators that use photovoltaic cells work whenever any light is incident on its small panel, wiped out the then existing calculators that needed external battery packs. The new calculators had the ability to be of stand-alone use.

When a product is mistake-proofed, i.e., it is designed in such a way that, the possibility of mistakes during usage are eliminated, e.g., all models of Apple’s mobile phone after the iPhone 5 have a charger that can be inserted into the phone in any orientation (face upward or downward)

Bundling of accessories

When a product is available together with the necessary accessories, e.g., people would prefer a mobile phone that had an in-built charger, as against the conventional charger that one has to carry separately and which one forgets many time. A built-in charger would avoid those inconvenient experiences.

Results and discussion

All the attributes listed out by all the participants have been combined into a comprehensive list as Table 2 . It comprises a comprehensive list of attributes that an ideal product/service may possess. Thus, it covers an exhaustive list of all attributes that a product or a service should have. Such a list can be used while creating a new product or upgrading an existing one. Each of the attributes could be analyzed in detail and then a decision about how to embed the same in the product or service can be taken. After due deliberations, the decision could go for or against embedding the attribute. Companies usually decide to differentiate their products/services by heightening their focus on one or two of these attributes, while maintaining the status of the other attributes. This is also in line with the Blue Ocean Strategy framework of eliminate, reduce, raise, create (ERRC) suggested by Chan Kim and Mauborgne ( 2005 ). A couple of examples have been listed below to illustrate the practical implications of the proposed framework.

Attribute from the framework

Resale value.

This attribute gives a value to the product even after it has become redundant or obsolete for the user, e.g., Tanishq Jewelery from the house of TATAs.

Tanishq has used resale of its jewelery and coins to its advantage. Tanishq offers a buy-back policy which is trusted by consumers. After branding the gold jewelery with its logo on every piece, it has started using it as a mark of trust, thereby enhancing its resale value.

Traceability

This attribute adds the feature of the object being located easily, thereby leading to accessibility and safety.

For example, tagging through barcode marker

FedEx was the first company to empower the consumer with the ability to know where exactly the parcel that she/he has sent is at any moment in time, along its journey. FedEx has employed a complex IT platform to enable this. Each packet has a barcode and at various points during the parcel’s journey, different barcode readers feed the location of the parcel to the company’s IT platform which can be accessed by the consumer. This has provided consumers tremendous peace of mind and enabled FedEx to capture a substantial market share in the last decade or so.

The above framework would prove to be a good starting point for NPD as well as a product/service upgradation process. The framework provides a fast-track method to list out and examine what attributes a product should have.

Scope for further research

A comprehensive model could be created taking into account the weightage of consumer preferences across attributes for different products. For this model, user inputs about their preferences of the attributes involved could be taken and due weightages created for the same. Products or services in competing categories could be rated on the basis of this model with a score of “user desirability.” A “user desirability quotient” could be created to enable product managers to design the best possible “product-market fit.” Such a “user desirability quotient”, created in advance, would be highly useful for any executives involved with either new product development or upgradation of existing products/services (Fig. 7 ).

Graphical depiction of the new product development framework

Conclusions

The proposed model begins with the consumers expectation (which is the key to any upgradation process); it is a holistic one since it gives an accurate picture of the consumers’ expectations vis-à-vis every attribute necessary to make a product or a service successful. The framework in Table 2 provides various attributes which can be treated like a checklist for the creation of any product or service. Thus, the process can be used for upgrading an existing product or a service as well as creating a new product or a service. It would also shorten the product development lifecycle. It can be used by faculty of management and entrepreneurship in business schools, as well as by faculty in design schools for either upgrading an existing product/service or creating a new one.

Since the proposed framework is a comprehensive framework, it can be used by new product or service developers irrespective of what stage their offerings are in the product lifecycle, whether in inception or maturity stage and can be adopted by all organizations, big and small, for profit and not for profit or for both, products and services.

Moreover, the framework can be applied to process as well as organizational innovation, since the building blocks of the framework stand for attributes that are universal in nature, e.g., “portability” for a process means ability to be applied across domains, the same for an organization structure means ability to replicate a departmental structure across functions.

The proposed framework can be used for system design too, such as habitat design for migrant workers, wherein each of the identified attributes from the proposed framework need to be considered to create a holistic habitat. The proposed framework is truly universal.

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Acknowledgements

I, Dr. Kaustubh.Dhargalkar acknowledge the contributions of my co-authors for helping me in the conducting of the research study, as stated above. I would also like to acknowledge the contributions of the following colleagues who helped me in this study.

1. Ms. Chitralekha Kumar helped in compilation and formatting of the text for the submissions. She also helped me with finding the right kind of content for the literature survey.

2. Ms. Sanika Deshpande helped in the literature survey and cross-referencing for documentation.

Authors’ contributions

KD conceptualized the research and conducted every focus group and has written the final version. KS and YA, the co-authors, helped conduct some of the focus groups and drafted the first version of the paper. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Dhargalkar, K., Shinde, K. & Arora, Y. A universal new product development and upgradation framework. J Innov Entrep 5 , 27 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13731-016-0055-7

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Cultural Relativity and Acceptance of Embryonic Stem Cell Research

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There is a debate about the ethical implications of using human embryos in stem cell research, which can be influenced by cultural, moral, and social values. This paper argues for an adaptable framework to accommodate diverse cultural and religious perspectives. By using an adaptive ethics model, research protections can reflect various populations and foster growth in stem cell research possibilities.

