characteristics of biography

The 7 Characteristics of the Most Important Biographies

The Characteristics of good biographies Must be based on authenticity and honesty, should be objective when presenting the lives of subjects and trying to avoid stereotypes.

Biographies are narrative and expository texts whose function is to give an account of the life of a person. At the time of writing a biography, special care must be taken and be truthful throughout the text, since what is narrated are real facts that happened to an individual.

But this is not all, good biographies must present details of the person's life, such as his birth, his family, his education, his weaknesses and strengths, among others, to understand the course of this.

However, biographies can not simply be a list of events, since this would be a timeline.

In this sense, in the biographical texts must exist a thematic progression, which will allow to relate these events, giving meaning to the narration.

7 Main features of biographies

1- general topic: individual.

As stated above, biography is a narrative about a person's life. In this sense, the first thing to take into account when writing a biography is about who is going to be treated.

There is a great variety of subjects on which a biographical text can be written, from figures recognized worldwide, such as Elon Musk Or Marie Curie, to ourselves, which would be an autobiography.

2- Character of the subject

In the biographies, a description of the main elements that define the character of the subject must be included, since this description will allow the reader to understand the decisions that the subject took or the achievements that reached.

For example, if you do a biography about George Washington, you could mention that since he was young he was very mature and had a great sense of responsibility, elements that made him an outstanding military leader and a hero for the United States.

3- Limited theme: focus

Because a person's life has many stages and many events, biography can focus on only one facet of the person.

For example, if you make a biography about Stanislao Cannizzaro , Who was an Italian scientist, professor and politician, could focus the biographical text in only one of these facets, for example, that of the scientist, and thus develop the contributions that this gave to science.

This delimitation should be included in the thesis of the biography, which is in the introduction.

4- Language function: informative

The type of language that should be used in biographies is the referential or informative, since what is sought is to transmit information about the life of the individual studied.

5- Organization

Most biographies follow chronological order. Because it is a narrative about real events, beginning in the early years of life of the figure in question could provide details that facilitate the reader's understanding.

The chronological order can be divided into stages of life; For example: birth and childhood, adult life and death (in case the subject studied has died).

However, the organization of the text will depend on the needs of the author. Some of the most common non-chronological models are:

• By subjects that have affected the studied subject or phases that it has crossed. For example, a biography about the painter Pablo Picasso could focus on the periods of works of this: cubist, blue, pink, black, among others.
• By interviews: In this case, the data presented are obtained through interviews with people who knew, or know, the subject studied. In this sense, the biographical text will be a recount of the testimonies of the interviewees.
• In media res: This is a literary term that refers to the anachronistic order, in which analepsis (jumps in time into the past) and prolepsis (jumps in time into the future) are used.

This means that the text does not begin with the birth of the individual but at some point in the life of the individual, and from there"leaps"to past events, and then return to the point where the story began.

Stuart, A Life Backwards, by author Alexander Masters, is an example of this type of biography.

6- Recount of at least one relevant event in the person's life

The biography must include at least one event highlighting the life of the individual being studied; This will make the text interesting to the reader.

For example, if you make a biography about Antoine Lavoisier , One should speak of its discovery, the law of conservation of mass; If it is a biography about the scientist John Dalton , It would be appropriate to talk about the atomic theory raised by it and how it was influenced by the discoveries of other scientists of the time.

7- Veracity

The most important feature of a biography is that it must be truthful and precise, since it is about the life of a person.

In this sense, the sources of information must be carefully checked, to determine if what they transmit is true or not.

The best sources of information in these cases are autobiographies, books and letters written by the individual studied, interviews with the individual (in case he has not died) and interviews with other people who are related, or who have been related, With the individual.

• How to write a biography. Retrieved on May 9, 2017, from grammar.yourdictionary.com.
• How to write a biography (with examples). Retrieved on May 9, 2017, from wikihow.com.
• Narrative essay biographical essay. Retrieved on May 9, 2017, from phschool.com.
• Biography. Retrieved on May 9, 2017, from yourdictionary.com.
• How do you start a biography? Retrieved on May 9, 2017, from quora.com.
• Biography. Retrieved on May 9, 2017, from homeofbob.com.
• Characteristics of good biographies. Retrieved on May 9, 2017, from education.com.

Recent Posts

Biography: what is biography, definition, types of biography, characteristics, origin and more 

What is biography.

It is one of the most important subgenres of the didactic genre of literature, since it consists of the text of the history of the life of a person. It is a written narration in which the most important facts of a person’s life are related as a summary, starting with the birth, with the whole context of the place of origin, and in some cases even going back to family history. The narrator is not the protagonist.

As for the completion of the biography, many of them are written when the protagonist has already died, so that it covers his or her life from beginning to end. However, it is up to the writer to choose how far the biography will go, especially if the protagonist lives.

Meaning of the subgenre biography

The term comes from the union of the Greek bios, which refers to life, and graphein, which refers to writing. This is how the term is configured, giving rise to a form of writing focused on life, so that it can also be used in a symbolic sense.

Definition of the sub-genre biography

It is a type of text written in the third person, in which the content consists of a summary of the life of a person, however, it may include appreciations by the author in which aspects related to the context of the life of the protagonist of the biography are specified, in addition to information related to accurate data.

What is the function of a biography?

A text like this gathers a great amount of information about the life of a person, so that its purpose is, above all, to make known fundamental features of the life of the person about whom the biography is made, in most cases it is about public people in which their professional activity is highlighted, appreciations about their private life or other activities for which they have stood out, which are essential to understand their work.

History and origin of the biographical subgenre

It is considered that the biographical text type has its beginnings since Antiquity, however, it should be noted that at that time it had not been established as a literary subgenre, so it had not been formally classified. It was in the Middle Ages, with the Renaissance movement, that biography began to be recognized, since at that time it was necessary to provide specific information on the artists in order to gradually eliminate the ancient Greek models from which it sought to dissociate itself.

With the passage of time, biography, like humanity, achieved an important evolution, in which it gradually came to incorporate a desperate search for documents that would allow an approach to the lives of subjects and artists. This will be key to the realist movement, which we have already talked about in a previous article. Thus, by the present time, the biography manages to consolidate itself as a writing that allows us to know the life of a character from the most relevant and determining events for the activity for which he is publicly known, in the case of figures recognized in the political, social, cultural, etc. field.

Characteristics of the biography subgenre

Let us look at the essential characteristics of this literary subgenre:

The central theme that distinguishes the biography from other didactic subgenres is the narration of the most relevant facts of a person’s life, which is presented through a written text. It deals with real events in the life of an equally existing person. Its content goes from the birth of a person until the present time or the time of his death. Some authors write about the author even after death, especially if he left works that keep his name active.

Mode of composition

At the time when a biography is being written, as well as when it is read, the organization of the events that are exposed are arranged chronologically, following the line of life. Likewise, in the writing, the author maintains an objective and accurate look in which everything he mentions can be verified. However, the author may mention some particular assessments.

Another of the most relevant aspects of this type of subgenre has to do with the type of narrator who writes, since the story is narrated in the third person.

Mode of presentation

Although it is essentially a written text, so that it can be presented in documents and books, the truth is that these serve as a basis for the reproduction of the biography through other formats, as has happened in recent years where the lives of key characters are exposed through documentaries, films, programs, etc.

Historical content

A biography, although it has a series of data on important dates, also tends to make tours around important trips or journeys made by the character, so that it incorporates historical events during their travels, as many of them influence their activities and will have an important impact on decision making. This information also allows the reader to situate and contextualize the reader in relation to the time and space of the person’s life.

Structure of the biography subgenre

As for the structure of this type of text, it is similar to the organization usually used in narrative texts, since it has an opening section, an introduction and a closing section as a conclusion at the end of the text. Thus, the biography is organized as follows:

Introduction: as its name indicates, this initial part introduces the character about whom we are going to talk. Thus, the full name, date and place of birth (if desired date and place of death), and finally the activity he/she developed in life, that is to say, his/her profession and specialty, are mentioned.

Development: in this part begins as such the order of the biography. Here the author begins with the narration of all those events that were transcendental for the protagonist’s life, so he can start by pointing out particularities of his origin, the activity of his parents and siblings, if he focuses on the family circle, etc.

Conclusion : it is the closing of the text in which we reach the last years of the character’s life, if he/she has passed away, or the present time, if the author prefers. Often, in this part the author’s subjectivity is evident due to a series of evaluations that are made in relation to the transcendence of the protagonist.

Likewise, the structure of the biography usually includes other elements in its organization such as:

Dedication: this is a space that occupies one or two short sentences in which the author or writer of the biography allows himself to show affection, either to the protagonist of his biography or to people he esteems.

Preface: in this section the author can relate some of his or her personal experiences in relation to the moment prior to consolidating the biography to be presented. In this sense, he/she can address issues such as the reasons that prompted him/her to develop his/her work, the reasons and the research tools, for example.

Acknowledgements: in the final part of the biography, although it can also appear at the beginning, the author proceeds to thank different people, including those who helped him/her to find relevant information about the protagonist, as well as other people who have accompanied the process through complementary activities, company, photographic work, data collection, etc.

Annexes: in this section the author can include annexes such as photographs, articles and documents that have been mentioned during the course of the biography and that are duly indicated to lead the reader to them.

Types of the biography subgenre

According to the field in which a biography is developed, it is possible to identify some modalities that give rise to a number of types of biography. These are:

Authorized biography

These are all biographies that have been reviewed and validated by the author, who, once he/she has reviewed them, approves everything that is exposed within their content and allows the publication of the biography that has been written.

Unauthorized biography

In this case, the biography has not been reviewed by the author, in most cases without seeking the approval of the person whose life is narrated. Often this type of biography is part of the journalistic activity when reporting on a public person, especially when it is a political or social figure.

Book biography

It is given by the type of format in which the biography is presented. Its length allows for a much more detailed and thorough exploration of the protagonist. Often the person written about is a public personality of interest in a specific society and context. Its content includes background, moments prior to becoming known, work, etc.

Professional biography

In this type of biographies the content is focused on the exaltation of the person’s skills, as well as his or her knowledge, abilities, experience and other aspects that may increase the value of the proposal. It includes skills related to personality traits in the quality of the activity.

Informative biographies

They are usually biographies not marked within the literary world, but within the journalistic world, since they tend to emphasize in-depth research with the intention of informing a much wider audience. There is no deepening of the data presented, but they are exposed in an objective and concrete way where specific aspects are highlighted.

How to write a biography?

Now that we have seen what a biography consists of in broad strokes, it is time to see how to write such a text correctly:

Choosing the protagonist 

The first thing we must do when we plan to write a biography is to choose the person about whom we want to develop the text. We can practically choose any person, whether it is a friend, a relative, an acquaintance, an artist, a doctor, a lawyer, a teacher or any other person we want to write about.

Collecting the information 

Once you have chosen the person you are going to write the biography about, it is time to start gathering as much information about the person as possible. Gather information about their life, background, institutions they went through, their jobs, activities and so on, this will allow you to make a complete biography. If you can have contact with the person, interviewing him or her, for example, will be of great help.

If you choose a famous personality, you may find much of this information in audiovisual media, interviews, books, among others. If not, you can approach relatives, friends and people close to you to obtain much more information.

Asking important questions

As you collect information, it is important, at the same time, to keep in mind a series of key questions that will allow you to go deeper and collect baseline information to provide as much data as possible about your entire life. So some of these questions can be: Who were his parents and what did they do, what was the relationship with his family circle like, what was his childhood like, what led him to approach what would become his main activity in life, what are his first steps in his passion, etc.

Organization of the information

When you have all this information, it is time to organize it. Remember to keep a chronological order, even though there are connections between past and present directly, so you should go deeper into different moments that allow you to configure the future of the protagonist seen from the past.

Establish a central idea 

Many biographies maintain an order that revolves around a particular idea, it can be a particularity of the character, an activity or profession that he/she has developed, etc. Elaborating this central idea will allow you to develop the content around the character’s life, through which all the events will pass.

Start writing

It is time to get down to work. Start writing keeping the order you have chosen and the central idea you have set up, although you can indicate it from the beginning, you must take care that the information you add builds it during the course of the biography.

Adding the bibliography 

Because of the type of text you are writing, since it involves a large number of sources of information, it is necessary that each of the sources be added to the final document, including not only documents or books, but also interviews and people who gave you their word, online sources consulted, etc.

Final proofreading 

We have the whole document ready, now we just need to check again aspects such as spelling and grammar, as well as the coherence between paragraphs and other divisions you have decided to make within the biography. You can ask someone to read it so that they can give you their feedback, especially if the person you are talking about is of interest to them as well.

Remember to check some sources beforehand. You can refer to existing biographies of authors, artists, doctors, politicians or any other important personalities. This will allow you to have a closer guide to start writing the biography.

Example of the biography subgenre

The following is an excerpt from the authorized biography of Steve Jobs, one of the most well-known biographies of our times, written by Walter Isaacson:

“This is a book about the eventful life and searing, intense personality of a creative entrepreneur whose passion for perfection and fierce determination revolutionized six different industries: personal computers, animated films, music, telephony, electronic tablets, and digital publishing. We could even add a seventh: retail, which Jobs didn’t exactly revolutionize, but he did revamp. He also paved the way for a new digital content market based on applications rather than websites. Along the way, he has not only created products that have transformed the industry, but also, on his second try, an enduring company, imbued with his very DNA, filled with creative designers and daring engineers who will be able to carry his vision forward.”

• What is Neoclassical and Romantic Sculpture?
• What is Rococo Sculpture? Characteristics
• Baroque Sculpture, most outstanding features
• Renaissance Sculpture, strong religious sentiment
• Gothic Sculpture, interest in nature
• Most important aspects of Romanesque sculpture
• Sculpture during Christianity – History, Concept and Works
• Etruscan and Roman Sculpture – Concept, History, Concepts
• Ancient Greek Sculpture – Definition, History and Representatives
• Aegean Sculpture – Definition, Development and Representatives

Definition of Biography

A biography is the non- fiction , written history or account of a person’s life. Biographies are intended to give an objective portrayal of a person, written in the third person. Biographers collect information from the subject (if he/she is available), acquaintances of the subject, or in researching other sources such as reference material, experts, records, diaries, interviews, etc. Most biographers intend to present the life story of a person and establish the context of their story for the reader, whether in terms of history and/or the present day. In turn, the reader can be reasonably assured that the information presented about the biographical subject is as true and authentic as possible.

Biographies can be written about a person at any time, no matter if they are living or dead. However, there are limitations to biography as a literary device. Even if the subject is involved in the biographical process, the biographer is restricted in terms of access to the subject’s thoughts or feelings.

Biographical works typically include details of significant events that shape the life of the subject as well as information about their childhood, education, career, and relationships. Occasionally, a biography is made into another form of art such as a film or dramatic production. The musical production of “Hamilton” is an excellent example of a biographical work that has been turned into one of the most popular musical productions in Broadway history.

Common Examples of Biographical Subjects

Most people assume that the subject of a biography must be a person who is famous in some way. However, that’s not always the case. In general, biographical subjects tend to be interesting people who have pioneered something in their field of expertise or done something extraordinary for humanity. In addition, biographical subjects can be people who have experienced something unusual or heartbreaking, committed terrible acts, or who are especially gifted and/or talented.

As a literary device, biography is important because it allows readers to learn about someone’s story and history. This can be enlightening, inspiring, and meaningful in creating connections. Here are some common examples of biographical subjects:

• political leaders
• entrepreneurs
• historical figures
• serial killers
• notorious people
• political activists
• adventurers/explorers
• religious leaders
• military leaders
• cultural figures

Famous Examples of Biographical Works

The readership for biography tends to be those who enjoy learning about a certain person’s life or overall field related to the person. In addition, some readers enjoy the literary form of biography independent of the subject. Some biographical works become well-known due to either the person’s story or the way the work is written, gaining a readership of people who may not otherwise choose to read biography or are unfamiliar with its form.

Here are some famous examples of biographical works that are familiar to many readers outside of biography fans:

• Alexander Hamilton (Ron Chernow)
• Prairie Fires: The American Dreams of Laura Ingalls Wilder (Caroline Fraser)
• Steve Jobs (Walter Isaacson)
• Churchill: A Life (Martin Gilbert)
• The Professor and the Madman: A Tale of Murder, Insanity, and the Making of the Oxford English Dictionary (Simon Winchester)
• A Beautiful Mind (Sylvia Nasar)
• The Black Rose (Tananarive Due)
• John Adams (David McCullough)
• Into the Wild ( Jon Krakauer )
• John Brown (W.E.B. Du Bois)
• Frida: A Biography of Frida Kahlo (Hayden Herrera)
• The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks (Rebecca Skloot)
• Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln (Doris Kearns Goodwin)
• Shirley Jackson : A Rather Haunted Life ( Ruth Franklin)
• the stranger in the Woods: The Extraordinary Story of the Last True Hermit (Michael Finkel)

Difference Between Biography, Autobiography, and Memoir

Biography, autobiography , and memoir are the three main forms used to tell the story of a person’s life. Though there are similarities between these forms, they have distinct differences in terms of the writing, style , and purpose.

