research title about science education

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• Published: 02 November 2021

Authentic STEM research, practices of science, and interest development in an informal science education program

• Bobby Habig   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0486-4482 1 , 2 , 3 &
• Preeti Gupta 1  

International Journal of STEM Education volume  8 , Article number:  57 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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A Publisher Correction to this article was published on 11 January 2022

This article has been updated

Two critical challenges in science education are how to engage students in the practices of science and how to develop and sustain interest. The goal of this study was to examine the extent to which high school youth, the majority of whom are members of racial and ethnic groups historically underrepresented in STEM, learn the skills and practices of science and in turn develop interest in conducting scientific research as part of their career pursuits. To accomplish this goal, we applied Hidi and Renninger’s well-tested theoretical framework for studying interest development in the context of a museum-based, informal science education (ISE) program. We used a mixed methods approach, incorporating both survey and interview data, to address three research questions: (1) As youth engage in authentic science research, do they develop perceived competence in mastering the skills and practices of science? (2) Do participants increase, maintain, or decrease interest in science research as a result of this experience? (3) How does participation in scientific practices manifest in non-program contexts?

Our study yielded three main results. First, we found that participants developed competence in mastering several of the skills and practices of science. Strikingly, there was significant improvement in self-reported level of competency for 15 specific research skills. Second, we found that participants maintained their interest in scientific research over time. Our post-survey results revealed that one hundred percent of students were either excited about or expressed deep interest in scientific research. Based on a Phases of Interest Development Rubric developed for this study, most participants exhibited emerging individual interest . Finally, participants exhibited significant increases in the frequency in which they engaged in scientific practices outside of the program.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that participation in authentic research in an ISE context affords youth critical opportunities for gaining mastery of several of the skills and practices of science, which in turn reinforces, and in some cases increases participants’ interest in scientific research beyond the span of the program.

Women and members of historically marginalized racial and ethnic groups remain underrepresented in STEM fields (Kricorian et al., 2020 ). According to the National Science Board ( 2020 ), even though Black and Hispanic adults comprise 11.9% and 15.6% of the US population, these proportions do not correspond with the STEM workforce. Specifically, only 5.6% of Blacks and 7.5% of Hispanics hold careers in science and engineering. In contrast, Asians are overrepresented in science and engineering careers and White representation is similar to their proportion in the general population. Specifically, 19.8% of Asians and 65.0% of Whites hold careers in science and engineering careers yet Asians comprise 5.8% and Whites 64.1% of the US population, respectively. Furthermore, while the number of women with bachelors’ degrees doubled in the past two decades, women remain underrepresented in the STEM workforce: only 29.0% of science and engineering careers are held by women, even though women comprise 51.5% of the US population (National Science Board, 2020 ). At the root of these disparities is inequitable access to STEM learning experiences essential for stimulating interest and exposure to the skills, vocabulary, and foundational concepts necessary to successfully engage in college-level STEM coursework, and for fostering a sense of belonging and identification within the scientific enterprise (National Research Council, 2009 , 2015 ). Although there is a great deal that must be done to create equitable and inclusive practices that appropriately address social injustices, informal science institutions have led the way in reaching audiences historically underrepresented in STEM and have served as incubators of interest development (National Research Council, 2015 ).

Many informal science learning programs provide opportunities for participants to engage in authentic science (e.g., Chaffee et al., 2021 ; Flowers & Beyer, 2016 ; Habig et al., 2018 ). While there are multiple definitions of authentic science, there appears to be consensus with respect to two components: (1) authentic science includes experiences or practices in which students engage in real world science meaning that they explore phenomena that does not have predetermined outcomes and that connects to specific scientific issues in their lives; and (2) authentic science learning involves inquiry-based, student-directed experiences (Braund & Reiss, 2006 ). A certain type of authentic science integral to many informal science education (ISE) programs is one in which youth are positioned to engage in authentic science research . From our perspective, authentic science research is defined as experiences in which students engage as practitioners of science, that is, where they develop research questions and use specific tools and practices of science in real-world contexts to collect and analyze data, and to communicate their findings (Buxton, 2006 ; Habig et al., 2018 ; Weiss & Chi, 2019 ).

Because of the many restrictions associated with formal science education, including preparation for standardized tests and prescribed laboratory activities, authentic science is often more amenable to out-of-school and informal learning contexts than the formal classroom (Adams et al., 2012 ; Braund & Reiss, 2006 ). Authentic science research experiences in informal settings are typically those that parallel the practicing scientific culture of the institution; and are shaped by the unique resources and features available including access to scientists, technologies, tools, and a repository of specimens and artefacts unique to each institution (Adams et al., 2012 ; Blanchard et al., 2020 ; Braund & Reiss, 2006 ; National Research Council, 2009 ). Authentic science research in informal settings might include real-world, student-directed experiences, such as conducting ecological surveys, observing the night sky, and extracting DNA from museum specimens (Braund & Reiss, 2006 ). For example, Project True (Teens Researching Urban Ecology) uses the resources of Fordham University and the Wildlife Conservation Society to provide guided inquiry-based projects in parks and greenspaces for pre-college students in the New York Metropolitan area (Aloisio et al., 2018 ). The Youth Astronomy Apprenticeship, an informal science education program facilitated by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (Barros-Smith et al., 2012 ; Norland et al., 2009 ), and iTEAMS (Innovative Technology-Enabled Astronomy for Middle Schools), a project facilitated by the Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (Miller et al., 2011 ; Ward et al., 2012 ), both provide informal learning participants access to institutional resources, including robotic telescopes and guided mentorships. The Whitten–Newman ExplorOlogy Program, an ISE program facilitated by the Sam Noble Museum in collaboration with Oklahoma State University, provides high school students access to the Museum’s resources, including fossil specimens and a fossil prep lab as well as research opportunities in which participants work side-by-side with paleontologists conducting paleontological fieldwork projects (Korn, 2011 ). These varied research experiences demonstrate how, in contrast to many formal education settings, the resources of informal science institutions are especially amenable to providing experiences that engage youth in authentic science.

Authentic research experiences in informal learning contexts, where youth engage as practitioners of science, are also thought to be critical for the development of science-affinity identities and for facilitating interest development (Adams et al., 2014 ; Blanchard et al., 2020 ; Gray, 2013 ; Habig et al., 2021 ). According to the National Research Council ( 2012 ), the skills and practices of science are described as three spheres of activity: (1) investigation and empirical inquiry; (2) construction of explanations using argument, analysis, or models; and (3) developing explanations and solutions. The theoretical rationale for engaging in scientific practices is based on the philosophy that students cannot fully understand scientific content and appreciate the nature of science without engaging in practices themselves. Some of the skills or practices of science that youth develop in ISE programs parallel those described in the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) and include asking questions, planning and carrying out investigations, analyzing and interpreting data, using mathematics and computational thinking, constructing explanations, engaging in argument from evidence, and communicating information (National Research Council, 2012 ). As youth become competent practitioners—that is, as they become more confident in their abilities to work independently or to teach others the skills and practices of science that they develop while engaging in authentic science research—they begin to see themselves as a ‘science person’ and imagine themselves as a STEM practitioner (Habig et al., 2018 ). This theorization of identity stems from seminal writings of Carlone and Johnson ( 2007 ), where they operationalize identity as intersecting dimensions of performance, competence, and recognition. As youth engage in activities or performance, and as they become more competent, that is, as they “demonstrate meaningful knowledge and understanding of science content and [are] motivated to understand the world scientifically” (p. 1190), not only do they see themselves as people who can do science, others also recognize them as competent at science. We hypothesize that opportunities to practice authentic science research in an informal science setting contributes to the development of specific competencies and skills, and the recognition as one who can do science. Our standpoint is that this contributes to a deepening of interest in STEM.

Theoretical framework

Hidi and Renninger ( 2006 ) offer a well-tested theoretical framework for studying interest development in an ISE setting. According to their framework, interest is defined as a psychological state in which an individual has a predisposition to reengage in disciplinary content over time through sustained interaction with the environment (Hidi & Renninger, 2006 ; Krapp & Prenzel, 2011 ; Krapp, 2002 , 2007 ; Renninger & Hidi, 2011 ). Hidi and Renninger ( 2006 ) identify four discrete phases of interest development: (1) triggered situational; (2) maintained situational; (3) emerging individual; and (4) well-developed individual interest. This framework is especially applicable for participants of ISE programs because these students typically enter a program with some interest in science (National Research Council, 2009 ), and the four phases model allows for a more nuanced approach to studying changes in interest.

The first two phases of interest development (situational interest) are characterized by focused attention and a positive reaction to environmental stimuli; it consists of a phase in which interest is triggered and a phase in which interest is maintained situationally (Hidi & Renninger, 2006 ). After interest is triggered (phase one), interest either grows (phase two) or wanes (returns to phase one) situationally based on extrinsic and intrinsic factors including the type of learning environment, the amount of external support, and personal meaningfulness (Hidi & Renninger, 2006 ). The second two phases (individual interest) are characterized by a predisposition to reengage with disciplinary content over time; it consists of a phase in which there is emerging individual interest and a phase in which there is well-developed individual interest (Hidi & Renninger, 2006 ). In these two phases, an individual is less dependent on external support and interest development is more self-generated (Hidi & Renninger, 2006 ). Particularly important to note is that these are not stages. In the analogy of stages, one would graduate from one stage to another, but in the analogy of phases, one can move across phases bidirectionally depending on several factors (Renninger & Hidi, 2016 ). Many external factors grounded in sociocultural issues could influence shifting from later to earlier phases of interest. These include negative encounters with teachers of a particular subject (e.g., an unsupportive science teacher), feeling that the area of interest is not inclusive to certain races or gender types (e.g., females in the computer science field), or even an unsuccessful learning experience which lacked scaffolds and supports (e.g., participation in a badly managed robotics program) (Bell et al., 2013 ; Renninger et al., 2019 ; Renninger & Hidi, 2011 ).

From a sociocultural perspective, the potential for developing interest is in the learner, but it is the relationship that the individual has with the environment, including meaningful social interactions, that support interest development (Pressick-Kilborn, 2015 ; Renninger & Hidi, 2011 ). During earlier phases of interest development, interests are triggered by heightened affect and those triggers are provided by different stimuli, including social interactions, the design of activities, and instructional practices that help learners to engage in an activity (Renninger et al., 2019 ). Critically, a prerequisite to interest development is sufficient content knowledge to trigger an individual’s attention (Renninger & Hidi, 2016 ). With this in mind, to foster interest development during authentic learning experiences, it is often important to provide learners with sufficient support, because inquiry-based, self-directed learning can be overwhelming without sufficient content knowledge and expert guidance (Kirschner et al., 2006 ). One way to address this issue is through peer support and student/scientist partnerships (e.g., Aloisio et al., 2018 ; Barros-Smith et al., 2012 ). For example, the ¡Youth & the Ocean! (¡YO!) program facilitated by the Lawrence Hall of Science in collaboration with the University of California, Santa Cruz utilizes graduate student mentors to guide cohorts of high school students as they engage in youth-driven marine science investigations (Weiss & Chi, 2019 ). Hence, from a sociocultural perspective, opportunities to engage in meaningful social interactions with like-minded peers and guided training from expert adults are two important design features for triggering and maintaining the early phases of interest development (Pressick-Kilborn, 2015 ; Renninger & Hidi, 2011 ; Renninger et al., 2019 ). Later phases of interest development tend to develop gradually through repeated triggers from the environment, which may emanate from the above-mentioned design features (i.e., meaningful social interactions with like-minded peers and adults), but can also be self-generated (Renninger, 2000 , 2010 ). Compared to other activities, individuals with well-developed interest reengage: (1) more frequently; (2) with greater depth of understanding and knowledge; (3) voluntarily; and (4) independently (Renninger & Hidi, 2016 ). In this study, we used a rubric based on these four behavior indicators to determine participants’ phase of interest (to be described below).

Overview of research questions and rationale

Inspired by current theoretical understandings of interest development, the aim of this study was to examine the role of authentic science research as a programmatic feature in a museum-based ISE program. To accomplish this aim, we assessed how participation in this program impacted participants’ self-reported skill development (i.e., perceived competence in learning the skills and practices of science), and their interest in science research as measured by frequency of engagement, depth of engagement, voluntary engagement, and capacity for independent engagement (the four behavior indicators that signal the latter phases of interest). Specifically, we addressed the following research questions: (1) As youth engage in authentic science research, do they develop perceived competence in mastering the skills and practices of science? (2) Do participants increase, maintain, or decrease interest in science research as a result of this experience? (3) How does participation in scientific practices manifest in non-program contexts? Based on our results, we used Hidi and Renninger’s ( 2006 ) phases of interest development framework to discuss variation in participants’ interest in pursuing scientific research following their informal science learning experience and use these findings to inform program design.

We were particularly interested in scientific research because there is a critical need for youth, including those who have been historically underrepresented in STEM, to consider careers in scientific research (Hurtado et al., 2009 ). A diverse research workforce is important because multiple perspectives help contribute to what scientific questions are asked, the nature and approach researchers consider in a study, and their implications for society. By embracing a diversity of voices, scholars can work towards advancing our knowledge base and equitably addressing the needs of society. Critically, engagement in practices that embody the research process help youth, including those who do not choose a STEM career, to learn a set of transferable skills (National Research Council, 2013 ).

Study design

We applied a mixed methods approach, incorporating both quantitative and qualitative analyses, to study interest development of high school participants of a museum-based informal science education program. Our aim was to examine the role of authentic science research as a programmatic feature in a museum-based ISE program. For our quantitative analyses, we conducted baseline, midpoint, and post surveys to assess how participation in a museum program impacted participants’ self-reported skill and interest development across the duration of the program. For our qualitative analyses, we conducted semi-structured interviews and administered open-ended questions, and then used deductive coding to analyze transcripts and to assess participants’ phase of interest development using Renninger and Hidi’s ( 2016 ) behavioral indicators (frequency of engagement, depth of engagement, voluntary engagement, and capacity for independent engagement). For both our quantitative and qualitative data, we used an expert panel to ensure content validity of our research tools. In the sections below, we provide a description of the study context, participants, instruments, procedures, and analysis strategies.

Context: the museum learning program

The Lang Program (Lang) is a 7-year out-of-school-time program at the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH). It has been in operation for over 21 years, admitting a new cohort annually. The program invites New York City youth, more than half who are members of racial and ethnic groups underrepresented in the sciences, to deeply engage with topics in the natural sciences through coursework and research experiences that leverage the museum’s resources, which include hundreds of exhibits, objects, and collections, and access to scientists and science labs. Youth apply for Lang at age ten, when they are in the fifth grade. Museum staff visit schools and conduct outreach activities to recruit applicants who are motivated and interested in science, but who may not have opportunities or resources for informal science learning experiences within their communities. The goal is to create a gender-balanced, racially diverse cohort. At least 60% of participants belong to socioeconomic backgrounds that are near or below poverty level. Twenty youth are selected annually, and attend Lang throughout middle and high school, meeting on alternate Saturdays during the academic year and for 3 weeks during the summer for a minimum of 165 contact hours per year. The program introduces participants to AMNH research disciplines—the biological sciences, Earth and planetary sciences, and anthropological sciences—while incorporating material from the over 40 permanent and special exhibitions. Starting in the 8 th grade and then all the way through 12 th grade, Lang youth can annually join research teams and work alongside AMNH scientists and educators conducting field- or laboratory-based projects that parallel AMNH research. Within the program, participants are afforded annual opportunities to participate in authentic science research by joining a research team; each team is facilitated by scientists, educators, and/or graduate students and meets approximately 60 h spread over several months.

Participants

In the present study, we focused on a cohort of 17 Lang students who participated in a landscape genetics research team during the summer and fall of 2018 (Table 1 ). Participants of this research team engaged in authentic science research by working collaboratively with a scientist, an informal science educator, and a graduate student. During this guided experience, participants worked in small teams of three to four students and engaged in practices that embody the research process. Each team developed original research questions, planned and carried out fieldwork and laboratory investigations, analyzed and interpreted their data using computational thinking, and communicated their findings to the public. The skills and practices that the participants learned included specific skills related to their respective projects such as DNA extraction or running a gel electrophoresis as well as practices related to being a researcher such as conducting a literature review and keeping a lab notebook. The specific features of the landscape genetics research team, which we describe below, is a typical experience of participants of this museum program.