INTRODUCTION

Stem cell research combines biology, medicine, and technology, promising to alter health care and the understanding of human development. Yet, ethical contention exists because of individuals’ perceptions of using human embryos based on their various cultural, moral, and social values. While these disagreements concerning policy, use, and general acceptance have prompted the development of an international ethics policy, such a uniform approach can overlook the nuanced ethical landscapes between cultures. With diverse viewpoints in public health, a single global policy, especially one reflecting Western ethics or the ethics prevalent in high-income countries, is impractical. This paper argues for a culturally sensitive, adaptable framework for the use of embryonic stem cells. Stem cell policy should accommodate varying ethical viewpoints and promote an effective global dialogue. With an extension of an ethics model that can adapt to various cultures, we recommend localized guidelines that reflect the moral views of the people those guidelines serve.

Stem cells, characterized by their unique ability to differentiate into various cell types, enable the repair or replacement of damaged tissues. Two primary types of stem cells are somatic stem cells (adult stem cells) and embryonic stem cells. Adult stem cells exist in developed tissues and maintain the body’s repair processes. [1] Embryonic stem cells (ESC) are remarkably pluripotent or versatile, making them valuable in research. [2] However, the use of ESCs has sparked ethics debates. Considering the potential of embryonic stem cells, research guidelines are essential. The International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR) provides international stem cell research guidelines. They call for “public conversations touching on the scientific significance as well as the societal and ethical issues raised by ESC research.” [3] The ISSCR also publishes updates about culturing human embryos 14 days post fertilization, suggesting local policies and regulations should continue to evolve as ESC research develops. [4] Like the ISSCR, which calls for local law and policy to adapt to developing stem cell research given cultural acceptance, this paper highlights the importance of local social factors such as religion and culture.

I. Global Cultural Perspective of Embryonic Stem Cells

Views on ESCs vary throughout the world. Some countries readily embrace stem cell research and therapies, while others have stricter regulations due to ethical concerns surrounding embryonic stem cells and when an embryo becomes entitled to moral consideration. The philosophical issue of when the “someone” begins to be a human after fertilization, in the morally relevant sense, [5] impacts when an embryo becomes not just worthy of protection but morally entitled to it. The process of creating embryonic stem cell lines involves the destruction of the embryos for research. [6] Consequently, global engagement in ESC research depends on social-cultural acceptability.

a. US and Rights-Based Cultures

In the United States, attitudes toward stem cell therapies are diverse. The ethics and social approaches, which value individualism, [7] trigger debates regarding the destruction of human embryos, creating a complex regulatory environment. For example, the 1996 Dickey-Wicker Amendment prohibited federal funding for the creation of embryos for research and the destruction of embryos for “more than allowed for research on fetuses in utero.” [8] Following suit, in 2001, the Bush Administration heavily restricted stem cell lines for research. However, the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005 was proposed to help develop ESC research but was ultimately vetoed. [9] Under the Obama administration, in 2009, an executive order lifted restrictions allowing for more development in this field. [10] The flux of research capacity and funding parallels the different cultural perceptions of human dignity of the embryo and how it is socially presented within the country’s research culture. [11]

b. Ubuntu and Collective Cultures

African bioethics differs from Western individualism because of the different traditions and values. African traditions, as described by individuals from South Africa and supported by some studies in other African countries, including Ghana and Kenya, follow the African moral philosophies of Ubuntu or Botho and Ukama , which “advocates for a form of wholeness that comes through one’s relationship and connectedness with other people in the society,” [12] making autonomy a socially collective concept. In this context, for the community to act autonomously, individuals would come together to decide what is best for the collective. Thus, stem cell research would require examining the value of the research to society as a whole and the use of the embryos as a collective societal resource. If society views the source as part of the collective whole, and opposes using stem cells, compromising the cultural values to pursue research may cause social detachment and stunt research growth. [13] Based on local culture and moral philosophy, the permissibility of stem cell research depends on how embryo, stem cell, and cell line therapies relate to the community as a whole. Ubuntu is the expression of humanness, with the person’s identity drawn from the “’I am because we are’” value. [14] The decision in a collectivistic culture becomes one born of cultural context, and individual decisions give deference to others in the society.

Consent differs in cultures where thought and moral philosophy are based on a collective paradigm. So, applying Western bioethical concepts is unrealistic. For one, Africa is a diverse continent with many countries with different belief systems, access to health care, and reliance on traditional or Western medicines. Where traditional medicine is the primary treatment, the “’restrictive focus on biomedically-related bioethics’” [is] problematic in African contexts because it neglects bioethical issues raised by traditional systems.” [15] No single approach applies in all areas or contexts. Rather than evaluating the permissibility of ESC research according to Western concepts such as the four principles approach, different ethics approaches should prevail.