A biography is an informational narrative and account of the life history of an individual person, written by someone who is not the subject of the biography. An autobiography is the story of an individual’s life, written by that individual. In general, an autobiography is presented chronologically with a focus on key events in the person’s life. Since the writer is the subject of an autobiography, it’s written in the first person and considered more subjective than objective, like a biography. In addition, autobiographies are often written late in the person’s life to present their life experiences, challenges, achievements, viewpoints, etc., across time.

Memoir refers to a written collection of a person’s significant memories, written by that person. Memoir doesn’t generally include biographical information or chronological events unless it’s relevant to the story being presented. The purpose of memoir is reflection and an intention to share a meaningful story as a means of creating an emotional connection with the reader. Memoirs are often presented in a narrative style that is both entertaining and thought-provoking.

Examples of Biography in Literature

An important subset of biography is literary biography. A literary biography applies biographical study and form to the lives of artists and writers. This poses some complications for writers of literary biographies in that they must balance the representation of the biographical subject, the artist or writer, as well as aspects of the subject’s literary works. This balance can be difficult to achieve in terms of judicious interpretation of biographical elements within an author’s literary work and consideration of the separate spheres of the artist and their art.

Literary biographies of artists and writers are among some of the most interesting biographical works. These biographies can also be very influential for readers, not only in terms of understanding the artist or writer’s personal story but the context of their work or literature as well. Here are some examples of well-known literary biographies:

Example 1:  Savage Beauty: The Life of Edna St. Vincent Millay  (Nancy Milford)

One of the first things Vincent explained to Norma was that there was a certain freedom of language in the Village that mustn’t shock her. It wasn’t vulgar. ‘So we sat darning socks on Waverly Place and practiced the use of profanity as we stitched. Needle in, . Needle out, piss. Needle in, . Needle out, c. Until we were easy with the words.’

This passage reflects the way in which Milford is able to characterize St. Vincent Millay as a person interacting with her sister. Even avid readers of a writer’s work are often unaware of the artist’s private and personal natures, separate from their literature and art. Milford reflects the balance required on the part of a literary biographer of telling the writer’s life story without undermining or interfering with the meaning and understanding of the literature produced by the writer. Though biographical information can provide some influence and context for a writer’s literary subjects, style, and choices , there is a distinction between the fictional world created by a writer and the writer’s “real” world. However, a literary biographer can illuminate the writer’s story so that the reader of both the biography and the biographical subject’s literature finds greater meaning and significance.

Example 2:  The Invisible Woman: The Story of Nelly Ternan and Charles Dickens  (Claire Tomalin)

The season of domestic goodwill and festivity must have posed a problem to all good Victorian family men with more than one family to take care of, particularly when there were two lots of children to receive the demonstrations of paternal love.

Tomalin’s literary biography of Charles Dickens reveals the writer’s extramarital relationship with a woman named Nelly Ternan. Tomalin presents the complications that resulted for Dickens from this relationship in terms of his personal and family life as well as his professional writing and literary work. Revealing information such as an extramarital relationship can influence the way a reader may feel about the subject as a person, and in the case of literary biography it can influence the way readers feel about the subject’s literature as well. Artists and writers who are beloved , such as Charles Dickens, are often idealized by their devoted readers and society itself. However, as Tomalin’s biography of Dickens indicates, artists and writers are complicated and as subject to human failings as anyone else.

Example 3:  Virginia Woolf  (Hermione Lee)

‘A self that goes on changing is a self that goes on living’: so too with the biography of that self. And just as lives don’t stay still, so life-writing can’t be fixed and finalised. Our ideas are shifting about what can be said, our knowledge of human character is changing. The biographer has to pioneer, going ‘ahead of the rest of us, like the miner’s canary, testing the atmosphere , detecting falsity, unreality, and the presence of obsolete conventions’. So, ‘There are some stories which have to be retold by each generation’. She is talking about the story of Shelley, but she could be talking about her own life-story.

In this passage, Lee is able to demonstrate what her biographical subject, Virginia Woolf, felt about biography and a person telling their own or another person’s story. Literary biographies of well-known writers can be especially difficult to navigate in that both the author and biographical subject are writers, but completely separate and different people. As referenced in this passage by Lee, Woolf was aware of the subtleties and fluidity present in a person’s life which can be difficult to judiciously and effectively relay to a reader on the part of a biographer. In addition, Woolf offers insight into the fact that biographers must make choices in terms of what information is presented to the reader and the context in which it is offered, making them a “miner’s canary” as to how history will view and remember the biographical subject.

Post navigation

The Elements of a Biography: How to Write an Interesting Bio

• March 30, 2022

While these books are generally non-fiction, they may include elements of a biography in order to more accurately reflect the nature of the subject’s life and personality, Writing about someone who actually existed, whether it’s a family member, close friend, famous person, or historical figure, involves certain elements. A person’s life story is being told, and the subject’s life needs to be organized in such a way that the reader is interested and engaged. 

Biographies can easily read as boring announcements of only a human’s accomplishments in life, and if you want the bio you write to stand out, you should try to avoid that.

When you’re writing a biography or even a short professional bio, ask yourself what sorts of things you’d like included if someone was writing your biography. 

You would most likely want people to get a feel of who you were as a person, and to be able to understand the way that you felt, what moved and motivated you, and what changes you wanted to see and make in the world.

Do the same thing when you write about someone else. Do the subject the favor of treating them like a real person instead of a stiff and boring character that students will dread having to learn about at school each year. Getting students excited about history, historical figures, and people of interest can inspire them to work hard to make a difference as well.

What Does Biographical Mean?

The term “biographical” is an adjective that means having the characteristics of a biography or constituting a set of personal information or details. For instance,  biographical notes  contain information about a specific person’s life or narrate stories and experiences of that person. Another example is  biographical details . Biographical details include who the person is, what they have become, what they have struggled with, and any other information unique to them.

Keep It Real

Don’t fictionalize the life of the person you are writing about, but remember your sense of humanity when you write, and do what you can to make sure that your subject can be viewed as a real person who existed, rather than just a name on a monument.

It’s a thin line between rumor, speculation, and fact when telling the stories of people, especially people who are long dead and can’t verify or refute it for themselves. Be sure that if you do research and something is speculated, you state that in your writing.

Never claim something is fact when it’s isn’t a known and proven fact. This will cause you to lose credibility as a nonfiction writer.

What to Include in a Biography

When you read or write a biography, most of them have the same basic details of a person’s life. The person’s date of birth, date of death, and the major accomplishments and key events in between those two dates are all important to include in the writing process. These are elements that need to exist within the story of the person to be considered a full biography.

Keep in mind that these are the minimum elements that need to be included. Expanding on these elements and adding meat to the bones of your story will engage readers. 

If you only include important dates and accomplishments, you might as well direct the reader to visit the headstone of the person you are writing about, and they’ll get almost as much information.

Personal details offer a more intimate look into the subject’s life and can help the reader to relate or at least understand some of the decisions made by the person, as well as the influences that played a part in steering the person’s life. 

If the subject had any passions that he or she voiced throughout his or her life, mentioning those in your story of their life will elevate your biography.

Relevant Information

Family members are often mentioned in biography and major details of the person’s career. If the person was known for their accomplishments in their field of work, there is often more content there than a brief career summary.

The result is usually more of a professional bio than a personal one. Basic facts of the person’s education are often mentioned as well. If you are writing a biography about someone, try to remember to write about more than just their job.

Remember that you aren’t writing a resume, and the subject isn’t asking you to help them get a job. You are tasked with writing about the entire life of someone. You are more than your job, so the subject of the biography you are writing should get to be more, as well.

Personal Information

Biographies don’t have to be boring. Personal stories, interesting stories, and funny quips are sometimes used to make the readers identify with the subject. 

When included in a biography, these details give the reader a chance to feel as though the subject was a real person with opinions, feelings, flaws, and a personality, rather than a stuffy person who is significant to history and not much else.

Providing the audience with these lighthearted but not necessarily crucial elements of a biography will make the biography more interesting and appealing.

Narrator and Order

Point of view.

An important element in most biographies is establishing the point of view. You don’t want to write it like a novel and have it written in a first-person point of view. This will result in something that is somewhat fictionalized and something that more closely resembles an autobiography, which is the personal story of a person’s own life.

Biographies should be written in the third person point of view. In third person, someone outside of the story, who has all of the information, is the narrator. 

Try not to be biased. Stick to the basic facts, major events that you have researched, and keep the story interesting but accurate. A biography is not meant to be a fictional adventure, but the subject’s life was significant in some manner, and the details of that can still be interesting.

Chronological Order

Biographies usually begin, well, in the beginning, at the birth of the subject. The first sentence usually includes the basic information that a reader needs to know: who the person is, where the person is from, and when the person was born. A biography that doesn’t include these details but starts at the most important life events can exist, but they aren’t common. You may see this tactic used in a short biography or a brief bio.

Usually, chronological order is the best course of action for a biography. A person’s life begins in childhood, so details of that childhood, even briefly, are necessary before getting to the subject’s adult life.

Describing the subject’s early life to the audience usually means you should research and write about the family they came from, their early education, what kind of student the person was, where they came from, any close bonds they had as children with people. 

As well as their interests and whether or not they pursued the life they ended up with as an adult, or if greatness and accomplishments were thrust upon them by events outside of their control.

As you progress into a subject’s adult life, you should add achievements to the biography. Focus not only on the major achievements as acts but also try to fill the audience in on what the motivation for the achievements was.

For example,  Abraham Lincoln  was the sixteenth President of the United States. That’s a well-known fact. Students learn about him in American grade schools and then over and over until their educational careers are over. In a bio about Lincoln, you may discuss the fact that Lincoln freed the slaves.

While this is true, you need to research deeper into that. Just stating that a person did something doesn’t make it an interesting read. Ask yourself why he freed the slaves.

Do your research, speak to an expert, and search for journals and letters that a subject might have written to describe how they felt to the audience and how they drove the person to do what they did.

Focus on the Impact the Person’s Life Had

After you have gone over the person’s life in the biography, you should share with readers what impact the subject’s life had on the rest of the world, even (sometimes especially) after their death. Many of the important people in history who have biographies written about them are deceased.

When you write a biography, ask yourself why anyone cares what that person accomplished. What did they do for one or two people to make them important enough to have a biography?

For example, many students learn about George Washington. He gave America the sense of hope and patriotism that they needed to declare and then achieve freedom from English rule. 

When we search for information about Washington, we find not only his bio and his painted picture, but we also see and learn about the things he influenced, inspired, and the feelings he invoked among the people around him.

When we give a well-rounded look at not only what the person did in their lives, but how they changed the world, even just for those around them, we start to see the bigger picture and appreciate the person more.

Students can go from being bored and obligated to reading sentence after sentence about a boring guy who lived hundreds of years ago to being excited to learn more about the founding fathers. As a writer, it is your job to inspire these feelings for the reader.

When you write a biography, it’s important that you thoroughly research and fact-check everything you are writing about. Everyone knows that Lincoln freed the slaves, but you should still research it to ensure that everything is accurate as far as dates, places, speeches, and motivations go.

Make sure that you are getting your information from reputable resources. If you are interviewing live people, be sure to verify their credentials and use a tape recorder when doing so.

A biography is not an opinion piece or a novel, and there is no room for error, miscalculation, or falsification when you write a biography.

Actor Bio Example

An actor’s bio tells about the details of a specific person with regard to a person’s acting career. Below is an example. ( This example is created to serve as a guide for you and does not describe an actual person .)

Edgar Anderson and his family reside in Washington. He is currently taking up a Business Management course and striving to achieve a balance between schooling and his career. Edgar first experienced acting when he was still a junior high school student in 2015, where he played  Horton  in a Seussical-inspired school theater play. His manager discovered him in 2018 when the former watched him portray the lead role in a play about the history of their school during the school’s Foundation Day.

In 2022, he got his first nomination for best actor at the Oscars. Recently, Edgar has found a new set of hobbies. He enjoys learning karate and foreign languages. Edgar often thanks his family and friends because they have fully supported him in his acting career. He also extends his gratitude to the directors he has worked with and the talent agency that has helped him ascend the ladder of his career.

He dedicates his early success to all who have believed in him over the years. According to Edger, he loves his career even more because of the overflowing love and support he continually receives from his fans and loved ones.

The Importance of a Biography

It is important to include all of the elements of a biography because a biography is the story of a person’s life, and that’s a big undertaking. The subject is often no longer alive and can’t dispute what we write about them, so we have to get the information right and do the best we can when writing.

Students work on writing biographies and research papers about people in school so that they can learn more about the people who helped us get to where we are today in terms of society.

We teach students the skills and elements of a biography so that the practice of telling the story of a person’s life never gets lost. We need to focus on the future, but we cannot do that without understanding the past.

Other people may one day come along and write your bio, and when that happens, you have to hope that the first step they take is to do the research thoroughly so that they can do your story justice. That is what we owe the person we are writing about when we start to search for information about them.

Be respectful of the biography because it is the telling of those who came before us and can serve as a guidebook for the future or even a warning.

Leave a Comment Cancel Reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Sign up to our newsletter!

Related articles

120 Motivational Quotes About Writing To Inspire A New Writer Like You

How To Register A Kindle On Amazon To Enjoy Your Ebooks In 4 Easy Ways

How To Market A Self-Published Book And Be Profitable In 9 Easy Ways

What Is a Biography? Definition & 25+ Examples

Have you ever wondered what lies beneath the surface of history’s most influential figures?

Imagine a chance to delve into the intricate tapestry of their lives, unraveling the threads that have woven together the very essence of their character, and unearthing the pivotal moments that shaped their destinies.

Welcome to the enthralling world of biographies, where you are invited to embark on a captivating journey into the lives of the extraordinary. Prepare to be captivated by the compelling tales of human resilience, ingenuity, and ambition that lie at the heart of each biography.

Table of Contents

Defining Biography

A biography is a detailed account of a person’s life, written by someone other than the subject. The term “biography” is derived from two Greek words: “bio,” which means life, and “graphy,” which signifies writing. Thus, a biography is the written history of someone’s life, offering an in-depth look at their experiences, achievements, and challenges.

Biographies typically focus on the life of notable individuals, such as historical figures or celebrities, and provide a comprehensive view of their personal and professional journey.

Biographers, the authors of these works, aim to offer an accurate, well-researched portrayal of their subjects by studying various sources and conducting interviews if possible. This thorough research and attention to detail ensure that the resulting narrative is both informative and engaging.

Biographies are a subgenre of non-fiction literature, as they chronicle the lives of real people. However, not all life stories fall under the category of biography.

Autobiographies and memoirs, for instance, focus on the author’s own experiences and are written from a first-person perspective. While autobiographies aim to present an overarching narrative of the author’s life, memoirs tend to focus on specific incidents or periods.

When crafting a biography, it is essential for the biographer to maintain a neutral tone, avoiding any judgment or personal bias. This objectivity allows readers to form their opinions based on the presented facts, gaining a broader understanding of the subject.

Elements of a Biography

A well-crafted biography contains several key elements that provide a comprehensive picture of the subject’s life. These elements help readers gain a deeper understanding of the subject while fostering an emotional connection. Below are some essential aspects of a biography:

Personal and Family Background

The personal and family background section of a biography provides an essential foundation for understanding the subject’s journey and the factors that shaped their life. By exploring the subject’s early years, readers gain insight into the environment and experiences that influenced their character, values, and aspirations.

This section typically begins with an overview of the subject’s birthplace, family origins, and cultural heritage. It delves into the family dynamics, including descriptions of the subject’s parents, siblings, and extended family, shedding light on the relationships that played a crucial role in their development.

The personal and family background section also addresses significant life events, challenges, and milestones that occurred during the subject’s upbringing. These formative experiences may include pivotal moments, such as moving to a new city, attending a particular school, or encountering a mentor who had a lasting impact on their life.

Education and Career

The education and career section of a biography is crucial for understanding the intellectual and professional development of the subject. By tracing the subject’s academic journey and career progression, readers gain a clearer picture of the knowledge, skills, and experiences that shaped their path and contributed to their success.

