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Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

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Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Science, health, and public trust.

September 8, 2021

Explaining How Research Works

We’ve heard “follow the science” a lot during the pandemic. But it seems science has taken us on a long and winding road filled with twists and turns, even changing directions at times. That’s led some people to feel they can’t trust science. But when what we know changes, it often means science is working.

Explaining the scientific process may be one way that science communicators can help maintain public trust in science. Placing research in the bigger context of its field and where it fits into the scientific process can help people better understand and interpret new findings as they emerge. A single study usually uncovers only a piece of a larger puzzle.

Questions about how the world works are often investigated on many different levels. For example, scientists can look at the different atoms in a molecule, cells in a tissue, or how different tissues or systems affect each other. Researchers often must choose one or a finite number of ways to investigate a question. It can take many different studies using different approaches to start piecing the whole picture together.

Sometimes it might seem like research results contradict each other. But often, studies are just looking at different aspects of the same problem. Researchers can also investigate a question using different techniques or timeframes. That may lead them to arrive at different conclusions from the same data.

Using the data available at the time of their study, scientists develop different explanations, or models. New information may mean that a novel model needs to be developed to account for it. The models that prevail are those that can withstand the test of time and incorporate new information. Science is a constantly evolving and self-correcting process.

Scientists gain more confidence about a model through the scientific process. They replicate each other’s work. They present at conferences. And papers undergo peer review, in which experts in the field review the work before it can be published in scientific journals. This helps ensure that the study is up to current scientific standards and maintains a level of integrity. Peer reviewers may find problems with the experiments or think different experiments are needed to justify the conclusions. They might even offer new ways to interpret the data.

It’s important for science communicators to consider which stage a study is at in the scientific process when deciding whether to cover it. Some studies are posted on preprint servers for other scientists to start weighing in on and haven’t yet been fully vetted. Results that haven't yet been subjected to scientific scrutiny should be reported on with care and context to avoid confusion or frustration from readers.

We’ve developed a one-page guide, "How Research Works: Understanding the Process of Science" to help communicators put the process of science into perspective. We hope it can serve as a useful resource to help explain why science changes—and why it’s important to expect that change. Please take a look and share your thoughts with us by sending an email to  [email protected].

Below are some additional resources:

• Discoveries in Basic Science: A Perfectly Imperfect Process
• When Clinical Research Is in the News
• What is Basic Science and Why is it Important?
• ​ What is a Research Organism?
• What Are Clinical Trials and Studies?
• Basic Research – Digital Media Kit
• Decoding Science: How Does Science Know What It Knows? (NAS)
• Can Science Help People Make Decisions ? (NAS)

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What does undergraduate research really look like?

When people say, “research”, what do they mean? A quick search on the internet, usually. But in college, research takes on a whole new meaning.

Jason Keller February 22, 2019

When people say “research,” what do they mean? A quick search on the internet, usually. But in college, research takes on a whole new meaning. At its core, research is looking for the answer to a question that someone else hasn't already answered, building on the body of human knowledge. It's a key part of graduate programs and many career fields — so it's especially valuable to start getting research experience as an undergraduate.

Undergraduate research experience can look like a number of things, according to Janice Dickensheets, faculty fellow in the Office of Undergraduate Research at UNC. It can range from formal, clinical studies, to helping run a publication (like UNC's PUGS or UAP ), to creative works and beyond.

Research seeks to answer questions you can’t look up on your own or to develop things not yet created.

Research should present falsifiable claims and findings that haven't been uncovered yet. A falsifiable claim is a claim that can be disproven by countering studies or statements. As the blog Explorable puts it:

Falsifiability is the assertion that for any hypothesis to have credence, it must be inherently disprovable before it can become accepted as a scientific hypothesis or theory.

Basically, the more a piece of research can stand up to scholarly critiques, the more compelling the research. It should have some mechanism which might allow others to disprove it. This is an important part of the scientific method. Creative work, naturally, is an original piece, and might not be falsifiable.

Every research topic looks different.

The research approach for undergraduates differs depending on the field and focus of research, Dickensheets says. Some common types include working with faculty on their research, enrolling in a research program and conducting your own studies, or even creative endeavors. The actual nature of your research could carry you to the lab to conduct experiments and dissections or across the world to study poaching of endangered animals.

A lot of the time, it’s interdisciplinary.

Undergraduate research can cross disciplines. A student studying cello techniques of the 19th and 20th century might also need to conduct statistical analyses to understand which notes appear most often. Or a doctor trying to figure out if a medicine works could not only take detailed blood samples, but also ask the subjects how the medicine made them feel and then write up a paper on it.

Research can be artistic.

In some institutions, research might look like a manuscript, a book of poems or a sculpture. More traditional types of research include qualitative research (finding answers about the quality of something, such as by interviewing someone about their experience being raised by their grandparents) and quantitative research (using numbers to find answers, such as by conducting a survey where people answer questions about being raised by their grandparents "on a scale of 1-7").

It’s possible to get grants or even get paid.

Some research institutions, such as UNC, provide funds to help facilitate research, fund studies and present at conferences. In some institutions, it might even be possible for undergraduate researchers to take a paid research position in lieu of a job, earning them research experience and also payment. UNC offers stipends and grants to its undergraduate researchers.

Research can be a great way to improve critical thinking…

According to both Dickensheets and a paper written at Samford University by John K. Petrella and Alan P. Jung, undergraduate research can help students understand how the scientific method works or aid them in their ability to answer difficult or abstract questions.

“I think the biggest benefit to undergraduate research is the ability to be a critical thinker. It is one of the places where a student can’t just get away with memorizing and regurgitating answers. They have to think about the question at hand. Figure out what research the world has already done, and posit a solution, interpretation or summarization (generally) of that research, often providing answers or other questions that can become the impetus for additional research.” – Janice Dickensheets

Meet mentors…

Undergraduate research likely will require you to have a faculty member standing by to help you conduct and refine your research or answer any questions you might have. Often times the student will be asked to go and find their own faculty mentor, so it’s important to find one that aligns with your research interests. 

…or position yourself well for graduate school.

“You go to graduate school to do research, so they want to know that you can do research and that you’ll be good at it,” says Matthew Paoletti, then a graduate student studying for his doctorate in physics, in a 2007 Sciencemag.org article . According to the article, 74 percent of graduate students in chemistry had some research experience prior to grad school. A good GPA isn’t nearly as impressive to admissions counselors as a published paper is, according to the University of Illinois press . 

Interested in researching at the undergraduate level? Come visit UNC, and visit the Office of Undergraduate Research and the Honors Program .

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What (Exactly) Is A Research Proposal?

A simple explainer with examples + free template.

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Reviewed By: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | June 2020 (Updated April 2023)

Whether you’re nearing the end of your degree and your dissertation is on the horizon, or you’re planning to apply for a PhD program, chances are you’ll need to craft a convincing research proposal . If you’re on this page, you’re probably unsure exactly what the research proposal is all about. Well, you’ve come to the right place.

Overview: Research Proposal Basics

• What a research proposal is
• What a research proposal needs to cover
• How to structure your research proposal
• Example /sample proposals
• Proposal writing FAQs
• Key takeaways & additional resources

What is a research proposal?

Simply put, a research proposal is a structured, formal document that explains what you plan to research (your research topic), why it’s worth researching (your justification), and how  you plan to investigate it (your methodology). 

The purpose of the research proposal (its job, so to speak) is to convince  your research supervisor, committee or university that your research is  suitable  (for the requirements of the degree program) and  manageable  (given the time and resource constraints you will face). 

The most important word here is “ convince ” – in other words, your research proposal needs to  sell  your research idea (to whoever is going to approve it). If it doesn’t convince them (of its suitability and manageability), you’ll need to revise and resubmit . This will cost you valuable time, which will either delay the start of your research or eat into its time allowance (which is bad news). 

What goes into a research proposal?

A good dissertation or thesis proposal needs to cover the “ what “, “ why ” and” how ” of the proposed study. Let’s look at each of these attributes in a little more detail:

Your proposal needs to clearly articulate your research topic . This needs to be specific and unambiguous . Your research topic should make it clear exactly what you plan to research and in what context. Here’s an example of a well-articulated research topic:

An investigation into the factors which impact female Generation Y consumer’s likelihood to promote a specific makeup brand to their peers: a British context

As you can see, this topic is extremely clear. From this one line we can see exactly:

• What’s being investigated – factors that make people promote or advocate for a brand of a specific makeup brand
• Who it involves – female Gen-Y consumers
• In what context – the United Kingdom

So, make sure that your research proposal provides a detailed explanation of your research topic . If possible, also briefly outline your research aims and objectives , and perhaps even your research questions (although in some cases you’ll only develop these at a later stage). Needless to say, don’t start writing your proposal until you have a clear topic in mind , or you’ll end up waffling and your research proposal will suffer as a result of this.

Need a helping hand?

As we touched on earlier, it’s not good enough to simply propose a research topic – you need to justify why your topic is original . In other words, what makes it  unique ? What gap in the current literature does it fill? If it’s simply a rehash of the existing research, it’s probably not going to get approval – it needs to be fresh.

But,  originality  alone is not enough. Once you’ve ticked that box, you also need to justify why your proposed topic is  important . In other words, what value will it add to the world if you achieve your research aims?