Description of the authentic science research program

Landscape genetics is a scientific discipline that merges the fields of population genetics and landscape ecology. The goal of the landscape genetics research team was to assess species diversity and population genetics of organisms along the waterways within and adjacent to New York City, areas that were part of participants’ own communities and neighborhoods. In alignment with the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS), which promotes a learning progression in which youth develop content knowledge by engaging in the discourse and practices that embody the research process (National Research Council, 2012 ), students engaged in the practices of science by partaking in both laboratory and fieldwork. As part of this process, youth collected specimens from a set of locations surrounding New York Harbor. At each location, youth also collected data on an array of abiotic factors including salinity, dissolved oxygen, temperature, and turbidity. Following sample collection, participants engaged in laboratory work that incorporated genetic techniques including DNA extraction, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification, and DNA sequencing to identify organisms. DNA sequencing was used to inform bioinformatics analyses, yielding patterns of genetic variation among the littoral communities of New York Harbor. Thus, by engaging in the scientific process, youth developed several specific skills and practices of science, which they used to address several fundamental questions about the landscape genetics and biodiversity along New York Harbor and its surrounding waterways. Some of the original research questions formulated and addressed by participants during this process included: In what ways does the landscape of New York impact the distribution and genetic variation of organisms along its shoreline? How and to what extent to do varying abiotic environments along the shoreline of New York impact the distribution and genetic variation of different organisms? How do the genetic architectures and the distribution of littoral organisms of New York Harbor change over time? Thus, through this authentic research experience, participants used their results to communicate their findings to the research community and to better understand whether Queens, Bronx, and Manhattan are biogeographical barriers to species dispersal and distribution and whether the landscape of New York influences genetic variation and patterns of speciation. An outline of the landscape genetics research team curriculum is depicted in Table 2 .

Instruments and procedures

To test our hypothesis that opportunities to practice authentic science research in an informal science setting contributes to participants’ competence in mastering the skills and practices of science, which in turn stimulates interest development and motivates youth to consider pursuing these interests beyond the duration of the ISE experience, we applied a mixed methods approach. For our quantitative analyses, participants were administered surveys during three timepoints (Fig.  1 ): (1) before participation in the research team (baseline survey); (2) following the summer session (midpoint survey); and (3) following the fall session (post survey) (see " Methods " supplement to view all three surveys). The surveys consisted of both Likert-type and open-ended questions and were comprised of three sections: (1) skills and practices; (2) interest in scientific research; and (3) engagement in the practices of science beyond the span of the program (at home, with friends outside the program, and in school). We summarize each research question, sources of data, and analysis tools in Table 3 .

Timeline of research team activities, survey deployment, and interviews

The Likert-type survey questions that focused on the skills and practices of science included questions to gauge whether the focal youth perceived themselves as competent practitioners over time. Altogether, youth were surveyed from a scale of one to four on 17 skills and practices that were introduced during their participation in this research team (Table 4 ). Participants rated their experience using each scientific practice by selecting one of four responses: (1) need to learn; (2) need to review; (3) I can do it without review; and (4) I can do it without review AND I can also teach others. Four Likert-type survey questions focused on interest development (Table 4 ; Additional file 1 ); participants rated their interest in scientific research based on one of four categories: (1) not interested; (2) might be interested; (3) excited about; and (4) deep interest. Finally, four variables were used to assess participants’ engagement in scientific practices in non-program contexts (Table 4 ). Specifically, we surveyed on a scale from one to four how often participants: (1) read scientific articles; (2) discuss science with friends; (3) discuss science with family; and (4) think about science-related problems outside of the program. For this analysis, students rated frequency of engagement outside of the museum program by selecting one of four responses: (1) rarely; (2) sometimes (monthly); (3) often (weekly); or (4) very often (almost daily). For our quantitative analyses, we used mixed effects repeated measures ANOVAs to assess how the following changed over time: (1) perceived competence in mastering the skills and practices of science, (2) interest development, and (3) scientific practices in non-program contexts.

Because research suggests that survey questions alone might not adequately indicate level of interest (Renninger & Hidi, 2016 ) and that younger and older youth might interpret the same survey differently (Frenzel et al., 2012 ), Renninger and Hidi ( 2016 ) recommend that questions about interest development should incorporate triangulation methods including open-ended questions and the collection of additional data to confirm or refute close-ended survey data. Thus, 1 month after the culmination of the landscape genetics research team, we conducted semi-structured interviews with all 17 participants to better understand their level of interest development with respect to scientific research. For logistical reasons, we scheduled five different interview dates with three to four participants per interview. For each of these interviews, we intentionally grouped students with similar levels of interest (based on the results of our quantitative surveys) to minimize the impact of participants influencing each other’s answers.

For our qualitative analyses, we used a theory-driven approach to analyze the interview data and open-ended questions. Specifically, we analyzed the transcripts (BH, PG) using deductive coding based on the four behavioral indicators of interest development (Renninger & Hidi, 2016 ): (1) frequency of engagement; (2) depth of engagement; (3) voluntary engagement; and (4) capacity for independent reengagement. Deductive analysis is a top-down qualitative approach in which a researcher uses predetermined codes, in this case the four behavioral indicators, and uses these data to work from theory to hypotheses (Bingham & Witkowsky, 2021 ; Creswell, 2013 ). Accordingly, we used this approach to identify specific behaviors of participants indicative of their phase of interest development and to evaluate our hypothesis that authentic science research contributes to interest development.

From these multiple sources of data, which included baseline, midpoint, and post surveys conducted by museum staff, audio recordings of interviews (administered by BH), and qualitative analyses of these documents based on deductive coding (BH and PG), we used the Phases of Interest Development Rubric (Table 5 ) to quantify the phase of interest development of each participant (BH and PG) based on each of the four behavioral indicators. We then averaged these four scores to calculate each participant’s overall phase of interest development. By doing so, our quantitative analysis of the qualitative data (interview transcripts) was not a replacement for the qualitative analysis, but instead served as a complementary methodology to better triangulate our data (Fakis et al., 2014 ).

Validation and reliability

To ensure the content validity of our survey tools, interview questions, and interest development rubric, a panel of scholars was recruited to evaluate whether these instruments were adequately representative of the topics under investigation. The criteria for the selection of panel members included experience and familiarity with: (1) ISE research; (2) literature on interest development; and (3) survey development. Following the assessment process, we used the survey data (both forced choice and open-ended questions) and interview data to inform our rubric. Specifically, we used the rubric to identify each participant’s phase of interest development and from our interview data, we extracted individual examples of behavioral indicators representative of the different phases of interest development. To assess inter-rater reliability of the Phases of Interest Development Rubric , we used both percent agreement (Lombard et al., 2002 ) and Cohen’s kappa (Cohen, 1968 ). Percent agreement was 76.6% and Cohen’s kappa (k) was 0.69 both indicative of substantial agreement (Cohen, 1968 ).

Statistical analysis

All survey data analyses were conducted using R version 4.02 (R Core Team, 2021 ). We conducted mixed effects repeated measure ANOVAs using the nlme package (Pinheiro et al., 2006 ). Each response variable (Table 4 ) was modeled individually using three timepoints: (1) baseline survey; (2) midpoint survey; and (3) post survey. To get an overall sense of how participants perceived themselves as practitioners of science, we also calculated composite scores for skills and practices of science and practices in non-program contexts (Table 4 ). We used the multcomp package to perform Tukey post-hoc tests to compare differences between timepoints (baseline survey vs. midpoint survey; baseline survey vs. post survey; midpoint survey vs. post-survey). Although the use of parametric statistics in the analysis of interval or ratio scale data is commonly practiced and has been found to be robust (Norman, 2010 ), we acknowledge that we violate the assumption that the dependent variables are continuous variables.

Here we revisit each research question that was presented in the Introduction and present the results of corresponding analyses. We also present our findings from the Phases of Interest Development Rubric and discuss specific behaviors we identified that were indicative of a specific phase of interest development.

As youth engage in authentic science research, do they develop perceived competence in the skills and practices of science?

Our first research question addressed whether participants developed competence in mastering the skills and practices of science. To address this question, we conducted a repeated measures ANOVA to assess participants’ self-reported skill development across the duration of the program. In support of the idea that engaging in practices of science that embody the research process is essential for learning (National Research Council, 2012 ), participants exhibited significant improvement in their self-reported ratings of competence in mastering the skills and practices of science over time (composite score of the 17 skills and practices; estimate: 48.118; SE = 1.576; df = 32; t  = 30.532; p  < 0.001; Fig.  2 ). Moreover, for all 17 participants, there were statistically significant ( p  < 0.05) increases in levels of competency for 15 of 17 individual skills and practices and a marginal increase (p < 0.10) for one of 17 individual skills (Figs. S1–S17). Notably, Tukey post-hoc tests revealed significant increases in levels of competency for several individual skills including but not limited to using a pipette (baseline vs. post: p = 0.006), DNA extraction (baseline vs. post: p < 0.001), keeping a lab notebook (baseline vs. post: p < 0.001), measuring biodiversity (baseline vs. post: p < 0.001), and using the R program for Statistical Computing (baseline vs. post: p < 0.001).

Repeated measures ANOVA and Tukey multiple comparison tests were conducted to compare participants’ level of competence in mastering 17 skills and practices of science. Participants exhibited significant improvement over three timepoints: (1) baseline to midpoint; (2) midpoint to post-survey; and (3) baseline to post-survey (composite score of the 17 skills and practices; estimate: 48.118; SE = 1.576; df = 32; t = 30.532; p < 0.001)

Do participants increase, maintain, or decrease interest in science research as a result of this experience?

Our second research question focused on whether participants’ interest in scientific research increased, was maintained, or decreased as a result of this experience. A comparison of our baseline survey (mean = 3.64; SD = 0.49) to our post survey (mean = 3.70, SD = 0.47) revealed that participants maintained their interest in scientific research over time (1 = not interested; 2 = might be interested; 3 = excited about; 4 = deep interest). Based on post-survey results, one hundred percent of the students rated their interest in scientific research as either 3 (excited about) or 4 (deep interest). Specifically, five of 17 participants were excited about scientific research and 12 of 17 expressed deep interest in scientific research. Finally, we triangulated both interview and survey data to identify participants’ interest in scientific research 1 month after the culmination of the research team. Based on the Phases of Interest Development Rubric (Table 5 ), we found that two participants exhibited maintained situational interest in scientific research, 13 participants exhibited emerging individual interest , and two participants exhibited well-developed interest . Overall, the mean rubric score of all 17 participants was 2.96 (SD = 0.455) indicative of emerging individual interest . Notably, the mean rubric score for participants who self-identified as Africans of Black descent or Latina/o was 2.78 (SD = 0.45) and for females 3.09 (SD = 0.62), both indicative of emerging individual interest . The mean rubric score varied for each behavioral indicator: on average, participants rated highest on frequency of engagement (mean = 3.21; SD = 0.61) followed by depth of engagement (mean = 2.97; SD = 0.54), capacity for independent engagement (mean = 2.94; SD = 0.68), and voluntary engagement (mean = 2.74; SD = 0.53).

How does participation in scientific practices manifest in non-program contexts?

Another way to measure interest development is to assess the behavioral practices of program participants (Renninger & Hidi, 2016 ). To do so, we assessed whether participants engage in the skills and practices of science outside the scope of the program. Specifically, we tested whether participation in the following activities increased, was maintained, or decreased over time during non-program contexts: (1) reading scientific articles; (2) discussing science with friends; (3) discussing science with family; and (4) thinking about science-related questions and problems. Indeed, in support of the idea that participating in authentic research and engaging in the practices of science stimulates interest development over time, participants exhibited significant increases in the frequency that they engaged in scientific practices outside of the program (composite score of 4 practices in non-program contexts; estimate: 10.647; SE = 0.676; df = 32; t  = 15.76; p < 0.001; Fig.  3 ; Figs. S18–S21). In addition, based on our post-survey results (1 = rarely, 2 = monthly, 3 = weekly, 4 = almost daily), we found that on average, participants discussed scientific research with their family and read about scientific research on their own on an almost weekly basis (discussing science with family: mean = 2.81; SD = 1.10; reading scientific articles: mean = 2.63; SD = 0.87) and that they discussed scientific research with their friends and thought about science-related questions and problems in non-program contexts at least once a week (discussing science with friends: mean = 3.00; SD = 0.71; thinking about science-related questions: mean = 3.31; SD = 0.85).

Repeated measures ANOVA and Tukey multiple comparison tests were conducted to compare participants’ engagement in the skills and practices of science outside the scope of the program based on a composite score of four activities: (1) reading scientific articles; (2) discussing science with friends; (3) discussing science with family; and (4) thinking about science-related problems. Participants exhibited significant increases in engagement of science practices in non-program contexts over two different timepoints (composite score of 4 practices in non-program contexts; estimate: 10.647; SE = 0.676; df = 32; t  = 15.759; p < 0.001)

Categorizing of the participants in the four phases of interest development

Our mixed methods results, which is a combination of deductive analysis supplemented by quantitative data, allowed us to consider where these 17 participated landed within the four phases of interest development.

Situational interest in scientific research

Two of the 17 participants exhibited behaviors indicative of situational interest in scientific research. As a reminder, situational interest refers to a phase of interest development in which students exhibit focused attention and a positive reaction to environmental stimuli; it consists of a phase in which interest is triggered and a phase in which interest is maintained situationally (Hidi & Renninger, 2006 ). The first phase, triggered situational interest , is characterized by the development of a novel interest, which is “triggered” by an environmental stimulus that captures the attention of the learner (Renninger et al., 2019 ). The second phase, maintained situational interest , is characterized by attention to an environmental stimulus over a sustained duration of time (Renninger & Hidi, 2019 ). Because many young people enter ISE programs with personal motivation to engage in science activities, unsurprisingly, there were no participants identified as exhibiting triggered situational interest (Phase 1). However, two participants were identified as exhibiting maintained situational interest (Phase 2).

The participants who exhibited maintained situational interest typically sustained interest over extended periods, but also needed external support from an expert (Pressick-Kilborn, 2015 ; Renninger et al., 2019 ). They also occasionally participated in research beyond mandatory periods, and they indicated that they might want to independently engage in the activity or project in the future (Renninger & Hidi, 2016 , 2019 ). For example, student 2 and student 11, the two participants we identified as exhibiting maintained situational interest , both expressed the need for external support when engaging in the skills and practices of science and appeared to be slightly less independent than their peers. Student 11 said that she “always prefers to have somebody there” and student 2 stated, “I would definitely have someone supervise me…I definitely need a supervisor to help me out”. While both participants were still open to engaging in science research in the future, they were also considering other fields of study. Student 2 further exhibited signs of maintained situational interest when he expressed interest in participating in additional sessions beyond the scope of the program. Likewise, Student 11 exhibited additional evidence of maintained situational interest when she attended one of the voluntary sessions offered by the program and when she participated in a group chat with her research team to discuss their project outside of the program. Our findings are consistent with research showing that early phases of interest development are largely dependent on external support from adults and peers (Pressick-Kilborn, 2015 ; Renninger et al., 2019 ) and aspects of the curriculum including collaborative group work (Palmer et al., 2016 ; Renninger et al., 2019 ).

Individual interest in science research

Fifteen of 17 (88.2%) participants exhibited behaviors indicative of individual interest in scientific research including seven of nine (77.78%) students who self-identified as Black of African descent or Latina/o, and six of seven (85.71%) females. Individual interest is characterized by a predisposition to reengage with disciplinary content over time (Hidi & Renninger, 2006 ); it consists of two phases— emerging individual interest (phase 3) and well-developed individual interest (phase 4). Of the 15 participants who exhibited individual interest in scientific research, 13 were identified as exhibiting emerging individual interest (phase 3) and two were identified as exhibiting well-developed individual interest (phase 4).