This section begins by outlining the subject’s educational background, including the schools they attended, the degrees or qualifications they obtained, and any specialized training they received. It also highlights the subject’s academic achievements, such as scholarships, awards, or distinctions, and any influential mentors or teachers who played a significant role in their intellectual growth.

The education and career section also delves into the subject’s professional life, chronicling their work history, job titles, and key responsibilities. It explores the subject’s career trajectory, examining how they transitioned between roles or industries and the factors that influenced their choices.

Major Events and Turning Points

The major events and turning points section of a biography delves into the pivotal moments and experiences that significantly influenced the subject’s life, shaping their character, values, and destiny.

By exploring these transformative events, readers gain a deeper understanding of the forces and circumstances that drove the subject’s actions and choices, as well as the challenges and triumphs they faced along the way.

This section encompasses a wide range of events, which could include personal milestones, such as marriage, the birth of children, or the loss of a loved one.

These personal events often provide insights into the subject’s emotional landscape and reveal the support systems, relationships, and personal values that sustained them through difficult times or propelled them to greater heights.

Influences and Inspirations

The influences and inspirations section of a biography delves into the individuals, ideas, and events that had a profound impact on the subject’s beliefs, values, and aspirations.

By understanding the forces that shaped the subject’s worldview, readers gain a deeper appreciation for the motivations driving their actions and decisions, as well as the creative and intellectual foundations upon which their accomplishments were built.

This section often begins by identifying the key figures who played a significant role in the subject’s life, such as family members, mentors, peers, or historical figures they admired.

It explores the nature of these relationships and how they shaped the subject’s perspectives, values, and ambitions. These influential individuals can provide valuable insights into the subject’s personal growth and development, revealing the sources of inspiration and guidance that fueled their journey.

The influences and inspirations section also delves into the ideas and philosophies that resonated with the subject and shaped their worldview. This could include an exploration of the subject’s religious, political, or philosophical beliefs, as well as the books, theories, or artistic movements that inspired them.

This section examines the events, both personal and historical, that impacted the subject’s life and inspired their actions. These could include moments of personal transformation, such as a life-altering experience or an epiphany, or broader societal events, such as wars, social movements, or technological innovations.

Contributions and Impact

The contributions and impact section of a biography is pivotal in conveying the subject’s lasting significance, both in their chosen profession and beyond. By detailing their achievements, innovations, and legacies, this section helps readers grasp the extent of the subject’s influence and the ways in which their work has shaped the world around them.

This section begins by highlighting the subject’s key accomplishments within their profession, such as breakthroughs, discoveries, or innovative techniques they developed. It delves into the processes and challenges they faced along the way, providing valuable insights into their creativity, determination, and problem-solving abilities.

The contributions and impact section also explores the subject’s broader influence on society, culture, or the world at large. This could include their involvement in social or political movements, their philanthropic endeavors, or their role as a cultural icon.

In addition to discussing the subject’s immediate impact, this section also considers their lasting legacy, exploring how their work has continued to inspire and shape subsequent generations.

This could involve examining the subject’s influence on their successors, the institutions or organizations they helped establish, or the enduring relevance of their ideas and achievements in contemporary society.

Personal Traits and Characteristics

The personal traits and characteristics section of a biography brings the subject to life, offering readers an intimate glimpse into their personality, qualities, and views.

This section often begins by outlining the subject’s defining personality traits, such as their temperament, values, and passions. By exploring these attributes, readers gain insight into the subject’s character and the motivations driving their actions and decisions.

These qualities could include their perseverance, curiosity, empathy, or sense of humor, which may help explain their achievements, relationships, and outlook on life.

The personal traits and characteristics section also delves into the subject’s views and beliefs, offering a window into their thoughts and opinions on various topics. This could include their perspectives on politics, religion, culture, or social issues, providing readers with a clearer understanding of the context in which they operated and the factors that shaped their worldview.

Anecdotes and personal stories play a crucial role in illustrating the subject’s personality and characteristics, as they offer concrete examples of their behavior, actions, or interactions with others.

Quotes and first-hand accounts from the subject or those who knew them well can also be invaluable in portraying their personal traits and characteristics. These accounts offer unique insights into the subject’s thoughts, feelings, and experiences, allowing readers to see the world through their eyes and better understand their character.

Types of Biographies

Biographies come in various forms and styles, each presenting unique perspectives on the lives of individuals. Some of the most common types of biographies are discussed in the following sub-sections.

Historical Fiction Biography

Historical fiction biographies artfully weave together factual information with imaginative elements, creating a vibrant tapestry of the past. By staying true to the core of a historical figure’s life and accomplishments, these works offer a unique window into their world while granting authors the creative freedom to delve deeper into their emotions, relationships, and personal struggles.

Such biographies strike a delicate balance, ensuring that the essence of the individual remains intact while allowing for fictional embellishments to bring their story to life. This captivating blend of fact and fiction serves to humanize these iconic figures, making their experiences more relatable and engaging for readers who embark on a journey through the pages of history.

Here are several examples of notable historical fiction biographies:

• “Wolf Hall” by Hilary Mantel (2009)
• “The Paris Wife” by Paula McLain (2011)
• “Girl with a Pearl Earring” by Tracy Chevalier (1999)
• “The Other Boleyn Girl” by Philippa Gregory (2001)
• “Loving Frank” by Nancy Horan (2007)

Academic Biography

Academic biographies stand as meticulously researched and carefully crafted scholarly works, dedicated to presenting an accurate and comprehensive account of a subject’s life.

Authored by experts or researchers well-versed in their field, these biographies adhere to rigorous standards of accuracy, sourcing, and objectivity. They delve into the intricacies of a person’s life, achievements, and impact, scrutinizing every aspect with scholarly precision.

Intended for an educated audience, academic biographies serve as valuable resources for those seeking a deeper understanding of the subject’s contributions and influence. By placing the individual within the broader context of their time, these works illuminate the complex web of factors that shaped their lives and legacies.

While academic biographies may not always carry the same narrative flair as their fictional counterparts, their commitment to factual integrity and thorough analysis make them indispensable resources for scholars, students, and enthusiasts alike

Here are several examples of notable academic biographies:

• “Einstein: His Life and Universe” by Walter Isaacson (2007)
• “Steve Jobs” by Walter Isaacson (2011)
• “John Adams” by David McCullough (2001)
• “Alexander the Great” by Robin Lane Fox (1973)
• “Marie Curie: A Life” by Susan Quinn (1995)

Authorized Biographies

Authorized biographies offer a unique perspective on the lives of their subjects, as they are written with the explicit consent and, often, active participation of the individual in question.

This collaboration between the biographer and the subject can lead to a more accurate, detailed, and intimate portrayal of the person’s life, as the author is granted access to a wealth of personal information, documents, and anecdotes that might otherwise be inaccessible.

When working on an authorized biography, the biographer is typically given permission to access personal documents, such as letters, diaries, and photographs, which can provide invaluable insights into the subject’s thoughts, emotions, and experiences.

This primary source material allows the biographer to construct a narrative that is grounded in fact and captures the essence of the individual’s life and personality.

Here are several examples of notable authorized biographies:

• “Mandela: The Authorized Biography” by Anthony Sampson (1999)
• “Marilyn Monroe: The Biography” by Donald Spoto (1993)
• “Joni Mitchell: In Her Own Words” by Malka Marom (2014)
• “The Snowball: Warren Buffett and the Business of Life” by Alice Schroeder (2008)
• “Notorious RBG: The Life and Times of Ruth Bader Ginsburg” by Irin Carmon and Shana Knizhnik (2015)

Fictionalized Academic Biography

Fictionalized academic biographies merge the best of both worlds, combining the rigorous research and scholarly integrity of academic biographies with the engaging storytelling of historical fiction.

Authors of these works expertly navigate the delicate balance between maintaining factual accuracy and venturing into the realm of imagination.

This approach allows them to explore the subject’s personal life, relationships, and the broader historical context in a compelling manner, while ensuring the narrative remains firmly rooted in well-researched facts.

Here are several examples of notable fictionalized academic biographies:

• “The Women” by T.C. Boyle (2009)
• “Z: A Novel of Zelda Fitzgerald” by Therese Anne Fowler (2013)
• “The Marriage of Opposites” by Alice Hoffman (2015)
• “Vanessa and Her Sister” by Priya Parmar (2014)
• “The Last Days of Night” by Graham Moore (2016)

Prophetic Biography

Prophetic biographies delve into the rich and profound narratives of religious figures or prophets, meticulously weaving together insights from sacred texts, religious traditions, and historical accounts.

By providing a comprehensive portrayal of the individual’s life, teachings, and impact on society, these biographies serve as an invaluable resource for understanding the pivotal role these figures played in shaping the course of religious history and the lives of the faithful.

Here are several examples of notable prophetic biographies:

• “Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources” by Martin Lings (1983)
• “The Life of Moses” by F.B. Meyer (1893)
• “The Life of the Buddha: According to the Pali Canon” by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli (1972)
• “The Quest of the Historical Jesus” by Albert Schweitzer (1906)
• “The Lives of the Saints” by Alban Butler (1756)

Biography Development Process

A biography is a comprehensive written account of an individual’s life, and the development process involves several essential components to ensure the biography’s accuracy and readability.

A biographer’s primary responsibility is to conduct extensive research in order to gather a comprehensive array of facts about the subject. This meticulous process involves reviewing various documents and sources that shed light on the individual’s life and experiences, as well as the historical context in which they lived.

Key documents, such as birth and death certificates, provide essential information about the subject’s origins and family background. Personal correspondence, letters, and diaries offer invaluable insights into the subject’s thoughts, emotions, relationships, and experiences. News articles, on the other hand, can reveal public perceptions of the subject, as well as their impact on society and culture.

Archives often serve as treasure troves of information for biographers, as they contain a wealth of primary sources that can help illuminate the subject’s life and times. These archives may include collections of personal papers, photographs, audio recordings, and other materials that offer first-hand accounts of the individual’s experiences or shed light on their accomplishments and impact.

Consulting relevant books and articles is another crucial aspect of a biographer’s research process, as these secondary sources provide context, analysis, and interpretation of the subject’s life and work.

By delving into the existing scholarship and engaging with the works of other researchers, biographers can solidify their understanding of the individual and the historical circumstances in which they lived.

Interviewing people who knew the subject personally is a vital component of a biographer’s research process, as it allows them to access unique insights, personal stories, and firsthand accounts of the individual’s life.

Friends, family members, co-workers, and colleagues can all offer valuable perspectives on the subject’s character, relationships, achievements, and challenges, thereby enriching the biographer’s understanding of their life and experiences.

While subjective anecdotes offer a more intimate glimpse into the subject’s personality and personal life, it is essential for biographers to balance these accounts with factual research.

By corroborating and contextualizing personal stories with objective information gleaned from primary and secondary sources, biographers can ensure that their portrayal of the individual’s life remains accurate and well-rounded.

This process of balancing subjective anecdotes with factual research also allows biographers to present a more nuanced and comprehensive view of their subject. By weaving together personal stories with historical context, biographers can create a richer and more engaging narrative that captures the complexity and multifaceted nature of the individual’s life.

In addition, by considering various perspectives and sources of information, biographers can address potential biases or discrepancies in their account, resulting in a more reliable and credible portrayal of the subject.

This careful attention to detail and commitment to accuracy not only enhances the quality of the biography but also helps establish trust between the biographer and their readers.

Chronological Narration

Organizing a biography in a chronological manner is a highly effective approach, as it allows readers to follow the subject’s life events in a logical and coherent sequence.

By presenting the information in a linear fashion, the biographer enables readers to trace the subject’s journey from their early years to their later accomplishments, making it easier to understand the context and progression of their life.

To effectively arrange a chronological narrative, the biographer should begin by highlighting significant milestones and accomplishments in the subject’s life. These key events serve as anchor points in the story, helping to structure the narrative and maintain the reader’s interest.

By focusing on these pivotal moments, the biographer can illustrate the subject’s growth, development, and achievements over time, providing a clear and engaging overview of their life’s trajectory.

Contextualization

Contextualizing the subject within their historical and cultural framework is a crucial aspect of biographical writing, as it enables readers to gain a deeper understanding of the individual’s life, choices, and significance.

Embedding the subject within their historical context involves examining the political, social, and economic landscape of the time. This includes exploring major events, trends, and issues that affected the subject’s life and decisions, such as wars, social movements, technological advancements, or cultural shifts.

Additionally, considering the subject’s cultural context is essential for understanding their beliefs, values, and creative expression. This involves examining the artistic, intellectual, and philosophical currents of the time, which may have influenced the subject’s work, ideas, or relationships.

Moreover, contextualizing the subject within their historical and cultural framework can help to humanize them, revealing the complexities, contradictions, and struggles that are often inherent in the human experience.

This approach offers readers a more nuanced and empathetic understanding of the subject, allowing them to see the person as a product of their time and circumstances, rather than as an isolated figure.

Famous Biographies and Biographers

The life of samuel johnson, ll.d. by james boswell (1791).

“The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D.” is a biography of the English writer and literary critic Samuel Johnson, written by his friend and contemporary James Boswell. Published in 1791, it is often considered one of the greatest biographies in the English language and a pioneering work in the development of modern biography as a literary genre.

Samuel Johnson (1709-1784) was a prominent figure in 18th-century English literature, known for his wide-ranging knowledge, wit, and moral authority. He is best remembered for his dictionary, “A Dictionary of the English Language,” published in 1755, which became the standard English dictionary for over a century. He was also a prolific essayist, poet, and critic.

James Boswell (1740-1795) was a Scottish lawyer, diarist, and author who became friends with Johnson in 1763. Over the course of their friendship, Boswell made detailed notes of their conversations and observations, which he later used as the basis for his biography.

“The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D.” is a comprehensive and vivid portrait of Johnson’s life, character, and work. Boswell covers Johnson’s early years, education, and struggles with poverty and illness, as well as his rise to prominence as a writer and his involvement in the vibrant literary circles of 18th-century London.

The biography also delves into Johnson’s friendships and relationships, including his long association with Hester Thrale, a prominent society hostess, and writer.

What sets Boswell’s biography apart is his skill in capturing Johnson’s personality, wit, and conversation. By presenting Johnson’s thoughts and opinions on a wide range of topics, as well as anecdotes and reminiscences from those who knew him, Boswell creates a vivid and engaging portrait of his subject.

The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks (2010)

“The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks” is a non-fiction book written by Rebecca Skloot, published in 2010. The book tells the story of Henrietta Lacks, an African American woman whose cancer cells were taken without her knowledge or consent during a biopsy in 1951. These cells, known as HeLa cells, became the first immortal human cell line, reproducing indefinitely under laboratory conditions.

HeLa cells have been used extensively in medical research, contributing to significant scientific breakthroughs, such as the development of the polio vaccine, gene mapping, and cancer research.

Henrietta Lacks was a young mother of five when she was diagnosed with an aggressive form of cervical cancer at the age of 31. She received treatment at Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, where a sample of her cancerous tissue was taken without her knowledge. Henrietta passed away in 1951, but her cells continued to live on, revolutionizing medical research.

Rebecca Skloot spent more than a decade researching Henrietta Lacks’ life and the scientific history of HeLa cells. Skloot also interviewed Lacks’ surviving family members, who were unaware of Henrietta’s contribution to science until the 1970s.

The book explores the ethical issues surrounding the use of human tissue in research, the question of consent, and the lack of compensation for the Lacks family.

Alexander Hamilton by Ron Chernow (2004)

“Alexander Hamilton” is a comprehensive biography of the American Founding Father Alexander Hamilton, written by historian and biographer Ron Chernow. Published in 2004, the book provides an in-depth look into Hamilton’s life, from his humble beginnings in the West Indies to his significant contributions as a statesman, economist, and influential figure in early American history.

Chernow’s biography delves into Hamilton’s early life as an orphan in the Caribbean, his immigration to the American colonies, and his education. It also explores his involvement in the American Revolutionary War, where he served as an aide to General George Washington and later as an artillery officer.

The book details Hamilton’s role in the development of the United States Constitution and his work as the first Secretary of the Treasury under President Washington, where he was instrumental in establishing the nation’s financial system.

“Alexander Hamilton” also examines Hamilton’s personal life, including his relationships, marriage, and infamous extramarital affair, as well as his longstanding political rivalries with figures such as Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and Aaron Burr. The biography concludes with the story of Hamilton’s tragic death in a duel with Burr in 1804.