As an example, let’s look at the sample research topic we mentioned earlier (factors impacting brand advocacy). In this case, if the research could uncover relevant factors, these findings would be very useful to marketers in the cosmetics industry, and would, therefore, have commercial value . That is a clear justification for the research.

So, when you’re crafting your research proposal, remember that it’s not enough for a topic to simply be unique. It needs to be useful and value-creating – and you need to convey that value in your proposal. If you’re struggling to find a research topic that makes the cut, watch  our video covering how to find a research topic .

It’s all good and well to have a great topic that’s original and valuable, but you’re not going to convince anyone to approve it without discussing the practicalities – in other words:

• How will you actually undertake your research (i.e., your methodology)?
• Is your research methodology appropriate given your research aims?
• Is your approach manageable given your constraints (time, money, etc.)?

While it’s generally not expected that you’ll have a fully fleshed-out methodology at the proposal stage, you’ll likely still need to provide a high-level overview of your research methodology . Here are some important questions you’ll need to address in your research proposal:

• Will you take a qualitative , quantitative or mixed -method approach?
• What sampling strategy will you adopt?
• How will you collect your data (e.g., interviews, surveys, etc)?
• How will you analyse your data (e.g., descriptive and inferential statistics , content analysis, discourse analysis, etc, .)?
• What potential limitations will your methodology carry?

So, be sure to give some thought to the practicalities of your research and have at least a basic methodological plan before you start writing up your proposal. If this all sounds rather intimidating, the video below provides a good introduction to research methodology and the key choices you’ll need to make.

How To Structure A Research Proposal

Now that we’ve covered the key points that need to be addressed in a proposal, you may be wondering, “ But how is a research proposal structured? “.

While the exact structure and format required for a research proposal differs from university to university, there are four “essential ingredients” that commonly make up the structure of a research proposal:

• A rich introduction and background to the proposed research
• An initial literature review covering the existing research
• An overview of the proposed research methodology
• A discussion regarding the practicalities (project plans, timelines, etc.)

In the video below, we unpack each of these four sections, step by step.

Research Proposal Examples/Samples

In the video below, we provide a detailed walkthrough of two successful research proposals (Master’s and PhD-level), as well as our popular free proposal template.

Proposal Writing FAQs

How long should a research proposal be.

This varies tremendously, depending on the university, the field of study (e.g., social sciences vs natural sciences), and the level of the degree (e.g. undergraduate, Masters or PhD) – so it’s always best to check with your university what their specific requirements are before you start planning your proposal.

As a rough guide, a formal research proposal at Masters-level often ranges between 2000-3000 words, while a PhD-level proposal can be far more detailed, ranging from 5000-8000 words. In some cases, a rough outline of the topic is all that’s needed, while in other cases, universities expect a very detailed proposal that essentially forms the first three chapters of the dissertation or thesis.

The takeaway – be sure to check with your institution before you start writing.

How do I choose a topic for my research proposal?

Finding a good research topic is a process that involves multiple steps. We cover the topic ideation process in this video post.

How do I write a literature review for my proposal?

While you typically won’t need a comprehensive literature review at the proposal stage, you still need to demonstrate that you’re familiar with the key literature and are able to synthesise it. We explain the literature review process here.

How do I create a timeline and budget for my proposal?

We explain how to craft a project plan/timeline and budget in Research Proposal Bootcamp .

Which referencing format should I use in my research proposal?

The expectations and requirements regarding formatting and referencing vary from institution to institution. Therefore, you’ll need to check this information with your university.

What common proposal writing mistakes do I need to look out for?

We’ve create a video post about some of the most common mistakes students make when writing a proposal – you can access that here . If you’re short on time, here’s a quick summary:

• The research topic is too broad (or just poorly articulated).
• The research aims, objectives and questions don’t align.
• The research topic is not well justified.
• The study has a weak theoretical foundation.
• The research design is not well articulated well enough.
• Poor writing and sloppy presentation.
• Poor project planning and risk management.
• Not following the university’s specific criteria.

Key Takeaways & Additional Resources

As you write up your research proposal, remember the all-important core purpose:  to convince . Your research proposal needs to sell your study in terms of suitability and viability. So, focus on crafting a convincing narrative to ensure a strong proposal.

At the same time, pay close attention to your university’s requirements. While we’ve covered the essentials here, every institution has its own set of expectations and it’s essential that you follow these to maximise your chances of approval.

By the way, we’ve got plenty more resources to help you fast-track your research proposal. Here are some of our most popular resources to get you started:

• Proposal Writing 101 : A Introductory Webinar
• Research Proposal Bootcamp : The Ultimate Online Course
• Template : A basic template to help you craft your proposal

If you’re looking for 1-on-1 support with your research proposal, be sure to check out our private coaching service , where we hold your hand through the proposal development process (and the entire research journey), step by step.

Psst… there’s more!

This post is an extract from our bestselling short course, Research Proposal Bootcamp . If you want to work smart, you don't want to miss this .

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51 Comments

I truly enjoyed this video, as it was eye-opening to what I have to do in the preparation of preparing a Research proposal.

I would be interested in getting some coaching.

I real appreciate on your elaboration on how to develop research proposal,the video explains each steps clearly.

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Bundle of thanks to you for the research proposal guide it was really good and useful if it is possible please send me the sample of research proposal

You’re most welcome. We don’t have any research proposals that we can share (the students own the intellectual property), but you might find our research proposal template useful: https://gradcoach.com/research-proposal-template/

Cheruiyot Moses Kipyegon

Thanks alot. It was an eye opener that came timely enough before my imminent proposal defense. Thanks, again

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Thank you. This is a great insight. I am a student preparing for a PhD program. I am requested to write my Research Proposal as part of what I am required to submit before my unconditional admission. I am grateful having listened to this video which will go a long way in helping me to actually choose a topic of interest and not just any topic as well as to narrow down the topic and be specific about it. I indeed need more of this especially as am trying to choose a topic suitable for a DBA am about embarking on. Thank you once more. The video is indeed helpful.

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Hi. For my MSc medical education research, please evaluate this topic for me: Training Needs Assessment of Faculty in Medical Training Institutions in Kericho and Bomet Counties

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I need any research proposal

Thank you for these videos. I will need chapter by chapter assistance in writing my MSc dissertation

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What is JAM? Please explain.

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thank you for the video but i need a written example

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ARTiFACTS / Blog / What Is Academic Research and What Does It Look Like in Practice?

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What Is Academic Research and What Does It Look Like in Practice?

Table of contents:

We’ve all heard the phrase “according to a new study” or “research shows” but have you ever wondered what that actually means?

It’s obvious that research is important because we hear about it all of the time in all parts of life. What is academic research and why is it important?

Research comes in all different forms and places. And whether we know it or not, it affects most things that we deal with in our lives. From the technology that we use to the medicine we take. Research is vital to improvement.

So let’s dive into what research is, how it happens, and why it should be important to you.

What is a Research Project?

A research project is when someone conducts an experiment to find the answers to a question or to solve a problem they have observed.

When we think of an experiment, we often think about test tubes and beakers. But that is not the only kind of experiment that can be run.

The possibilities for research projects are really endless. It could be following a group of people over some time, it could be testing new technology, or it could be growing a plant with different variables.

A research project can propel the study of any field of interest.

The only requirement is that there is a problem to be solved, a theory to be verified, or a question to be answered. If one of those exists, a research project can be developed to find the resolution.

There are two main types of research projects; academic and professional.

Academic research is focused primarily on making new discoveries for the scientific community. Professional research is geared more towards solving a specific problem for an organization, often a business, or its customers.

The two are both  valid and contribute to progress . But we are going to focus primarily on academic research.

What is Academic Research?

While any research is good and can, in certain cases, be helpful. There is a major difference between casual research and academic research.

As was mentioned before, academic research is usually intended for the sole purpose of creating knowledge. It is not designed to benefit a specific company or organization. Academic research is designed to be from a voice of authority and can change how people view whatever is being researched. For this reason, it is held to a high standard.

Academic research follows the  scientific method  as a way to ensure that objectivity is kept at all times.

The scientific method follows the same pattern from beginning to end in order to find the most logical conclusion for the question at hand. The researcher creates a hypothesis, which is the answer she believes she will find.

The hypothesis can be a little bit tricky because though it is important (the project is just trying to prove or disprove that thought), the researcher cannot let it sway the project.

Any biases or preconceived opinions can really sway the findings and conclusions if there are no safeguards put in place. When the research is not done to academic standards, it can be hard to trust.

And what is the point of doing the research if the audience cannot trust the conclusions?

The point of research is to find ways to improve our understanding of what is being studied or to verify that our understanding of the subject is correct. So if you as a researcher find a better way or discover something new but the findings cannot be trusted, then no change will be made.

What is Academic Writing?

So once the experiment has been completed and the conclusion found, what happens next? How does the researcher share what they’ve learned?

Most often, the researcher will publish their study and findings as an academic paper in a journal. These are established publications with a reputation for bringing valuable, valid information  to the public.

When a researcher writes up the findings from their experiment, they have to use an academic writing style in order to be published.