Participants with emerging individual interest exhibited evidence of self-generated interest and typically revisited content voluntarily (Renninger & Hidi, 2016 , 2019 ; Renninger & Riley, 2013 ). Although they still sometimes needed external support from peers and experts, especially when confronted with challenges, individuals with emerging individual interest typically exhibited mastery over the content and required minimal intervention (Renninger & Hidi, 2016 , 2019 ). For example, student 12 learned how to code during his research team experience. He shared that he spent countless hours at home learning how to use the R Program for Statistical Computing to analyze his data. Critically, when he faced obstacles, he stated, “…having [the instructor’s] email was important for me, having contact with [the instructor] so I could be able to catch up at home.” Like Student 12, other participants with emerging individual interest also tended to exhibit a capacity for independent reengagement, which was evidenced when they revisited content when not required. For example, student 8 described how she revisited content in non-program contexts:

Yeah, I would say, before we started doing these research projects, I wouldn’t really so much look into science articles…it never really crosses my mind. But, doing these research projects and searching up articles, you know, I realized that there’s such fascinating research out there that I would like to learn more about and especially now. Sometimes my parents and I will discuss biology and like I’ll search up articles and I’ll show it to them.

Finally, participants with emerging individual interest also expressed a desire to revisit content in the future (Renninger & Hidi, 2016 , 2019 ). Indeed, of the 13 participants who exhibited emerging individual interest in scientific research, 10 expressed interest in pursuing research as a career when interviewed 1 month following the culmination of the program.

Two participants exhibited evidence of well-developed individual interest in scientific research, defined as an “enduring predisposition to reengage with…content over time” (Hidi & Renninger, 2006 , p. 115). Well-developed individual interest is characterized by four key characteristics: (1) high frequency of engagement; (2) high depth of understanding of disciplinary content; (3) voluntary engagement; and (4) a propensity for independent reengagement (Renninger & Hidi, 2016 ). Two participants, students 14 and 17, exhibited the four characteristics of well-developed individual interest . First, both participants exhibited exemplary attendance and indicated a desire for further engagement. For example, student 14 reflected, “I wanted like more field days and more lab work, but also more time to work on the paper itself and also the poster, because I feel like we could’ve made it better. I think we could’ve done more in-depth analysis of our data too.” Second, the two participants with well-developed individual interest also demonstrated depth of understanding. For example, student 17 stated, “I would feel really comfortable teaching the material that I’ve learned…I would be really confident in teaching it”. Indeed, for 15 of 17 research skills, student 17 indicated on the post-survey that she did not require further review and that she was confident that she could teach these skills to others. Student 14 indicated the same for 13 specific skills. Third, the two participants with well-developed individual interest exhibited evidence of voluntary engagement as they both consistently attended non-mandatory sessions to work on their respective research projects. Finally, the two participants continually reengaged in content outside the program and beyond. For example, student 17 stated, “I read science articles almost every day and I feel like that interest has been pretty constant.” Student 14 stated, “I write for a teen science journal…I recently wrote an article about climate change and lobsters.” Indeed, our post-survey results indicated that students 14 and 17 discuss scientific research with friends and family and think about science-related questions and problems almost daily. Beyond the program, these two participants provided additional evidence of independent reengagement as they both applied for research programs at other ISE institutions following their experience in the program. Moreover, student 14 indicated that she plans to conduct research on ancient DNA when she attends college. While student 17 is interested in a career in medicine, following this experience, she said that she is considering pursuing an MD–PhD in the future.

One of the most critical challenges of educators is to figure out how to develop and maintain students’ interest (Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000 ). In this study, we found that participation in authentic research in an ISE context affords youth critical opportunities for gaining mastery of several of the skills and practices of science. Notably, we found that participants reported significant improvements in their level of competency for 15 specific research skills (Fig.  1 ; Figs. S1–S17). Our triangulated data suggest that mastery of these skills in turn reinforced, and in some cases increased participants’ interest in scientific research beyond the scope of the program. Indeed, based on the Phases of Interest Development Rubric developed for this study, the mean rubric score of all 17 participants was 2.96 indicative of emerging individual interest . Our data suggest that two aspects of participation in authentic science research programs are particularly important for building a science identity and for fostering interest development: (1) engagement with skills and practices that embody the research process, and (2) research experiences relevant to participants’ lives.

Engagement with skills and practices that embody the research process

The practices that participants learned in the museum program parallel those described in the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) (National Research Council, 2012 ). Specifically, in alignment with NGSS, participants were afforded opportunities to develop their own original research questions, to collect specimens in a local natural environment, to analyze and interpret their own data, and to communicate their findings to the museum community. As youth gained competence in mastering the skills and practices of science, this reinforced their interest in scientific research. For example, one participant (student 6) stated, “I think going out into the field and collecting data was like very attractive and then coming back into the lab and analyzing the data…not just having data given to you or having specimens given to you, that made it more personal and made it like more enticing.” Similarly, another student (student 8) stated, “actually going out and collecting the fish on our own with the proper instruments and, you know, collecting the DNA and getting all dirty with the mud and everything…I did PCR, I did gel electrophoresis, you know, and like I think that’s really cool and so I definitely increased my passion for science.” Going deeper, two specific scientific and engineering practices of NGSS that participants developed during the museum program were “analyzing and interpreting data” and “using mathematics and computational thinking” (p. 3). During the program, museum youth learned how to use different biodiversity indices (e.g., alpha diversity, Simpson index, Shannon–Weiner index, evenness), the R Program for Statistical computing, and phylogenetic trees to analyze and interpret data mathematically and computationally. In fact, participants reported significant increases in their level of competence for 15 specific research activities aligned with NGSS scientific and engineering practices. However, for two activities, gel electrophoresis and conducting a literature review, we did not find significant improvement in participants’ level of competence over time. For gel electrophoresis, we believe this was probably because of time constraints. During the program, the scientist mentor had to run these gels overnight after the participants had gone home; hence, students did not have sufficient time to develop this practice independently. For the activity of conducting a literature review, there was a marginal (p < 0.10), albeit nonsignificant, increase in competency over time. This finding might be explained by the fact that many participants entered the research team with prior experience conducting literature reviews either in the museum program and/or in their formal science education classes.

Research experiences relevant to participants’ lives

Our results suggest that participation in authentic science research relevant to participants’ lives helps to augment interest development (Renninger & Hidi, 2016 ). In support of this idea, Renninger et al., ( 2019 ) identified “personal relevance” (p. 4) as a trigger for interest development in a recent study of an informal, out-of-school time biology program. Accordingly, Furtak and Penuel ( 2019 ) emphasize the importance of research foregrounded by personal and community concerns. In the present study, participants conducted research in the waterways within and adjacent to New York City. Many of these study sites were spaces that participants were intimately familiar with while others, although not far, were situated in spaces where participants had never visited before. This setting afforded participants the opportunity to develop and investigate authentic, individualized questions based on phenomena relevant to their lives (Furtak & Penuel, 2019 ; National Research Council, 2013 ), including how to protect local ecosystems and how to conserve local biodiversity. One participant (student 8) stated that he is interested in a career in marine biology and that he was inspired by the research he conducted in New York Harbor: “I want to do [marine biology] as a career and for the rest of my life so that really opened my eyes…seeing how rigorous it was, I just wanted to keep on doing it and continue researching.” Following his participation in the Lang research team, student 8 signed up for a program in his high school, where he can continue independent research in his community based on the work he started at the museum. Adams and Branco ( 2017 ) further emphasize the importance of local parks as settings for authentic science research investigations. They write: “Parks are spaces where lived experiences and science learning could come together in ways not afforded by brick and mortar informal science institutions” (p. 338). Indeed, participants of the current study conducted investigations in their own backyards, the greenspaces and waterways of the New York metropolitan area and used these spaces to answer student-driven research questions relevant to their lives.

The role of authentic science research in identity development

Through their participation in authentic science research, museum participants were afforded opportunities to develop their science identities. In accordance with Carlone and Johnson’s ( 2007 ) concept of identity development, museum participants operationalized their science identity in three ways: (1) by engaging in rigorous research (performance); (2) by gaining mastery of the skills required to self-direct their learning (competence); and (3) by communicating their research to scientists, educators, and to the public-at-large at a culminating public poster presentation held in one of the museum halls (recognition). This authentic research experience presented students the opportunity to enact a particular identity and to make visible their competence to others. A similar study of undergraduates also found that engagement in authentic research (performance) contributed to gains in the mastery of several skills and practices of science (competence) including data collection, data analysis and interpretation, and experimental design as well as confidence in communicating science to others (recognition) (Thiry et al., 2012 ). Moreover, the authors of this study reported an association between authentic science research and the development of epistemological growth, gains in understanding the nature of scientific knowledge, and dispositions for being patient, thinking through problems, and learning from failure. These findings suggest that the STEM skills and practices that participants gain mastery of during ISE programs are “transferable competencies” that extend between and beyond STEM disciplines (Carnevale et al., 2011 ). In support of this idea, Flowers and Beyer ( 2016 ) conducted a study of high school participants of the Tyson Environmental Research Fellowship (TERF), an ISE program facilitated by Washington University and the Missouri Botanical Garden. Following this study, the authors hypothesized that the program’s sequence of educational exploration followed by immersion in authentic research were “transferable to other science disciplines and research environments” (p. 120). Similarly, our interview data suggest that providing youth opportunities to practice science in one discipline may be a cross-cutting experience (National Research Council, 2013 ). One participant (Student 1) articulated this point: “[Participation in the research team] did like reinforce the fact that I want to do research in college, not necessarily research in like environmental science, but definitely just like the idea of research and working on research projects and having that collaborative environment.” We add to a growing body of literature suggesting that authentic research experiences at the high school and early college levels prepare youth to develop a more refined understanding of what they may want to engage in as they navigate through college and beyond and develop their science identities.

The role of informal science institutions in promoting interest development.

We found multiple lines of evidence supporting our hypothesis that participation in an informal science research team contributes to interest development. First, our quantitative analyses indicated that participants entered the research team with a strong interest in research (baseline survey: mean = 3.64; SD = 0.49) and that their interest was sustained throughout this experience (post-survey: mean = 3.70, SD = 0.47). This is not a surprising result as participants of ISE programs typically enter a program with prior interest in science (National Research Council, 2009 ). However, even though students self-select for informal learning programs, it is often quite challenging to sustain participants’ interest for extended periods of time (e.g., Blanchard et al., 2018 ; Bonnett, 2018 ; Klein & Tisdal, 2014 ). Second, as suggested by Renninger and Hidi ( 2016 ), we also measured interest development by assessing the behavioral practices of program participants outside the context of the program. Specifically, we found that participants exhibited significant increases in the frequency that they engaged in scientific practices in non-program contexts including reading science articles and discussing science research with their friends. Finally, our interview data further supported our hypothesis that engagement in authentic science research contributes to interest development. Following participation in this program, two participants exhibited maintained situational interest in scientific research, 13 participants exhibited emerging individual interest , and two participants exhibited well-developed individual interest . Overall, the mean rubric score based on the Phases of Interest Development Rubric was 2.96, which is indicative of emerging individual interest . Furthermore, our interview data indicated that participation in the museum program either reinforced or augmented participants’ interest in engaging in scientific research in college. These findings are consistent with studies of other ISE programs that report an association between engagement in authentic science research and interest development (e.g., Barros-Smith et al., 2012 ; Salto et al., 2014 ; Weiss & Chi, 2019 ). Our triangulated data, in accordance with these studies, suggest that authentic research experiences in an ISE context are important vehicles for reinforcing and augmenting interest development.

There are many different perspectives on how to develop and maintain students’ interest (for a comprehensive review, see Renninger & Hidi, 2011 , 2019 ). Hecht et al. ( 2019 ) characterize interest as a “concept or word used in daily vernacular to describe a feeling of attraction or excitement for something outside of ourselves” (p. 692). According to this definition, “… interest embodies the desire to get to know more about something or someone” (Hecht et al., 2019 ; p.692). This conceptualization of interest development is a derivation of the influential work of Valsiner ( 1992 ), who describes interest as an “ongoing process in the life-world of the person” (p. 32). In the present study, our conceptualization of interest development was largely based on the foundational work of Hidi and Renninger ( 2006 ). We found that Hidi and Renninger’s ( 2006 ) conceptualization of interest development was especially applicable for a museum-based ISE program. This is because many students enter ISE programs with an interest in science, and the four-phase model allows for a more nuanced approach for studying interest development. Furthermore, because survey questions alone are inadequate for measuring interest development, the four behavioral indicators proposed by Renninger and Hidi ( 2016 )—frequency of engagement; depth of engagement; voluntary engagement; and capacity for independent reengagement—were the basis for developing our Phases of Interest Development Rubric . Critical scholarship from Brigid Barron ( 2006 ) supports this conceptualization and provides us with three interlocking key ideas about examining interest development from a learning ecology framework. These ideas, which she terms “conjectures”, are as follows: (1) a variety of resources and experiences can spark and sustain interest in learning; (2) people not only choose but develop and create learning opportunities for themselves once they are interested assuming they have time, freedom, and resources to learn; and (3) interest driven learning activities are boundary-crossing and self-sustaining. In support of these ideas, several studies of ISE programs in which youth are exposed to institutional resources and varied authentic experiences, have reported a positive correlation between participation in these programs and future engagement in STEM major and STEM careers (e.g., Aloisio et al., 2018 ; Habig et al., 2018 ; Winkleby et al., 2009 ).

While our results are based on only one study of one group of students from New York City, our findings are comparable to other studies of ISE programs across multiple major cities including Boston (e.g., Barros-Smith et al., 2012 ); Chicago (e.g., Chi et al., 2010 ); San Francisco (e.g., Weiss & Chi, 2019 ); and St. Louis (e.g., Flowers & Beyer, 2016 ). The program design principle of engaging students in authentic science research is ubiquitous in our nation. For example, 24 institutions in New York City collectively engage 500 students annually in science research mentoring programs (Chaffee, et al., 2021 ). While such experiences can be supported by formal K-12 institutions, we think that the unique attributes of informal science programs located in museums, universities, and even hospitals make these settings more amenable for fostering interest in science research. This is largely because many informal science institutions, including museums, zoos, universities, and gardens, already have a research department in place and a plethora of resources, including access to scientists, technologies, tools, and a repository of specimens and artefacts unique to each institution (Adams et al., 2012 ; Blanchard et al., 2020 ; Braund & Reiss, 2006 ; National Research Council, 2009 ). Thus, many ISE programs are well suited for providing youth opportunities to engage as communities of scholars in authentic research that parallel the practicing scientific culture of the institution. Ideally, partnerships between K-12 schools and a variety of formal and informal institutions will bring together assets and affordances that most benefit students (e.g., Hammerness et al., 2017 ; Weinstein et al., 2014 ).

Limitations

We acknowledge that there are several limitations to our study. First, one limitation of this study is the possibility of self-selection bias as students typically enter the research team with an interest in and prior experience in scientific research. A second limitation is the problem of institutional selection bias as students are not selected randomly to participate in this program. These two limitations, self-selection and institutional selection of participants, are quite common in ISE programs (National Research Council, 2009 ). Therefore, we think that Hidi and Renninger’s ( 2006 ) model is especially appropriate for this type of population, because it provides a more nuanced approach for studying interest development. A third limitation of this study was that interviews were only conducted after the culmination of the program. Therefore, we are missing baseline qualitative data, which would have allowed for identification and comparison of phases of interest development before and after participation in the research program. In the future, we are interested in re-interviewing students when they are in college to see how their phase of interest development changed longitudinally. A fourth limitation of this study was our modest sample size ( n  = 17). We accounted for this limitation by applying a mixed modeling approach. Indeed, the application of modeling-based methods, specifically with small sample sizes, has been found to yield less biased standard error estimates and higher statistical power than comparable methods (McNeish & Harring, 2017 ). Finally, a fifth limitation of our study was our lack of a comparison group, which prevents us from making any causal links between design principles and participants’ outcomes (Habig, 2020 ).

Conclusions and future directions

In support of our hypotheses, we found that authentic engagement in the research process helps youth become more confident in their abilities to work independently and/or to teach others the skills and practices of science and in turn, reinforces and possibly augments interest development. Moreover, our interview data suggest that engagement in authentic research was a transferable experience—that is, by providing youth opportunities to become practitioners of science in one discipline, it reinforced or motivated students to consider research in other disciplines. We suggest an investigation of “transferable competencies” (Carnevale, et al., 2011 ) as an area of future research to test whether the skills and practices that students learned during their research experience extend to other scientific disciplines and research environments. Furthermore, we found that the Phases of Interest Development Rubric (Table 5 ) was a useful tool for gauging interest development and was especially appropriate for our study population, because it allowed for a more nuanced approach for studying interest development. Although we were satisfied with the application of the rubric, perhaps the development of an even more sensitive scale could capture more fine-scaled changes in interest development. For future application, we suggest that ISE educators use the four key behavioral indicators—frequency of engagement, depth of engagement, voluntary engagement, and capacity for reengagement—as a formative assessment for gauging interest development in real time and thereby informing program design. While our rubric was project specific, we think that many components can be adapted by other ISE programs and modified based on the unique attributes of individual programs. Finally, we suggest that ISE practitioners use the Phases of Interest Development Rubric longitudinally to inform why participants increase, maintain, or decrease their interest in science research over time.