It received critical acclaim and won several awards, including the George Washington Book Prize. The biography also inspired Lin-Manuel Miranda to create the hit Broadway musical “Hamilton,” which premiered in 2015 and went on to achieve widespread popularity and numerous accolades, further solidifying Alexander Hamilton’s place in popular culture and history.

Notable Biographies in Different Fields

Science and technology.

Biographies in the field of science and technology offer fascinating insights into the lives and minds of extraordinary individuals who have made significant advancements in their respective fields.

These biographies often provide an in-depth look at the personal and professional lives of scientists, inventors, engineers, and other innovators, highlighting their discoveries, inventions, and contributions to human knowledge and progress.

Arts and Literature

Biographies of artists, actors, and writers often provide captivating and inspiring accounts of the lives of these creative individuals. By examining their personal and professional journeys, these biographies allow readers to gain a deeper understanding of the inspirations, motivations, and challenges that have shaped their subjects’ artistic achievements.

These biographies often delve into the early lives of their subjects, exploring formative experiences that may have influenced their creative paths. They also examine the artistic processes and the development of the subjects’ distinctive styles, providing valuable insights into their creative methodologies, influences, and inspirations.

Sports and Athletics

Biographies of athletes provide riveting accounts of the lives and careers of remarkable individuals who have achieved greatness in the world of sports. These stories often serve as powerful sources of inspiration, showcasing the dedication, perseverance, and triumphs of athletes who have overcome obstacles and pushed the boundaries of human potential.

These biographies delve into the formative experiences of their subjects, exploring how early influences, innate talent, and personal motivations led them to pursue athletic excellence. They also provide insights into the rigorous training regimens, discipline, and sacrifices that athletes make to achieve their goals, highlighting the incredible determination and work ethic that underpin their success.

Additionally, biographies of athletes often touch on the personal challenges and setbacks these individuals have faced, such as injuries, controversies, or personal struggles.

Historical Figures

Biographies of historical figures offer a unique window into the lives, personalities, and experiences of individuals who have left lasting impacts on the world. By delving into the stories of these influential people, readers can gain a deeper understanding of the political, social, and cultural contexts that shaped their actions and decisions, as well as the lasting legacies they left behind.

These biographies often provide richly detailed accounts of their subjects’ lives, including their upbringing, education, relationships, and personal struggles. By exploring the complex facets of these individuals, biographies help to humanize historical figures, providing a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of their motivations, beliefs, and actions.

In addition to personal narratives, biographies of historical figures often weave together broader historical contexts and events. This allows readers to gain valuable insights into the social, political, and cultural forces that influenced their subjects’ lives and decisions.

Writing a Compelling Biography

A captivating biography requires more than just a simple retelling of a person’s life events. It delves into their personal experiences, relationships, and accomplishments, while maintaining an objective and authentic approach.

Being Objective and Authentic

An essential aspect of a well-written biography is its objectivity. The narrative should portray the real person, depicting their experiences and beliefs accurately.

While it can be tempting to embellish facts or minimize flaws, striving for authenticity is crucial in presenting a credible account. This involves thorough research and verification of facts, even when they contradict the author’s initial assumptions.

Authenticity also extends to the respectful portrayal of a subject’s relationships and exploration of their inner world, while avoiding speculation or gossip.

Balancing Personal and Public Life

When writing a biography, one must strike a balance between the subject’s personal and public life. This includes weaving together stories from their childhood, personal relationships, and major life events that may have shaped their character. The integration of both personal and public aspects contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of their vita.

However, careful consideration must be given to privacy concerns, and it is important to determine which aspects of the individual’s life are appropriate to disclose. Ultimately, the reader should gain insight into the person’s journey without feeling intrusive.

Creating Engaging Storylines

Just as in a novel, a great biography should feature engaging storylines that keep readers interested. This can be achieved by organizing the narrative around important events, challenges, and accomplishments that are relevant and compelling. To maintain a smooth flow, strategically transitioning between these key moments helps maintain reader interest.

The use of different perspectives, anecdotes, and historical context can also enhance the storyline. Paint vivid pictures of the settings, allowing readers to immerse themselves in the subject’s world. Furthermore, showcasing the subject’s resilience, growth, and impact, can contribute to a powerful and memorable biography.

Frequently Asked Questions

Can biographies be fictional or purely factual.

Biographies usually aim to present an accurate and factual representation of someone’s life. However, some authors might take creative liberties and incorporate fictionalized elements for dramatic or storytelling purposes.

It is crucial for readers to be aware of the author’s intentions and approach when reading such biographical works.

Can biographies be biased?

Biographies, like any form of writing, can be subject to biases depending on the author’s perspective, beliefs, or intentions.

It is essential for readers to critically evaluate biographies by considering factors such as the author’s credentials, potential biases, and the sources used in the research process.

By comparing multiple biographies on the same subject or cross-referencing with other sources, readers can develop a more comprehensive and balanced understanding of the individual’s life and achievements.

Are biographies always based on famous or historical figures?

While biographies often focus on famous or historical figures, they can also be written about lesser-known individuals with compelling stories or unique experiences.

These “everyday” biographies can provide valuable insights into the lives of ordinary people and the challenges they face, offering a broader understanding of the human experience and fostering empathy and connection among readers.

Are there any ethical considerations when writing a biography?

Yes, ethical considerations play a significant role in writing biographies.

Biographers must respect the privacy and dignity of their subjects, particularly when dealing with sensitive or personal information. They should also strive for accuracy and fairness, avoiding sensationalism or misrepresentation of facts.

Additionally, biographers should acknowledge and address any potential biases or conflicts of interest that may affect their portrayal of the subject.

Biographies offer us unparalleled access to the lives and legacies of remarkable individuals, spanning diverse genres and approaches.

From historical fiction to academic rigor, prophetic accounts to fictionalized narratives, biographies captivate our imagination and enrich our understanding of the human experience. These literary gems remind us that behind every great achievement lies a story of struggle, triumph, and unwavering determination.

So, let us continue to explore these remarkable journeys, as we delve deeper into the pages of history and the hearts of those who have shaped our world.

How useful was this post?

Click on a star to rate it!

As you found this post useful...

Share it on social media!

We are sorry that this post was not useful for you!

Let us improve this post!

Tell us how we can improve this post?

What Is a Biography?

Learning from the experiences of others is what makes us human.

At the core of every biography is the story of someone’s humanity. While biographies come in many sub-genres, the one thing they all have in common is loyalty to the facts, as they’re available at the time. Here’s how we define biography, a look at its origins, and some popular types.

“Biography” Definition

A biography is simply the story of a real person’s life. It could be about a person who is still alive, someone who lived centuries ago, someone who is globally famous, an unsung hero forgotten by history, or even a unique group of people. The facts of their life, from birth to death (or the present day of the author), are included with life-changing moments often taking center stage. The author usually points to the subject’s childhood, coming-of-age events, relationships, failures, and successes in order to create a well-rounded description of her subject.

Biographies require a great deal of research. Sources of information could be as direct as an interview with the subject providing their own interpretation of their life’s events. When writing about people who are no longer with us, biographers look for primary sources left behind by the subject and, if possible, interviews with friends or family. Historical biographers may also include accounts from other experts who have studied their subject.

The biographer’s ultimate goal is to recreate the world their subject lived in and describe how they functioned within it. Did they change their world? Did their world change them? Did they transcend the time in which they lived? Why or why not? And how? These universal life lessons are what make biographies such a meaningful read.

Origins of the Biography

Greco-Roman literature honored the gods as well as notable mortals. Whether winning or losing, their behaviors were to be copied or seen as cautionary tales. One of the earliest examples written exclusively about humans is Plutarch’s Parallel Lives (probably early 2 nd century AD). It’s a collection of biographies in which a pair of men, one Greek and one Roman, are compared and held up as either a good or bad example to follow.

In the Middle Ages, Einhard’s The Life of Charlemagne (around 817 AD) stands out as one of the most famous biographies of its day. Einhard clearly fawns over Charlemagne’s accomplishments throughout, yet it doesn’t diminish the value this biography has brought to centuries of historians since its writing.

Considered the earliest modern biography, The Life of Samuel Johnson (1791) by James Boswell looks like the biographies we know today. Boswell conducted interviews, performed years of research, and created a compelling narrative of his subject.

The genre evolves as the 20th century arrives, and with it the first World War. The 1920s saw a boom in autobiographies in response. Robert Graves’ Good-Bye to All That (1929) is a coming-of age story set amid the absurdity of war and its aftermath. That same year, Mahatma Gandhi wrote The Story of My Experiments with Truth , recalling how the events of his life led him to develop his theories of nonviolent rebellion. In this time, celebrity tell-alls also emerged as a popular form of entertainment. With the horrors of World War II and the explosion of the civil rights movement, American biographers of the late 20 th century had much to archive. Instantly hailed as some of the best writing about the war, John Hersey’s Hiroshima (1946) tells the stories of six people who lived through those world-altering days. Alex Haley wrote the as-told-to The Autobiography of Malcom X (1965). Yet with biographies, the more things change, the more they stay the same. One theme that persists is a biographer’s desire to cast its subject in an updated light, as in Eleanor and Hick: The Love Affair that Shaped a First Lady by Susan Quinn (2016).

Types of Biographies

Contemporary Biography: Authorized or Unauthorized

The typical modern biography tells the life of someone still alive, or who has recently passed. Sometimes these are authorized — written with permission or input from the subject or their family — like Dave Itzkoff’s intimate look at the life and career of Robin Williams, Robin . Unauthorized biographies of living people run the risk of being controversial. Kitty Kelley’s infamous His Way: The Unauthorized Biography of Frank Sinatra so angered Sinatra, he tried to prevent its publication.

Historical Biography

The wild success of Lin-Manuel Miranda’s Hamilton is proof that our interest in historical biography is as strong as ever. Miranda was inspired to write the musical after reading Ron Chernow’s Alexander Hamilton , an epic 800+ page biography intended to cement Hamilton’s status as a great American. Paula Gunn Allen also sets the record straight on another misunderstood historical figure with Pocahontas: Medicine Woman, Spy, Entrepreneur, Diplomat , revealing details about her tribe, her family, and her relationship with John Smith that are usually missing from other accounts. Historical biographies also give the spotlight to people who died without ever getting the recognition they deserved, such as The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks .

Biography of a Group

When a group of people share unique characteristics, they can be the topic of a collective biography. The earliest example of this is Captain Charles Johnson’s A General History of the Pirates (1724), which catalogs the lives of notorious pirates and establishes the popular culture images we still associate with them. Smaller groups are also deserving of a biography, as seen in David Hajdu’s Positively 4th Street , a mesmerizing behind-the-scenes look at the early years of Bob Dylan, Joan Baez, Mimi Baez Fariña, and Richard Fariña as they establish the folk scene in New York City. Likewise, British royal family fashion is a vehicle for telling the life stories of four iconic royals – Queen Elizabeth II, Diana, Kate, and Meghan – in HRH: So Many Thoughts on Royal Style by style journalist Elizabeth Holmes.

Autobiography

This type of biography is written about one’s self, spanning an entire life up to the point of its writing. One of the earliest autobiographies is Saint Augustine’s The Confessions (400), in which his own experiences from childhood through his religious conversion are told in order to create a sweeping guide to life. Maya Angelou’s I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings is the first of six autobiographies that share all the pain of her childhood and the long road that led to her work in the civil rights movement, and a beloved, prize-winning writer.

Memoirs are a type of autobiography, written about a specific but vital aspect of one’s life. In Toil & Trouble , Augusten Burroughs explains how he has lived his life as a witch. Mikel Jollett’s Hollywood Park recounts his early years spent in a cult, his family’s escape, and his rise to success with his band, The Airborne Toxic Event. Barack Obama’s first presidential memoir, A Promised Land , charts his path into politics and takes a deep dive into his first four years in office.

Fictional Biography

Fictional biographies are no substitute for a painstakingly researched scholarly biography, but they’re definitely meant to be more entertaining. Z: A Novel of Zelda Fitzgerald by Therese Anne Fowler constructs Zelda and F. Scott’s wild, Jazz-Age life, told from Zelda’s point of view. The Only Woman in the Room by Marie Benedict brings readers into the secret life of Hollywood actress and wartime scientist, Hedy Lamarr. These imagined biographies, while often whimsical, still respect the form in that they depend heavily on facts when creating setting, plot, and characters.

Share with your friends

Related articles.

11 Thrilling Books to Read Next if You Loved 'One of Us Is Lying'

11 Stimulating Books About Psychedelics

13 Moving Books About Fathers and Fatherhood

Celadon delivered.

Subscribe to get articles about writing, adding to your TBR pile, and simply content we feel is worth sharing. And yes, also sign up to be the first to hear about giveaways, our acquisitions, and exclusives!

" * " indicates required fields

Step 1 of 8

Connect with

Sign up for our newsletter to see book giveaways, news, and more, get our newsletter.

How to Write a Biography

Biographies are big business. Whether in book form or Hollywood biopics, the lives of the famous and sometimes not-so-famous fascinate us.

While it’s true that most biographies are about people who are in the public eye, sometimes the subject is less well-known. Primarily, though, famous or not, the person who is written about has led an incredible life.

In this article, we will explain biography writing in detail for teachers and students so they can create their own.

While your students will most likely have a basic understanding of a biography, it’s worth taking a little time before they put pen to paper to tease out a crystal-clear definition of one.

What Is a Biography?

A biography is an account of someone’s life written by someone else . While there is a genre known as a fictional biography, for the most part, biographies are, by definition, nonfiction.

Generally speaking, biographies provide an account of the subject’s life from the earliest days of childhood to the present day or, if the subject is deceased, their death.

The job of a biography is more than just to outline the bare facts of a person’s life.

Rather than just listing the basic details of their upbringing, hobbies, education, work, relationships, and death, a well-written biography should also paint a picture of the subject’s personality and experience of life.

Full Biographies

Teaching unit.

Teach your students everything they need to know about writing an AUTOBIOGRAPHY and a BIOGRAPHY.

⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐ ( 26 reviews )

Features of a Biography

Before students begin writing a biography, they’ll need to have a firm grasp of the main features of a Biography. An excellent way to determine how well they understand these essential elements is to ask them to compile a checklist like the one-blow

Their checklists should contain the items below at a minimum. Be sure to help them fill in any gaps before moving on to the writing process.

The purpose of a biography is to provide an account of someone’s life.

Biography structure.

ORIENTATION (BEGINNING) Open your biography with a strong hook to grab the reader’s attention

SEQUENCING: In most cases, biographies are written in chronological order unless you are a very competent writer consciously trying to break from this trend.

COVER: childhood, upbringing, education, influences, accomplishments, relationships, etc. – everything that helps the reader to understand the person.

CONCLUSION: Wrap your biography up with some details about what the subject is doing now if they are still alive. If they have passed away, make mention of what impact they have made and what their legacy is or will be.

BIOGRAPHY FEATURES

LANGUAGE Use descriptive and figurative language that will paint images inside your audience’s minds as they read. Use time connectives to link events.

PERSPECTIVE Biographies are written from the third person’s perspective.

DETAILS: Give specific details about people, places, events, times, dates, etc. Reflect on how events shaped the subject. You might want to include some relevant photographs with captions. A timeline may also be of use depending upon your subject and what you are trying to convey to your audience.

TENSE Written in the past tense (though ending may shift to the present/future tense)

THE PROCESS OF WRITING A BIOGRAPHY

Like any form of writing, you will find it simple if you have a plan and follow it through. These steps will ensure you cover the essential bases of writing a biography essay.

Firstly, select a subject that inspires you. Someone whose life story resonates with you and whose contribution to society intrigues you. The next step is to conduct thorough research. Engage in extensive reading, explore various sources, watch documentaries, and glean all available information to provide a comprehensive account of the person’s life.

Creating an outline is essential to organize your thoughts and information. The outline should include the person’s early life, education, career, achievements, and any other significant events or contributions. It serves as a map for the writing process, ensuring that all vital information is included.

Your biography should have an engaging introduction that captivates the reader’s attention and provides background information on the person you’re writing about. It should include a thesis statement summarising the biography’s main points.

Writing a biography in chronological order is crucial . You should begin with the person’s early life and move through their career and achievements. This approach clarifies how the person’s life unfolded and how they accomplished their goals.

A biography should be written in a narrative style , capturing the essence of the person’s life through vivid descriptions, anecdotes, and quotes. Avoid dry, factual writing and focus on creating a compelling narrative that engages the reader.

Adding personal insights and opinions can enhance the biography’s overall impact, providing a unique perspective on the person’s achievements, legacy, and impact on society.