This style of writing is generally more formal with a rigid tone. There is no common narrative, instead just the methods, facts or data and conclusions are presented. The technical jargon of that discipline, such as chemistry, or their industry is used as well.

The whole goal of the academic writing style is to articulate exactly what was done and exactly what was found. These articles are very straight-forward to read, especially if you understand that area of expertise and its technical words.

It’s also very important to explain the findings in a clear and straight forward way with no added opinions.

The writing style is important to keep the validity of the research and the article intact. The better written the article, the more likely it is to be published which is the whole goal.

What Does Peer-Reviewed Mean?

An important aspect of a legitimate journal article from an academic research project is peer review.

When a research project or research article has been peer-reviewed it means that the procedures and findings have undergone intense scrutiny by others who are already familiar with the topic and been found to be valid.

This process can look different depending on the specific field the research is being done in and where it is being done. But the process always takes place before the research is presented in an academic journal.

The paper is submitted to various peers and experts in the same field. They review the case, research, and findings and give recommendations for edits before it is published.

When an article has been peer-reviewed, it shows the reader that the findings being presented are valid.

The peers or experts who are reviewing are looking for how valid the findings are and also whether the information can be trusted. They may suggest taking out parts that are not helpful or for changes the make the paper more insightful. And they may point out problems with the methods used and suggest ways to fix them.

A peer-reviewed academic article is typically viewed as more trustworthy than an article that was not peer-reviewed.

Who is Involved in Academic Research?

Academic research involves a few different people and groups every time. Each group is necessary to make the research effective.

The first person is the researcher. This is the person (or group) conducting the experiments and writing the articles. The next is the university or the organization sponsoring the research. And last is the publisher, which is the academic journal that will distribute the academic article.

These three groups rely on each other to be able to meet their individual needs within the research realm. The researcher needs a reputable publication to publish their academic paper to make it legitimate. Academic publications need researchers who do interesting work.

They all work together to bring innovation and increase knowledge.

Why is Academic Research and Writing Important?

Okay, so now that we understand a little bit about what research is and how it works. Now, why is it important for each of us.

Higher education institutions in America spent more than  $71 billion in research  in 2018. This is a very clear indicator of how important research is. If there wasn’t a need for it, there wouldn’t be so much money spent.

People conduct research experiments and studies to enhance development and growth.

Academic research and writing are the catalysts to change in many ways.

Once there is a discovery made in a field that often leads to more inquiries and deeper dives into the subject. It can become like a domino effect for new, increased knowledge.

Research studies often show experts in the field where new opportunities are. These opportunities may come in the form of another research study, a new way of looking at the subject, a new organization, or a new invention.

Another reason that research can be important, especially for major organizations or universities, is to pique interest in the field being studied. When there are new, major developments in a field, the buzz from that is exciting and often leads to others wanting to study that same topic.

When research is reported it allows for more confidence in the way that things are understood. If a theory is studied and proven correct, those in the field can be assured that they are doing things right. If it is proven incorrect, then adjustments can be made moving forward.

Research is vital to the continual evolution and improvements we all seek, without it everything would always stay the same.

How is Academic Research Used in Practice?

We’ve talked a lot about how academic research can lead to change and progress. But how is that done?

Well, that depends on the field of study. But let’s look at a few examples.

In healthcare, academic research is used to allow the provider an opportunity to use evidence-based practice techniques. This means that the way they are treating their patients comes from specific research studies and can be backed up.

In education, academic research is used to teach concepts and principles. The teacher can use the latest data collected from a research study to prove a point or emphasize the importance.

Educating on research is also done to show the continual progression of the field of interest.

In technology, research studies are done to see how the equipment or systems can be improved. There is always better technology coming out and that is due, in part, to continual research being done on how it can be improved.

When used correctly, academic research can be a vital piece in an industry. If the right question is asked and studied, the results can be life-changing for those who are involved.

Why Get Involved in Academic Research?

From the outside, the world of academic research can seem tedious and boring. But that is actually pretty far from the truth.

True, impactful research is exciting to be a part of. Those who are doing the research could potentially be changing history in their field of study.

Being involved in academic research gives you an inside look into the inner workings of the study area or industry. Often researchers will get access to equipment or experts during an experiment that they may not get otherwise.

Academic research also brings  recognition and accolades  that can be helpful in moving forward in your career.

When an academic research study is made known to the public, that researcher’s name is attached and then known within the community. This can bring a lot of new opportunities for the researcher.

Often these opportunities look like chances to connect and collaborate with others in the same field. For someone who is really invested in a field of study, this can be invaluable to make these connections.

If for nothing else, being involved in academic research can give you answers to questions you have about the field you are studying.

What Tools Are Available for Academic Research?

If you have looked into what is academic research and now feel inclined to get involved in this world, there are many tools available to you moving forward.

The process and procedure for conducting a research study will vary depending on the actual subject being studied, so the tools required will look different for each project.

But every researcher can benefit from using a blockchain platform to keep their peers up to date on research progress. This type of platform allows the researcher to immediately publish findings as they come in, to collaborate with other researchers, and get credit for their work quickly.

A resource like this helps researchers to keep their findings accessible from the beginning, which can be an important part of keeping it going.

Check out the platform for more ideas on how it can benefit your academic research project.

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Overview of Classroom-Based Research

The figure above outlines the eight steps associated with classroom-based research. Those eight steps are:

• Reason & Context: What do you want to understand better, and what does this look like in your own teaching practice? See our page on determining your research scope.
• Determine the aspects of students’ learning you want to affect.
• Describe the teaching activities you will use to affect their learning.
• Describe factors that influence the outcomes.
• Researchable Teaching Question: Formulate a question that can be investigated.
• Consider ethical issues from research with students.
• Make a list of data to collect.
• Describe when and where to collect data.
• Plan of Approach: Describe your research plan as specific as possible.
• Data collection: Implement your research plan.
• Data Analysis & Interpretation: Organize and analyze the data, then interpret the results.
• Reflection (and Dissemination): Reflect on what you’ve learned and any insights gained and challenges faced. Share those insights with others (formally or informally).

If you’re interested in more detail about each step above, we highly recommend this reader-friendly roadmap , developed by Utrecht University by Femke Kirschner, Lindy Wijsman, and Irma Meijerman.

If you’d like more help developing your classroom-based research ideas, contact the T+LL Research & Evaluation team . We are here to support you!

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

13.1 Formatting a Research Paper

Learning objectives.

• Identify the major components of a research paper written using American Psychological Association (APA) style.
• Apply general APA style and formatting conventions in a research paper.

In this chapter, you will learn how to use APA style , the documentation and formatting style followed by the American Psychological Association, as well as MLA style , from the Modern Language Association. There are a few major formatting styles used in academic texts, including AMA, Chicago, and Turabian:

• AMA (American Medical Association) for medicine, health, and biological sciences
• APA (American Psychological Association) for education, psychology, and the social sciences
• Chicago—a common style used in everyday publications like magazines, newspapers, and books
• MLA (Modern Language Association) for English, literature, arts, and humanities
• Turabian—another common style designed for its universal application across all subjects and disciplines

While all the formatting and citation styles have their own use and applications, in this chapter we focus our attention on the two styles you are most likely to use in your academic studies: APA and MLA.

If you find that the rules of proper source documentation are difficult to keep straight, you are not alone. Writing a good research paper is, in and of itself, a major intellectual challenge. Having to follow detailed citation and formatting guidelines as well may seem like just one more task to add to an already-too-long list of requirements.

Following these guidelines, however, serves several important purposes. First, it signals to your readers that your paper should be taken seriously as a student’s contribution to a given academic or professional field; it is the literary equivalent of wearing a tailored suit to a job interview. Second, it shows that you respect other people’s work enough to give them proper credit for it. Finally, it helps your reader find additional materials if he or she wishes to learn more about your topic.

Furthermore, producing a letter-perfect APA-style paper need not be burdensome. Yes, it requires careful attention to detail. However, you can simplify the process if you keep these broad guidelines in mind:

• Work ahead whenever you can. Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” includes tips for keeping track of your sources early in the research process, which will save time later on.
• Get it right the first time. Apply APA guidelines as you write, so you will not have much to correct during the editing stage. Again, putting in a little extra time early on can save time later.
• Use the resources available to you. In addition to the guidelines provided in this chapter, you may wish to consult the APA website at http://www.apa.org or the Purdue University Online Writing lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu , which regularly updates its online style guidelines.

General Formatting Guidelines

This chapter provides detailed guidelines for using the citation and formatting conventions developed by the American Psychological Association, or APA. Writers in disciplines as diverse as astrophysics, biology, psychology, and education follow APA style. The major components of a paper written in APA style are listed in the following box.

These are the major components of an APA-style paper:

Body, which includes the following:

• Headings and, if necessary, subheadings to organize the content
• In-text citations of research sources
• References page

All these components must be saved in one document, not as separate documents.

The title page of your paper includes the following information:

• Title of the paper
• Author’s name
• Name of the institution with which the author is affiliated
• Header at the top of the page with the paper title (in capital letters) and the page number (If the title is lengthy, you may use a shortened form of it in the header.)

List the first three elements in the order given in the previous list, centered about one third of the way down from the top of the page. Use the headers and footers tool of your word-processing program to add the header, with the title text at the left and the page number in the upper-right corner. Your title page should look like the following example.