Another consideration is the socio-economic standing of countries. In parts of South Africa, researchers have not focused heavily on contributing to the stem cell discourse, either because it is not considered health care or a health science priority or because resources are unavailable. [16] Each country’s priorities differ given different social, political, and economic factors. In South Africa, for instance, areas such as maternal mortality, non-communicable diseases, telemedicine, and the strength of health systems need improvement and require more focus [17] Stem cell research could benefit the population, but it also could divert resources from basic medical care. Researchers in South Africa adhere to the National Health Act and Medicines Control Act in South Africa and international guidelines; however, the Act is not strictly enforced, and there is no clear legislation for research conduct or ethical guidelines. [18]

Some parts of Africa condemn stem cell research. For example, 98.2 percent of the Tunisian population is Muslim. [19] Tunisia does not permit stem cell research because of moral conflict with a Fatwa. Religion heavily saturates the regulation and direction of research. [20] Stem cell use became permissible for reproductive purposes only recently, with tight restrictions preventing cells from being used in any research other than procedures concerning ART/IVF. Their use is conditioned on consent, and available only to married couples. [21] The community's receptiveness to stem cell research depends on including communitarian African ethics.

c. Asia

Some Asian countries also have a collective model of ethics and decision making. [22] In China, the ethics model promotes a sincere respect for life or human dignity, [23] based on protective medicine. This model, influenced by Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), [24] recognizes Qi as the vital energy delivered via the meridians of the body; it connects illness to body systems, the body’s entire constitution, and the universe for a holistic bond of nature, health, and quality of life. [25] Following a protective ethics model, and traditional customs of wholeness, investment in stem cell research is heavily desired for its applications in regenerative therapies, disease modeling, and protective medicines. In a survey of medical students and healthcare practitioners, 30.8 percent considered stem cell research morally unacceptable while 63.5 percent accepted medical research using human embryonic stem cells. Of these individuals, 89.9 percent supported increased funding for stem cell research. [26] The scientific community might not reflect the overall population. From 1997 to 2019, China spent a total of $576 million (USD) on stem cell research at 8,050 stem cell programs, increased published presence from 0.6 percent to 14.01 percent of total global stem cell publications as of 2014, and made significant strides in cell-based therapies for various medical conditions. [27] However, while China has made substantial investments in stem cell research and achieved notable progress in clinical applications, concerns linger regarding ethical oversight and transparency. [28] For example, the China Biosecurity Law, promoted by the National Health Commission and China Hospital Association, attempted to mitigate risks by introducing an institutional review board (IRB) in the regulatory bodies. 5800 IRBs registered with the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry since 2021. [29] However, issues still need to be addressed in implementing effective IRB review and approval procedures.

The substantial government funding and focus on scientific advancement have sometimes overshadowed considerations of regional cultures, ethnic minorities, and individual perspectives, particularly evident during the one-child policy era. As government policy adapts to promote public stability, such as the change from the one-child to the two-child policy, [30] research ethics should also adapt to ensure respect for the values of its represented peoples.

Japan is also relatively supportive of stem cell research and therapies. Japan has a more transparent regulatory framework, allowing for faster approval of regenerative medicine products, which has led to several advanced clinical trials and therapies. [31] South Korea is also actively engaged in stem cell research and has a history of breakthroughs in cloning and embryonic stem cells. [32] However, the field is controversial, and there are issues of scientific integrity. For example, the Korean FDA fast-tracked products for approval, [33] and in another instance, the oocyte source was unclear and possibly violated ethical standards. [34] Trust is important in research, as it builds collaborative foundations between colleagues, trial participant comfort, open-mindedness for complicated and sensitive discussions, and supports regulatory procedures for stakeholders. There is a need to respect the culture’s interest, engagement, and for research and clinical trials to be transparent and have ethical oversight to promote global research discourse and trust.

d. Middle East

Countries in the Middle East have varying degrees of acceptance of or restrictions to policies related to using embryonic stem cells due to cultural and religious influences. Saudi Arabia has made significant contributions to stem cell research, and conducts research based on international guidelines for ethical conduct and under strict adherence to guidelines in accordance with Islamic principles. Specifically, the Saudi government and people require ESC research to adhere to Sharia law. In addition to umbilical and placental stem cells, [35] Saudi Arabia permits the use of embryonic stem cells as long as they come from miscarriages, therapeutic abortions permissible by Sharia law, or are left over from in vitro fertilization and donated to research. [36] Laws and ethical guidelines for stem cell research allow the development of research institutions such as the King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, which has a cord blood bank and a stem cell registry with nearly 10,000 donors. [37] Such volume and acceptance are due to the ethical ‘permissibility’ of the donor sources, which do not conflict with religious pillars. However, some researchers err on the side of caution, choosing not to use embryos or fetal tissue as they feel it is unethical to do so. [38]