Editing and proofreading are vital elements of the writing process. Thoroughly reviewing your biography ensures that the writing is clear, concise, and error-free. You can even request feedback from someone else to ensure that it is engaging and well-written.

Finally, including a bibliography at the end of your biography is essential. It gives credit to the sources that were used during research, such as books, articles, interviews, and websites.

Tips for Writing a Brilliant Biography

Biography writing tip #1: choose your subject wisely.

There are several points for students to reflect on when deciding on a subject for their biography. Let’s take a look at the most essential points to consider when deciding on the subject for a biography:

Interest: To produce a biography will require sustained writing from the student. That’s why students must choose their subject well. After all, a biography is an account of someone’s entire life to date. Students must ensure they choose a subject that will sustain their interest throughout the research, writing, and editing processes.

Merit: Closely related to the previous point, students must consider whether the subject merits the reader’s interest. Aside from pure labors of love, writing should be undertaken with the reader in mind. While producing a biography demands sustained writing from the author, it also demands sustained reading from the reader.

Therefore, students should ask themselves if their chosen subject has had a life worthy of the reader’s interest and the time they’d need to invest in reading their biography.

Information: Is there enough information available on the subject to fuel the writing of an entire biography? While it might be a tempting idea to write about a great-great-grandfather’s experience in the war. There would be enough interest there to sustain the author’s and the reader’s interest, but do you have enough access to information about their early childhood to do the subject justice in the form of a biography?

Biography Writing Tip #2: R esearch ! Research! Research!

While the chances are good that the student already knows quite a bit about the subject they’ve chosen. Chances are 100% that they’ll still need to undertake considerable research to write their biography.

As with many types of writing , research is an essential part of the planning process that shouldn’t be overlooked. If students wish to give as complete an account of their subject’s life as possible, they’ll need to put in the time at the research stage.

An effective way to approach the research process is to:

1. Compile a chronological timeline of the central facts, dates, and events of the subject’s life

2. Compile detailed descriptions of the following personal traits:

•      Physical looks
•      Character traits
•      Values and beliefs

3. Compile some research questions based on different topics to provide a focus for the research:

• Childhood : Where and when were they born? Who were their parents? Who were the other family members? What education did they receive?
• Obstacles: What challenges did they have to overcome? How did these challenges shape them as individuals?
• Legacy: What impact did this person have on the world and/or the people around them?
• Dialogue & Quotes: Dialogue and quotations by and about the subject are a great way to bring color and life to a biography. Students should keep an eagle eye out for the gems that hide amid their sources.

As the student gets deeper into their research, new questions will arise that can further fuel the research process and help to shape the direction the biography will ultimately go in.

Likewise, during the research, themes will often begin to suggest themselves. Exploring these themes is essential to bring depth to biography, but we’ll discuss this later in this article.

Research Skills:

Researching for biography writing is an excellent way for students to hone their research skills in general. Developing good research skills is essential for future academic success. Students will have opportunities to learn how to:

• Gather relevant information
• Evaluate different information sources
• Select suitable information
• Organize information into a text.

Students will have access to print and online information sources, and, in some cases, they may also have access to people who knew or know the subject (e.g. biography of a family member).

These days, much of the research will likely take place online. It’s crucial, therefore, to provide your students with guidance on how to use the internet safely and evaluate online sources for reliability. This is the era of ‘ fake news ’ and misinformation after all!

COMPLETE TEACHING UNIT ON INTERNET RESEARCH SKILLS USING GOOGLE SEARCH

Teach your students ESSENTIAL SKILLS OF THE INFORMATION ERA to become expert DIGITAL RESEARCHERS.

⭐How to correctly ask questions to search engines on all devices.

⭐ How to filter and refine your results to find exactly what you want every time.

⭐ Essential Research and critical thinking skills for students.

⭐ Plagiarism, Citing and acknowledging other people’s work.

⭐ How to query, synthesize and record your findings logically.

BIOGRAPHY WRITING Tip #3: Find Your Themes In Biography Writing

Though predominantly a nonfiction genre, the story still plays a significant role in good biography writing. The skills of characterization and plot structuring are transferable here. And, just like in fiction, exploring themes in a biographical work helps connect the personal to the universal. Of course, these shouldn’t be forced; this will make the work seem contrived, and the reader may lose faith in the truthfulness of the account. A biographer needs to gain and maintain the trust of the reader.

Fortunately, themes shouldn’t need to be forced. A life well-lived is full of meaning, and the themes the student writer is looking for will emerge effortlessly from the actions and events of the subject’s life. It’s just a case of learning how to spot them.

One way to identify the themes in a life is to look for recurring events or situations in a person’s life. These should be apparent from the research completed previously. The students should seek to identify these patterns that emerge in the subject’s life. For example, perhaps they’ve had to overcome various obstacles throughout different periods of their life. In that case, the theme of overcoming adversity is present and has been identified.

Usually, a biography has several themes running throughout, so be sure your students work to identify more than one theme in their subject’s life.

BIOGRAPHY WRITING Tip: #4 Put Something of Yourself into the Writing

While the defining feature of a biography is that it gives an account of a person’s life, students must understand that this is not all a biography does. Relating the facts and details of a subject’s life is not enough. The student biographer should not be afraid to share their thoughts and feelings with the reader throughout their account of their subject’s life.

The student can weave some of their personality into the fabric of the text by providing commentary and opinion as they relate the events of the person’s life and the wider social context at the time. Unlike the detached and objective approach we’d expect to find in a history textbook, in a biography, student-writers should communicate their enthusiasm for their subject in their writing.

This makes for a more intimate experience for the reader, as they get a sense of getting to know the author and the subject they are writing about.

Biography Examples For Students

• Year 5 Example
• Year 7 Example
• Year 9 Example

“The Rock ‘n’ Roll King: Elvis Presley”

Elvis Aaron Presley, born on January 8, 1935, was an amazing singer and actor known as the “King of Rock ‘n’ Roll.” Even though he’s been dead for nearly 50 years, I can’t help but be fascinated by his incredible life!

Elvis grew up in Tupelo, Mississippi, in a tiny house with his parents and twin brother. His family didn’t have much money, but they shared a love for music. Little did they know Elvis would become a music legend!

When he was only 11 years old, Elvis got his first guitar. He taught himself to play and loved singing gospel songs. As he got older, he started combining different music styles like country, blues, and gospel to create a whole new sound – that’s Rock ‘n’ Roll!

In 1954, at the age of 19, Elvis recorded his first song, “That’s All Right.” People couldn’t believe how unique and exciting his music was. His famous hip-swinging dance moves also made him a sensation!

Elvis didn’t just rock the music scene; he also starred in movies like “Love Me Tender” and “Jailhouse Rock.” But fame came with challenges. Despite facing ups and downs, Elvis kept spreading happiness through his music.

Tragically, Elvis passed away in 1977, but his music and charisma live on. Even today, people worldwide still enjoy his songs like “Hound Dog” and “Can’t Help Falling in Love.” Elvis Presley’s legacy as the King of Rock ‘n’ Roll will live forever.

Long Live the King: I wish I’d seen him.

Elvis Presley, the Rock ‘n’ Roll legend born on January 8, 1935, is a captivating figure that even a modern-day teen like me can’t help but admire. As I delve into his life, I wish I could have experienced the magic of his live performances.

Growing up in Tupelo, Mississippi, Elvis faced challenges but found solace in music. At 11, he got his first guitar, a symbol of his journey into the world of sound. His fusion of gospel, country, and blues into Rock ‘n’ Roll became a cultural phenomenon.

The thought of being in the audience during his early performances, especially when he recorded “That’s All Right” at 19, sends shivers down my spine. Imagining the crowd’s uproar and feeling the revolutionary energy of that moment is a dream I wish I could have lived.

Elvis wasn’t just a musical prodigy; he was a dynamic performer. His dance moves, the embodiment of rebellion, and his roles in films like “Love Me Tender” and “Jailhouse Rock” made him a true icon.

After watching him on YouTube, I can’t help but feel a little sad that I’ll never witness the King’s live performances. The idea of swaying to “Hound Dog” or being enchanted by “Can’t Help Falling in Love” in person is a missed opportunity. Elvis may have left us in 1977, but he was the king of rock n’ roll. Long live the King!

Elvis Presley: A Teen’s Take on the Rock ‘n’ Roll Icon”

Elvis Presley, born January 8, 1935, was a revolutionary force in the music world, earning his title as the “King of Rock ‘n’ Roll.” Exploring his life, even as a 16-year-old today, I’m captivated by the impact he made.

Hailing from Tupelo, Mississippi, Elvis grew up in humble beginnings, surrounded by the love of his parents and twin brother. It’s inspiring to think that, despite financial challenges, this young man would redefine the music scene.

At 11, Elvis got his first guitar, sparking a self-taught journey into music. His early gospel influences evolved into a unique fusion of country, blues, and gospel, creating the electrifying genre of Rock ‘n’ Roll. In 1954, at only 19, he recorded “That’s All Right,” marking the birth of a musical legend.

Elvis wasn’t just a musical innovator; he was a cultural phenomenon. His rebellious dance moves and magnetic stage presence challenged the norms. He transitioned seamlessly into acting, starring in iconic films like “Love Me Tender” and “Jailhouse Rock.”

However, fame came at a cost, and Elvis faced personal struggles. Despite the challenges, his music continued to resonate. Even now, classics like “Hound Dog” and “Can’t Help Falling in Love” transcend generations.

Elvis Presley’s impact on music and culture is undeniable. He was known for his unique voice, charismatic persona, and electrifying performances. He sold over one billion records worldwide, making him one of the best-selling solo artists in history. He received numerous awards throughout his career, including three Grammy Awards and the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.

Elvis’s influence can still be seen in today’s music. Many contemporary artists, such as Bruno Mars, Lady Gaga, and Justin Timberlake, have cited Elvis as an inspiration. His music continues to be featured in movies, TV shows, and commercials.

Elvis left us in 1977, but his legacy lives on. I appreciate his breaking barriers and fearlessly embracing his artistic vision. Elvis Presley’s impact on music and culture is timeless, a testament to the enduring power of his artistry. His music has inspired generations and will continue to do so for many years to come.

Teaching Resources

Use our resources and tools to improve your student’s writing skills through proven teaching strategies.

BIOGRAPHY WRITING TEACHING IDEAS AND LESSONS

We have compiled a sequence of biography-related lessons or teaching ideas that you can follow as you please. They are straightforward enough for most students to follow without further instruction.

BIOGRAPHY LESSON IDEA # 1:

This session aims to give students a broader understanding of what makes a good biography.

Once your students have compiled a comprehensive checklist of the main features of a biography, allow them to use it to assess some biographies from your school library or on the internet using the feature checklist.

When students have assessed a selection of biographies, take some time as a class to discuss them. You can base the discussion around the following prompts:

• Which biographies covered all the criteria from their checklist?
• Which biographies didn’t?
• Which biography was the most readable in terms of structure?
• Which biography do you think was the least well-structured? How would you improve this?

Looking at how other writers have interpreted the form will help students internalize the necessary criteria before attempting to produce a biography. Once students have a clear understanding of the main features of the biography, they’re ready to begin work on writing a biography.

When the time does come to put pen to paper, be sure they’re armed with the following top tips to help ensure they’re as well prepared as possible.

BIOGRAPHY LESSON IDEA # 2:

This session aims to guide students through the process of selecting the perfect biography subject.

Instruct students to draw up a shortlist of three potential subjects for the biography they’ll write.

Using the three criteria mentioned in the writing guide (Interest, Merit, and Information), students award each potential subject a mark out of 5 for each of the criteria. In this manner, students can select the most suitable subject for their biography.

BIOGRAPHY LESSON IDEA # 3:

This session aims to get students into the researching phase, then prioritise and organise events chronologically.

Students begin by making a timeline of their subject’s life, starting with their birth and ending with their death or the present day. If the student has yet to make a final decision on the subject of their biography, a family member will often serve well for this exercise as a practice exercise.

Students should research and gather the key events of the person’s life, covering each period of their life from when they were a baby, through childhood and adolescence, right up to adulthood and old age. They should then organize these onto a timeline. Students can include photographs with captions if they have them.

They can present these to the class when they have finished their timelines.

BIOGRAPHY LESSON IDEA # 4:

Instruct students to look over their timeline, notes, and other research. Challenge them to identify three patterns that repeat throughout the subject’s life and sort all the related events and incidents into specific categories.

Students should then label each category with a single word. This is the thematic concept or the broad general underlying idea. After that, students should write a sentence or two expressing what the subject’s life ‘says’ about that concept.

This is known as the thematic statement . With the thematic concepts and thematic statements identified, the student now has some substantial ideas to explore that will help bring more profound meaning and wider resonance to their biography.

BIOGRAPHY LESSON IDEA # 5:

Instruct students to write a short objective account of an event in their own life. They can write about anyone from their past. It needn’t be more than a couple of paragraphs, but the writing should be strictly factual, focusing only on the objective details of what happened.

Once they have completed this, it’s time to rewrite the paragraph, but they should include some opinion and personal commentary this time.

The student here aims to inject some color and personality into their writing, to transform a detached, factual account into a warm, engaging story.

A COMPLETE UNIT ON TEACHING BIOGRAPHIES

Teach your students to write AMAZING BIOGRAPHIES & AUTOBIOGRAPHIES using proven RESEARCH SKILLS and WRITING STRATEGIES .

• Understand the purpose of both forms of biography.
• Explore the language and perspective of both.
• Prompts and Challenges to engage students in writing a biography.
• Dedicated lessons for both forms of biography.
• Biographical Projects can expand students’ understanding of reading and writing a biography.
• A COMPLETE 82-PAGE UNIT – NO PREPARATION REQUIRED.

FREE Biography Writing Graphic Organizer

Use this valuable tool in the research and writing phases to keep your students on track and engaged.

WRITING CHECKLIST & RUBRIC BUNDLE

⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐ (92 Reviews)

To Conclude

By this stage, your students should have an excellent technical overview of a biography’s essential elements.

They should be able to choose their subject in light of how interesting and worthy they are, as well as give consideration to the availability of information out there. They should be able to research effectively and identify emerging themes in their research notes. And finally, they should be able to bring some of their personality and uniqueness into their retelling of the life of another.

Remember that writing a biography is not only a great way to develop a student’s writing skills; it can be used in almost all curriculum areas. For example, to find out more about a historical figure in History, to investigate scientific contributions to Science, or to celebrate a hero from everyday life.

Biography is an excellent genre for students to develop their writing skills and to find inspiration in the lives of others in the world around them.

HOW TO WRITE A BIOGRAPHY TUTORIAL VIDEO

OTHER GREAT ARTICLES RELATED TO BIOGRAPHY WRITING

How to write an Autobiography

How to Write a Historical Recount Text

15 Awesome Recount & Personal Narrative Topics

Personal Narrative Writing Guide

Home » Writing » Autobiography vs. Biography vs. Memoir

What is a Biography?

A biography, also called a bio, is a non-fiction piece of work giving an objective account of a person’s life. The main difference between a biography vs. an autobiography is that the author of a biography is not the subject. A biography could be someone still living today, or it could be the subject of a person who lived years ago.

Biographies include details of key events that shaped the subject’s life, and information about their birthplace, education, work, and relationships. Biographers use a number of research sources, including interviews, letters, diaries, photographs, essays, reference books, and newspapers. While a biography is usually in the written form, it can be produced in other formats such as music composition or film.

If the target person of the biography is not alive, then the storytelling requires an immense amount of research. Interviews might be required to collect information from historical experts, people who knew the person (e.g., friends and family), or reading other older accounts from other people who wrote about the person in previous years. In biographies where the person is still alive, the writer can conduct several interviews with the target person to gain insight on their life.

The goal of a biography is to take the reader through the life story of the person, including their childhood into adolescence and teenage years, and then their early adult life into the rest of their years. The biography tells a story of how the person learned life’s lessons and the ways the person navigated the world. It should give the reader a clear picture of the person’s personality, traits, and their interaction in the world.

Biographies can also be focused on groups of people and not just one person. For example, a biography can be a historical account of a group of people from hundreds of years ago. This group could have the main person who was a part of the group, and the author writes about the group to tell a story of how they shaped the world.

Fictional biographies mix some true historical accounts with events to help improve the story. Think of fictional biographies as movies that display a warning that the story is made of real characters, but some events are fictional to add to the storyline and entertainment value. A lot of research still goes into a fictional biography, but the author has more room to create a storyline instead of sticking to factual events.

Examples of famous biographies include:

• His Excellency: George Washington  by Joseph J. Ellis
• Einstein: The Life and Times  by Ronald William Clark
• Princess Diana – A Biography of The Princess of Wales  by Drew L. Crichton

What is an Autobiography?