The next page of your paper provides an abstract , or brief summary of your findings. An abstract does not need to be provided in every paper, but an abstract should be used in papers that include a hypothesis. A good abstract is concise—about one hundred fifty to two hundred fifty words—and is written in an objective, impersonal style. Your writing voice will not be as apparent here as in the body of your paper. When writing the abstract, take a just-the-facts approach, and summarize your research question and your findings in a few sentences.

In Chapter 12 “Writing a Research Paper” , you read a paper written by a student named Jorge, who researched the effectiveness of low-carbohydrate diets. Read Jorge’s abstract. Note how it sums up the major ideas in his paper without going into excessive detail.

Write an abstract summarizing your paper. Briefly introduce the topic, state your findings, and sum up what conclusions you can draw from your research. Use the word count feature of your word-processing program to make sure your abstract does not exceed one hundred fifty words.

Depending on your field of study, you may sometimes write research papers that present extensive primary research, such as your own experiment or survey. In your abstract, summarize your research question and your findings, and briefly indicate how your study relates to prior research in the field.

Margins, Pagination, and Headings

APA style requirements also address specific formatting concerns, such as margins, pagination, and heading styles, within the body of the paper. Review the following APA guidelines.

Use these general guidelines to format the paper:

• Set the top, bottom, and side margins of your paper at 1 inch.
• Use double-spaced text throughout your paper.
• Use a standard font, such as Times New Roman or Arial, in a legible size (10- to 12-point).
• Use continuous pagination throughout the paper, including the title page and the references section. Page numbers appear flush right within your header.
• Section headings and subsection headings within the body of your paper use different types of formatting depending on the level of information you are presenting. Additional details from Jorge’s paper are provided.

Begin formatting the final draft of your paper according to APA guidelines. You may work with an existing document or set up a new document if you choose. Include the following:

• Your title page
• The abstract you created in Note 13.8 “Exercise 1”
• Correct headers and page numbers for your title page and abstract

APA style uses section headings to organize information, making it easy for the reader to follow the writer’s train of thought and to know immediately what major topics are covered. Depending on the length and complexity of the paper, its major sections may also be divided into subsections, sub-subsections, and so on. These smaller sections, in turn, use different heading styles to indicate different levels of information. In essence, you are using headings to create a hierarchy of information.

The following heading styles used in APA formatting are listed in order of greatest to least importance:

• Section headings use centered, boldface type. Headings use title case, with important words in the heading capitalized.
• Subsection headings use left-aligned, boldface type. Headings use title case.
• The third level uses left-aligned, indented, boldface type. Headings use a capital letter only for the first word, and they end in a period.
• The fourth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are boldfaced and italicized.
• The fifth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are italicized and not boldfaced.

Visually, the hierarchy of information is organized as indicated in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” .

Table 13.1 Section Headings

A college research paper may not use all the heading levels shown in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” , but you are likely to encounter them in academic journal articles that use APA style. For a brief paper, you may find that level 1 headings suffice. Longer or more complex papers may need level 2 headings or other lower-level headings to organize information clearly. Use your outline to craft your major section headings and determine whether any subtopics are substantial enough to require additional levels of headings.

Working with the document you developed in Note 13.11 “Exercise 2” , begin setting up the heading structure of the final draft of your research paper according to APA guidelines. Include your title and at least two to three major section headings, and follow the formatting guidelines provided above. If your major sections should be broken into subsections, add those headings as well. Use your outline to help you.

Because Jorge used only level 1 headings, his Exercise 3 would look like the following:

Citation Guidelines

In-text citations.

Throughout the body of your paper, include a citation whenever you quote or paraphrase material from your research sources. As you learned in Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , the purpose of citations is twofold: to give credit to others for their ideas and to allow your reader to follow up and learn more about the topic if desired. Your in-text citations provide basic information about your source; each source you cite will have a longer entry in the references section that provides more detailed information.

In-text citations must provide the name of the author or authors and the year the source was published. (When a given source does not list an individual author, you may provide the source title or the name of the organization that published the material instead.) When directly quoting a source, it is also required that you include the page number where the quote appears in your citation.

This information may be included within the sentence or in a parenthetical reference at the end of the sentence, as in these examples.

Epstein (2010) points out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Here, the writer names the source author when introducing the quote and provides the publication date in parentheses after the author’s name. The page number appears in parentheses after the closing quotation marks and before the period that ends the sentence.

Addiction researchers caution that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (Epstein, 2010, p. 137).

Here, the writer provides a parenthetical citation at the end of the sentence that includes the author’s name, the year of publication, and the page number separated by commas. Again, the parenthetical citation is placed after the closing quotation marks and before the period at the end of the sentence.

As noted in the book Junk Food, Junk Science (Epstein, 2010, p. 137), “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive.”

Here, the writer chose to mention the source title in the sentence (an optional piece of information to include) and followed the title with a parenthetical citation. Note that the parenthetical citation is placed before the comma that signals the end of the introductory phrase.

David Epstein’s book Junk Food, Junk Science (2010) pointed out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Another variation is to introduce the author and the source title in your sentence and include the publication date and page number in parentheses within the sentence or at the end of the sentence. As long as you have included the essential information, you can choose the option that works best for that particular sentence and source.

Citing a book with a single author is usually a straightforward task. Of course, your research may require that you cite many other types of sources, such as books or articles with more than one author or sources with no individual author listed. You may also need to cite sources available in both print and online and nonprint sources, such as websites and personal interviews. Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.2 “Citing and Referencing Techniques” and Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provide extensive guidelines for citing a variety of source types.

Writing at Work

APA is just one of several different styles with its own guidelines for documentation, formatting, and language usage. Depending on your field of interest, you may be exposed to additional styles, such as the following:

• MLA style. Determined by the Modern Languages Association and used for papers in literature, languages, and other disciplines in the humanities.
• Chicago style. Outlined in the Chicago Manual of Style and sometimes used for papers in the humanities and the sciences; many professional organizations use this style for publications as well.
• Associated Press (AP) style. Used by professional journalists.

References List

The brief citations included in the body of your paper correspond to the more detailed citations provided at the end of the paper in the references section. In-text citations provide basic information—the author’s name, the publication date, and the page number if necessary—while the references section provides more extensive bibliographical information. Again, this information allows your reader to follow up on the sources you cited and do additional reading about the topic if desired.

The specific format of entries in the list of references varies slightly for different source types, but the entries generally include the following information:

• The name(s) of the author(s) or institution that wrote the source
• The year of publication and, where applicable, the exact date of publication
• The full title of the source
• For books, the city of publication
• For articles or essays, the name of the periodical or book in which the article or essay appears
• For magazine and journal articles, the volume number, issue number, and pages where the article appears
• For sources on the web, the URL where the source is located

The references page is double spaced and lists entries in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. If an entry continues for more than one line, the second line and each subsequent line are indented five spaces. Review the following example. ( Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provides extensive guidelines for formatting reference entries for different types of sources.)

In APA style, book and article titles are formatted in sentence case, not title case. Sentence case means that only the first word is capitalized, along with any proper nouns.

Key Takeaways

• Following proper citation and formatting guidelines helps writers ensure that their work will be taken seriously, give proper credit to other authors for their work, and provide valuable information to readers.
• Working ahead and taking care to cite sources correctly the first time are ways writers can save time during the editing stage of writing a research paper.
• APA papers usually include an abstract that concisely summarizes the paper.
• APA papers use a specific headings structure to provide a clear hierarchy of information.
• In APA papers, in-text citations usually include the name(s) of the author(s) and the year of publication.
• In-text citations correspond to entries in the references section, which provide detailed bibliographical information about a source.

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‘Inside the Lab’ series provides a unique look at UChicago research

Through videos and q&as, scholars discuss the impact of their groundbreaking work.

The world today is facing unprecedented, complex challenges, and the need to address them through research is more important than ever. 

As a leading global research university, the University of Chicago is home to hundreds of the world’s most advanced research facilities and laboratories. Through the support of federal and private funding as well as collaboration with corporate and academic partners, UChicago scholars are making breakthrough discoveries that are shaping fields of study and tackling some of these complex problems.

To help illustrate the impact of research, as well as how UChicago scholars’ groundbreaking work is conducted, a new series called “Inside The Lab” provides a first-hand look at these labs and allows us to hear from the scholars themselves.

Through dynamic videos and Q&As, audiences will have an opportunity to meet UChicago faculty and students and better understand how they conduct their research. Whether they’re working in small research groups at a greenhouse on campus or in large-scale scientific experiments at Argonne National Laboratory and Fermilab, each lab is addressing important global problems—from how to address food security amid climate change to preserving some of the world’s oldest objects —while providing student transformative experiences for the next generation of scholars.

“From answering fundamental questions through basic research to applying new technologies to new discoveries, scholars at UChicago are pushing the boundaries of knowledge. Their work in diverse fields such as medicine, biology, public policy, computing, physics and business has the potential to transform our future,” said Erin Adams, vice provost for research at UChicago. “As a scientist, I’ve realized over my career that many people don’t understand what research entails—or the critical impact that university research has on society. Through ‘Inside the Lab,’ we’re excited for the world to learn more about how research happens, who conducts this pioneering work and how it is helping transform our world.”