Jordan has a positive research ethics culture. [39] However, there is a significant issue of lack of trust in researchers, with 45.23 percent (38.66 percent agreeing and 6.57 percent strongly agreeing) of Jordanians holding a low level of trust in researchers, compared to 81.34 percent of Jordanians agreeing that they feel safe to participate in a research trial. [40] Safety testifies to the feeling of confidence that adequate measures are in place to protect participants from harm, whereas trust in researchers could represent the confidence in researchers to act in the participants’ best interests, adhere to ethical guidelines, provide accurate information, and respect participants’ rights and dignity. One method to improve trust would be to address communication issues relevant to ESC. Legislation surrounding stem cell research has adopted specific language, especially concerning clarification “between ‘stem cells’ and ‘embryonic stem cells’” in translation. [41] Furthermore, legislation “mandates the creation of a national committee… laying out specific regulations for stem-cell banking in accordance with international standards.” [42] This broad regulation opens the door for future global engagement and maintains transparency. However, these regulations may also constrain the influence of research direction, pace, and accessibility of research outcomes.

e. Europe

In the European Union (EU), ethics is also principle-based, but the principles of autonomy, dignity, integrity, and vulnerability are interconnected. [43] As such, the opportunity for cohesion and concessions between individuals’ thoughts and ideals allows for a more adaptable ethics model due to the flexible principles that relate to the human experience The EU has put forth a framework in its Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being allowing member states to take different approaches. Each European state applies these principles to its specific conventions, leading to or reflecting different acceptance levels of stem cell research. [44]

For example, in Germany, Lebenzusammenhang , or the coherence of life, references integrity in the unity of human culture. Namely, the personal sphere “should not be subject to external intervention.” [45] Stem cell interventions could affect this concept of bodily completeness, leading to heavy restrictions. Under the Grundgesetz, human dignity and the right to life with physical integrity are paramount. [46] The Embryo Protection Act of 1991 made producing cell lines illegal. Cell lines can be imported if approved by the Central Ethics Commission for Stem Cell Research only if they were derived before May 2007. [47] Stem cell research respects the integrity of life for the embryo with heavy specifications and intense oversight. This is vastly different in Finland, where the regulatory bodies find research more permissible in IVF excess, but only up to 14 days after fertilization. [48] Spain’s approach differs still, with a comprehensive regulatory framework. [49] Thus, research regulation can be culture-specific due to variations in applied principles. Diverse cultures call for various approaches to ethical permissibility. [50] Only an adaptive-deliberative model can address the cultural constructions of self and achieve positive, culturally sensitive stem cell research practices. [51]

II. Religious Perspectives on ESC

Embryonic stem cell sources are the main consideration within religious contexts. While individuals may not regard their own religious texts as authoritative or factual, religion can shape their foundations or perspectives.

The Qur'an states:

“And indeed We created man from a quintessence of clay. Then We placed within him a small quantity of nutfa (sperm to fertilize) in a safe place. Then We have fashioned the nutfa into an ‘alaqa (clinging clot or cell cluster), then We developed the ‘alaqa into mudgha (a lump of flesh), and We made mudgha into bones, and clothed the bones with flesh, then We brought it into being as a new creation. So Blessed is Allah, the Best of Creators.” [52]

Many scholars of Islam estimate the time of soul installment, marked by the angel breathing in the soul to bring the individual into creation, as 120 days from conception. [53] Personhood begins at this point, and the value of life would prohibit research or experimentation that could harm the individual. If the fetus is more than 120 days old, the time ensoulment is interpreted to occur according to Islamic law, abortion is no longer permissible. [54] There are a few opposing opinions about early embryos in Islamic traditions. According to some Islamic theologians, there is no ensoulment of the early embryo, which is the source of stem cells for ESC research. [55]

In Buddhism, the stance on stem cell research is not settled. The main tenets, the prohibition against harming or destroying others (ahimsa) and the pursuit of knowledge (prajña) and compassion (karuna), leave Buddhist scholars and communities divided. [56] Some scholars argue stem cell research is in accordance with the Buddhist tenet of seeking knowledge and ending human suffering. Others feel it violates the principle of not harming others. Finding the balance between these two points relies on the karmic burden of Buddhist morality. In trying to prevent ahimsa towards the embryo, Buddhist scholars suggest that to comply with Buddhist tenets, research cannot be done as the embryo has personhood at the moment of conception and would reincarnate immediately, harming the individual's ability to build their karmic burden. [57] On the other hand, the Bodhisattvas, those considered to be on the path to enlightenment or Nirvana, have given organs and flesh to others to help alleviate grieving and to benefit all. [58] Acceptance varies on applied beliefs and interpretations.