Availability of data and materials

The data and materials used in the current study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

Change history

11 january 2022.

A Correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-021-00317-9

Abbreviations

Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics

• Informal science education

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Rachel Chaffee, Ruth Cohen, and Jennifer Cosme for providing commentary on previous drafts of this manuscript.

This work was supported by National Science Foundation Grant No. 1710792, Postdoctoral Fellowship in Biology, Broadening Participation of Groups Underrepresented in Biology.

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Habig, B., Gupta, P. Authentic STEM research, practices of science, and interest development in an informal science education program. IJ STEM Ed 8 , 57 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-021-00314-y

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• Informal learning
• Interest development
• Science as practice

Research Topics & Ideas: Education

170+ Research Ideas To Fast-Track Your Project

If you’re just starting out exploring education-related topics for your dissertation, thesis or research project, you’ve come to the right place. In this post, we’ll help kickstart your research topic ideation process by providing a hearty list of research topics and ideas , including examples from actual dissertations and theses..

PS – This is just the start…

We know it’s exciting to run through a list of research topics, but please keep in mind that this list is just a starting point . To develop a suitable education-related research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , and a viable plan of action to fill that gap.

If this sounds foreign to you, check out our free research topic webinar that explores how to find and refine a high-quality research topic, from scratch. Alternatively, if you’d like hands-on help, consider our 1-on-1 coaching service .

Overview: Education Research Topics

• How to find a research topic (video)
• List of 50+ education-related research topics/ideas
• List of 120+ level-specific research topics 
• Examples of actual dissertation topics in education
• Tips to fast-track your topic ideation (video)
• Free Webinar : Topic Ideation 101
• Where to get extra help

Education-Related Research Topics & Ideas

Below you’ll find a list of education-related research topics and idea kickstarters. These are fairly broad and flexible to various contexts, so keep in mind that you will need to refine them a little. Nevertheless, they should inspire some ideas for your project.

• The impact of school funding on student achievement
• The effects of social and emotional learning on student well-being
• The effects of parental involvement on student behaviour
• The impact of teacher training on student learning
• The impact of classroom design on student learning
• The impact of poverty on education
• The use of student data to inform instruction
• The role of parental involvement in education
• The effects of mindfulness practices in the classroom
• The use of technology in the classroom
• The role of critical thinking in education
• The use of formative and summative assessments in the classroom
• The use of differentiated instruction in the classroom
• The use of gamification in education
• The effects of teacher burnout on student learning
• The impact of school leadership on student achievement
• The effects of teacher diversity on student outcomes
• The role of teacher collaboration in improving student outcomes
• The implementation of blended and online learning
• The effects of teacher accountability on student achievement
• The effects of standardized testing on student learning
• The effects of classroom management on student behaviour
• The effects of school culture on student achievement
• The use of student-centred learning in the classroom
• The impact of teacher-student relationships on student outcomes
• The achievement gap in minority and low-income students
• The use of culturally responsive teaching in the classroom
• The impact of teacher professional development on student learning
• The use of project-based learning in the classroom
• The effects of teacher expectations on student achievement
• The use of adaptive learning technology in the classroom
• The impact of teacher turnover on student learning
• The effects of teacher recruitment and retention on student learning
• The impact of early childhood education on later academic success
• The impact of parental involvement on student engagement
• The use of positive reinforcement in education
• The impact of school climate on student engagement
• The role of STEM education in preparing students for the workforce
• The effects of school choice on student achievement
• The use of technology in the form of online tutoring

Level-Specific Research Topics

Looking for research topics for a specific level of education? We’ve got you covered. Below you can find research topic ideas for primary, secondary and tertiary-level education contexts. Click the relevant level to view the respective list.

Research Topics: Pick An Education Level

Primary education.

• Investigating the effects of peer tutoring on academic achievement in primary school
• Exploring the benefits of mindfulness practices in primary school classrooms
• Examining the effects of different teaching strategies on primary school students’ problem-solving skills
• The use of storytelling as a teaching strategy in primary school literacy instruction
• The role of cultural diversity in promoting tolerance and understanding in primary schools
• The impact of character education programs on moral development in primary school students
• Investigating the use of technology in enhancing primary school mathematics education
• The impact of inclusive curriculum on promoting equity and diversity in primary schools
• The impact of outdoor education programs on environmental awareness in primary school students
• The influence of school climate on student motivation and engagement in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of early literacy interventions on reading comprehension in primary school students
• The impact of parental involvement in school decision-making processes on student achievement in primary schools
• Exploring the benefits of inclusive education for students with special needs in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of teacher-student feedback on academic motivation in primary schools
• The role of technology in developing digital literacy skills in primary school students
• Effective strategies for fostering a growth mindset in primary school students
• Investigating the role of parental support in reducing academic stress in primary school children
• The role of arts education in fostering creativity and self-expression in primary school students
• Examining the effects of early childhood education programs on primary school readiness
• Examining the effects of homework on primary school students’ academic performance
• The role of formative assessment in improving learning outcomes in primary school classrooms
• The impact of teacher-student relationships on academic outcomes in primary school
• Investigating the effects of classroom environment on student behavior and learning outcomes in primary schools
• Investigating the role of creativity and imagination in primary school curriculum
• The impact of nutrition and healthy eating programs on academic performance in primary schools
• The impact of social-emotional learning programs on primary school students’ well-being and academic performance
• The role of parental involvement in academic achievement of primary school children
• Examining the effects of classroom management strategies on student behavior in primary school
• The role of school leadership in creating a positive school climate Exploring the benefits of bilingual education in primary schools
• The effectiveness of project-based learning in developing critical thinking skills in primary school students
• The role of inquiry-based learning in fostering curiosity and critical thinking in primary school students
• The effects of class size on student engagement and achievement in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of recess and physical activity breaks on attention and learning in primary school
• Exploring the benefits of outdoor play in developing gross motor skills in primary school children
• The effects of educational field trips on knowledge retention in primary school students
• Examining the effects of inclusive classroom practices on students’ attitudes towards diversity in primary schools
• The impact of parental involvement in homework on primary school students’ academic achievement
• Investigating the effectiveness of different assessment methods in primary school classrooms
• The influence of physical activity and exercise on cognitive development in primary school children
• Exploring the benefits of cooperative learning in promoting social skills in primary school students

Secondary Education

• Investigating the effects of school discipline policies on student behavior and academic success in secondary education
• The role of social media in enhancing communication and collaboration among secondary school students
• The impact of school leadership on teacher effectiveness and student outcomes in secondary schools
• Investigating the effects of technology integration on teaching and learning in secondary education
• Exploring the benefits of interdisciplinary instruction in promoting critical thinking skills in secondary schools
• The impact of arts education on creativity and self-expression in secondary school students
• The effectiveness of flipped classrooms in promoting student learning in secondary education
• The role of career guidance programs in preparing secondary school students for future employment
• Investigating the effects of student-centered learning approaches on student autonomy and academic success in secondary schools
• The impact of socio-economic factors on educational attainment in secondary education
• Investigating the impact of project-based learning on student engagement and academic achievement in secondary schools
• Investigating the effects of multicultural education on cultural understanding and tolerance in secondary schools
• The influence of standardized testing on teaching practices and student learning in secondary education
• Investigating the effects of classroom management strategies on student behavior and academic engagement in secondary education
• The influence of teacher professional development on instructional practices and student outcomes in secondary schools
• The role of extracurricular activities in promoting holistic development and well-roundedness in secondary school students
• Investigating the effects of blended learning models on student engagement and achievement in secondary education
• The role of physical education in promoting physical health and well-being among secondary school students
• Investigating the effects of gender on academic achievement and career aspirations in secondary education
• Exploring the benefits of multicultural literature in promoting cultural awareness and empathy among secondary school students
• The impact of school counseling services on student mental health and well-being in secondary schools
• Exploring the benefits of vocational education and training in preparing secondary school students for the workforce
• The role of digital literacy in preparing secondary school students for the digital age
• The influence of parental involvement on academic success and well-being of secondary school students
• The impact of social-emotional learning programs on secondary school students’ well-being and academic success
• The role of character education in fostering ethical and responsible behavior in secondary school students
• Examining the effects of digital citizenship education on responsible and ethical technology use among secondary school students
• The impact of parental involvement in school decision-making processes on student outcomes in secondary schools
• The role of educational technology in promoting personalized learning experiences in secondary schools
• The impact of inclusive education on the social and academic outcomes of students with disabilities in secondary schools
• The influence of parental support on academic motivation and achievement in secondary education
• The role of school climate in promoting positive behavior and well-being among secondary school students
• Examining the effects of peer mentoring programs on academic achievement and social-emotional development in secondary schools
• Examining the effects of teacher-student relationships on student motivation and achievement in secondary schools
• Exploring the benefits of service-learning programs in promoting civic engagement among secondary school students
• The impact of educational policies on educational equity and access in secondary education
• Examining the effects of homework on academic achievement and student well-being in secondary education
• Investigating the effects of different assessment methods on student performance in secondary schools
• Examining the effects of single-sex education on academic performance and gender stereotypes in secondary schools
• The role of mentoring programs in supporting the transition from secondary to post-secondary education

Tertiary Education

• The role of student support services in promoting academic success and well-being in higher education
• The impact of internationalization initiatives on students’ intercultural competence and global perspectives in tertiary education
• Investigating the effects of active learning classrooms and learning spaces on student engagement and learning outcomes in tertiary education
• Exploring the benefits of service-learning experiences in fostering civic engagement and social responsibility in higher education
• The influence of learning communities and collaborative learning environments on student academic and social integration in higher education
• Exploring the benefits of undergraduate research experiences in fostering critical thinking and scientific inquiry skills
• Investigating the effects of academic advising and mentoring on student retention and degree completion in higher education
• The role of student engagement and involvement in co-curricular activities on holistic student development in higher education
• The impact of multicultural education on fostering cultural competence and diversity appreciation in higher education
• The role of internships and work-integrated learning experiences in enhancing students’ employability and career outcomes
• Examining the effects of assessment and feedback practices on student learning and academic achievement in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty professional development on instructional practices and student outcomes in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty-student relationships on student success and well-being in tertiary education
• The impact of college transition programs on students’ academic and social adjustment to higher education
• The impact of online learning platforms on student learning outcomes in higher education
• The impact of financial aid and scholarships on access and persistence in higher education
• The influence of student leadership and involvement in extracurricular activities on personal development and campus engagement
• Exploring the benefits of competency-based education in developing job-specific skills in tertiary students
• Examining the effects of flipped classroom models on student learning and retention in higher education
• Exploring the benefits of online collaboration and virtual team projects in developing teamwork skills in tertiary students
• Investigating the effects of diversity and inclusion initiatives on campus climate and student experiences in tertiary education
• The influence of study abroad programs on intercultural competence and global perspectives of college students
• Investigating the effects of peer mentoring and tutoring programs on student retention and academic performance in tertiary education
• Investigating the effectiveness of active learning strategies in promoting student engagement and achievement in tertiary education
• Investigating the effects of blended learning models and hybrid courses on student learning and satisfaction in higher education
• The role of digital literacy and information literacy skills in supporting student success in the digital age
• Investigating the effects of experiential learning opportunities on career readiness and employability of college students
• The impact of e-portfolios on student reflection, self-assessment, and showcasing of learning in higher education
• The role of technology in enhancing collaborative learning experiences in tertiary classrooms
• The impact of research opportunities on undergraduate student engagement and pursuit of advanced degrees
• Examining the effects of competency-based assessment on measuring student learning and achievement in tertiary education
• Examining the effects of interdisciplinary programs and courses on critical thinking and problem-solving skills in college students
• The role of inclusive education and accessibility in promoting equitable learning experiences for diverse student populations
• The role of career counseling and guidance in supporting students’ career decision-making in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty diversity and representation on student success and inclusive learning environments in higher education

Education-Related Dissertations & Theses

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a research topic in education, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual dissertations and theses in the education space to see how this all comes together in practice.

Below, we’ve included a selection of education-related research projects to help refine your thinking. These are actual dissertations and theses, written as part of Master’s and PhD-level programs, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

• From Rural to Urban: Education Conditions of Migrant Children in China (Wang, 2019)
• Energy Renovation While Learning English: A Guidebook for Elementary ESL Teachers (Yang, 2019)
• A Reanalyses of Intercorrelational Matrices of Visual and Verbal Learners’ Abilities, Cognitive Styles, and Learning Preferences (Fox, 2020)
• A study of the elementary math program utilized by a mid-Missouri school district (Barabas, 2020)
• Instructor formative assessment practices in virtual learning environments : a posthumanist sociomaterial perspective (Burcks, 2019)
• Higher education students services: a qualitative study of two mid-size universities’ direct exchange programs (Kinde, 2020)
• Exploring editorial leadership : a qualitative study of scholastic journalism advisers teaching leadership in Missouri secondary schools (Lewis, 2020)
• Selling the virtual university: a multimodal discourse analysis of marketing for online learning (Ludwig, 2020)
• Advocacy and accountability in school counselling: assessing the use of data as related to professional self-efficacy (Matthews, 2020)
• The use of an application screening assessment as a predictor of teaching retention at a midwestern, K-12, public school district (Scarbrough, 2020)
• Core values driving sustained elite performance cultures (Beiner, 2020)
• Educative features of upper elementary Eureka math curriculum (Dwiggins, 2020)
• How female principals nurture adult learning opportunities in successful high schools with challenging student demographics (Woodward, 2020)
• The disproportionality of Black Males in Special Education: A Case Study Analysis of Educator Perceptions in a Southeastern Urban High School (McCrae, 2021)

As you can see, these research topics are a lot more focused than the generic topic ideas we presented earlier. So, in order for you to develop a high-quality research topic, you’ll need to get specific and laser-focused on a specific context with specific variables of interest.  In the video below, we explore some other important things you’ll need to consider when crafting your research topic.

Get 1-On-1 Help

If you’re still unsure about how to find a quality research topic within education, check out our Research Topic Kickstarter service, which is the perfect starting point for developing a unique, well-justified research topic.

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Recent Research in Science Teaching and Learning

• Sarah L. Eddy

*Address correspondence to: Sarah L. Eddy ( E-mail Address: [email protected] ).

Department of Biological Sciences, STEM Transformation Institute, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199

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The Current Insights feature is designed to introduce life science educators and researchers to current articles of interest in other social science and education journals. In this installment, I highlight three diverse research studies: one addresses the relationships between active learning and teaching evaluations; one presents an observation tool for documenting metacognition in the classroom; and the last explores things teachers can say to encourage students to employ scientific reasoning during class discussions.

STUDENT EVALUATIONS AND ACTIVE LEARNING

Henderson, C., Khan, R., & Dancy, M. (2018). Will my student evaluations decrease if I adopt an active learning instructional strategy? American Journal of Physics , 86 (12), 934–942. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.5065907

Student evaluations are widely used and are often the sole source for the evaluation of faculty teaching. As described in the Introduction, fear that one’s student evaluations may decrease is one of the oft-cited reasons for faculty not adopting active-learning techniques. Yet this phenomenon has not been studied on a large scale. Henderson and colleagues test the hypothesis that active learning lowers student evaluations in a population of physics and astronomy instructors who participated in a long-running faculty development workshop. Forty percent (40%) of new physics and astronomy faculty attended this workshop. Of the more than 1300 workshop participants, 431 responded to a follow-up survey. Participants were asked about their use of active-learning methods in their most recent quantitative physics class; whether their student evaluations were impacted by the use of active learning; and whether students complained about the inclusion of active learning. If a faculty member reported a change in student evaluations, he or she was given an opportunity to provide an explanation for that change.