An autobiography is the story of a person’s life written by that person. Because the author is also the main character of the story, autobiographies are written in the first person. Usually, an autobiography is written by the person who is the subject of the book, but sometimes the autobiography is written by another person. Because an autobiography is usually a life story for the author, the theme can be anything from religious to a personal account to pass on to children.

The purpose of an autobiography is to portray the life experiences and achievements of the author. Therefore, most autobiographies are typically written later in the subject’s life. It’s written from the point of view of the author, so it typically uses first person accounts to describe the story.

An autobiography often begins during early childhood and chronologically details key events throughout the author’s life. Autobiographies usually include information about where a person was born and brought up, their education, career, life experiences, the challenges they faced, and their key achievements.

On rare occasions, an autobiography is created from a person’s diary or memoirs. When diaries are used, the author must organize them to create a chronological and cohesive story. The story might have flashbacks or flashforwards to describe a specific event, but the main storyline should follow chronological order from the author’s early life to their current events.

One of the main differences between an autobiography vs. a biography is that autobiographies tend to be more subjective. That’s because they are written by the subject, and present the facts based on their own memories of a specific situation, which can be biased. The story covers the author’s opinions on specific subjects and provides an account of their feelings as they navigate certain situations. These stories are also very personal because it’s a personal account of the author’s life rather than a biography where a third party writes about a specific person.

Examples of famous autobiographies include:

• The Story of My Life  by Helen Keller
• The Diary of a Young Girl  by Anne Frank
• Losing My Virginity  by Richard Branson

What is a Memoir?

Memoir comes from the French word  mémoire , meaning memory or reminiscence. Similar to an autobiography, a memoir is the story of a person’s life written by that person. These life stories are often from diary entries either from a first-person account or from a close family member or friend with access to personal diaries.

The difference between a memoir vs. an autobiography is that a memoir focuses on reflection and establishing an emotional connection, rather than simply presenting the facts about their life. The author uses their personal knowledge to tell an intimate and emotional story about the private or public happenings in their life. The author could be the person in the story, or it can be written by a close family member or friend who knew the subject person intimately. The topic is intentionally focused and does not include biographical or chronological aspects of the author’s life unless they are meaningful and relevant to the story.

Memoirs come in several types, all of which are written as an emotional account of the target person. They usually tell a story of a person who went through great struggles or faced challenges in a unique way. They can also cover confessionals where the memoir tells the story of the author’s account that contradicts another’s account.

This genre of writing is often stories covering famous people’s lives, such as celebrities. In many memoir projects, the celebrity or person of interest needs help with organization, writing the story, and fleshing out ideas from the person’s diaries. It might take several interviews before the story can be fully outlined and written, so it’s not uncommon for a memoir project to last several months.

Memoirs do not usually require as much research as biographies and autobiographies, because you have the personal accounts in diary entries and documents with the person’s thoughts. It might require several interviews, however, before the diary entries can be organized to give an accurate account on the person’s thoughts and emotions. The story does not necessarily need to be in chronological order compared to an autobiography, but it might be to tell a better story.

Examples of famous memoirs include:

• Angela’s Ashes  by Frank McCourt
• I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings  by Maya Angelou
• Personal Memoirs of Ulysses S.  Grant by Ulysses S. Grant

Autobiography vs. Biography vs. Memoir Comparison Chart

Check out some of our blogs to learn more about memoirs:

• What is a memoir?
• 5 tips for writing a memoir
• Your memoir is your legacy

Ready to get started on your own memoir, autobiography, or biography? Download our free desktop book-making software, BookWright .

Autobiographies , Biographies , memoirs

This post doesn't have any comment. Be the first one!

This is a unique website which will require a more modern browser to work! Please upgrade today!

This is a modern website which will require Javascript to work.

Please turn it on!

Join Discovery, the new community for book lovers

Trust book recommendations from real people, not robots 🤓

Blog – Posted on Monday, Jan 21

The 30 best biographies of all time.

Biographer Richard Holmes once wrote that his work was “a kind of pursuit… writing about the pursuit of that fleeting figure, in such a way as to bring them alive in the present.”

At the risk of sounding cliché, the best biographies do exactly this: bring their subjects to life. A great biography isn’t just a laundry list of events that happened to someone. Rather, it should weave a narrative and tell a story in almost the same way a novel does. In this way, biography differs from the rest of nonfiction .

All the biographies on this list are just as captivating as excellent novels , if not more so. With that, please enjoy the 30 best biographies of all time — some historical, some recent, but all remarkable, life-giving tributes to their subjects.

If you're feeling overwhelmed by the number of great biographies out there, you can also take our 30-second quiz below to narrow it down quickly and get a personalized biography recommendation  😉

Which biography should you read next?

Discover the perfect biography for you. Takes 30 seconds!

1. A Beautiful Mind by Sylvia Nasar

This biography of esteemed mathematician John Nash was both a finalist for the 1998 Pulitzer Prize and the basis for the award-winning film of the same name. Nasar thoroughly explores Nash’s prestigious career, from his beginnings at MIT to his work at the RAND Corporation — as well the internal battle he waged against schizophrenia, a disorder that nearly derailed his life.

2. Alan Turing: The Enigma: The Book That Inspired the Film The Imitation Game - Updated Edition by Andrew Hodges

Hodges’ 1983 biography of Alan Turing sheds light on the inner workings of this brilliant mathematician, cryptologist, and computer pioneer. Indeed, despite the title ( a nod to his work during WWII ), a great deal of the “enigmatic” Turing is laid out in this book. It covers his heroic code-breaking efforts during the war, his computer designs and contributions to mathematical biology in the years following, and of course, the vicious persecution that befell him in the 1950s — when homosexual acts were still a crime punishable by English law.

3. Alexander Hamilton by Ron Chernow

Ron Chernow’s Alexander Hamilton is not only the inspiration for a hit Broadway musical, but also a work of creative genius itself. This massive undertaking of over 800 pages details every knowable moment of the youngest Founding Father’s life: from his role in the Revolutionary War and early American government to his sordid (and ultimately career-destroying) affair with Maria Reynolds. He may never have been president, but he was a fascinating and unique figure in American history — plus it’s fun to get the truth behind the songs.

Prefer to read about fascinating First Ladies rather than almost-presidents? Check out this awesome list of books about First Ladies over on The Archive.

4. Barracoon: The Story of the Last "Black Cargo" by Zora Neale Hurston

A prolific essayist, short story writer, and novelist, Hurston turned her hand to biographical writing in 1927 with this incredible work, kept under lock and key until it was published 2018. It’s based on Hurston’s interviews with the last remaining survivor of the Middle Passage slave trade, a man named Cudjo Lewis. Rendered in searing detail and Lewis’ highly affecting African-American vernacular, this biography of the “last black cargo” will transport you back in time to an era that, chillingly, is not nearly as far away from us as it feels.

5. Churchill: A Life by Martin Gilbert

Though many a biography of him has been attempted, Gilbert’s is the final authority on Winston Churchill — considered by many to be Britain’s greatest prime minister ever. A dexterous balance of in-depth research and intimately drawn details makes this biography a perfect tribute to the mercurial man who led Britain through World War II.

Just what those circumstances are occupies much of Bodanis's book, which pays homage to Einstein and, just as important, to predecessors such as Maxwell, Faraday, and Lavoisier, who are not as well known as Einstein today. Balancing writerly energy and scholarly weight, Bodanis offers a primer in modern physics and cosmology, explaining that the universe today is an expression of mass that will, in some vastly distant future, one day slide back to the energy side of the equation, replacing the \'dominion of matter\' with \'a great stillness\'--a vision that is at once lovely and profoundly frightening.

Without sliding into easy psychobiography, Bodanis explores other circumstances as well; namely, Einstein's background and character, which combined with a sterling intelligence to afford him an idiosyncratic view of the way things work--a view that would change the world. --Gregory McNamee

6. E=mc²: A Biography of the World's Most Famous Equation by David Bodanis

This “biography of the world’s most famous equation” is a one-of-a-kind take on the genre: rather than being the story of Einstein, it really does follow the history of the equation itself. From the origins and development of its individual elements (energy, mass, and light) to their ramifications in the twentieth century, Bodanis turns what could be an extremely dry subject into engaging fare for readers of all stripes.

7. Enrique's Journey by Sonia Nazario

When Enrique was only five years old, his mother left Honduras for the United States, promising a quick return. Eleven years later, Enrique finally decided to take matters into his own hands in order to see her again: he would traverse Central and South America via railway, risking his life atop the “train of death” and at the hands of the immigration authorities, to reunite with his mother. This tale of Enrique’s perilous journey is not for the faint of heart, but it is an account of incredible devotion and sharp commentary on the pain of separation among immigrant families.

8. Frida: A Biography of Frida Kahlo by Hayden Herrera

Herrera’s 1983 biography of renowned painter Frida Kahlo, one of the most recognizable names in modern art, has since become the definitive account on her life. And while Kahlo no doubt endured a great deal of suffering (a horrific accident when she was eighteen, a husband who had constant affairs), the focal point of the book is not her pain. Instead, it’s her artistic brilliance and immense resolve to leave her mark on the world — a mark that will not soon be forgotten, in part thanks to Herrera’s dedicated work.

9. The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks by Rebecca Skloot

Perhaps the most impressive biographical feat of the twenty-first century, The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks is about a woman whose cells completely changed the trajectory of modern medicine. Rebecca Skloot skillfully commemorates the previously unknown life of a poor black woman whose cancer cells were taken, without her knowledge, for medical testing — and without whom we wouldn’t have many of the critical cures we depend upon today.

10. Into the Wild by Jon Krakauer

Christopher McCandless, aka Alexander Supertramp, hitchhiked to Alaska and disappeared into the Denali wilderness in April 1992. Five months later, McCandless was found emaciated and deceased in his shelter — but of what cause? Krakauer’s biography of McCandless retraces his steps back to the beginning of the trek, attempting to suss out what the young man was looking for on his journey, and whether he fully understood what dangers lay before him.

11. Let Us Now Praise Famous Men: Three Tenant Families by James Agee

"Let us now praise famous men, and our fathers that begat us.” From this line derives the central issue of Agee and Evans’ work: who truly deserves our praise and recognition? According to this 1941 biography, it’s the barely-surviving sharecropper families who were severely impacted by the American “Dust Bowl” — hundreds of people entrenched in poverty, whose humanity Evans and Agee desperately implore their audience to see in their book.

12. The Lost City of Z: A Tale of Deadly Obsession in the Amazon by David Grann

Another mysterious explorer takes center stage in this gripping 2009 biography. Grann tells the story of Percy Fawcett, the archaeologist who vanished in the Amazon along with his son in 1925, supposedly in search of an ancient lost city. Parallel to this narrative, Grann describes his own travels in the Amazon 80 years later: discovering firsthand what threats Fawcett may have encountered, and coming to realize what the “Lost City of Z” really was.

13. Mao: The Unknown Story by Jung Chang

Though many of us will be familiar with the name Mao Zedong, this prodigious biography sheds unprecedented light upon the power-hungry “Red Emperor.” Chang and Halliday begin with the shocking statistic that Mao was responsible for 70 million deaths during peacetime — more than any other twentieth-century world leader. From there, they unravel Mao’s complex ideologies, motivations, and missions, breaking down his long-propagated “hero” persona and thrusting forth a new, grislier image of one of China’s biggest revolutionaries.

14. Mad Girl's Love Song: Sylvia Plath and Life Before Ted by Andrew Wilson by Andrew Wilson

Titled after one of her most evocative poems, this shimmering bio of Sylvia Plath takes an unusual approach. Instead of focusing on her years of depression and tempestuous marriage to poet Ted Hughes, it chronicles her life before she ever came to Cambridge. Wilson closely examines her early family and relationships, feelings and experiences, with information taken from her meticulous diaries — setting a strong precedent for other Plath biographers to follow.

15. The Minds of Billy Milligan by Daniel Keyes

What if you had twenty-four different people living inside you, and you never knew which one was going to come out? Such was the life of Billy Milligan, the subject of this haunting biography by the author of Flowers for Algernon . Keyes recounts, in a refreshingly straightforward style, the events of Billy’s life and how his psyche came to be “split”... as well as how, with Keyes’ help, he attempted to put the fragments of himself back together.

16. Mountains Beyond Mountains: The Quest of Dr. Paul Farmer, a Man Who Would Cure the World by Tracy Kidder

This gorgeously constructed biography follows Paul Farmer, a doctor who’s worked for decades to eradicate infectious diseases around the globe, particularly in underprivileged areas. Though Farmer’s humanitarian accomplishments are extraordinary in and of themselves, the true charm of this book comes from Kidder’s personal relationship with him — and the sense of fulfillment the reader sustains from reading about someone genuinely heroic, written by someone else who truly understands and admires what they do.

17. Napoleon: A Life by Andrew Roberts

Here’s another bio that will reshape your views of a famed historical tyrant, though this time in a surprisingly favorable light. Decorated scholar Andrew Roberts delves into the life of Napoleon Bonaparte, from his near-flawless military instincts to his complex and confusing relationship with his wife. But Roberts’ attitude toward his subject is what really makes this work shine: rather than ridiculing him ( as it would undoubtedly be easy to do ), he approaches the “petty tyrant” with a healthy amount of deference.

18. The Passage of Power: The Years of Lyndon Johnson IV by Robert A. Caro

Lyndon Johnson might not seem as intriguing or scandalous as figures like Kennedy, Nixon, or W. Bush. But in this expertly woven biography, Robert Caro lays out the long, winding road of his political career, and it’s full of twists you wouldn’t expect. Johnson himself was a surprisingly cunning figure, gradually maneuvering his way closer and closer to power. Finally, in 1963, he got his greatest wish — but at what cost? Fans of Adam McKay’s Vice , this is the book for you.

19. Prairie Fires: The American Dreams of Laura Ingalls Wilder by Caroline Fraser

Anyone who grew up reading Little House on the Prairie will surely be fascinated by this tell-all biography of Laura Ingalls Wilder. Caroline Fraser draws upon never-before-published historical resources to create a lush study of the author’s life — not in the gently narrated manner of the Little House series, but in raw and startling truths about her upbringing, marriage, and volatile relationship with her daughter (and alleged ghostwriter) Rose Wilder Lane.

20. Prince: A Private View by Afshin Shahidi

Compiled just after the superstar’s untimely death in 2016, this intimate snapshot of Prince’s life is actually a largely visual work — Shahidi served as his private photographer from the early 2000s until his passing. And whatever they say about pictures being worth a thousand words, Shahidi’s are worth more still: Prince’s incredible vibrance, contagious excitement, and altogether singular personality come through in every shot.

21. Radioactive: Marie & Pierre Curie: A Tale of Love and Fallout by Lauren Redniss

Could there be a more fitting title for a book about the husband-wife team who discovered radioactivity? What you may not know is that these nuclear pioneers also had a fascinating personal history. Marie Sklodowska met Pierre Curie when she came to work in his lab in 1891, and just a few years later they were married. Their passion for each other bled into their passion for their work, and vice-versa — and in almost no time at all, they were on their way to their first of their Nobel Prizes.

22. Rosemary: The Hidden Kennedy Daughter by Kate Clifford Larson

She may not have been assassinated or killed in a mysterious plane crash, but Rosemary Kennedy’s fate is in many ways the worst of “the Kennedy Curse.” As if a botched lobotomy that left her almost completely incapacitated weren’t enough, her parents then hid her away from society, almost never to be seen again. Yet in this new biography, penned by devoted Kennedy scholar Kate Larson, the full truth of Rosemary’s post-lobotomy life is at last revealed.

23. Savage Beauty: The Life of Edna St. Vincent Millay by Nancy Milford

This appropriately lyrical biography of brilliant Jazz Age poet and renowned feminist, Edna St. Vincent Millay, is indeed a perfect balance of savage and beautiful. While Millay’s poetic work was delicate and subtle, the woman herself was feisty and unpredictable, harboring unusual and occasionally destructive habits that Milford fervently explores.

24. Shelley: The Pursuit by Richard Holmes

Holmes’ famous philosophy of “biography as pursuit” is thoroughly proven here in his first full-length biographical work. Shelley: The Pursuit details an almost feverish tracking of Percy Shelley as a dark and cutting figure in the Romantic period — reforming many previous historical conceptions about him through Holmes’ compelling and resolute writing.