Catholicism does not support embryonic stem cell research, as it entails creation or destruction of human embryos. This destruction conflicts with the belief in the sanctity of life. For example, in the Old Testament, Genesis describes humanity as being created in God’s image and multiplying on the Earth, referencing the sacred rights to human conception and the purpose of development and life. In the Ten Commandments, the tenet that one should not kill has numerous interpretations where killing could mean murder or shedding of the sanctity of life, demonstrating the high value of human personhood. In other books, the theological conception of when life begins is interpreted as in utero, [59] highlighting the inviolability of life and its formation in vivo to make a religious point for accepting such research as relatively limited, if at all. [60] The Vatican has released ethical directives to help apply a theological basis to modern-day conflicts. The Magisterium of the Church states that “unless there is a moral certainty of not causing harm,” experimentation on fetuses, fertilized cells, stem cells, or embryos constitutes a crime. [61] Such procedures would not respect the human person who exists at these stages, according to Catholicism. Damages to the embryo are considered gravely immoral and illicit. [62] Although the Catholic Church officially opposes abortion, surveys demonstrate that many Catholic people hold pro-choice views, whether due to the context of conception, stage of pregnancy, threat to the mother’s life, or for other reasons, demonstrating that practicing members can also accept some but not all tenets. [63]

Some major Jewish denominations, such as the Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist movements, are open to supporting ESC use or research as long as it is for saving a life. [64] Within Judaism, the Talmud, or study, gives personhood to the child at birth and emphasizes that life does not begin at conception: [65]

“If she is found pregnant, until the fortieth day it is mere fluid,” [66]

Whereas most religions prioritize the status of human embryos, the Halakah (Jewish religious law) states that to save one life, most other religious laws can be ignored because it is in pursuit of preservation. [67] Stem cell research is accepted due to application of these religious laws.

We recognize that all religions contain subsets and sects. The variety of environmental and cultural differences within religious groups requires further analysis to respect the flexibility of religious thoughts and practices. We make no presumptions that all cultures require notions of autonomy or morality as under the common morality theory , which asserts a set of universal moral norms that all individuals share provides moral reasoning and guides ethical decisions. [68] We only wish to show that the interaction with morality varies between cultures and countries.

III. A Flexible Ethical Approach

The plurality of different moral approaches described above demonstrates that there can be no universally acceptable uniform law for ESC on a global scale. Instead of developing one standard, flexible ethical applications must be continued. We recommend local guidelines that incorporate important cultural and ethical priorities.

While the Declaration of Helsinki is more relevant to people in clinical trials receiving ESC products, in keeping with the tradition of protections for research subjects, consent of the donor is an ethical requirement for ESC donation in many jurisdictions including the US, Canada, and Europe. [69] The Declaration of Helsinki provides a reference point for regulatory standards and could potentially be used as a universal baseline for obtaining consent prior to gamete or embryo donation.

For instance, in Columbia University’s egg donor program for stem cell research, donors followed standard screening protocols and “underwent counseling sessions that included information as to the purpose of oocyte donation for research, what the oocytes would be used for, the risks and benefits of donation, and process of oocyte stimulation” to ensure transparency for consent. [70] The program helped advance stem cell research and provided clear and safe research methods with paid participants. Though paid participation or covering costs of incidental expenses may not be socially acceptable in every culture or context, [71] and creating embryos for ESC research is illegal in many jurisdictions, Columbia’s program was effective because of the clear and honest communications with donors, IRBs, and related stakeholders. This example demonstrates that cultural acceptance of scientific research and of the idea that an egg or embryo does not have personhood is likely behind societal acceptance of donating eggs for ESC research. As noted, many countries do not permit the creation of embryos for research.

Proper communication and education regarding the process and purpose of stem cell research may bolster comprehension and garner more acceptance. “Given the sensitive subject material, a complete consent process can support voluntary participation through trust, understanding, and ethical norms from the cultures and morals participants value. This can be hard for researchers entering countries of different socioeconomic stability, with different languages and different societal values. [72]

An adequate moral foundation in medical ethics is derived from the cultural and religious basis that informs knowledge and actions. [73] Understanding local cultural and religious values and their impact on research could help researchers develop humility and promote inclusion.

IV. Concerns

Some may argue that if researchers all adhere to one ethics standard, protection will be satisfied across all borders, and the global public will trust researchers. However, defining what needs to be protected and how to define such research standards is very specific to the people to which standards are applied. We suggest that applying one uniform guide cannot accurately protect each individual because we all possess our own perceptions and interpretations of social values. [74] Therefore, the issue of not adjusting to the moral pluralism between peoples in applying one standard of ethics can be resolved by building out ethics models that can be adapted to different cultures and religions.

Other concerns include medical tourism, which may promote health inequities. [75] Some countries may develop and approve products derived from ESC research before others, compromising research ethics or drug approval processes. There are also concerns about the sale of unauthorized stem cell treatments, for example, those without FDA approval in the United States. Countries with robust research infrastructures may be tempted to attract medical tourists, and some customers will have false hopes based on aggressive publicity of unproven treatments. [76]

For example, in China, stem cell clinics can market to foreign clients who are not protected under the regulatory regimes. Companies employ a marketing strategy of “ethically friendly” therapies. Specifically, in the case of Beike, China’s leading stem cell tourism company and sprouting network, ethical oversight of administrators or health bureaus at one site has “the unintended consequence of shifting questionable activities to another node in Beike's diffuse network.” [77] In contrast, Jordan is aware of stem cell research’s potential abuse and its own status as a “health-care hub.” Jordan’s expanded regulations include preserving the interests of individuals in clinical trials and banning private companies from ESC research to preserve transparency and the integrity of research practices. [78]