The majority of respondents saw either an increase (48%) or no change in their student evaluations (32%). The subset of instructors who reported receiving lower teaching evaluations also reported substantially less time lecturing than instructors who reported better evaluations. This pattern seemed driven by people using interactive methods for more than 80% of a class period, as this population was more likely to report reduced evaluations. Student complaints followed a similar pattern, with an increase in complaints becoming the most common outcome for instructors using active methods more than 80% of class time.

The reasons shared by instructors for why their evaluations changed were varied. For those who reported their evaluations improving, more than 20% of the instructors thought this increase was due to each of the following: students believing they were learning more, students enjoying class more, students enjoying interacting with one another, or students enjoying using technology. For those who reported lower evaluations, 40% reported that the students felt that the instructor was not teaching. Interestingly, many of these instructors also confessed as part of this comment that they were not good at “selling” the active learning. They next most common explanation given for lower evaluations was that students did not like working during class time; they would rather be listeners.

The results of this study suggest that, for the majority of faculty, adopting active learning will not negatively impact student evaluations. The study also suggests that those instructors concerned about student evaluations could incorporate active-learning activities for as much as 80% of class time and still not be likely to see a negative impact on their evaluations. This could be useful information to share with departmental colleagues and anyone mentoring new faculty who are deciding how to teach. As always, though, some caution should be taken in applying these results in a new context. Specifically, the authors acknowledge that they did not account for what types of active learning instructors implemented. It may be that some methods are more accepted by students than others.

TEACHERS TALKING METACOGNITION

Zepeda, C. D., Hlutkowsky, C. O., Partika, A. C., & Nokes-­Malach, T. J. (2018, October 29). Identifying teachers’ supports of metacognition through classroom talk and its relation to growth in conceptual learning. Journal of Educational Psychology (advance online publication). https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000300

Metacognition refers to one’s knowledge and awareness of one’s own thought processes. As reviewed in the Introduction, metacognition is considered highly desirable for students, because it has been linked to many positive outcomes in experimental and classroom studies, including achievement, transfer of knowledge from one context to another, and motivation. Although many studies have focused on the use of planned interventions for metacognition, few have looked at what teachers are saying and doing spontaneously in the classroom that might influence student metacognition.

Zepeda and colleagues developed an observation protocol to detect classroom talk directed toward metacognitive growth in middle school students in math classrooms. They identified both the metacognitive content of the talk and the delivery method by documenting four dimensions, each with three possible states: the type of metacognitive knowledge being promoted; the metacognitive skill being worked on; the manner in which the teacher delivered this content; and how specific the metacognitive skill is frame d (from specific to the question being worked on to a more global approach to problem solving). For example, a teacher might say, “Alright, so explain to us what you are doing right now.” This would be coded as personal knowledge, because the student is asked about his or her own process. The skill being worked on would be monitoring, (i.e., being aware of why they are doing what they are doing). The manner in which the teacher delivers the content would be directive, because the teacher is telling the student to do something. The framing could be domain general, because the prompt could be used with any type of problem. I am not going to go further into the individual states for each dimension due to space, but there are lengthy descriptions of them within the original paper.

The authors use this observation tool with one class session from 39 middle school math instructors. The classes were selected from a larger national data set of middle school classrooms. Every class included in this larger data set had math knowledge assessments. The current authors created a smaller data set that included instructors who had the most student growth on the math assessment over a year and a set of instructors who had the least growth after accounting for various student- and instructor-level factors. Each video was transcribed and each teacher statement was examined for metacognitive talk. Any instance of metacognitive talk was coded for the four dimensions in the observation tool.

Overall, there were very few metacognitive statements made by teachers (∼7% of teacher statements), but even with this low overall percentage, there were some interesting patterns. The odds of teachers engaging in metacognitive talk were 4.75 times greater during whole-class activities than during activities done individually by students. In addition, in high math growth classes, the odds of instructors engaging in metacognitive talk were 1.5 times higher than in low math growth classes.

The content of the metacognitive talk differed between these two class types as well. In terms of the knowledge dimension, teachers in the high math growth classes elicited more personal knowledge statements in which students shared their own understanding of what they were doing in class than teachers in the low math growth classes. The high math growth class also had more statements focused on the skills of monitoring and evaluating their own work. In terms of how the metacognitive content was delivered (manner), the high math growth class had more directive statements. Finally, the high math growth classes had more domain-general framing of the metacognitive statements.

This study demonstrates that classroom observations can be used to explore metacognition and that the same methods that work most effectively in interventions designed to promote metacognition may also work more informally during teach talk in class. Although the authors cannot rule out that teachers who are more effective in other ways are also more likely to engage in metacognitive talk, the results do suggest that certain ways and certain content of metacognitive talk is more effective than others.

BUILDING STUDENT’S SCIENTIFIC REASONING IN CONVERSATIONS

Grinath, A. S., & Southerland, S. A. (2018). Applying the ambitious science teaching framework in undergraduate biology: Responsive talk moves that support explanatory rigor. Science Education ,  103 (1), 92–122. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21484

Active learning is centered around the idea that it encourages students to engage in their own learning, often through conversations about course content. Yet the quality of these conversations can vary. In this paper, Grinath and Southerland explore how instructors can influence in-class student discussions.

To explore the question of facilitation effects without confounding variables of differences between lessons, content, and students, the authors chose to work with 26 teaching assistants (TAs) instructing sections of the same introductory biology lab for nonmajors at the same university. This controlled both the content being presented to students across instructors and the structure of the lessons, as each TA was provided the same slides and the same training in how to conduct the lab. The laboratory lessons were designed around the Ambitious Science Teaching framework described in the Introduction, which is meant to help students engage in the meaningful practices of their discipline, including scientific dialogue. One aspect of this framework is helping students connect their everyday explanations of their experiences to the scientific principles underlying them, that is, bridging their everyday way of talking and science talk. This initial conversation is thought to help them meaningfully engage in the subsequent lesson. This study focuses on these initial conversations.

Grinath and Southerland recorded the 8- to 22-minute–long class discussions that opened a lab class exploring how organisms respond to stimuli. At the start of class, students were asked to describe how they experience stress and explain what is driving this response. The authors transcribed the recordings and characterized each TA discourse “move,” a statement made by a TA that served a specific communication function. These moves were coded as conservative or ambitious . Conservative patterns follow the traditional classroom pattern, in which the expertise lies with the instructor only. These moves include the instructor asking questions that only have one correct answer, usually about recalling facts or procedures; evaluating a student response as right or wrong; and explaining the connection between the student response and the scientific concept rather than having students make the connection. Ambitious patterns of discourse allow students to be experts, and the instructor is the facilitator. These instructor moves include asking questions with many possible reasonable answers, probing student responses, and pressing students to supply explanations for their answers. Finally, observers also coded TA moves as inclusive or not inclusive . Inclusive moves could include providing opportunities for multiple students to respond to a question, acknowledging a contribution without indicating correctness, and repeating student responses out loud.

The discourse moves were correlated with student talk. Grinath and Southerland used a framework for explanatory rigor of scientific talk to code student responses in the initial class discussion. There were three codes for student answers: fact , observation , and explanation . A turn of student talk was coded as fact if it was short and a vocabulary word or scientific definition not grounded in personal experience. Observations were what a student thought was happening based on personal experience. Finally, explanations were students’ ideas of why something was happening. The goal of ambitious science teaching is to help students start making their own explanations of phenomena grounded in science and their own experiences. Thus, TA discourse moves that promoted student explanations were considered the most important in this study.

Using linear regressions with a Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons, Grinath and Southerland found that conservative discourse moves by TAs were related to an increase in student responses being simply fact statements. Ambitious questions (with multiple possible answers) did not predict student responses, but ambitious responses in which TAs deliberately probed student response and pressed students to expand on their answers did relate to increased explanations. Finally, inclusive moves together related to increased observations given by students.

This work highlights several interesting principles that could be expanded beyond labs. First, it seems that, without deliberately pressing for it (and removing the instructor’s explanations), students are not making explanations themselves. They offer facts or observations and wait for the instructor to put them together. Yet explaining phenomena is a key scientific practice and one students should develop. Second, how instructors respond to student answers is critical for creating meaningful conversations in the classroom, maybe even more critical than the qualities of the initial question itself.

• A Critical Feminist Approach for Equity and Inclusion in Undergraduate Biology Education 22 April 2021

© 2019 S. L. Eddy. CBE—Life Sciences Education © 2019 The American Society for Cell Biology. This article is distributed by The American Society for Cell Biology under license from the author(s). It is available to the public under an Attribution–Noncommercial–Share Alike 3.0 Unported Creative Commons License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0).

Home > Centers > Center for Science Education > Dissertations and Theses

Center for Science Education Dissertations and Theses

Theses/dissertations from 2019 2019.

The Impact of Integrating Traditional Ecological Knowledge in Summer Camps on Middle School Students' Understanding of the Nature of Science , Sapoóq'is Wiíit'es Ciarra Solina Greene

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

Computer-Based Instruction as a Form of Differentiated Instruction in a Traditional, Teacher-led, Low-Income, High School Biology Classroom , Cheryl Casey

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

Analyzing the Online Environment: How are More Effective Teachers Spending Their Time? , Scott Davis Barrentine

Can a Three-Day Training Focusing on the Nature of Science and Science Practices as They Relate to Mind in the Making Make a Difference in Preschool Teachers' Self-Efficacy Engaging in Science Education? , Colleen Meacham

A Pilot Study on Methods to Introduce Teachers to New Science Standards , Noelle Frances Garcia Niedo

Using the Task Analysis Process with Teachers to Uncover Language Demands within an Eight-Week NGSS Summer Course , Leah Plack

How Does a Next Generation Science Standard Aligned, Inquiry Based, Science Unit Impact Student Achievement of Science Practices and Student Science Efficacy in an Elementary Classroom? , Kayla Lee Whittington

Theses/Dissertations from 2016 2016

Tryon Trekkers: An Evaluation of a STEM Based Afterschool Program for At-Risk Youth , Chessa Eckels Anderson

Learning Through Nature: A Study of a Next Generation Science Standards Based Teacher Workshop that Blends Outdoor Learning Experiences with Formal Science , Ashley Fanning

Connecting to Nature, Community, and Self: A Conservation Corps Approach to Re-engaging At-Risk Youth in Science Education , Sara Jo Linden

Growing STEM Education on the Playground: A Case Study of the Factors That Influence Teachers’ Use of School Gardens , Megan Poole

Creating a Learning Continuum: A Critical Look at the Intersection of Prior Knowledge, Outdoor Education, and Next Generation Science Standards Disciplinary Core Ideas and Practices , Trisha Leigh Schlobohm

Keeley Probes as a Tool for Uncovering Student Ideas: How Do Teachers Use Formative Assessment Probes to Plan and Adapt Instruction? , Kalin Tobler

The Effectiveness of Participation in a Project-based Learning Project on At-risk Student Self-Efficacy , Benjamin Aaron Weber

Origin and Use of Pedagogical Content Knowledge: A Case Study of Three Math Teachers and Their Students , Christopher Neal Wood

Theses/Dissertations from 2015 2015

Engineering a Healthier Watershed: Middle School Students Use Engineering Design to Lessen the Impact of Their Campus' Impervious Surfaces on Their Local Watershed , Elizabeth Claire Gardner

Isn’t Citizen Science a Hoot? A Case-study Exploring the Effectiveness of Citizen Science as an Instrument to Teach the Nature of Science through a Local Nocturnal Owl-Monitoring Project , Tess Marie Kreofsky

Focus on a STEM, Based in Place, Watershed Curriculum: A confluence of stormwater, humans, knowledge, attitudes, and skills , Lecia Molineux Schall

Theses/Dissertations from 2014 2014

Evaluation of a High School Science Fair Program for promoting Successful Inquiry-based Learning , Julia Nykeah Betts

The Power of Reflective Professional Development in Changing Elementary School Teachers' Instructional Practices , Carolina Christmann Cavedon

Using Art to Teach Students Science Outdoors: How Creative Science Instruction Influences Observation, Question Formation, and Involvement , Christina Schull Cone

"What Does This Graph Mean?" Formative Assessment With Science Inquiry to Improve Data Analysis , Andrea Dawn Leech

Associations between Input and Outcome Variables in an Online High School Bioinformatics Instructional Program , Douglas S. Lownsbery

Using Music-Related Concepts to Teach High School Math , Vytas Nagisetty

Project NANO: Will Allowing High School Students To Use Research Grade Scanning Electron Microscopes Increase Their Interest in Science? , Leslie TenEyck Smith

Effects of Ethnicity and Gender on Sixth-Grade Students' Environmental Knowledge and Attitudes After Participation in a Year-Long Environmental Education Program , Rachel Stagner

Integrating K-W-L Prompts into Science Journal Writing: Can Simple Question Scaffolding Increase Student Content Knowledge? , Brandon Joel Wagner

Theses/Dissertations from 2013 2013

An Investigation into Instructional Support for Data Analysis in High School Science Inquiry , Anika Rae Baker-Lawrence

Deoxyribonucleic Acid and Other Words Students Avoid Speaking Aloud: Evaluating the Role of Pronunciation on Participation in Secondary School Science Classroom Conversations , Stacie Elizabeth Beck

Increasing Evidence Based Reasoning in an 8th Grade Classroom Through Explicit Instruction , Erol Chandler

Lighting the Fire: How Peer-Mentoring Helps Adult Learners Increase Their Interest in STEM Careers: A Case Study at the Community College Level , Patricia Marie DeTurk

How Does Student Understanding of a Concept Change Throughout a Unit of Instruction? Support Toward the Theory of Learning Progressions , Brian Jay Dyer

Impact of Teacher Feedback on the Development of State Issued Scoring Guides for Science Inquiry and Engineering Design Performance Assessments , Timothy Paul Fiser

An Investigation into Teacher Support of Science Explanation in High School Science Inquiry Units , Rebecca Sue Hoffenberg

Science Journals in the Garden: Developing the Skill of Observation in Elementary Age Students , Karinsa Michelle Kelly

Thinking Aloud in the Science Classroom: Can a literacy strategy increase student learning in science? , Lindsey Joan Mockel

Patterns in Nature Forming Patterns in Minds : An Evaluation of an Introductory Physics Unit , Christopher Ryan Sheaffer

Grouped to Achieve: Are There Benefits to Assigning Students to Heterogeneous Cooperative Learning Groups Based on Pre-Test Scores? , Arman Karl Werth

Theses/Dissertations from 2012 2012

Sustainability Education as a Framework for Enhancing Environmental Stewardship in Young Leaders: An Intervention at Tryon Creek Nature Day Camp , Andrea Nicole Lawrence

Theses/Dissertations from 2011 2011

Do "Clickers" Improve Student Engagement and Learning in Secondary Schools? , Andrew James Mankowski

An Action Research Study to Determine the Feasibility of Using Concept Maps as Alternative Assessments by a Novice Teacher , Nancy Smith Mitchell

Using Brownfields to Think Green: Investigating Factors that Influence Community Decision-Making and Participation , Charissa Ruth Stair

Investigating Student Understanding of the Law of Conservation of Matter , Shirley Lynn Tremel

The Effect of Role Models on the Attitudes and Career Choices of Female Students Enrolled in High School Science , Stephanie Justine Van Raden

Improving Hypothesis Testing Skills: Evaluating a General Purpose Classroom Exercise with Biology Students in Grade 9. , Michael Gregg Wilder

Theses/Dissertations from 2010 2010

An Environment-based Education Approach to Professional Development: A Mixed Methods Analysis of the Creeks and Kids Watershed Workshop and Its Impact on K-12 Teachers , Tiffany Bridgette Austin

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Cultural Relativity and Acceptance of Embryonic Stem Cell Research

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Main Article Content

There is a debate about the ethical implications of using human embryos in stem cell research, which can be influenced by cultural, moral, and social values. This paper argues for an adaptable framework to accommodate diverse cultural and religious perspectives. By using an adaptive ethics model, research protections can reflect various populations and foster growth in stem cell research possibilities.