25. Shirley Jackson: A Rather Haunted Life by Ruth Franklin

Another Gothic figure has been made newly known through this work, detailing the life of prolific horror and mystery writer Shirley Jackson. Author Ruth Franklin digs deep into the existence of the reclusive and mysterious Jackson, drawing penetrating comparisons between the true events of her life and the dark nature of her fiction.

26. The Stranger in the Woods: The Extraordinary Story of the Last True Hermit by Michael Finkel

Fans of Into the Wild and The Lost City of Z will find their next adventure fix in this 2017 book about Christopher Knight, a man who lived by himself in the Maine woods for almost thirty years. The tale of this so-called “last true hermit” will captivate readers who have always fantasized about escaping society, with vivid descriptions of Knight’s rural setup, his carefully calculated moves and how he managed to survive the deadly cold of the Maine winters.

27. Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson

The man, the myth, the legend: Steve Jobs, co-founder and CEO of Apple, is properly immortalized in Isaacson’s masterful biography. It divulges the details of Jobs’ little-known childhood and tracks his fateful path from garage engineer to leader of one of the largest tech companies in the world — not to mention his formative role in other legendary companies like Pixar, and indeed within the Silicon Valley ecosystem as a whole.

28. Unbroken: A World War II Story of Survival, Resilience, and Redemption by Laura Hillenbrand

Olympic runner Louis Zamperini was just twenty-six when his US Army bomber crashed and burned in the Pacific, leaving him and two other men afloat on a raft for forty-seven days — only to be captured by the Japanese Navy and tortured as a POW for the next two and a half years. In this gripping biography, Laura Hillenbrand tracks Zamperini’s story from beginning to end… including how he embraced Christian evangelism as a means of recovery, and even came to forgive his tormentors in his later years.

29. Vera (Mrs. Vladimir Nabokov) by Stacy Schiff

Everyone knows of Vladimir Nabokov — but what about his wife, Vera, whom he called “the best-humored woman I have ever known”? According to Schiff, she was a genius in her own right, supporting Vladimir not only as his partner, but also as his all-around editor and translator. And she kept up that trademark humor throughout it all, inspiring her husband’s work and injecting some of her own creative flair into it along the way.

30. Will in the World: How Shakespeare Became Shakespeare by Stephen Greenblatt

William Shakespeare is a notoriously slippery historical figure — no one really knows when he was born, what he looked like, or how many plays he wrote. But that didn’t stop Stephen Greenblatt, who in 2004 turned out this magnificently detailed biography of the Bard: a series of imaginative reenactments of his writing process, and insights on how the social and political ideals of the time would have influenced him. Indeed, no one exists in a vacuum, not even Shakespeare — hence the conscious depiction of him in this book as a “will in the world,” rather than an isolated writer shut up in his own musty study.

If you're looking for more inspiring nonfiction, check out this list of 30 engaging self-help books , or this list of the last century's best memoirs !

Continue reading

More posts from across the blog.

Read for Charity: What You Can Do This June

We all love reading challenges — but you know what’s even better than setting records and out-reading your friends? Reading to raise money for a great cause.That’s why this June, Reedsy Discovery is partnering with Room to Read to raise money for child literacy and g...

The 10 Best Post-Apocalyptic Books to Read Before the World Ends

We’ve all got books on the bedside table we’ve been meaning to read for months — but what if the apocalypse were tomorrow? Luckily for those who’d need some quick survival tips, we at Reedsy have compiled a list of the...

10 Exciting New Books From Up-and-Coming Authors

Looking for some new reads in 2021? Check out these up-and-coming authors in genres ranging from sci-fi to romance to financial satire.

Heard about Reedsy Discovery?

Trust real people, not robots, to give you book recommendations.

Or sign up with an

Or sign up with your social account

• Submit your book
• Reviewer directory

We made a writing app for you

Yes, you! Write. Format. Export for ebook and print. 100% free, always.

Biography definition and examples/characteristics/types

A  biography  is a narrative that tells the life of a person, usually famous or historically important. It consists of telling the life of a particular person from the moment of his birth to the end of his days. In this type of story , childhood, youth, loves, works, difficulties, achievements, and anecdotes of the person are briefly described. Biography definition and examples

In general, biographies are stories written in the third person by a narrator who previously devoted himself to research. Examples of recent biographies that can be purchased in physical or eBook format are those of Steve Jobs , Winston Churchill, Frida Kahlo, Leonardo da Vinci , David Bowie, Albert Einstein or Federico García Lorca.

A biography has the purpose of exposing the most outstanding data of a person’s life through reliable and accurate information, which can be given by the closest environment . Biographies may or may not have the authorization of the main character .

Characteristics of biographies Biography definition and examples

Centered on one person.

Biography is a narrative about a person’s life. There is a wide variety of subjects on which a biographical text can be written, from world-renowned figures, such as Elon Musk or Marie Curie, to ourselves, which would be an autobiography .

Character description

In a biography it is necessary to expose the physical, psychological and moral characteristics of the character to make it known more widely. The importance of describing the aforementioned traits is to explore the causes that led the person to perform certain actions. Biography definition and examples

The description of the main traits that define the personality of the subject is important, since it will allow the reader to understand the decisions he made or the achievements he achieved.

For example, if a biography of George Washington is made, it could be mentioned that from a young age he was very mature and had a great sense of responsibility, elements that made him an exceptional military leader and a hero for the United States.

Miguel Hernández was a slim young man with large, deep eyes . During his short life he demonstrated his talent for literature and poetry, through letters he expressed his most intense feelings . The poet was an authentic man, committed to the social and political cause of Spain.

Historic context Biography definition and examples

A biography is characterized mainly by narrating true events within a real historical framework. The director of the biography must tell the life of the character within a chronological time.

“Miguel Hernández (1910-1942) was a Spanish poet and playwright, recognized as one of the most important of the 20th century. He was part of the Generation of 36, which emerged after the Civil War of 1936; however, its style and characteristics were closer to those of the 27 ”.

Narration of important events

In a biography , the most representative events in the life of the main character are related or told. This type of narration does not focus on the day to day or all the moments of the person, but rather the most important facts are taken.

If you make a biography of Antoine Lavoisier, you should talk about his discovery, the law of the conservation of mass; If it is a biography of the scientist John Dalton, it would be appropriate to talk about his atomic theory and how it was influenced by the discoveries of other scientists of the time.

“Miguel Hernández became a father for the first time on December 19, 1937, but his son died ten months later, he dedicated the work  Son of light and shadow to him.  The following year, life began to smile again when his second son Manuel Miguel was born on January 4, 1939 ”.

Biographies are usually structured in chronological order or according to how the events happened in the character’s life , in order for the narrative to have coherence and logical meaning. The events can be accompanied by photographs of the protagonist of the story .

Example Biography definition and examples

“Miguel Hernández was involved since he was a child in pastoral work. However, the poet received primary education at the Institute of Our Lady of Monserrat between 1915 and 1916. Then he went to the Love of God School from 1918 to 1923… ”. Biography definition and examples

Storyteller

A biography is written by a third-person narrator, that is, one who knows all the details of the character’s life. Usually the narrator conducts a thorough investigation and consults reliable sources.

“Miguel Hernández obtained his first and only award on March 25, 1931, which was awarded by the Sociedad Artística del Orfeón Ilicitano. The work with which he won was entitled  Canto a Valencia, under the motto light, birds, sun ”.

Historical facts and places

In a biography the different important trips that the character made are narrated, in addition the historical events that happened while he lived are incorporated. This allows the reader to contextualize both in space and in the person’s life time.

“Miguel Hernández made his first trip to Madrid on December 31, 1931, in order to secure a place in the literary square. Although he took the experience obtained in his native Orihuela and some recommendations, he did not get what he was looking for. He returned to the place where he was born on May 15, 1932 ”.

Parts of a biography Biography definition and examples

Dedications .

The dedications consist of one or two short sentences in which the author wants to show affection to loved ones.

In the preface, the author of the biography usually recounts personal experiences prior to the completion of the biography. They are usually related anecdotes or that explain why it was decided to investigate the protagonist.

Introduction

The beginning of a biography often begins by explaining who the protagonist’s parents and grandparents were, what they did, how they met, and what was the initial relationship with the protagonist.

Attention is paid to the most important events of the initial phase of the protagonist; how he was as a child, where he studied, if he had relationships, his interests, etc. Biography definition and examples

On the other hand, the author of the biography can explain the way in which he carried out the research process. In this section the writer lets know who his main collaborators were and can make some thanks.

Developing Biography definition and examples

Once the explanation of the protagonist’s childhood and early youth is finished, early adulthood is entered, which is where the achievements that the person achieved in his life usually occur.

It continues to explain the most important personal and professional events, while certain concepts are explained to understand the protagonist and what his achievements consisted of. For example, if it is the biography of Albert Einstein, the author could try to explain the key concepts of the theory of special and general relativity.

The writer can add photographs and images to the investigation so that the reader can better understand the experiences the character went through. In addition, outstanding quotes and phrases from the protagonist of the story can be added, which can clarify his thinking and acting.

Conclusion or reflection

The conclusion is the last part of the biography, it exposes the legacy left by the character and the influence he could have. In the event that the protagonist is still alive, his future plans, his appreciation of life and what he has not yet been able to do are described.

In the acknowledgments, the author of the biography thanks the people who helped him find information and perform other tasks necessary to complete the book.

Photos and attachments

This section usually includes photographs and documents that are discussed in certain parts of the biography .

What is the biography for?

A biography serves to publicize the life and work of a person who has been or is important within a society, whether in the political, cultural, literary, religious, social, economic, artistic, educational, historical or environmental spheres. . On the other hand, the biography fulfills the function of specifying data and dates in chronological order. Biography definition and examples

Biographies are also useful to know the political and social situation in which the character developed or lives, this opens the way to understand the decisions he made at the time. In this type of narration , the author focuses on exposing the contributions and legacy of the person of whom he speaks.

Biography types Biography definition and examples

Authorized biography definition and examples.

This type of biography is the one that has the approval of the character or a close relative in the event that the person has died. An authorized biography is legal, this means that the author has completed the necessary steps for its realization. In many cases the character in question supervises what the writer develops.

Unauthorized

An unauthorized biography is one that is made without the permission or consent of the main character. Although his life is interesting, the person does not want it to come out officially. There are cases in which this type of narration produces legal claims against the author

Autobiography Biography definition and examples

An autobiography is one that the character himself writes about himself and narrates in the first person. The protagonist tells all the important aspects of his life from his point of view, he does not allow the opinion of third parties.

The autobiographies present some variables . The most common are intimate diaries and memoirs. The diaries are based on the expression of feelings and emotions by the character, they do not necessarily follow a chronological order. While the memories refer to events at a certain time.

Biography example (short)

Pablo Dominguez

Pablo Domínguez was a Venezuelan lawyer , writer and intellectual, considered one of the most prominent of the 20th century. The author was born on October 13, 1920 in the city of Barquisimeto. His father was the jurist Pablo Emilio Domínguez Aristizábal and the doctor Virginia Rosa Amundaray Larrazabal.

Domínguez studied his first years of studies in the city where he was born, specifically at the Albert Einstein Institute. Later, his secondary education was spent at the Elizabeth V English School. Young Pablo manifested his taste for literature at the age of twelve, when he wrote his first verses.

Pablo studied law at Yale University in the United States . When he finished his degree, he returned to Venezuela and practiced as a lawyer in his father’s firm, but he soon decided to dedicate himself only to writing. This is how he published his first poetry book  Clouds loaded  in 1950, which was characterized by a surreal content.

The writer made a tour of Europe between 1952 and 1954. In France he met poets of the stature of Pablo Neruda. Domínguez’s life took a tragic turn after suffering a car accident on a Paris highway in 1956. The intellectual was for a time without being able to walk, which plunged him into a deep depression .

Later, Domínguez recovered and resumed his literary career. He published works such as:  Dark Heart, Gates to Heaven  and  Perennial Autumn.  When the poet began to be recognized internationally, he was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer . Biography definition and examples

Despite his constant struggle to combat the disease , Pablo Domínguez died on April 28, 1960 in Paris when he was barely forty years old. His body was repatriated a year after he was buried in the Angeles de Dios private cemetery in the city of Barquisimeto.

Related Articles

Hamartia definition literature/definition/examples, parts of an essay and their characteristics with examples.

Poetic movement Characteristics movements today

Dramatic monologue characteristics and examples, leave a reply cancel reply.

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Please input characters displayed above.

If you're seeing this message, it means we're having trouble loading external resources on our website.

If you're behind a web filter, please make sure that the domains *.kastatic.org and *.kasandbox.org are unblocked.

To log in and use all the features of Khan Academy, please enable JavaScript in your browser.

Biology library

Course: biology library   >   unit 1.

• Preparing to study biology
• Biology overview

What is life?

Introduction

Properties of life, 1. organization, 2. metabolism, 3. homeostasis, 5. reproduction, 6. response, 7. evolution, is this the definitive list, separating living and non-living things, what counts as life is still being defined., what do you think, works cited:.

• Eveleth, R. "There Are 37.2 Trillion Cells in Your Body." Smithsonian.com. October 24, 2013. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/there-are-372-trillion-cells-in-your-body-4941473/?no-ist .
• Koshland, D. E. "The Seven Pillars of Life." Science 295, no. 5563 (2002): 2215-216. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1068489 .
• Mullen, L. "Defining Life: Q&A with Scientist Gerald Joyce." Space.com. August 1, 2013. http://www.space.com/22210-life-definition-gerald-joyce-interview.html .

References:

Suggestions for further reading, want to join the conversation.

• Upvote Button navigates to signup page
• Downvote Button navigates to signup page
• Flag Button navigates to signup page

Module 1: Introduction to Biology

The characteristics of life, list the defining characteristics of biological life.

Biology is the science that studies life, but what exactly is life? This may sound like a silly question with an obvious response, but it is not always easy to define life. For example, a branch of biology called virology studies viruses, which exhibit some of the characteristics of living entities but lack others. It turns out that although viruses can attack living organisms, cause diseases, and even reproduce, they do not meet the criteria that biologists use to define life. Consequently, virologists are not biologists, strictly speaking. Similarly, some biologists study the early molecular evolution that gave rise to life; since the events that preceded life are not biological events, these scientists are also excluded from biology in the strict sense of the term.

From its earliest beginnings, biology has wrestled with these questions: What are the shared properties that make something “alive”? And once we know something is alive, how do we find meaningful levels of organization in its structure?

Learning Objectives

• List the properties of life
• Order the levels of organization of living things

Properties of Life

All living organisms share several key characteristics or functions: order, sensitivity or response to the environment, reproduction, growth and development, regulation, homeostasis, and energy processing. When viewed together, these characteristics serve to define life.

Figure 1. A toad represents a highly organized structure consisting of cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems.

Organisms are highly organized, coordinated structures that consist of one or more cells. Even very simple, single-celled organisms are remarkably complex: inside each cell, atoms make up molecules; these in turn make up cell organelles and other cellular inclusions.

In multicellular organisms (Figure 1), similar cells form tissues. Tissues, in turn, collaborate to create organs (body structures with a distinct function). Organs work together to form organ systems.

Sensitivity or Response to Stimuli

Organisms respond to diverse stimuli. For example, plants can bend toward a source of light, climb on fences and walls, or respond to touch (Figure 2).

Figure 2.The leaves of this sensitive plant ( Mimosa pudica ) will instantly droop and fold when touched. After a few minutes, the plant returns to normal. (credit: Alex Lomas)

Even tiny bacteria can move toward or away from chemicals (a process called  chemotaxis ) or light ( phototaxis ). Movement toward a stimulus is considered a positive response, while movement away from a stimulus is considered a negative response.

Watch  this video to see how plants respond to a stimulus—from opening to light, to wrapping a tendril around a branch, to capturing prey.

Reproduction

Single-celled organisms reproduce by first duplicating their DNA, and then dividing it equally as the cell prepares to divide to form two new cells. Multicellular organisms often produce specialized reproductive germline cells that will form new individuals. When reproduction occurs, genes containing DNA are passed along to an organism’s offspring. These genes ensure that the offspring will belong to the same species and will have similar characteristics, such as size and shape.

Growth and Development

Figure 3. Although no two look alike, these puppies have inherited genes from both parents and share many of the same characteristics.

Organisms grow and develop following specific instructions coded for by their genes. These genes provide instructions that will direct cellular growth and development, ensuring that a species’ young (Figure 3) will grow up to exhibit many of the same characteristics as its parents.

Even the smallest organisms are complex and require multiple regulatory mechanisms to coordinate internal functions, respond to stimuli, and cope with environmental stresses. Two examples of internal functions regulated in an organism are nutrient transport and blood flow. Organs (groups of tissues working together) perform specific functions, such as carrying oxygen throughout the body, removing wastes, delivering nutrients to every cell, and cooling the body.