Visit the “Inside the Lab” website to learn more about the series, and explore some of the labs at UChicago.

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Infographic: What is biomedical research?

Biomedical research focuses on understanding how every part of the human body works—right down to our cells.

By studying the normal and abnormal workings of the body at the molecular, cellular, organ system, and whole-body levels, biomedical research leads to new:

• Ways of identifying and diagnosing disease
• Interventions to prevent illness in the first place
• Tools and equipment to enhance patient care and health outcomes
• Medicines, vaccines, and therapies to improve our health

Exploring many areas of both the life and physical sciences, biomedical research addresses challenges such as:

• Can we train our immune system to recognize and destroy cancer cells? What other ways can we treat cancer with minimal side effects?
• How do the bacteria and other microbes that live in our guts or on our skin affect our health?
• How can we develop new gene therapies and drugs to treat rare or inherited diseases?
• How can we protect our brain health as we age? Is it possible to help the brain heal itself?
• Can we prevent animal-to-human transmission and spread of disease due to climate change?
• What happens if our current antibiotics stop working? Can we prevent bacteria and other microbes from becoming antibiotic-resistant in the first place?

What does biomedical research look like?

Biomedical research activities often involve experts from a wide range of fields (such as medicine, pharmacology, bioinformatics, computational biology, genetics, structural biology, biochemistry, immunology, pathology, kinesiology, and many more) who work to answer these big questions by:

• Conducting quantitative research studies
• Running laboratory experiments
• Testing new medical therapies, treatments, or devices
• And much more!

Learn more by visiting the Biomedical research webpage.

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From left to right: Rajeev Ram of MIT; Brandon Hurlbut, a co-founder of Boundary Stone Partners; and Stanford’s Yi Cui and Sally Benson discuss challenges and innovations in transforming the grid. (Image credit: Saul Bromberger)

How do we transition to clean energy with enough speed and scale to prevent the most extreme impacts of climate change? This question loomed large for many of the speakers and participants at the Stanford Forum on the Science of Energy Transition , held on campus April 10 for an audience of students and invited guests.

To stabilize global temperatures, we need to find ways to reduce and remove our carbon emissions from Earth’s atmosphere by tens of gigatons every single year. By comparison, gas-powered vehicles in the U.S. together produce about a gigaton of carbon dioxide emissions each year.

Many of the speakers agreed action over the next few decades is critical, and addressing climate change will require coordinated efforts across the scientific community, climate technology innovators, government, the private sector, and others to transition the world’s $100 trillion economy to clean energy.

The forum, co-hosted by the Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability and Stanford Management Company , convened experts to explore challenges and opportunities to transform the power grid, rethink renewable fuels, remove greenhouse gases from our atmosphere, and address energy issues in tandem with other sustainability concerns.

The forum served as a powerful example of how Stanford leaders are educating changemakers in energy and facilitating connections that will help bring insights from scientific research to decisions that will affect global sustainability.

“Today, the energy transition will require us to forge new pathways, but we can’t just blindly strike out. That will lead us down too many dead ends, and time is of the essence. Instead, the paths we choose must be informed by science,” said Robert Wallace, the chief executive officer of Stanford Management Company.

Consider speed and scale from the get-go

Decarbonizing global energy production is a tall order. That’s before you consider the rising demand for energy as countries develop and look for opportunities to increase mobility, communication, security, and economic prosperity, multiple speakers said.

U.S. clean energy projects are on hold due to bottlenecks in the process for permitting new transmission lines and grid interconnections. The queue of projects waiting for approval by transmission operators would effectively triple the size of our generating resource, said Rajeev Ram , a professor of electrical engineering at MIT. Removing some of those logistical barriers through AI, modeling, and software tools can help accelerate the timeline for projects that could provide clean energy to the grid, said Ram.

Yi Cui , the director of Stanford’s Sustainability Accelerator , is one of the leading experts developing batteries for renewable energy storage. Scholars in the Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability – which celebrated its first anniversary in September – have embraced a core philosophy of thinking about scale at the beginning of the design process, which is a good sign, Cui said.

For example, the relative scarcity of some elements – such as lithium, cobalt, and nickel – in current battery designs could limit their potential for large-scale production at low cost. Cui emphasized that scientists could focus on designing battery materials based on more widely available minerals, like zinc, manganese, and iron .

“We need to figure out for each of these technologies what is already going on at the gigaton-scale – like natural cycles, like agriculture – and see what we can do to tweak it in the right way so that you can create a market and use market mechanisms to scale it,” said Arun Majumdar , the inaugural dean of the Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability.

Others highlighted the importance of driving down costs for companies and consumers. If innovators can eliminate the green premium – the cost of choosing a clean energy technology over a traditional source – for their products, they will be competitive in the market.

Meanwhile, incentives like subsidies for renewable energy will need to be supplemented with policies that actively discourage use of carbon-intensive resources. “If we’re serious about addressing climate change, we’ve got to have a price on carbon,” whether through direct pricing per ton or indirectly through regulation, said Majumdar.

Powered by electrons versus molecules

The grid is essentially a system of wires that transports electrons from power plants to consumers. However, grid electrification will only get us about halfway to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, noted Sally Benson , the Precourt Family Professor, who moderated one of the panels.

Eighty percent of global energy comes from fossil fuels. Much of this comes in the form of liquid fossil fuels for transportation – cars, planes, ships, and some trains. The challenges of developing batteries and grid storage capable of providing electricity without interruption could limit electrification of some parts of the transportation sector. Instead, renewable fuels like hydrogen, biofuels, and fuels made primarily from captured carbon dioxide may help reduce carbon emissions from heavy-duty transportation.

“Our challenge is to think that the future is electrification, but that doesn’t mean that electrons are going to do everything for us directly,” said Anthony Kovscek , the Keleen and Carlton Beal Professor in the Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability.

Hydrogen could help bridge the gap to carbon neutrality, said Eric Toone , managing director and technical lead at Breakthrough Energy Ventures.

“Hydrogen is pure, reactive chemical energy. If you have enough hydrogen, you can do anything,” he said.

Zara Summers is the chief science officer at LanzaTech. (Image credit: Saul Bromberger)

Zara Summers is the chief science officer at LanzaTech, a company that makes chemicals and fuels from carbon dioxide captured from factories and other industrial sources.

LanzaTech has been working to develop ethanol alternatives that make use of carbon from municipal waste or industrial emissions. These alternatives could serve as effective drop-in replacements for liquid fuels like gasoline, with the added benefit of easy adoption by the public and ability to tap into existing supply chains, but many current economic incentives specifically benefit corn-based ethanol.

“If you’re going to go big, you have to be at cost parity or better. But, you also have to fight against policy that’s written with a solution in mind, not an outcome,” said Summers. She highlighted how designing policies that are flexible and adaptable to new innovations will help bring solutions to scale.

Science as the bedrock

In addition to the challenge of rapidly reducing greenhouse gas emissions, the forum also explored solutions for removing historic carbon emissions from the atmosphere. During a panel on greenhouse gas removal strategies , speakers turned the focus to more low-tech solutions: carbon cycles in nature. For example, Benson enthusiastically described enhanced weathering, which builds on a naturally occurring process where rain interacts with certain rocks to form a mild acid. This acid then reacts with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to form solid compounds that permanently store carbon.

Chris Field , the director of the Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment , cited research published last month which found that adding crushed basalt rocks for enhanced weathering could increase productivity and soil health on croplands .

“It really highlights where you can potentially accomplish these big co-benefits that can make something that’s a real challenge logistically or financially come into the realm of possibility,” said Field.

The energy transition touches all of the major social-environmental systems. A final panel brought together experts on freshwater, oceans and aquatic foods, and agricultural technology to explore cultivating resilience amid climate pressures. “Agriculture sits at the very center of many of the pressures that we’re putting on Earth’s systems,” said Jim Leape , co-director of the Stanford Center for Ocean Solutions .

Arun Majumdar and Steven Chu discussed energy efficiency, nuclear fusion, national security, and more during a fireside chat. (Image credit: Saul Bromberger)

During a fireside chat, Majumdar discussed emerging trends in clean energy with Steven Chu , the William R. Kenan, Jr. Professor in the School of Humanities and Sciences . They mentioned the “low-hanging fruit” of energy efficiency, the future of nuclear fusion, and balancing the energy transition with national and economic security. Nevertheless, Chu brought the conversation back to the critical role of new inventions.

“As a physicist, when I stand back and look at things: What really changed the world? New materials are actually what changed the world,” said Chu, a former U.S. Secretary of Energy who embodies the impact of science-based decision-making in energy systems as the first scientist to hold a Cabinet position.

From the steam engine and the agricultural revolution to semiconductors and nuclear fission, leaps forward in technology have enabled global-scale changes and development. Highlighting the vision for the Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability, Majumdar noted that when research institutions like Stanford collaborate with public and private entities, they can serve as a place where scholars can serve as incubators for translating novel ideas into impact.

Yi Cui is also the Fortinet Founders Professor and a professor of materials science and engineering in the School of Engineering . He is a professor of energy science and engineering in the Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability, a professor, by courtesy, of chemistry in the School of Humanities and Sciences, and a professor in the Photon Science Directorate. Cui is also a senior fellow at the Precourt Institute for Energy , and the institute’s immediate past director, and a senior fellow at the Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment.