INTRODUCTION

Stem cell research combines biology, medicine, and technology, promising to alter health care and the understanding of human development. Yet, ethical contention exists because of individuals’ perceptions of using human embryos based on their various cultural, moral, and social values. While these disagreements concerning policy, use, and general acceptance have prompted the development of an international ethics policy, such a uniform approach can overlook the nuanced ethical landscapes between cultures. With diverse viewpoints in public health, a single global policy, especially one reflecting Western ethics or the ethics prevalent in high-income countries, is impractical. This paper argues for a culturally sensitive, adaptable framework for the use of embryonic stem cells. Stem cell policy should accommodate varying ethical viewpoints and promote an effective global dialogue. With an extension of an ethics model that can adapt to various cultures, we recommend localized guidelines that reflect the moral views of the people those guidelines serve.

Stem cells, characterized by their unique ability to differentiate into various cell types, enable the repair or replacement of damaged tissues. Two primary types of stem cells are somatic stem cells (adult stem cells) and embryonic stem cells. Adult stem cells exist in developed tissues and maintain the body’s repair processes. [1] Embryonic stem cells (ESC) are remarkably pluripotent or versatile, making them valuable in research. [2] However, the use of ESCs has sparked ethics debates. Considering the potential of embryonic stem cells, research guidelines are essential. The International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR) provides international stem cell research guidelines. They call for “public conversations touching on the scientific significance as well as the societal and ethical issues raised by ESC research.” [3] The ISSCR also publishes updates about culturing human embryos 14 days post fertilization, suggesting local policies and regulations should continue to evolve as ESC research develops. [4]  Like the ISSCR, which calls for local law and policy to adapt to developing stem cell research given cultural acceptance, this paper highlights the importance of local social factors such as religion and culture.

I.     Global Cultural Perspective of Embryonic Stem Cells

Views on ESCs vary throughout the world. Some countries readily embrace stem cell research and therapies, while others have stricter regulations due to ethical concerns surrounding embryonic stem cells and when an embryo becomes entitled to moral consideration. The philosophical issue of when the “someone” begins to be a human after fertilization, in the morally relevant sense, [5] impacts when an embryo becomes not just worthy of protection but morally entitled to it. The process of creating embryonic stem cell lines involves the destruction of the embryos for research. [6] Consequently, global engagement in ESC research depends on social-cultural acceptability.

a.     US and Rights-Based Cultures

In the United States, attitudes toward stem cell therapies are diverse. The ethics and social approaches, which value individualism, [7] trigger debates regarding the destruction of human embryos, creating a complex regulatory environment. For example, the 1996 Dickey-Wicker Amendment prohibited federal funding for the creation of embryos for research and the destruction of embryos for “more than allowed for research on fetuses in utero.” [8] Following suit, in 2001, the Bush Administration heavily restricted stem cell lines for research. However, the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005 was proposed to help develop ESC research but was ultimately vetoed. [9] Under the Obama administration, in 2009, an executive order lifted restrictions allowing for more development in this field. [10] The flux of research capacity and funding parallels the different cultural perceptions of human dignity of the embryo and how it is socially presented within the country’s research culture. [11]

b.     Ubuntu and Collective Cultures

African bioethics differs from Western individualism because of the different traditions and values. African traditions, as described by individuals from South Africa and supported by some studies in other African countries, including Ghana and Kenya, follow the African moral philosophies of Ubuntu or Botho and Ukama , which “advocates for a form of wholeness that comes through one’s relationship and connectedness with other people in the society,” [12] making autonomy a socially collective concept. In this context, for the community to act autonomously, individuals would come together to decide what is best for the collective. Thus, stem cell research would require examining the value of the research to society as a whole and the use of the embryos as a collective societal resource. If society views the source as part of the collective whole, and opposes using stem cells, compromising the cultural values to pursue research may cause social detachment and stunt research growth. [13] Based on local culture and moral philosophy, the permissibility of stem cell research depends on how embryo, stem cell, and cell line therapies relate to the community as a whole. Ubuntu is the expression of humanness, with the person’s identity drawn from the “’I am because we are’” value. [14] The decision in a collectivistic culture becomes one born of cultural context, and individual decisions give deference to others in the society.

Consent differs in cultures where thought and moral philosophy are based on a collective paradigm. So, applying Western bioethical concepts is unrealistic. For one, Africa is a diverse continent with many countries with different belief systems, access to health care, and reliance on traditional or Western medicines. Where traditional medicine is the primary treatment, the “’restrictive focus on biomedically-related bioethics’” [is] problematic in African contexts because it neglects bioethical issues raised by traditional systems.” [15] No single approach applies in all areas or contexts. Rather than evaluating the permissibility of ESC research according to Western concepts such as the four principles approach, different ethics approaches should prevail.

Another consideration is the socio-economic standing of countries. In parts of South Africa, researchers have not focused heavily on contributing to the stem cell discourse, either because it is not considered health care or a health science priority or because resources are unavailable. [16] Each country’s priorities differ given different social, political, and economic factors. In South Africa, for instance, areas such as maternal mortality, non-communicable diseases, telemedicine, and the strength of health systems need improvement and require more focus [17] Stem cell research could benefit the population, but it also could divert resources from basic medical care. Researchers in South Africa adhere to the National Health Act and Medicines Control Act in South Africa and international guidelines; however, the Act is not strictly enforced, and there is no clear legislation for research conduct or ethical guidelines. [18]

Some parts of Africa condemn stem cell research. For example, 98.2 percent of the Tunisian population is Muslim. [19] Tunisia does not permit stem cell research because of moral conflict with a Fatwa. Religion heavily saturates the regulation and direction of research. [20] Stem cell use became permissible for reproductive purposes only recently, with tight restrictions preventing cells from being used in any research other than procedures concerning ART/IVF.  Their use is conditioned on consent, and available only to married couples. [21] The community's receptiveness to stem cell research depends on including communitarian African ethics.

c.     Asia

Some Asian countries also have a collective model of ethics and decision making. [22] In China, the ethics model promotes a sincere respect for life or human dignity, [23] based on protective medicine. This model, influenced by Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), [24] recognizes Qi as the vital energy delivered via the meridians of the body; it connects illness to body systems, the body’s entire constitution, and the universe for a holistic bond of nature, health, and quality of life. [25] Following a protective ethics model, and traditional customs of wholeness, investment in stem cell research is heavily desired for its applications in regenerative therapies, disease modeling, and protective medicines. In a survey of medical students and healthcare practitioners, 30.8 percent considered stem cell research morally unacceptable while 63.5 percent accepted medical research using human embryonic stem cells. Of these individuals, 89.9 percent supported increased funding for stem cell research. [26] The scientific community might not reflect the overall population. From 1997 to 2019, China spent a total of $576 million (USD) on stem cell research at 8,050 stem cell programs, increased published presence from 0.6 percent to 14.01 percent of total global stem cell publications as of 2014, and made significant strides in cell-based therapies for various medical conditions. [27] However, while China has made substantial investments in stem cell research and achieved notable progress in clinical applications, concerns linger regarding ethical oversight and transparency. [28] For example, the China Biosecurity Law, promoted by the National Health Commission and China Hospital Association, attempted to mitigate risks by introducing an institutional review board (IRB) in the regulatory bodies. 5800 IRBs registered with the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry since 2021. [29] However, issues still need to be addressed in implementing effective IRB review and approval procedures.

The substantial government funding and focus on scientific advancement have sometimes overshadowed considerations of regional cultures, ethnic minorities, and individual perspectives, particularly evident during the one-child policy era. As government policy adapts to promote public stability, such as the change from the one-child to the two-child policy, [30] research ethics should also adapt to ensure respect for the values of its represented peoples.

Japan is also relatively supportive of stem cell research and therapies. Japan has a more transparent regulatory framework, allowing for faster approval of regenerative medicine products, which has led to several advanced clinical trials and therapies. [31] South Korea is also actively engaged in stem cell research and has a history of breakthroughs in cloning and embryonic stem cells. [32] However, the field is controversial, and there are issues of scientific integrity. For example, the Korean FDA fast-tracked products for approval, [33] and in another instance, the oocyte source was unclear and possibly violated ethical standards. [34] Trust is important in research, as it builds collaborative foundations between colleagues, trial participant comfort, open-mindedness for complicated and sensitive discussions, and supports regulatory procedures for stakeholders. There is a need to respect the culture’s interest, engagement, and for research and clinical trials to be transparent and have ethical oversight to promote global research discourse and trust.

d.     Middle East

Countries in the Middle East have varying degrees of acceptance of or restrictions to policies related to using embryonic stem cells due to cultural and religious influences. Saudi Arabia has made significant contributions to stem cell research, and conducts research based on international guidelines for ethical conduct and under strict adherence to guidelines in accordance with Islamic principles. Specifically, the Saudi government and people require ESC research to adhere to Sharia law. In addition to umbilical and placental stem cells, [35] Saudi Arabia permits the use of embryonic stem cells as long as they come from miscarriages, therapeutic abortions permissible by Sharia law, or are left over from in vitro fertilization and donated to research. [36] Laws and ethical guidelines for stem cell research allow the development of research institutions such as the King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, which has a cord blood bank and a stem cell registry with nearly 10,000 donors. [37] Such volume and acceptance are due to the ethical ‘permissibility’ of the donor sources, which do not conflict with religious pillars. However, some researchers err on the side of caution, choosing not to use embryos or fetal tissue as they feel it is unethical to do so. [38]

Jordan has a positive research ethics culture. [39] However, there is a significant issue of lack of trust in researchers, with 45.23 percent (38.66 percent agreeing and 6.57 percent strongly agreeing) of Jordanians holding a low level of trust in researchers, compared to 81.34 percent of Jordanians agreeing that they feel safe to participate in a research trial. [40] Safety testifies to the feeling of confidence that adequate measures are in place to protect participants from harm, whereas trust in researchers could represent the confidence in researchers to act in the participants’ best interests, adhere to ethical guidelines, provide accurate information, and respect participants’ rights and dignity. One method to improve trust would be to address communication issues relevant to ESC. Legislation surrounding stem cell research has adopted specific language, especially concerning clarification “between ‘stem cells’ and ‘embryonic stem cells’” in translation. [41] Furthermore, legislation “mandates the creation of a national committee… laying out specific regulations for stem-cell banking in accordance with international standards.” [42] This broad regulation opens the door for future global engagement and maintains transparency. However, these regulations may also constrain the influence of research direction, pace, and accessibility of research outcomes.

e.     Europe

In the European Union (EU), ethics is also principle-based, but the principles of autonomy, dignity, integrity, and vulnerability are interconnected. [43] As such, the opportunity for cohesion and concessions between individuals’ thoughts and ideals allows for a more adaptable ethics model due to the flexible principles that relate to the human experience The EU has put forth a framework in its Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being allowing member states to take different approaches. Each European state applies these principles to its specific conventions, leading to or reflecting different acceptance levels of stem cell research. [44]

For example, in Germany, Lebenzusammenhang , or the coherence of life, references integrity in the unity of human culture. Namely, the personal sphere “should not be subject to external intervention.” [45]  Stem cell interventions could affect this concept of bodily completeness, leading to heavy restrictions. Under the Grundgesetz, human dignity and the right to life with physical integrity are paramount. [46] The Embryo Protection Act of 1991 made producing cell lines illegal. Cell lines can be imported if approved by the Central Ethics Commission for Stem Cell Research only if they were derived before May 2007. [47] Stem cell research respects the integrity of life for the embryo with heavy specifications and intense oversight. This is vastly different in Finland, where the regulatory bodies find research more permissible in IVF excess, but only up to 14 days after fertilization. [48] Spain’s approach differs still, with a comprehensive regulatory framework. [49] Thus, research regulation can be culture-specific due to variations in applied principles. Diverse cultures call for various approaches to ethical permissibility. [50] Only an adaptive-deliberative model can address the cultural constructions of self and achieve positive, culturally sensitive stem cell research practices. [51]

II.     Religious Perspectives on ESC

Embryonic stem cell sources are the main consideration within religious contexts. While individuals may not regard their own religious texts as authoritative or factual, religion can shape their foundations or perspectives.

The Qur'an states:

“And indeed We created man from a quintessence of clay. Then We placed within him a small quantity of nutfa (sperm to fertilize) in a safe place. Then We have fashioned the nutfa into an ‘alaqa (clinging clot or cell cluster), then We developed the ‘alaqa into mudgha (a lump of flesh), and We made mudgha into bones, and clothed the bones with flesh, then We brought it into being as a new creation. So Blessed is Allah, the Best of Creators.” [52]

Many scholars of Islam estimate the time of soul installment, marked by the angel breathing in the soul to bring the individual into creation, as 120 days from conception. [53] Personhood begins at this point, and the value of life would prohibit research or experimentation that could harm the individual. If the fetus is more than 120 days old, the time ensoulment is interpreted to occur according to Islamic law, abortion is no longer permissible. [54] There are a few opposing opinions about early embryos in Islamic traditions. According to some Islamic theologians, there is no ensoulment of the early embryo, which is the source of stem cells for ESC research. [55]

In Buddhism, the stance on stem cell research is not settled. The main tenets, the prohibition against harming or destroying others (ahimsa) and the pursuit of knowledge (prajña) and compassion (karuna), leave Buddhist scholars and communities divided. [56] Some scholars argue stem cell research is in accordance with the Buddhist tenet of seeking knowledge and ending human suffering. Others feel it violates the principle of not harming others. Finding the balance between these two points relies on the karmic burden of Buddhist morality. In trying to prevent ahimsa towards the embryo, Buddhist scholars suggest that to comply with Buddhist tenets, research cannot be done as the embryo has personhood at the moment of conception and would reincarnate immediately, harming the individual's ability to build their karmic burden. [57] On the other hand, the Bodhisattvas, those considered to be on the path to enlightenment or Nirvana, have given organs and flesh to others to help alleviate grieving and to benefit all. [58] Acceptance varies on applied beliefs and interpretations.

Catholicism does not support embryonic stem cell research, as it entails creation or destruction of human embryos. This destruction conflicts with the belief in the sanctity of life. For example, in the Old Testament, Genesis describes humanity as being created in God’s image and multiplying on the Earth, referencing the sacred rights to human conception and the purpose of development and life. In the Ten Commandments, the tenet that one should not kill has numerous interpretations where killing could mean murder or shedding of the sanctity of life, demonstrating the high value of human personhood. In other books, the theological conception of when life begins is interpreted as in utero, [59] highlighting the inviolability of life and its formation in vivo to make a religious point for accepting such research as relatively limited, if at all. [60] The Vatican has released ethical directives to help apply a theological basis to modern-day conflicts. The Magisterium of the Church states that “unless there is a moral certainty of not causing harm,” experimentation on fetuses, fertilized cells, stem cells, or embryos constitutes a crime. [61] Such procedures would not respect the human person who exists at these stages, according to Catholicism. Damages to the embryo are considered gravely immoral and illicit. [62] Although the Catholic Church officially opposes abortion, surveys demonstrate that many Catholic people hold pro-choice views, whether due to the context of conception, stage of pregnancy, threat to the mother’s life, or for other reasons, demonstrating that practicing members can also accept some but not all tenets. [63]

Some major Jewish denominations, such as the Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist movements, are open to supporting ESC use or research as long as it is for saving a life. [64] Within Judaism, the Talmud, or study, gives personhood to the child at birth and emphasizes that life does not begin at conception: [65]

“If she is found pregnant, until the fortieth day it is mere fluid,” [66]

Whereas most religions prioritize the status of human embryos, the Halakah (Jewish religious law) states that to save one life, most other religious laws can be ignored because it is in pursuit of preservation. [67] Stem cell research is accepted due to application of these religious laws.

We recognize that all religions contain subsets and sects. The variety of environmental and cultural differences within religious groups requires further analysis to respect the flexibility of religious thoughts and practices. We make no presumptions that all cultures require notions of autonomy or morality as under the common morality theory , which asserts a set of universal moral norms that all individuals share provides moral reasoning and guides ethical decisions. [68] We only wish to show that the interaction with morality varies between cultures and countries.

III.     A Flexible Ethical Approach

The plurality of different moral approaches described above demonstrates that there can be no universally acceptable uniform law for ESC on a global scale. Instead of developing one standard, flexible ethical applications must be continued. We recommend local guidelines that incorporate important cultural and ethical priorities.