The social priorities of the community are also a concern. The ISSCR explicitly states that guidelines “should be periodically revised to accommodate scientific advances, new challenges, and evolving social priorities.” [79] The adaptable ethics model extends this consideration further by addressing whether research is warranted given the varying degrees of socioeconomic conditions, political stability, and healthcare accessibilities and limitations. An ethical approach would require discussion about resource allocation and appropriate distribution of funds. [80]

While some religions emphasize the sanctity of life from conception, which may lead to public opposition to ESC research, others encourage ESC research due to its potential for healing and alleviating human pain. Many countries have special regulations that balance local views on embryonic personhood, the benefits of research as individual or societal goods, and the protection of human research subjects. To foster understanding and constructive dialogue, global policy frameworks should prioritize the protection of universal human rights, transparency, and informed consent. In addition to these foundational global policies, we recommend tailoring local guidelines to reflect the diverse cultural and religious perspectives of the populations they govern. Ethics models should be adapted to local populations to effectively establish research protections, growth, and possibilities of stem cell research.

For example, in countries with strong beliefs in the moral sanctity of embryos or heavy religious restrictions, an adaptive model can allow for discussion instead of immediate rejection. In countries with limited individual rights and voice in science policy, an adaptive model ensures cultural, moral, and religious views are taken into consideration, thereby building social inclusion. While this ethical consideration by the government may not give a complete voice to every individual, it will help balance policies and maintain the diverse perspectives of those it affects. Embracing an adaptive ethics model of ESC research promotes open-minded dialogue and respect for the importance of human belief and tradition. By actively engaging with cultural and religious values, researchers can better handle disagreements and promote ethical research practices that benefit each society.

This brief exploration of the religious and cultural differences that impact ESC research reveals the nuances of relative ethics and highlights a need for local policymakers to apply a more intense adaptive model.

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[5] Concerning the moral philosophies of stem cell research, our paper does not posit a personal moral stance nor delve into the “when” of human life begins. To read further about the philosophical debate, consider the following sources:

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[7] Socially, at its core, the Western approach to ethics is widely principle-based, autonomy being one of the key factors to ensure a fundamental respect for persons within research. For information regarding autonomy in research, see: Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, & National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1978). The Belmont Report. Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research.; For a more in-depth review of autonomy within the US, see: Beauchamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. (1994). Principles of Biomedical Ethics . Oxford University Press.

[8] Sherley v. Sebelius , 644 F.3d 388 (D.C. Cir. 2011), citing 45 C.F.R. 46.204(b) and [42 U.S.C. § 289g(b)]. https://www.cadc.uscourts.gov/internet/opinions.nsf/6c690438a9b43dd685257a64004ebf99/$file/11-5241-1391178.pdf

[9] Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005, H. R. 810, 109 th Cong. (2001). https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/109/hr810/text ; Bush, G. W. (2006, July 19). Message to the House of Representatives . National Archives and Records Administration. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/07/20060719-5.html

[10] National Archives and Records Administration. (2009, March 9). Executive order 13505 -- removing barriers to responsible scientific research involving human stem cells . National Archives and Records Administration. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/removing-barriers-responsible-scientific-research-involving-human-stem-cells

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[12] Akpa-Inyang, Francis & Chima, Sylvester. (2021). South African traditional values and beliefs regarding informed consent and limitations of the principle of respect for autonomy in African communities: a cross-cultural qualitative study. BMC Medical Ethics . 22. 10.1186/s12910-021-00678-4.

[13] Source for further reading: Tangwa G. B. (2007). Moral status of embryonic stem cells: perspective of an African villager. Bioethics , 21(8), 449–457. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8519.2007.00582.x , see also Mnisi, F. M. (2020). An African analysis based on ethics of Ubuntu - are human embryonic stem cell patents morally justifiable? African Insight , 49 (4).

[14] Jecker, N. S., & Atuire, C. (2021). Bioethics in Africa: A contextually enlightened analysis of three cases. Developing World Bioethics , 22 (2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12324

[15] Jecker, N. S., & Atuire, C. (2021). Bioethics in Africa: A contextually enlightened analysis of three cases. Developing World Bioethics, 22(2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12324

[16] Jackson, C.S., Pepper, M.S. Opportunities and barriers to establishing a cell therapy programme in South Africa. Stem Cell Res Ther 4 , 54 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1186/scrt204 ; Pew Research Center. (2014, May 1). Public health a major priority in African nations . Pew Research Center’s Global Attitudes Project. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2014/05/01/public-health-a-major-priority-in-african-nations/

[17] Department of Health Republic of South Africa. (2021). Health Research Priorities (revised) for South Africa 2021-2024 . National Health Research Strategy. https://www.health.gov.za/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/National-Health-Research-Priorities-2021-2024.pdf

[18] Oosthuizen, H. (2013). Legal and Ethical Issues in Stem Cell Research in South Africa. In: Beran, R. (eds) Legal and Forensic Medicine. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32338-6_80 , see also: Gaobotse G (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[19] United States Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services. (1998). Tunisia: Information on the status of Christian conversions in Tunisia . UNHCR Web Archive. https://webarchive.archive.unhcr.org/20230522142618/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3df0be9a2.html