Arun Majumdar is the Chester Naramore Dean of the Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability, the Jay Precourt Provostial Chair Professor, and a senior fellow at the Precourt Institute for Energy. He is also a professor of mechanical engineering and, by courtesy, of materials science and engineering in the School of Engineering, and a professor in the Photon Science Directorate. He is a senior fellow, by courtesy, at the Hoover Institution.

Sally Benson is the Precourt Family Professor in the Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability, where she is a professor of energy science and engineering; a senior fellow at the Precourt Institute for Energy; and a senior fellow at the Woods Institute.

Anthony Kovcsek is a professor of energy science and engineering, and a senior fellow at the Precourt Institute for Energy.

Chris Field is also the Melvin and Joan Lane Professor in Interdisciplinary Environmental Studies in the School of Humanities and Sciences; the Perry L. McCarty Director of the Woods Institute; a professor of Earth system science in the Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability; and a senior fellow at the Precourt Institute for Energy.

Jim Leape is the William and Eva Price Senior Fellow at the Woods Institute and a professor, by courtesy, of oceans.

Steven Chu is a Nobel laureate and a professor of energy science and engineering in the Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability. He is also a professor of molecular and cellular physiology at Stanford Medicine and of physics in the School of Humanities and Sciences.

New NASA Black Hole Visualization Takes Viewers Beyond the Brink

Ever wonder what happens when you fall into a black hole? Now, thanks to a new, immersive visualization produced on a NASA supercomputer, viewers can plunge into the event horizon, a black hole’s point of no return.

“People often ask about this, and simulating these difficult-to-imagine processes helps me connect the mathematics of relativity to actual consequences in the real universe,” said Jeremy Schnittman, an astrophysicist at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, who created the visualizations. “So I simulated two different scenarios, one where a camera — a stand-in for a daring astronaut — just misses the event horizon and slingshots back out, and one where it crosses the boundary, sealing its fate.”

The visualizations are available in multiple forms. Explainer videos act as sightseeing guides, illuminating the bizarre effects of Einstein’s general theory of relativity. Versions rendered as 360-degree videos let viewers look all around during the trip, while others play as flat all-sky maps.

To create the visualizations, Schnittman teamed up with fellow Goddard scientist Brian Powell and used the Discover supercomputer at the NASA Center for Climate Simulation . The project generated about 10 terabytes of data — equivalent to roughly half of the estimated text content in the Library of Congress — and took about 5 days running on just 0.3% of Discover’s 129,000 processors. The same feat would take more than a decade on a typical laptop.

The destination is a supermassive black hole with 4.3 million times the mass of our Sun, equivalent to the monster located at the center of our Milky Way galaxy.

“If you have the choice, you want to fall into a supermassive black hole,” Schnittman explained. “Stellar-mass black holes, which contain up to about 30 solar masses,  possess much smaller event horizons and stronger tidal forces, which can rip apart approaching objects before they get to the horizon.”

This occurs because the gravitational pull on the end of an object nearer the black hole is much stronger than that on the other end. Infalling objects stretch out like noodles, a process astrophysicists call spaghettification .

The simulated black hole’s event horizon spans about 16 million miles (25 million kilometers), or about 17% of the distance from Earth to the Sun. A flat, swirling cloud of hot, glowing gas called an accretion disk surrounds it and serves as a visual reference during the fall. So do glowing structures called photon rings, which form closer to the black hole from light that has orbited it one or more times. A backdrop of the starry sky as seen from Earth completes the scene.

As the camera approaches the black hole, reaching speeds ever closer to that of light itself, the glow from the accretion disk and background stars becomes amplified in much the same way as the sound of an oncoming racecar rises in pitch. Their light appears brighter and whiter when looking into the direction of travel.

The movies begin with the camera located nearly 400 million miles (640 million kilometers) away, with the black hole quickly filling the view. Along the way, the black hole’s disk, photon rings, and the night sky become increasingly distorted — and even form multiple images as their light traverses the increasingly warped space-time.

In real time, the camera takes about 3 hours to fall to the event horizon, executing almost two complete 30-minute orbits along the way. But to anyone observing from afar, it would never quite get there. As space-time becomes ever more distorted closer to the horizon, the image of the camera would slow and then seem to freeze just shy of it. This is why astronomers originally referred to black holes as “frozen stars.”

At the event horizon, even space-time itself flows inward at the speed of light, the cosmic speed limit. Once inside it, both the camera and the space-time in which it's moving rush toward the black hole's center — a one-dimensional point called a singularity , where the laws of physics as we know them cease to operate.

“Once the camera crosses the horizon, its destruction by spaghettification is just 12.8 seconds away,” Schnittman said. From there, it’s only 79,500 miles (128,000 kilometers) to the singularity. This final leg of the voyage is over in the blink of an eye.

In the alternative scenario, the camera orbits close to the event horizon but it never crosses over and escapes to safety. If an astronaut flew a spacecraft on this 6-hour round trip while her colleagues on a mothership remained far from the black hole, she’d return 36 minutes younger than her colleagues. That’s because time passes more slowly near a strong gravitational source and when moving near the speed of light.

“This situation can be even more extreme,” Schnittman noted. “If the black hole were rapidly rotating, like the one shown in the 2014 movie ‘Interstellar,’ she would return many years younger than her shipmates.”

By Francis Reddy NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center , Greenbelt, Md. Media Contact: Claire Andreoli 301-286-1940 [email protected] NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md.

Related Terms

• Astrophysics
• Black Holes
• Galaxies, Stars, & Black Holes
• Galaxies, Stars, & Black Holes Research
• Goddard Space Flight Center
• Supermassive Black Holes
• The Universe

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The latest on the massive solar storm

By Angela Fritz, Elise Hammond and Chris Lau, CNN

Incredible lighthouse picture from Maine

From CNN's Chris Lau

Among a flurry of surreal images capturing the dazzling auroras is one taken by Benjamin Williamson of a lighthouse in Portland, Maine.

"It's one of the most incredible things I've ever seen, the awe and wonder," Williamson told CNN.

He said he used a long-exposure technique to snap the shot, but did not edit it.

Watch the full interview with Williamson here .

Things could be about to ramp up

If you still haven't seen the aurora, hold on for another 30 minutes to an hour, according to CNN meteorologist Chad Myers.

The next wave of coronal mass ejections, or CMEs, which cause the aurora, is about to arrive, he said.

"Just wait a minute because things are going to start to ramp up here," he said, adding that the increase could arrive "anytime now." "When it comes, get outside, get ready, put your coat on."

For those who are too busy to witness the phenomenon tonight, Myers said the aurora is expected to last three nights.

Why does the aurora last for a weekend?

By CNN's Chris Lau

Generally, it takes just eight minutes for light to travel 93 million miles to the Earth from the sun, but astrophysicist Janna Levin said the energized particles causing the current wave of aurora travel a lot slower, causing the phenomenon to last for the weekend.

"Some of these mass ejections are trillions of kilograms," she said. "They're slower. So they're taking longer, but still hours, maybe tens of hours."

Here's how the solar storm looks in the South and on the East Coast

The aurora was visible across the East Coast and in the South Friday.

Here's how it looked in Chester, South Carolina.

Down in Florida, waves of color swam through the sky.

Up north in New Jersey, a purple-ish haze could be seen in the sky.

Will solar storms get more intense and risky in the future?

The answer is probably not in the short term, according to astrophysicist Hakeem Oluseyi.

He said scientists study what is constantly happening on the surface of the sun and have found a pattern.

“Geological data shows us that in the past the sun was way more active than it is today. It has cycles where it goes very quiet ... and you have events that show that the solar activity was much, much greater,” he told CNN. “So there's no evidence that we're going to see those big maxima this cycle." 

But the astrophysicist also spoke of a caveat - the limitations of modern science.

“Even though it's predictable in the short term, we still don't quite understand what creates the magnetic fields in the sun,” he said, adding: “That's why NASA has so many satellites looking at the sun.”

In Pictures: Auroras light the sky during rare solar storm

From CNN Digital's Photo Team

A series of solar flares and coronal mass ejections from the sun are creating dazzling auroras across the globe .

The rare solar storm may also disrupt communications. The last time a solar storm of this magnitude reached Earth was in October 2003, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Space Weather Prediction Center.

See more photos of the aurora from tonight.

Behind dazzling aurora could lie “real danger,” Bill Nye the Science Guy says

The massive solar storm could present “a real danger,” especially with the modern world relying so much on electricity, according to Bill Nye the Science Guy , a science educator and engineer.

Scientists are warning an increase in solar flares and coronal mass ejections from the sun have the potential to disrupt communication on Earth into the weekend. Solar flares can affect communications and GPS almost immediately because they disrupt Earth’s ionosphere, or part of the upper atmosphere. Energetic particles released by the sun can also disrupt electronics on spacecraft and affect astronauts without proper protection within 20 minutes to several hours.

In comparison to tonight's event, Nye drew comparisons with another incident in 1859, known as the Carrington Event, when telegraph communications were severely affected.

“The other thing, everybody, that is a real danger to our technological society, different from 1859, is how much we depend on electricity and our electronics and so on,” Nye said. "None of us really in the developed world could go very long without electricity."