While the Declaration of Helsinki is more relevant to people in clinical trials receiving ESC products, in keeping with the tradition of protections for research subjects, consent of the donor is an ethical requirement for ESC donation in many jurisdictions including the US, Canada, and Europe. [69] The Declaration of Helsinki provides a reference point for regulatory standards and could potentially be used as a universal baseline for obtaining consent prior to gamete or embryo donation.

For instance, in Columbia University’s egg donor program for stem cell research, donors followed standard screening protocols and “underwent counseling sessions that included information as to the purpose of oocyte donation for research, what the oocytes would be used for, the risks and benefits of donation, and process of oocyte stimulation” to ensure transparency for consent. [70] The program helped advance stem cell research and provided clear and safe research methods with paid participants. Though paid participation or covering costs of incidental expenses may not be socially acceptable in every culture or context, [71] and creating embryos for ESC research is illegal in many jurisdictions, Columbia’s program was effective because of the clear and honest communications with donors, IRBs, and related stakeholders.  This example demonstrates that cultural acceptance of scientific research and of the idea that an egg or embryo does not have personhood is likely behind societal acceptance of donating eggs for ESC research. As noted, many countries do not permit the creation of embryos for research.

Proper communication and education regarding the process and purpose of stem cell research may bolster comprehension and garner more acceptance. “Given the sensitive subject material, a complete consent process can support voluntary participation through trust, understanding, and ethical norms from the cultures and morals participants value. This can be hard for researchers entering countries of different socioeconomic stability, with different languages and different societal values. [72]

An adequate moral foundation in medical ethics is derived from the cultural and religious basis that informs knowledge and actions. [73] Understanding local cultural and religious values and their impact on research could help researchers develop humility and promote inclusion.

IV.     Concerns

Some may argue that if researchers all adhere to one ethics standard, protection will be satisfied across all borders, and the global public will trust researchers. However, defining what needs to be protected and how to define such research standards is very specific to the people to which standards are applied. We suggest that applying one uniform guide cannot accurately protect each individual because we all possess our own perceptions and interpretations of social values. [74] Therefore, the issue of not adjusting to the moral pluralism between peoples in applying one standard of ethics can be resolved by building out ethics models that can be adapted to different cultures and religions.

Other concerns include medical tourism, which may promote health inequities. [75] Some countries may develop and approve products derived from ESC research before others, compromising research ethics or drug approval processes. There are also concerns about the sale of unauthorized stem cell treatments, for example, those without FDA approval in the United States. Countries with robust research infrastructures may be tempted to attract medical tourists, and some customers will have false hopes based on aggressive publicity of unproven treatments. [76]

For example, in China, stem cell clinics can market to foreign clients who are not protected under the regulatory regimes. Companies employ a marketing strategy of “ethically friendly” therapies. Specifically, in the case of Beike, China’s leading stem cell tourism company and sprouting network, ethical oversight of administrators or health bureaus at one site has “the unintended consequence of shifting questionable activities to another node in Beike's diffuse network.” [77] In contrast, Jordan is aware of stem cell research’s potential abuse and its own status as a “health-care hub.” Jordan’s expanded regulations include preserving the interests of individuals in clinical trials and banning private companies from ESC research to preserve transparency and the integrity of research practices. [78]

The social priorities of the community are also a concern. The ISSCR explicitly states that guidelines “should be periodically revised to accommodate scientific advances, new challenges, and evolving social priorities.” [79] The adaptable ethics model extends this consideration further by addressing whether research is warranted given the varying degrees of socioeconomic conditions, political stability, and healthcare accessibilities and limitations. An ethical approach would require discussion about resource allocation and appropriate distribution of funds. [80]

While some religions emphasize the sanctity of life from conception, which may lead to public opposition to ESC research, others encourage ESC research due to its potential for healing and alleviating human pain. Many countries have special regulations that balance local views on embryonic personhood, the benefits of research as individual or societal goods, and the protection of human research subjects. To foster understanding and constructive dialogue, global policy frameworks should prioritize the protection of universal human rights, transparency, and informed consent. In addition to these foundational global policies, we recommend tailoring local guidelines to reflect the diverse cultural and religious perspectives of the populations they govern. Ethics models should be adapted to local populations to effectively establish research protections, growth, and possibilities of stem cell research.

For example, in countries with strong beliefs in the moral sanctity of embryos or heavy religious restrictions, an adaptive model can allow for discussion instead of immediate rejection. In countries with limited individual rights and voice in science policy, an adaptive model ensures cultural, moral, and religious views are taken into consideration, thereby building social inclusion. While this ethical consideration by the government may not give a complete voice to every individual, it will help balance policies and maintain the diverse perspectives of those it affects. Embracing an adaptive ethics model of ESC research promotes open-minded dialogue and respect for the importance of human belief and tradition. By actively engaging with cultural and religious values, researchers can better handle disagreements and promote ethical research practices that benefit each society.

This brief exploration of the religious and cultural differences that impact ESC research reveals the nuances of relative ethics and highlights a need for local policymakers to apply a more intense adaptive model.

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[5] Concerning the moral philosophies of stem cell research, our paper does not posit a personal moral stance nor delve into the “when” of human life begins. To read further about the philosophical debate, consider the following sources:

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[7] Socially, at its core, the Western approach to ethics is widely principle-based, autonomy being one of the key factors to ensure a fundamental respect for persons within research. For information regarding autonomy in research, see: Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, & National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1978). The Belmont Report. Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research.; For a more in-depth review of autonomy within the US, see: Beauchamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. (1994). Principles of Biomedical Ethics . Oxford University Press.

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[13] Source for further reading: Tangwa G. B. (2007). Moral status of embryonic stem cells: perspective of an African villager. Bioethics , 21(8), 449–457. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8519.2007.00582.x , see also Mnisi, F. M. (2020). An African analysis based on ethics of Ubuntu - are human embryonic stem cell patents morally justifiable? African Insight , 49 (4).

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[36] Association for the Advancement of Blood and Biotherapies.  https://www.aabb.org/regulatory-and-advocacy/regulatory-affairs/regulatory-for-cellular-therapies/international-competent-authorities/saudi-arabia

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Culturally, autonomy practices follow a relational autonomy approach based on a paternalistic deontological health care model. The adherence to strict international research policies and religious pillars within the regulatory environment is a great foundation for research ethics. However, there is a need to develop locally targeted ethics approaches for research (as called for in Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6), this decision-making approach may help advise a research decision model. For more on the clinical cultural autonomy approaches, see: Alabdullah, Y. Y., Alzaid, E., Alsaad, S., Alamri, T., Alolayan, S. W., Bah, S., & Aljoudi, A. S. (2022). Autonomy and paternalism in Shared decision‐making in a Saudi Arabian tertiary hospital: A cross‐sectional study. Developing World Bioethics , 23 (3), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12355 ; Bukhari, A. A. (2017). Universal Principles of Bioethics and Patient Rights in Saudi Arabia (Doctoral dissertation, Duquesne University). https://dsc.duq.edu/etd/124; Ladha, S., Nakshawani, S. A., Alzaidy, A., & Tarab, B. (2023, October 26). Islam and Bioethics: What We All Need to Know . Columbia University School of Professional Studies. https://sps.columbia.edu/events/islam-and-bioethics-what-we-all-need-know

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[43] The EU’s definition of autonomy relates to the capacity for creating ideas, moral insight, decisions, and actions without constraint, personal responsibility, and informed consent. However, the EU views autonomy as not completely able to protect individuals and depends on other principles, such as dignity, which “expresses the intrinsic worth and fundamental equality of all human beings.” Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[44] Council of Europe. Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (ETS No. 164) https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=164 (forbidding the creation of embryos for research purposes only, and suggests embryos in vitro have protections.); Also see Drabiak-Syed B. K. (2013). New President, New Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research Policy: Comparative International Perspectives and Embryonic Stem Cell Research Laws in France.  Biotechnology Law Report ,  32 (6), 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1089/blr.2013.9865

[45] Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

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[47] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Germany . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-germany

[48] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Finland . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-finland

[49] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Spain . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-spain

[50] Some sources to consider regarding ethics models or regulatory oversights of other cultures not covered:

Kara MA. Applicability of the principle of respect for autonomy: the perspective of Turkey. J Med Ethics. 2007 Nov;33(11):627-30. doi: 10.1136/jme.2006.017400. PMID: 17971462; PMCID: PMC2598110.

Ugarte, O. N., & Acioly, M. A. (2014). The principle of autonomy in Brazil: one needs to discuss it ...  Revista do Colegio Brasileiro de Cirurgioes ,  41 (5), 374–377. https://doi.org/10.1590/0100-69912014005013

Bharadwaj, A., & Glasner, P. E. (2012). Local cells, global science: The rise of embryonic stem cell research in India . Routledge.

For further research on specific European countries regarding ethical and regulatory framework, we recommend this database: Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Europe . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-europe   

[51] Klitzman, R. (2006). Complications of culture in obtaining informed consent. The American Journal of Bioethics, 6(1), 20–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265160500394671 see also: Ekmekci, P. E., & Arda, B. (2017). Interculturalism and Informed Consent: Respecting Cultural Differences without Breaching Human Rights.  Cultura (Iasi, Romania) ,  14 (2), 159–172.; For why trust is important in research, see also: Gray, B., Hilder, J., Macdonald, L., Tester, R., Dowell, A., & Stubbe, M. (2017). Are research ethics guidelines culturally competent?  Research Ethics ,  13 (1), 23-41.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016116650235

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[54] Aksoy, S. (2005). Making regulations and drawing up legislation in Islamic countries under conditions of uncertainty, with special reference to embryonic stem cell research. Journal of Medical Ethics , 31: 399-403.; see also: Mahmoud, Azza. "Islamic Bioethics: National Regulations and Guidelines of Human Stem Cell Research in the Muslim World." Master's thesis, Chapman University, 2022. https://doi.org/10.36837/ chapman.000386

[55] Rashid, R. (2022). When does Ensoulment occur in the Human Foetus. Journal of the British Islamic Medical Association , 12 (4). ISSN 2634 8071. https://www.jbima.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/2-Ethics-3_-Ensoulment_Rafaqat.pdf.

[56] Sivaraman, M. & Noor, S. (2017). Ethics of embryonic stem cell research according to Buddhist, Hindu, Catholic, and Islamic religions: perspective from Malaysia. Asian Biomedicine,8(1) 43-52.  https://doi.org/10.5372/1905-7415.0801.260

[57] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[58] Lecso, P. A. (1991). The Bodhisattva Ideal and Organ Transplantation.  Journal of Religion and Health ,  30 (1), 35–41. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27510629 ; Bodhisattva, S. (n.d.). The Key of Becoming a Bodhisattva . A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of Life. http://www.buddhism.org/Sutras/2/BodhisattvaWay.htm

[59] There is no explicit religious reference to when life begins or how to conduct research that interacts with the concept of life. However, these are relevant verses pertaining to how the fetus is viewed. (( King James Bible . (1999). Oxford University Press. (original work published 1769))

Jerimiah 1: 5 “Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee; and before thou camest forth out of the womb I sanctified thee…”

In prophet Jerimiah’s insight, God set him apart as a person known before childbirth, a theme carried within the Psalm of David.

Psalm 139: 13-14 “…Thou hast covered me in my mother's womb. I will praise thee; for I am fearfully and wonderfully made…”

These verses demonstrate David’s respect for God as an entity that would know of all man’s thoughts and doings even before birth.

[60] It should be noted that abortion is not supported as well.

[61] The Vatican. (1987, February 22). Instruction on Respect for Human Life in Its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation Replies to Certain Questions of the Day . Congregation For the Doctrine of the Faith. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19870222_respect-for-human-life_en.html

[62] The Vatican. (2000, August 25). Declaration On the Production and the Scientific and Therapeutic Use of Human Embryonic Stem Cells . Pontifical Academy for Life. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_academies/acdlife/documents/rc_pa_acdlife_doc_20000824_cellule-staminali_en.html ; Ohara, N. (2003). Ethical Consideration of Experimentation Using Living Human Embryos: The Catholic Church’s Position on Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research and Human Cloning. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology . Retrieved from https://article.imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/30/2-3/pii/2003018/77-81.pdf.

[63] Smith, G. A. (2022, May 23). Like Americans overall, Catholics vary in their abortion views, with regular mass attenders most opposed . Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/05/23/like-americans-overall-catholics-vary-in-their-abortion-views-with-regular-mass-attenders-most-opposed/

[64] Rosner, F., & Reichman, E. (2002). Embryonic stem cell research in Jewish law. Journal of halacha and contemporary society , (43), 49–68.; Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[65] Schenker J. G. (2008). The beginning of human life: status of embryo. Perspectives in Halakha (Jewish Religious Law).  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  25 (6), 271–276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-008-9221-6

[66] Ruttenberg, D. (2020, May 5). The Torah of Abortion Justice (annotated source sheet) . Sefaria. https://www.sefaria.org/sheets/234926.7?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en

[67] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[68] Gert, B. (2007). Common morality: Deciding what to do . Oxford Univ. Press.

[69] World Medical Association (2013). World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. JAMA , 310(20), 2191–2194. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.281053 Declaration of Helsinki – WMA – The World Medical Association .; see also: National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. (1979).  The Belmont report: Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research . U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.  https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/read-the-belmont-report/index.html

[70] Zakarin Safier, L., Gumer, A., Kline, M., Egli, D., & Sauer, M. V. (2018). Compensating human subjects providing oocytes for stem cell research: 9-year experience and outcomes.  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  35 (7), 1219–1225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-018-1171-z https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6063839/ see also: Riordan, N. H., & Paz Rodríguez, J. (2021). Addressing concerns regarding associated costs, transparency, and integrity of research in recent stem cell trial. Stem Cells Translational Medicine , 10 (12), 1715–1716. https://doi.org/10.1002/sctm.21-0234

[71] Klitzman, R., & Sauer, M. V. (2009). Payment of egg donors in stem cell research in the USA.  Reproductive biomedicine online ,  18 (5), 603–608. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1472-6483(10)60002-8

[72] Krosin, M. T., Klitzman, R., Levin, B., Cheng, J., & Ranney, M. L. (2006). Problems in comprehension of informed consent in rural and peri-urban Mali, West Africa.  Clinical trials (London, England) ,  3 (3), 306–313. https://doi.org/10.1191/1740774506cn150oa

[73] Veatch, Robert M.  Hippocratic, Religious, and Secular Medical Ethics: The Points of Conflict . Georgetown University Press, 2012.

[74] Msoroka, M. S., & Amundsen, D. (2018). One size fits not quite all: Universal research ethics with diversity.  Research Ethics ,  14 (3), 1-17.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016117739939

[75] Pirzada, N. (2022). The Expansion of Turkey’s Medical Tourism Industry.  Voices in Bioethics ,  8 . https://doi.org/10.52214/vib.v8i.9894

[76] Stem Cell Tourism: False Hope for Real Money . Harvard Stem Cell Institute (HSCI). (2023). https://hsci.harvard.edu/stem-cell-tourism , See also: Bissassar, M. (2017). Transnational Stem Cell Tourism: An ethical analysis.  Voices in Bioethics ,  3 . https://doi.org/10.7916/vib.v3i.6027

[77] Song, P. (2011) The proliferation of stem cell therapies in post-Mao China: problematizing ethical regulation,  New Genetics and Society , 30:2, 141-153, DOI:  10.1080/14636778.2011.574375

[78] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[79] International Society for Stem Cell Research. (2024). Standards in stem cell research . International Society for Stem Cell Research. https://www.isscr.org/guidelines/5-standards-in-stem-cell-research

[80] Benjamin, R. (2013). People’s science bodies and rights on the Stem Cell Frontier . Stanford University Press.

Mifrah Hayath

SM Candidate Harvard Medical School, MS Biotechnology Johns Hopkins University

Olivia Bowers

MS Bioethics Columbia University (Disclosure: affiliated with Voices in Bioethics)

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This journal is committed to upholding the integrity of the scientific record. As a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics ( COPE ) the journal will follow the COPE guidelines on how to deal with potential acts of misconduct.