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[21] Kooli, C. Review of assisted reproduction techniques, laws, and regulations in Muslim countries. Middle East Fertil Soc J 24 , 8 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43043-019-0011-0 ; Gaobotse, G. (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[22] Pang M. C. (1999). Protective truthfulness: the Chinese way of safeguarding patients in informed treatment decisions. Journal of medical ethics , 25(3), 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.25.3.247

[23] Wang, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, W. (2021). Bioethics in China’s biosecurity law: Forms, effects, and unsettled issues. Journal of law and the biosciences , 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab019 https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/8/1/lsab019/6299199

[24] Wang, Y., Xue, Y., & Guo, H. D. (2022). Intervention effects of traditional Chinese medicine on stem cell therapy of myocardial infarction. Frontiers in pharmacology , 13 , 1013740. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.1013740

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[30] Chen, H., Wei, T., Wang, H. et al. Association of China’s two-child policy with changes in number of births and birth defects rate, 2008–2017. BMC Public Health 22 , 434 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-12839-0

[31] Azuma, K. Regulatory Landscape of Regenerative Medicine in Japan. Curr Stem Cell Rep 1 , 118–128 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40778-015-0012-6

[32] Harris, R. (2005, May 19). Researchers Report Advance in Stem Cell Production . NPR. https://www.npr.org/2005/05/19/4658967/researchers-report-advance-in-stem-cell-production

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[35] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[36] Association for the Advancement of Blood and Biotherapies. https://www.aabb.org/regulatory-and-advocacy/regulatory-affairs/regulatory-for-cellular-therapies/international-competent-authorities/saudi-arabia

[37] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics , 21 (1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[38] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics , 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

Culturally, autonomy practices follow a relational autonomy approach based on a paternalistic deontological health care model. The adherence to strict international research policies and religious pillars within the regulatory environment is a great foundation for research ethics. However, there is a need to develop locally targeted ethics approaches for research (as called for in Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6), this decision-making approach may help advise a research decision model. For more on the clinical cultural autonomy approaches, see: Alabdullah, Y. Y., Alzaid, E., Alsaad, S., Alamri, T., Alolayan, S. W., Bah, S., & Aljoudi, A. S. (2022). Autonomy and paternalism in Shared decision‐making in a Saudi Arabian tertiary hospital: A cross‐sectional study. Developing World Bioethics , 23 (3), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12355 ; Bukhari, A. A. (2017). Universal Principles of Bioethics and Patient Rights in Saudi Arabia (Doctoral dissertation, Duquesne University). https://dsc.duq.edu/etd/124; Ladha, S., Nakshawani, S. A., Alzaidy, A., & Tarab, B. (2023, October 26). Islam and Bioethics: What We All Need to Know . Columbia University School of Professional Studies. https://sps.columbia.edu/events/islam-and-bioethics-what-we-all-need-know

[39] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics. Research Ethics , 17 (2), 228-241. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[40] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics. Research Ethics , 17 (2), 228-241. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[41] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East. Nature 510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[42] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East. Nature 510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[43] The EU’s definition of autonomy relates to the capacity for creating ideas, moral insight, decisions, and actions without constraint, personal responsibility, and informed consent. However, the EU views autonomy as not completely able to protect individuals and depends on other principles, such as dignity, which “expresses the intrinsic worth and fundamental equality of all human beings.” Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[44] Council of Europe. Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (ETS No. 164) https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=164 (forbidding the creation of embryos for research purposes only, and suggests embryos in vitro have protections.); Also see Drabiak-Syed B. K. (2013). New President, New Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research Policy: Comparative International Perspectives and Embryonic Stem Cell Research Laws in France. Biotechnology Law Report , 32 (6), 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1089/blr.2013.9865

[45] Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[46] Tomuschat, C., Currie, D. P., Kommers, D. P., & Kerr, R. (Trans.). (1949, May 23). Basic law for the Federal Republic of Germany. https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf

[47] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Germany . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-germany

[48] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Finland . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-finland

[49] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Spain . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-spain

[50] Some sources to consider regarding ethics models or regulatory oversights of other cultures not covered:

Kara MA. Applicability of the principle of respect for autonomy: the perspective of Turkey. J Med Ethics. 2007 Nov;33(11):627-30. doi: 10.1136/jme.2006.017400. PMID: 17971462; PMCID: PMC2598110.

Ugarte, O. N., & Acioly, M. A. (2014). The principle of autonomy in Brazil: one needs to discuss it ... Revista do Colegio Brasileiro de Cirurgioes , 41 (5), 374–377. https://doi.org/10.1590/0100-69912014005013

Bharadwaj, A., & Glasner, P. E. (2012). Local cells, global science: The rise of embryonic stem cell research in India . Routledge.