He noted that there are systems in place to minimize the impact, but “stuff might go wrong,” stressing that not all transformers are equipped to withstand such a solar event.

“It depends on the strength of the event and it depends on how much of our infrastructures are prepared for this the sort of thing,” he said.

Bill Nye breaks down significance of the solar storm | CNN

This post has been updated with more details on solar flares' impact on electronics.

Here's where clouds will block the view of the northern lights in the US

From CNN's Angela Fritz

After an incredibly stormy week, most of the Lower 48 has clear skies to see the northern lights. But there are some areas where clouds and rainy weather are spoiling the view.

A deck of clouds is blocking the sky in the Northeast, from parts of Virginia into Maine, as an area of low pressure spins off the East Coast.

In the Midwest, the aurora will be hard to see through thick clouds in parts of Wisconsin, Michigan — including the Upper Peninsula — and Illinois.

A stripe of clouds is tracking across Texas, including Dallas-Forth Worth, and into Louisiana.

And in the Southwest, patchy clouds across the the Four Corners region could make the northern lights difficult to spot.

Aurora seen at least as far south as Georgia

Barely visible to the naked eye, the aurora can be seen in Atlanta in the 10 p.m. ET hour. 

It is easier to see through photographs using a long exposure. The photos below, taken by CNN's Eric Zerkel and Emily Smith, used 3- and 10-second exposures.

Please enable JavaScript for a better experience.

• Mental Health
• Nation & World

What Does a Lonely Brain Look Like?

Everyone feels lonely from time to time — after, say, a move to a new school or city, when a child leaves for college, or after the loss of a spouse.

Some people, though, experience loneliness not just transiently but chronically. It becomes “a personality trait, something that’s pretty sticky,” said Dr. Ellen Lee, an associate professor of psychiatry at the University of California, San Diego. These individuals seem to have “this persistent emotion that then shapes their behavior.”

Research is mounting that this type of entrenched loneliness is bad for our health and can even change our brains, raising the risk for neurodegenerative diseases. Here is what experts know about how chronic loneliness affects the brain and some strategies to address it.

How does loneliness change the brain?

Humans evolved to be social creatures probably because, for our ancient ancestors, being alone could be dangerous and reduce the odds of survival. Experts think loneliness may have emerged as a unique type of stress signal to prompt us to seek companionship.

With chronic loneliness, that stress response gets stuck and becomes disadvantageous — similar to the way in which anxiety can shift a helpful fear response to a maladaptive mental illness.

“Small, transient episodes of loneliness really motivate people to then seek out social connection,” said Anna Finley, a postdoctoral research fellow at the Institute on Aging at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. “But in chronic episodes of loneliness, that seems to kind of backfire” because people become especially attuned to social threats or signals of exclusion, which can then make it scary or unpleasant for them to interact with others.

Research has shown that lonely people are hypersensitive to negative social words, such as “disliked” or “rejected,” and to faces expressing negative emotions. What’s more, they show a blunted response to images of strangers in pleasant social situations, suggesting that even positive encounters may be less rewarding for them. In the brain, chronic loneliness is associated with changes in areas important for social cognition, self-awareness and processing emotions.

How could a subjective feeling have such a profound effect on the brain’s structure and functions? Scientists aren’t sure, but they think that when loneliness triggers the stress response, it also activates the immune system, increasing levels of some inflammatory chemicals. When they’re experienced for long periods of time, stress and inflammation can be detrimental for brain health, damaging neurons and the connections between them.

How does loneliness affect long-term brain health?

For years, scientists have known about a connection between loneliness and Alzheimer’s disease and other types of dementia. A study published late last year suggested that loneliness is associated with Parkinson’s disease as well.

“Even low levels of loneliness increase risk, and higher levels are associated with higher risk” for dementia, said Dr. Nancy Donovan, director of the division of geriatric psychiatry at Brigham and Women’s Hospital. Donovan has shown that people who score higher on a measure of loneliness have higher levels of the proteins amyloid and tau — two of the hallmarks of Alzheimer’s disease — in their brains even before they show signs of cognitive decline.

Scientists think that the stress and inflammation caused by loneliness most likely contribute to the onset or acceleration of neurodegenerative diseases in older adults. The toll that loneliness takes on the cardiovascular system, increasing blood pressure and heart rate, can also have a detrimental effect on the brain and probably plays a role as well, Donovan said.

The more general way in which loneliness affects mental and physical health may also factor into cognitive decline. The feeling is closely linked to depression, another condition that increases the risk for dementia. And people who are lonely are less likely to be physically active and more likely to smoke cigarettes. “All those different things can affect how our brains age,” Lee said. “I think there are many paths to get from loneliness to cognitive decline.”

Most research on loneliness and neurodegeneration has been conducted on middle-age and older adults, so experts don’t know if loneliness in childhood or young adulthood carries the same risk. However, Dr. Wendy Qiu, a professor of psychiatry and experimental pharmacology and therapeutics at Boston University School of Medicine, has found that if people in midlife feel lonely only transiently, not chronically, there is no increased risk for dementia.

With transient loneliness, the brain has the “ability to recover,” Qiu said. But if people “don’t have help to pull them out of the loneliness, and for a long time they feel lonely, it will be toxic for the brain.”

How can you combat chronic loneliness?

One of the most common recommendations is a little obvious: Try to make new friends. Whether that’s through art classes, sports teams, support groups or volunteer opportunities, the goal is to put yourself in places where people come together.

These types of engineered social situations have mixed results. Lee said they tend to work best if there is a “shared identity” among the people involved — such as groups specifically for widows or for people with diabetes — so they have something to connect over.

The other side of the equation is addressing a person’s attitudes and thought patterns about social interactions through cognitive behavioral therapy. These approaches tend to be a little more effective, Lee said, because they “get to the root” of the problem, exploring what makes it hard for a person to interact with others.

The strategies may sound simple, but they’re easier said than done. “It’s a thorny problem,” Finley said. “Otherwise, I don’t think we would have the report from the Surgeon General saying we need to figure this out.”

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Does sex get better with age? A sexologist explains how to improve your sex life as you get older

Lots of people would rather not think about what sex will be like later in life.

Partly because younger people might struggle with the idea that older people, in fact, do have sex and partly because there's a myth that sex is only enjoyable when you're young and beautiful. 

Linda Kirkman is a Bendigo-based sexologist and works with clients of all ages.

Dr Kirkman says while there are no absolutes, sex can certainly get better as you age.

"[My PhD] research shows … that people in their 50s and 60s were having the best sex of their lives," Dr Kirkman says.

She says part of the reason is a shift in social pressure and what's expected in relationships.

"If people start out in relationships where they're both committed to prioritising positive sexuality and willing to be adventurous and explore and prioritise pleasure, then [sex] in a long-term relationship tends to just get better and better with age," Dr Kirkman says.

She says sex often didn't improve with age when it's seen as a duty or chore. 

"Part of the issue is really poor sexuality education, understanding about what pleasure is possible, and how to communicate about it."

'I have just as much desire as I had when I was younger'

Phil, who wants to use just his first name to protect his privacy, is a 67-year-old from the Goulburn Valley who says, in many ways, sex does get better with age.

"You become more aware, more unselfish in your action, and unhurried in the whole thing and that's just wonderful," he says.

Phil had been married for 25 years and then had a long-term partner for another seven years, but now is searching for "that magical connection".

He says his biggest misconception growing up was that as you got older you wouldn't bother with sex.

"I thought desire would fall off [but] I have just as much desire as I had when I was younger," Phil says.

He says he thinks men's interests change in sex as they grow older.

"You realise that when you're a young bloke … you're looking to satisfy yourself, it can be very selfish. But when you grow older, you become much more generous," Phil says.

Phil says he enjoys non-sexual foreplay, whether it's cooking a meal, watching a movie, or sitting and talking. 

"Sex is just the icing on the cake as far as I'm concerned. I think sometimes guys look at sex as being the be all and end all and I think that's quite wrong. I think it's the culmination of intimacy."

He says while his physical capabilities have changed over time, he feels like there's more to it.

"I can remember making love to someone about five times in an afternoon as a young man. There's no way in the world I could do that now. But I can still satisfy the partner that I have … in different ways," he says.

Sex is not only for the young and beautiful

Dr Kirkman says there is certainly a trope that old people having sex is somehow "icky", which can influence how people feel about themselves.

She says people can fall into the trap that sex is only for young and beautiful people.

"The most important sex organ is between your ears … it's your brain, how you think about sex, and what it means doing pleasure," she says.

Dr Kirkman says some media are changing perceptions around sex and ageing like Grace and Frankie — a show about 70-year-old women looking for love and sex.

"I think [the stigma around sex and age] is improving and people are being more open to positive relationships across their life span and changing partners or finding a new partner," she says.

Not limitations but possibilities

Dr Kirkman says people's sexual preferences and abilities change over time.

"When you were in your 20s, what car did you drive and what music did you listen to? And then in your 40s, and what about in your 60s?" Dr Kirkman says.

"You're not driving the same car. The car you drive now will have very different kinds of capacities and options from the car you drove when you were 20 — so don't expect your body or the way that you engage with it to be the same.

"It's just being open to work[ing] differently with what you've got."