Authors should refrain from misrepresenting research results which could damage the trust in the journal, the professionalism of scientific authorship, and ultimately the entire scientific endeavour. Maintaining integrity of the research and its presentation is helped by following the rules of good scientific practice, which include*:

• The manuscript should not be submitted to more than one journal for simultaneous consideration.
• The submitted work should be original and should not have been published elsewhere in any form or language (partially or in full), unless the new work concerns an expansion of previous work. (Please provide transparency on the re-use of material to avoid the concerns about text-recycling (‘self-plagiarism’).
• A single study should not be split up into several parts to increase the quantity of submissions and submitted to various journals or to one journal over time (i.e. ‘salami-slicing/publishing’).
• Concurrent or secondary publication is sometimes justifiable, provided certain conditions are met. Examples include: translations or a manuscript that is intended for a different group of readers.
• Results should be presented clearly, honestly, and without fabrication, falsification or inappropriate data manipulation (including image based manipulation). Authors should adhere to discipline-specific rules for acquiring, selecting and processing data.
• No data, text, or theories by others are presented as if they were the author’s own (‘plagiarism’). Proper acknowledgements to other works must be given (this includes material that is closely copied (near verbatim), summarized and/or paraphrased), quotation marks (to indicate words taken from another source) are used for verbatim copying of material, and permissions secured for material that is copyrighted.

Important note: the journal may use software to screen for plagiarism.

• Authors should make sure they have permissions for the use of software, questionnaires/(web) surveys and scales in their studies (if appropriate).
• Research articles and non-research articles (e.g. Opinion, Review, and Commentary articles) must cite appropriate and relevant literature in support of the claims made. Excessive and inappropriate self-citation or coordinated efforts among several authors to collectively self-cite is strongly discouraged.
• Authors should avoid untrue statements about an entity (who can be an individual person or a company) or descriptions of their behavior or actions that could potentially be seen as personal attacks or allegations about that person.
• Research that may be misapplied to pose a threat to public health or national security should be clearly identified in the manuscript (e.g. dual use of research). Examples include creation of harmful consequences of biological agents or toxins, disruption of immunity of vaccines, unusual hazards in the use of chemicals, weaponization of research/technology (amongst others).
• Authors are strongly advised to ensure the author group, the Corresponding Author, and the order of authors are all correct at submission. Adding and/or deleting authors during the revision stages is generally not permitted, but in some cases may be warranted. Reasons for changes in authorship should be explained in detail. Please note that changes to authorship cannot be made after acceptance of a manuscript.

*All of the above are guidelines and authors need to make sure to respect third parties rights such as copyright and/or moral rights.

Upon request authors should be prepared to send relevant documentation or data in order to verify the validity of the results presented. This could be in the form of raw data, samples, records, etc. Sensitive information in the form of confidential or proprietary data is excluded.

If there is suspicion of misbehavior or alleged fraud the Journal and/or Publisher will carry out an investigation following COPE guidelines. If, after investigation, there are valid concerns, the author(s) concerned will be contacted under their given e-mail address and given an opportunity to address the issue. Depending on the situation, this may result in the Journal’s and/or Publisher’s implementation of the following measures, including, but not limited to:

• If the manuscript is still under consideration, it may be rejected and returned to the author.

- an erratum/correction may be placed with the article

- an expression of concern may be placed with the article

- or in severe cases retraction of the article may occur.

The reason will be given in the published erratum/correction, expression of concern or retraction note. Please note that retraction means that the article is maintained on the platform , watermarked “retracted” and the explanation for the retraction is provided in a note linked to the watermarked article.

• The author’s institution may be informed
• A notice of suspected transgression of ethical standards in the peer review system may be included as part of the author’s and article’s bibliographic record.

Fundamental errors

Authors have an obligation to correct mistakes once they discover a significant error or inaccuracy in their published article. The author(s) is/are requested to contact the journal and explain in what sense the error is impacting the article. A decision on how to correct the literature will depend on the nature of the error. This may be a correction or retraction. The retraction note should provide transparency which parts of the article are impacted by the error.

Suggesting / excluding reviewers

Authors are welcome to suggest suitable reviewers and/or request the exclusion of certain individuals when they submit their manuscripts. When suggesting reviewers, authors should make sure they are totally independent and not connected to the work in any way. It is strongly recommended to suggest a mix of reviewers from different countries and different institutions. When suggesting reviewers, the Corresponding Author must provide an institutional email address for each suggested reviewer, or, if this is not possible to include other means of verifying the identity such as a link to a personal homepage, a link to the publication record or a researcher or author ID in the submission letter. Please note that the Journal may not use the suggestions, but suggestions are appreciated and may help facilitate the peer review process.

These guidelines describe authorship principles and good authorship practices to which prospective authors should adhere to.

Authorship clarified

The Journal and Publisher assume all authors agreed with the content and that all gave explicit consent to submit and that they obtained consent from the responsible authorities at the institute/organization where the work has been carried out, before the work is submitted.

The Publisher does not prescribe the kinds of contributions that warrant authorship. It is recommended that authors adhere to the guidelines for authorship that are applicable in their specific research field. In absence of specific guidelines it is recommended to adhere to the following guidelines*:

All authors whose names appear on the submission

1) made substantial contributions to the conception or design of the work; or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data; or the creation of new software used in the work;

2) drafted the work or revised it critically for important intellectual content;

3) approved the version to be published; and

4) agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved.

* Based on/adapted from:

ICMJE, Defining the Role of Authors and Contributors,

Transparency in authors’ contributions and responsibilities to promote integrity in scientific publication, McNutt at all, PNAS February 27, 2018

Disclosures and declarations

All authors are requested to include information regarding sources of funding, financial or non-financial interests, study-specific approval by the appropriate ethics committee for research involving humans and/or animals, informed consent if the research involved human participants, and a statement on welfare of animals if the research involved animals (as appropriate).

The decision whether such information should be included is not only dependent on the scope of the journal, but also the scope of the article. Work submitted for publication may have implications for public health or general welfare and in those cases it is the responsibility of all authors to include the appropriate disclosures and declarations.

Data transparency

All authors are requested to make sure that all data and materials as well as software application or custom code support their published claims and comply with field standards. Please note that journals may have individual policies on (sharing) research data in concordance with disciplinary norms and expectations.

Role of the Corresponding Author

One author is assigned as Corresponding Author and acts on behalf of all co-authors and ensures that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately addressed.

The Corresponding Author is responsible for the following requirements:

• ensuring that all listed authors have approved the manuscript before submission, including the names and order of authors;
• managing all communication between the Journal and all co-authors, before and after publication;*
• providing transparency on re-use of material and mention any unpublished material (for example manuscripts in press) included in the manuscript in a cover letter to the Editor;
• making sure disclosures, declarations and transparency on data statements from all authors are included in the manuscript as appropriate (see above).

* The requirement of managing all communication between the journal and all co-authors during submission and proofing may be delegated to a Contact or Submitting Author. In this case please make sure the Corresponding Author is clearly indicated in the manuscript.

Author contributions

In absence of specific instructions and in research fields where it is possible to describe discrete efforts, the Publisher recommends authors to include contribution statements in the work that specifies the contribution of every author in order to promote transparency. These contributions should be listed at the separate title page.

Examples of such statement(s) are shown below:

• Free text:

All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by [full name], [full name] and [full name]. The first draft of the manuscript was written by [full name] and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Example: CRediT taxonomy:

• Conceptualization: [full name], …; Methodology: [full name], …; Formal analysis and investigation: [full name], …; Writing - original draft preparation: [full name, …]; Writing - review and editing: [full name], …; Funding acquisition: [full name], …; Resources: [full name], …; Supervision: [full name],….

For review articles where discrete statements are less applicable a statement should be included who had the idea for the article, who performed the literature search and data analysis, and who drafted and/or critically revised the work.

For articles that are based primarily on the student’s dissertation or thesis , it is recommended that the student is usually listed as principal author:

A Graduate Student’s Guide to Determining Authorship Credit and Authorship Order, APA Science Student Council 2006

Affiliation

The primary affiliation for each author should be the institution where the majority of their work was done. If an author has subsequently moved, the current address may additionally be stated. Addresses will not be updated or changed after publication of the article.

Changes to authorship

Authors are strongly advised to ensure the correct author group, the Corresponding Author, and the order of authors at submission. Changes of authorship by adding or deleting authors, and/or changes in Corresponding Author, and/or changes in the sequence of authors are not accepted after acceptance of a manuscript.

• Please note that author names will be published exactly as they appear on the accepted submission!

Please make sure that the names of all authors are present and correctly spelled, and that addresses and affiliations are current.

Adding and/or deleting authors at revision stage are generally not permitted, but in some cases it may be warranted. Reasons for these changes in authorship should be explained. Approval of the change during revision is at the discretion of the Editor-in-Chief. Please note that journals may have individual policies on adding and/or deleting authors during revision stage.

Author identification

Authors are recommended to use their ORCID ID when submitting an article for consideration or acquire an ORCID ID via the submission process.

Deceased or incapacitated authors

For cases in which a co-author dies or is incapacitated during the writing, submission, or peer-review process, and the co-authors feel it is appropriate to include the author, co-authors should obtain approval from a (legal) representative which could be a direct relative.

Authorship issues or disputes

In the case of an authorship dispute during peer review or after acceptance and publication, the Journal will not be in a position to investigate or adjudicate. Authors will be asked to resolve the dispute themselves. If they are unable the Journal reserves the right to withdraw a manuscript from the editorial process or in case of a published paper raise the issue with the authors’ institution(s) and abide by its guidelines.

Confidentiality

Authors should treat all communication with the Journal as confidential which includes correspondence with direct representatives from the Journal such as Editors-in-Chief and/or Handling Editors and reviewers’ reports unless explicit consent has been received to share information.

To ensure objectivity and transparency in research and to ensure that accepted principles of ethical and professional conduct have been followed, authors should include information regarding sources of funding, potential conflicts of interest (financial or non-financial), informed consent if the research involved human participants, and a statement on welfare of animals if the research involved animals.

Authors should include the following statements (if applicable) in a separate section entitled “Compliance with Ethical Standards” when submitting a paper:

• Disclosure of potential conflicts of interest
• Research involving Human Participants and/or Animals
• Informed consent

Please note that standards could vary slightly per journal dependent on their peer review policies (i.e. single or double blind peer review) as well as per journal subject discipline. Before submitting your article check the instructions following this section carefully.

The corresponding author should be prepared to collect documentation of compliance with ethical standards and send if requested during peer review or after publication.

The Editors reserve the right to reject manuscripts that do not comply with the above-mentioned guidelines. The author will be held responsible for false statements or failure to fulfill the above-mentioned guidelines.

Authors are requested to disclose interests that are directly or indirectly related to the work submitted for publication. Interests within the last 3 years of beginning the work (conducting the research and preparing the work for submission) should be reported. Interests outside the 3-year time frame must be disclosed if they could reasonably be perceived as influencing the submitted work. Disclosure of interests provides a complete and transparent process and helps readers form their own judgments of potential bias. This is not meant to imply that a financial relationship with an organization that sponsored the research or compensation received for consultancy work is inappropriate.

Editorial Board Members and Editors are required to declare any competing interests and may be excluded from the peer review process if a competing interest exists. In addition, they should exclude themselves from handling manuscripts in cases where there is a competing interest. This may include – but is not limited to – having previously published with one or more of the authors, and sharing the same institution as one or more of the authors. Where an Editor or Editorial Board Member is on the author list we recommend they declare this in the competing interests section on the submitted manuscript. If they are an author or have any other competing interest regarding a specific manuscript, another Editor or member of the Editorial Board will be assigned to assume responsibility for overseeing peer review. These submissions are subject to the exact same review process as any other manuscript. Editorial Board Members are welcome to submit papers to the journal. These submissions are not given any priority over other manuscripts, and Editorial Board Member status has no bearing on editorial consideration.

Interests that should be considered and disclosed but are not limited to the following:

Funding: Research grants from funding agencies (please give the research funder and the grant number) and/or research support (including salaries, equipment, supplies, reimbursement for attending symposia, and other expenses) by organizations that may gain or lose financially through publication of this manuscript.

Employment: Recent (while engaged in the research project), present or anticipated employment by any organization that may gain or lose financially through publication of this manuscript. This includes multiple affiliations (if applicable).

Financial interests: Stocks or shares in companies (including holdings of spouse and/or children) that may gain or lose financially through publication of this manuscript; consultation fees or other forms of remuneration from organizations that may gain or lose financially; patents or patent applications whose value may be affected by publication of this manuscript.

It is difficult to specify a threshold at which a financial interest becomes significant, any such figure is necessarily arbitrary, so one possible practical guideline is the following: "Any undeclared financial interest that could embarrass the author were it to become publicly known after the work was published."

Non-financial interests: In addition, authors are requested to disclose interests that go beyond financial interests that could impart bias on the work submitted for publication such as professional interests, personal relationships or personal beliefs (amongst others). Examples include, but are not limited to: position on editorial board, advisory board or board of directors or other type of management relationships; writing and/or consulting for educational purposes; expert witness; mentoring relations; and so forth.

Primary research articles require a disclosure statement. Review articles present an expert synthesis of evidence and may be treated as an authoritative work on a subject. Review articles therefore require a disclosure statement. Other article types such as editorials, book reviews, comments (amongst others) may, dependent on their content, require a disclosure statement. If you are unclear whether your article type requires a disclosure statement, please contact the Editor-in-Chief.

Please note that, in addition to the above requirements, funding information (given that funding is a potential competing interest (as mentioned above)) needs to be disclosed upon submission of the manuscript in the peer review system. This information will automatically be added to the Record of CrossMark, however it is not added to the manuscript itself. Under ‘summary of requirements’ (see below) funding information should be included in the ‘ Declarations ’ section.

Summary of requirements

The above should be summarized in a statement and included on a title page that is separate from the manuscript with a section entitled “ Declarations ” when submitting a paper. Having all statements in one place allows for a consistent and unified review of the information by the Editor-in-Chief and/or peer reviewers and may speed up the handling of the paper. Declarations include Funding, Competing interests, Ethics approval, Consent, Data, Materials and/or Code availability and Authors’ contribution statements. Please use the title page for providing the statements.

Once and if the paper is accepted for publication, the production department will put the respective statements in a distinctly identified section clearly visible for readers.

Please see the various examples of wording below and revise/customize the sample statements according to your own needs.

When all authors have the same (or no) competing interests and/or funding it is sufficient to use one blanket statement.

Examples of statements to be used when funding has been received:

• Partial financial support was received from [...]
• The research leading to these results received funding from […] under Grant Agreement No[…].
• This study was funded by […]
• This work was supported by […] (Grant numbers […] and […]

Examples of statements to be used when there is no funding:

• The authors did not receive support from any organization for the submitted work.
• No funding was received to assist with the preparation of this manuscript.
• No funding was received for conducting this study.
• No funds, grants, or other support was received.

Examples of statements to be used when there are interests to declare:

Non-financial interests: Author C is an unpaid member of committee Z.

Non-financial interests: Author A is on the board of directors of Y and receives no compensation as member of the board of directors.

Non-financial interests: none.

Non-financial interests: Author D has served on advisory boards for Company M, Company N and Company O.

Examples of statements to be used when authors have nothing to declare:

• The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.
• The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.
• All authors certify that they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.
• The authors have no financial or proprietary interests in any material discussed in this article.

Authors are responsible for correctness of the statements provided in the manuscript. See also Authorship Principles. The Editor-in-Chief reserves the right to reject submissions that do not meet the guidelines described in this section.

Upon acceptance, your article will be exported to Production to undergo typesetting. Shortly after this you will receive two e-mails. One contains a request to confirm your affiliation, choose the publishing model for your article, as well as to arrange rights and payment of any associated publication cost. A second e-mail containing a link to your article’s proofs will be sent once typesetting is completed.

Article publishing agreement

Depending on the ownership of the journal and its policies, you will either grant the Publisher an exclusive licence to publish the article or will be asked to transfer copyright of the article to the Publisher.

Offprints can be ordered by the corresponding author.

Color illustrations

Online publication of color illustrations is free of charge. For color in the print version, authors will be expected to make a contribution towards the extra costs.

Proof reading

The purpose of the proof is to check for typesetting or conversion errors and the completeness and accuracy of the text, tables and figures. Substantial changes in content, e.g., new results, corrected values, title and authorship, are not allowed without the approval of the Editor.

After online publication, further changes can only be made in the form of an Erratum, which will be hyperlinked to the article.

Online First

The article will be published online after receipt of the corrected proofs. This is the official first publication citable with the DOI. After release of the printed version, the paper can also be cited by issue and page numbers.

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