For further research on specific European countries regarding ethical and regulatory framework, we recommend this database: Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Europe . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-europe

[51] Klitzman, R. (2006). Complications of culture in obtaining informed consent. The American Journal of Bioethics, 6(1), 20–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265160500394671 see also: Ekmekci, P. E., & Arda, B. (2017). Interculturalism and Informed Consent: Respecting Cultural Differences without Breaching Human Rights. Cultura (Iasi, Romania) , 14 (2), 159–172.; For why trust is important in research, see also: Gray, B., Hilder, J., Macdonald, L., Tester, R., Dowell, A., & Stubbe, M. (2017). Are research ethics guidelines culturally competent? Research Ethics , 13 (1), 23-41. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016116650235

[52] The Qur'an (M. Khattab, Trans.). (1965). Al-Mu’minun, 23: 12-14. https://quran.com/23

[53] Lenfest, Y. (2017, December 8). Islam and the beginning of human life . Bill of Health. https://blog.petrieflom.law.harvard.edu/2017/12/08/islam-and-the-beginning-of-human-life/

[54] Aksoy, S. (2005). Making regulations and drawing up legislation in Islamic countries under conditions of uncertainty, with special reference to embryonic stem cell research. Journal of Medical Ethics , 31: 399-403.; see also: Mahmoud, Azza. "Islamic Bioethics: National Regulations and Guidelines of Human Stem Cell Research in the Muslim World." Master's thesis, Chapman University, 2022. https://doi.org/10.36837/ chapman.000386

[55] Rashid, R. (2022). When does Ensoulment occur in the Human Foetus. Journal of the British Islamic Medical Association , 12 (4). ISSN 2634 8071. https://www.jbima.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/2-Ethics-3_-Ensoulment_Rafaqat.pdf.

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[57] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.), Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press. https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[58] Lecso, P. A. (1991). The Bodhisattva Ideal and Organ Transplantation. Journal of Religion and Health , 30 (1), 35–41. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27510629 ; Bodhisattva, S. (n.d.). The Key of Becoming a Bodhisattva . A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of Life. http://www.buddhism.org/Sutras/2/BodhisattvaWay.htm

[59] There is no explicit religious reference to when life begins or how to conduct research that interacts with the concept of life. However, these are relevant verses pertaining to how the fetus is viewed. (( King James Bible . (1999). Oxford University Press. (original work published 1769))

Jerimiah 1: 5 “Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee; and before thou camest forth out of the womb I sanctified thee…”

In prophet Jerimiah’s insight, God set him apart as a person known before childbirth, a theme carried within the Psalm of David.

Psalm 139: 13-14 “…Thou hast covered me in my mother's womb. I will praise thee; for I am fearfully and wonderfully made…”

These verses demonstrate David’s respect for God as an entity that would know of all man’s thoughts and doings even before birth.

[60] It should be noted that abortion is not supported as well.

[61] The Vatican. (1987, February 22). Instruction on Respect for Human Life in Its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation Replies to Certain Questions of the Day . Congregation For the Doctrine of the Faith. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19870222_respect-for-human-life_en.html

[62] The Vatican. (2000, August 25). Declaration On the Production and the Scientific and Therapeutic Use of Human Embryonic Stem Cells . Pontifical Academy for Life. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_academies/acdlife/documents/rc_pa_acdlife_doc_20000824_cellule-staminali_en.html ; Ohara, N. (2003). Ethical Consideration of Experimentation Using Living Human Embryos: The Catholic Church’s Position on Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research and Human Cloning. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology . Retrieved from https://article.imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/30/2-3/pii/2003018/77-81.pdf.

[63] Smith, G. A. (2022, May 23). Like Americans overall, Catholics vary in their abortion views, with regular mass attenders most opposed . Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/05/23/like-americans-overall-catholics-vary-in-their-abortion-views-with-regular-mass-attenders-most-opposed/

[64] Rosner, F., & Reichman, E. (2002). Embryonic stem cell research in Jewish law. Journal of halacha and contemporary society , (43), 49–68.; Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.), Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press. https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

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[66] Ruttenberg, D. (2020, May 5). The Torah of Abortion Justice (annotated source sheet) . Sefaria. https://www.sefaria.org/sheets/234926.7?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en

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[75] Pirzada, N. (2022). The Expansion of Turkey’s Medical Tourism Industry. Voices in Bioethics , 8 . https://doi.org/10.52214/vib.v8i.9894

[76] Stem Cell Tourism: False Hope for Real Money . Harvard Stem Cell Institute (HSCI). (2023). https://hsci.harvard.edu/stem-cell-tourism , See also: Bissassar, M. (2017). Transnational Stem Cell Tourism: An ethical analysis. Voices in Bioethics , 3 . https://doi.org/10.7916/vib.v3i.6027

[77] Song, P. (2011) The proliferation of stem cell therapies in post-Mao China: problematizing ethical regulation, New Genetics and Society , 30:2, 141-153, DOI: 10.1080/14636778.2011.574375

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Olivia Bowers

MS Bioethics Columbia University (Disclosure: affiliated with Voices in Bioethics)

Mifrah Hayath

SM Candidate Harvard Medical School, MS Biotechnology Johns Hopkins University

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NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT An Empirical Study of the Effects of Innovation Strategy, Organization Learning, and Market Conditions

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Cultural Relativity and Acceptance of Embryonic Stem Cell Research

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