"There's still nerve endings and the potential for connection and pleasure and sensation.

"And devices that are specifically designed to induce and maintain an erection without using injections or other drugs."

Similarly, your music taste changes over time as do your sexual interests. 

Some people realise when they get older that their sexuality or gender identity might not be as rigid as they thought.

"Some people are transitioning in their 60s or coming out as same-sex attracted or bisexual when they're older," Dr Kirkman says. 

"With age and also a sense of running out of time — if you're not going to do it now, when are you going to try this?"

Sex in aged care 

Council on the Ageing Victoria's education manager Frankie Freeman says people's sexuality is sometimes ignored or denied in aged care facilities.

"There's probably a tendency for those settings to be a little bit restrictive … [and not acknowledge that adults] are entitled to take some level of risk and have some autonomy [over] how they run their life," Ms Freeman says.

She says older people may find it difficult to have conversations with medical professionals on things like lubrication and erectile dysfunction. 

"While they are absolutely [a] natural [part of ageing], unfortunately, they're seen as inevitable … when actually there are interventions that can be put in place to respond or prevent some of those symptoms that impact on people's sex lives."

Celebrating Ageing director Catherine Barrett has co-edited a book about the sexual rights of older people.

"There's stigma [about sex] in aged care, and that the stigma comes from service providers, it comes from other residents, but it also comes from family members," Dr Barrett says.

Dr Barrett says a lack of sex education for older people is part of the reason there are high rates of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in these demographics. 

"They haven't been given information on sexual rights, they haven't been given sexuality education, as we have with young people," she says.

Dr Barrett says ageism underpins the stigma older people face about sex. 

"That's why we've taken the rights-based framework because we want to say to people: this is a really fundamental human right that older people have to be sexual," she says.

She says while some providers are taking this on board there is still a way to go. 

"Intimate relationships [are] incredibly important for older people and that can be a real bright spot."

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What does the job market look like for the class of 2024?

With graduation season in full swing, economists and hiring experts say graduates are entering into a positive but slower job market compared to recent years. The overall economy and job market are stable but has lost some momentum since the U.S. reopened after the pandemic, they say.

“For anyone going into the job market now, whether it be a recent graduate or someone who has not been in the job market for a while and is reentering, it’s a good time, but that doesn’t mean it’s perfect,” said Andrew Woods, director of the Center for Business and Economic Research at UNLV.

Woods said the current job market is well suited for entry-level jobs both for people with college and technical degrees as well as high school graduates, but it’s a tougher situation for those looking to get into high-wage and premium benefit positions.

“Getting a job is not so much of a question,” Woods said. “Certainly for any college grads, it’s probably more of a question of, what is the job, what’s the pay and what’s the career opportunities?”

Nevada’s unemployment rate is currently 5.1 percent, the third highest in the nation behind Washington D.C. and California, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Read the full article.

What does the ideal family look like? Global study challenges two-children norm

N ew research reveals that while traditional family structures have undergone significant transformations, certain core values remain pivotal across diverse global contexts. The findings, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) , indicate that while parenthood is universally valued, the specific number of children, beyond having at least one, does not significantly influence perceptions of an ideal family. This challenges the traditional two-children ideal, indicating a broader acceptance of varied family sizes.

Social scientists have noted profound changes in family patterns within advanced industrialized societies, often described as the second demographic transition. These changes include declining fertility rates, increased cohabitation and single-person households, and higher rates of divorce and re-partnering.

Such shifts signal a departure from traditional family structures, influenced by a broader ideational change towards self-realization and personal autonomy. However, variations in these trends across different regions highlight the need for a deeper understanding of what people consider an ideal family, especially in contexts of low fertility. First author Arnstein Aassve, a professor in demography at Bocconi University, and his colleagues sought to fill this gap in our understand.

“First and foremost,” Aassve said, the new study was motivated by “the observed fertility decline in the Western World. It raises the question whether children still remain a major feature of what people think about family life.”

Methodology

The study included 20,141 respondents from urban areas across eight countries: China, Japan, South Korea, Singapore, the United States, Italy, Spain, and Norway. These countries were carefully selected to cover a wide range of institutional, cultural, and economic contexts, especially focusing on differences in fertility rates, from the “lowest-low” fertility contexts of Singapore and South Korea to the relatively higher fertility rates found in the United States and Norway.

The researchers utilized a factorial experiment methodology, employing two sets of detailed vignettes (short hypothetical scenarios) to probe the perceptions of the ideal family among respondents in various cultural contexts.

Experiment 1 presented six vignettes focusing on basic family dynamics, such as the division of labor, economic stability, and communication patterns within the family and with extended family, centered around a hypothetical couple and their child(ren). Experiment 2 introduced more complex scenarios, including variables like the number of children, the parents’ marital status, the family’s economic conditions, and educational aspirations for the children.

Respondents were asked to evaluate each family scenario, allowing researchers to systematically assess the impact of individual and combined family characteristics on the perception of an ideal family.

Key Findings

The findings offered a nuanced look at how societal changes, economic conditions, and cultural traditions shape what people consider an ideal family in contexts marked by low fertility rates.

Interestingly, the researchers observed that, despite their cultural diversity, the respondents shared largely similar views on the significance of various family aspects, illustrating a consistent pattern of family ideals across industrialized nations.

“We surveys eight very different countries, and it turns out that in terms of family ideals, the pattern in terms of what matter are similar. There are different size effects across these countries, but in terms of direction of the effects, they go in the same direction.”

Marriage vs. Cohabitation and Childbearing

A significant finding from the study was the clear preference for marriage over cohabitation across most countries, highlighting the enduring value placed on traditional marital unions in the conceptualization of an ideal family. This preference was consistent despite the growing acceptance of cohabitation in many societies, suggesting that marriage remains a cornerstone of family ideals.

Divorce was consistently viewed negatively across all countries, indicating a universal preference for stable, enduring partnerships when it comes to the ideal family.

Furthermore, the research found that having at least one child was generally considered more ideal than being childless, underlining the importance of parenthood in the family ideal. However, there was no marked preference for families with more than one child, indicating that the quality of family life, rather than the quantity of children, may be of greater significance in defining the ideal family.

Economic Stability and Gender Equality

Economic stability emerged as a crucial factor, with families having a lower-than-average income receiving less favorable evaluations. This underscores the importance of financial security in the construction of ideal family life, reflecting broader societal concerns about economic well-being and its impact on family stability.

Additionally, the study highlighted a strong preference for egalitarian gender roles within the family. Respondents valued arrangements where domestic and financial responsibilities are shared more equally between partners, moving away from traditional models where women are primarily responsible for domestic tasks.

Relational Dynamics and Educational Aspirations

The quality of relationships within the family, characterized by good communication and frequent contact with extended family members, was deemed highly important. This emphasis on strong familial bonds and respect within the community points to the relational dimensions of the ideal family, where emotional support and social esteem play critical roles.

When considering families with children, educational aspirations emerged as a significant factor. Families that expected their children to achieve higher levels of education and those that actively planned for their children’s financial futures were rated more favorably. This finding reflects the growing emphasis on educational attainment and financial planning as key components of successful parenting and family life.

Variations Across Countries

While the study revealed remarkable similarities in family ideals across the diverse range of countries, there were also notable variations. These differences highlight the influence of local cultural, economic, and institutional contexts on family ideals.

For example, cohabitation was penalized more severely in Asian countries compared to European ones, reflecting cultural differences in the acceptance of non-marital partnerships.

Practical Implications

“Funnily enough, for the average person, the findings may not come across as very surprising. In the end, we did indeed ask the ‘average person’ what their family ideals would be. Emotional support and communication trump the other factors, including the importance of having children.”

But the findings do have important implications for policymakers.

“A lot of research has gone into understanding the gap between the ideal number of children and the actual fertility rate. What we show is that it may not at all be the case that the average person’s ideal number of children is two. We show that once respondents are prompted for other family aspects, it does not matter much to people if they have one, two, or three children. If anything, the policy advice for this research should target couple and family counseling. Who knows, that might even increase the fertility rate.”

“We had some pushback from Italian media outlets who were not so keen to publish these kind of findings, because we are casting some serious doubt on the regularity that couples ideally would like to have two children. Our research suggest that some rethinking is needed – both in terms of academic research and for policy makers.”

Limitations and Future Directions

Despite its comprehensive scope, the study has certain limitations, including its focus on urban populations and the potential for cultural biases in interpreting family ideals. The study’s findings are also based on respondents’ stated preferences, which may not always translate into actual behaviors.

“This is a survey about people’s attitudes and ideals. It does not say anything about the actual behavior. ”

Future research could expand to include rural populations and employ longitudinal designs to observe how family ideals evolve over time and influence real-world family formation and dynamics.

“For understanding demographic trends, values and attitudes have become more important – not least for theory building. But, the conjoint analysis performed here is still rare in this field. There is a range of additional research questions that can be dealt with using this approach.

The study, “ Family ideals in an era of low fertility ,” was authored by Arnstein Aassve, Alícia Adserà, Paul Y. Chang, Letizia Mencarini, Hyunjoon Park, Chen Peng, Samuel Plach, James M. Raymo, Senhu Wang, and Wei-Jun Jean Yeung.