Homeostasis

Figure 4. Polar bears ( Ursus maritimus ) and other mammals living in ice-covered regions maintain their body temperature by generating heat and reducing heat loss through thick fur and a dense layer of fat under their skin. (credit: “longhorndave”/Flickr)

In order to function properly, cells need to have appropriate conditions such as proper temperature, pH, and appropriate concentration of diverse chemicals. These conditions may, however, change from one moment to the next. Organisms are able to maintain internal conditions within a narrow range almost constantly, despite environmental changes, through  homeostasis (literally, “steady state”)—the ability of an organism to maintain constant internal conditions. For example, an organism needs to regulate body temperature through a process known as thermoregulation. Organisms that live in cold climates, such as the polar bear (Figure 4), have body structures that help them withstand low temperatures and conserve body heat. Structures that aid in this type of insulation include fur, feathers, blubber, and fat. In hot climates, organisms have methods (such as perspiration in humans or panting in dogs) that help them to shed excess body heat.

Energy Processing

All organisms use a source of energy for their metabolic activities. Some organisms capture energy from the sun and convert it into chemical energy in food (photosynthesis); others use chemical energy in molecules they take in as food (cellular respiration).

Figure 5. The California condor ( Gymnogyps californianus ) uses chemical energy derived from food to power flight. California condors are an endangered species; this bird has a wing tag that helps biologists identify the individual.

Levels of Organization of Living Things

Living things are highly organized and structured, following a hierarchy that can be examined on a scale from small to large. The atom is the smallest and most fundamental unit of matter. It consists of a nucleus surrounded by electrons. Atoms form molecules. A molecule is a chemical structure consisting of at least two atoms held together by one or more chemical bonds. Many molecules that are biologically important are macromolecules , large molecules that are typically formed by polymerization (a polymer is a large molecule that is made by combining smaller units called monomers, which are simpler than macromolecules). An example of a macromolecule is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (Figure 6), which contains the instructions for the structure and functioning of all living organisms.

Figure 6. All molecules, including this DNA molecule, are composed of atoms. (credit: “brian0918″/Wikimedia Commons)

Some cells contain aggregates of macromolecules surrounded by membranes; these are called  organelles . Organelles are small structures that exist within cells. Examples of organelles include mitochondria and chloroplasts, which carry out indispensable functions: mitochondria produce energy to power the cell, while chloroplasts enable green plants to utilize the energy in sunlight to make sugars. All living things are made of cells; the cell itself is the smallest fundamental unit of structure and function in living organisms. (This requirement is why viruses are not considered living: they are not made of cells. To make new viruses, they have to invade and hijack the reproductive mechanism of a living cell; only then can they obtain the materials they need to reproduce.) Some organisms consist of a single cell and others are multicellular. Cells are classified as prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Prokaryotes are single-celled or colonial organisms that do not have membrane-bound nuclei or organelles; in contrast, the cells of eukaryotes do have membrane-bound organelles and a membrane-bound nucleus.

In larger organisms, cells combine to make  tissues , which are groups of similar cells carrying out similar or related functions. Organs are collections of tissues grouped together performing a common function. Organs are present not only in animals but also in plants. An organ system is a higher level of organization that consists of functionally related organs. Mammals have many organ systems. For instance, the circulatory system transports blood through the body and to and from the lungs; it includes organs such as the heart and blood vessels. Organisms are individual living entities. For example, each tree in a forest is an organism. Single-celled prokaryotes and single-celled eukaryotes are also considered organisms and are typically referred to as microorganisms.

All the individuals of a species living within a specific area are collectively called a  population . For example, a forest may include many pine trees. All of these pine trees represent the population of pine trees in this forest. Different populations may live in the same specific area. For example, the forest with the pine trees includes populations of flowering plants and also insects and microbial populations. A community is the sum of populations inhabiting a particular area. For instance, all of the trees, flowers, insects, and other populations in a forest form the forest’s community. The forest itself is an ecosystem. An ecosystem consists of all the living things in a particular area together with the abiotic, non-living parts of that environment such as nitrogen in the soil or rain water. At the highest level of organization (Figure 7), the biosphere is the collection of all ecosystems, and it represents the zones of life on earth. It includes land, water, and even the atmosphere to a certain extent.

Practice Question

From a single organelle to the entire biosphere, living organisms are parts of a highly structured hierarchy.

Figure 7. The biological levels of organization of living things are shown. From a single organelle to the entire biosphere, living organisms are parts of a highly structured hierarchy. (credit “organelles”: modification of work by Umberto Salvagnin; credit “cells”: modification of work by Bruce Wetzel, Harry Schaefer/ National Cancer Institute; credit “tissues”: modification of work by Kilbad; Fama Clamosa; Mikael Häggström; credit “organs”: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villareal; credit “organisms”: modification of work by “Crystal”/Flickr; credit “ecosystems”: modification of work by US Fish and Wildlife Service Headquarters; credit “biosphere”: modification of work by NASA)

Which of the following statements is false?

• Tissues exist within organs, which exist within organ systems.
• Communities exist within populations, which exist within ecosystems.
• Organelles exist within cells, which exist within tissues.
• Communities exist within ecosystems, which exist in the biosphere.

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz does  not  count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to (1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next section.

• Introduction to Characteristics of Life. Authored by : Shelli Carter and Lumen Learning. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Biology. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected] . License : CC BY: Attribution . License Terms : Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]
• fresh litter. Authored by : Magalie LAbbe. Located at : https://flic.kr/p/9yeYXd . License : CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial
• Bufo viridis/European Green Toad. Authored by : Ivengo(RUS). Located at : https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bufo_viridis.jpg . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
• Young California condor (Gymnogyps californianus) ready for flight. Provided by : US Fish and Wildlife Service. Located at : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:California-condor.jpg . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright

• school Campus Bookshelves
• menu_book Bookshelves
• perm_media Learning Objects
• login Login
• how_to_reg Request Instructor Account
• hub Instructor Commons

Margin Size

• Download Page (PDF)
• Download Full Book (PDF)
• Periodic Table
• Physics Constants
• Scientific Calculator
• Reference & Cite
• Tools expand_more
• Readability

selected template will load here

This action is not available.

1.2: Characteristics of Life

• Last updated
• Save as PDF
• Page ID 35656

\( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

\( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)

\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

\( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)

\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\)

\( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\)

\( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\)

\( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorA}[1]{\vec{#1}}      % arrow\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorAt}[1]{\vec{\text{#1}}}      % arrow\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorB}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorC}[1]{\textbf{#1}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorD}[1]{\overrightarrow{#1}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorDt}[1]{\overrightarrow{\text{#1}}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectE}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{\mathbf {#1}}}} \)

What you’ll learn to do: List the defining characteristics of biological life

Biology is the science that studies life, but what exactly is life? This may sound like a silly question with an obvious response, but it is not always easy to define life. For example, a branch of biology called virology studies viruses, which exhibit some of the characteristics of living entities but lack others. It turns out that although viruses can attack living organisms, cause diseases, and even reproduce, they do not meet the criteria that biologists use to define life. Consequently, virologists are not biologists, strictly speaking. Similarly, some biologists study the early molecular evolution that gave rise to life; since the events that preceded life are not biological events, these scientists are also excluded from biology in the strict sense of the term.

From its earliest beginnings, biology has wrestled with these questions: What are the shared properties that make something “alive”? And once we know something is alive, how do we find meaningful levels of organization in its structure?

Learning Objectives

• List the properties of life
• Order the levels of organization of living things

Properties of Life

All living organisms share several key characteristics or functions: order, sensitivity or response to the environment, reproduction, growth and development, regulation, homeostasis, and energy processing. When viewed together, these characteristics serve to define life.

Organisms are highly organized, coordinated structures that consist of one or more cells. Even very simple, single-celled organisms are remarkably complex: inside each cell, atoms make up molecules; these in turn make up cell organelles and other cellular inclusions.

In multicellular organisms (Figure 1), similar cells form tissues. Tissues, in turn, collaborate to create organs (body structures with a distinct function). Organs work together to form organ systems.

Sensitivity or Response to Stimuli

Organisms respond to diverse stimuli. For example, plants can bend toward a source of light, climb on fences and walls, or respond to touch (Figure 2). Even tiny bacteria can move toward or away from chemicals (a process called chemotaxis ) or light ( phototaxis ). Movement toward a stimulus is considered a positive response, while movement away from a stimulus is considered a negative response.

Watch this video to see how plants respond to a stimulus—from opening to light, to wrapping a tendril around a branch, to capturing prey.

Reproduction

Single-celled organisms reproduce by first duplicating their DNA, and then dividing it equally as the cell prepares to divide to form two new cells. Multicellular organisms often produce specialized reproductive germline cells that will form new individuals. When reproduction occurs, genes containing DNA are passed along to an organism’s offspring. These genes ensure that the offspring will belong to the same species and will have similar characteristics, such as size and shape.

Growth and Development

Organisms grow and develop following specific instructions coded for by their genes. These genes provide instructions that will direct cellular growth and development, ensuring that a species’ young (Figure 3) will grow up to exhibit many of the same characteristics as its parents.

Even the smallest organisms are complex and require multiple regulatory mechanisms to coordinate internal functions, respond to stimuli, and cope with environmental stresses. Two examples of internal functions regulated in an organism are nutrient transport and blood flow. Organs (groups of tissues working together) perform specific functions, such as carrying oxygen throughout the body, removing wastes, delivering nutrients to every cell, and cooling the body.

Homeostasis

In order to function properly, cells need to have appropriate conditions such as proper temperature, pH, and appropriate concentration of diverse chemicals. These conditions may, however, change from one moment to the next. Organisms are able to maintain internal conditions within a narrow range almost constantly, despite environmental changes, through homeostasis (literally, “steady state”)—the ability of an organism to maintain constant internal conditions. For example, an organism needs to regulate body temperature through a process known as thermoregulation. Organisms that live in cold climates, such as the polar bear (Figure 4), have body structures that help them withstand low temperatures and conserve body heat. Structures that aid in this type of insulation include fur, feathers, blubber, and fat. In hot climates, organisms have methods (such as perspiration in humans or panting in dogs) that help them to shed excess body heat.

Energy Processing

All organisms use a source of energy for their metabolic activities. Some organisms capture energy from the sun and convert it into chemical energy in food (photosynthesis); others use chemical energy in molecules they take in as food (cellular respiration).

Levels of Organization of Living Things

Living things are highly organized and structured, following a hierarchy that can be examined on a scale from small to large. The atom is the smallest and most fundamental unit of matter. It consists of a nucleus surrounded by electrons. Two or more atoms are joined together by one or more chemical bonds to form molecule. Many molecules that are biologically important are macromolecules , large molecules that are typically formed by polymerization (a polymer is a large molecule that is made by combining smaller units called monomers, which are simpler than macromolecules). An example of a macromolecule is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (Figure 6), which contains the instructions for the structure and functioning of all living organisms.

Some cells contain aggregates of macromolecules surrounded by membranes; these are called organelles . Organelles are small structures that exist within cells. Examples of organelles include mitochondria and chloroplasts, which carry out indispensable functions: mitochondria produce energy to power the cell, while chloroplasts enable green plants to utilize the energy in sunlight to make sugars. All living things are made of cells; the cell itself is the smallest fundamental unit of structure and function in living organisms. (This requirement is why viruses are not considered living: they are not made of cells. To make new viruses, they have to invade and hijack the reproductive mechanism of a living cell; only then can they obtain the materials they need to reproduce.) Some organisms consist of a single cell and others are multicellular. Cells are classified as prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Prokaryotes are single-celled or colonial organisms that do not have membrane-bound nuclei or organelles; in contrast, the cells of eukaryotes do have membrane-bound organelles and a membrane-bound nucleus.

In most multicellular organisms, cells combine to make tissues , which are groups of similar cells carrying out similar or related functions. Organs are collections of tissues grouped together performing a common function. Organs are present not only in animals but also in plants. An organ system is a higher level of organization that consists of functionally related organs. Mammals have many organ systems. For instance, the circulatory system transports blood through the body and to and from the lungs; it includes organs such as the heart and blood vessels. Organisms are individual living entities. For example, each tree in a forest is an organism. Single-celled prokaryotes and single-celled eukaryotes are also considered organisms and are typically referred to as microorganisms.

All the individuals of a species living within a specific area are collectively called a population . For example, a forest may include many pine trees. All of these pine trees represent the population of pine trees in this forest. Different populations may live in the same specific area. For example, the forest with the pine trees includes populations of flowering plants and also insects and microbial populations. A community is the sum of populations inhabiting a particular area. For instance, all of the trees, flowers, insects, and other populations in a forest form the forest’s community. The forest itself is an ecosystem. An ecosystem consists of all the living things in a particular area together with the abiotic, non-living parts of that environment such as nitrogen in the soil or rain water. At the highest level of organization (Figure 7), the biosphere is the collection of all ecosystems, and it represents the zones of life on earth. It includes land, water, and even the atmosphere to a certain extent.

Practice Question

From a single organelle to the entire biosphere, living organisms are parts of a highly structured hierarchy.

Which of the following statements is false?

• Tissues exist within organs, which exist within organ systems.
• Communities exist within populations, which exist within ecosystems.
• Organelles exist within cells, which exist within tissues.
• Communities exist within ecosystems, which exist in the biosphere.

Statement b is false: populations exist within communities.

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to (1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next section.

https://assessments.lumenlearning.co...sessments/6847

Contributors and Attributions

• Introduction to Characteristics of Life. Authored by : Shelli Carter and Lumen Learning. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Biology. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected] . License : CC BY: Attribution . License Terms : Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]
• Monarch Butterfly. Authored by : Sid Mosdell. Located at : https://www.flickr.com/photos/sidm/4813666686/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
• fresh litter. Authored by : Magalie LAbbe. Located at : https://flic.kr/p/9yeYXd . License : CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial
• Mimosa pudica. Authored by : Frank Vincentz. Located at : https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mimosa_pudica_01_ies.jpg . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
• Polar Bear. Authored by : David. Located at : https://flic.kr/p/4fsyGe . License : CC BY: Attribution
• Young California condor (Gymnogyps californianus) ready for flight. Provided by : US Fish and Wildlife Service. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:California-condor.jpg . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright

• Ask An Astrobiologist
• Resources Graphic Histories Coloring Pages Heroes Posters Life in the extremes Digital Backgrounds SciComm Guild

3. What is life?

3.1. what are the characteristics of life.

Grades K-2 or Adult Naive Learner

• NGSS Connections for Teachers
• Concept Boundaries for Scientists

The things that live here on Earth all have a lot in common. The tiny parts inside you that are responsible for helping you do everything you do, like walking, breathing, and digesting your food – those tiny parts are almost exactly the same in all types of life, from flies and fish to trees and cows. All types of life have other things in common, too. All living things have a body of some kind. Some things have body parts that allow them to walk or fly or swim. These are things like legs and wings and fins. All of the living creatures we know have to eat food in order to have the energy to move and to grow. All living things can respond to their surroundings, just like you can taste something awful then spit it out and shout “ YUCK !” And all life comes from other life – just like how you came from your mother and father. So even though we look so different from other living things, we are much more the same than different.

Disciplinary Core Ideas

LS1.A: Structure and Function: All organisms have external parts that they use to perform daily functions. Different animals use their body parts in different ways to see, hear, grasp objects, protect themselves, move from place to place, and seek, find, and take in food, water and air. Plants also have different parts (roots, stems,leaves, flowers, fruits) that help them survive and grow. (1-LS1-1)

LS1.C: Organization for Matter and Energy Flow in Organisms: All animals need food in order to live and grow. They obtain their food from plants or from other animals. Plants need water and light to live and grow. (K-LS1-1)

LS1.D: Information Processing: Animals have body parts that capture and convey different kinds of information needed for growth and survival. Animals respond to these inputs with behaviors that help them survive. Plants also respond to some external inputs. (1-LS1-1)

LS3.A: Inheritance of Traits: Young animals are very much, but not exactly, like their parents. Plants also are very much, but not exactly, like their parents. (1-LS3-1)

LS3.B: Variation of Traits: Individuals of the same kind of plant or animal are recognizable as similar but can also vary in many ways. (1-LS3-1)

Crosscutting Concepts

Patterns: Patterns in the natural and human designed world can be observed and used as evidence. (K-LS1-1) *Systems and System Models: Systems in the natural and designed world have parts that work together. (K-ESS2-2, K-ESS3-1)

Big Ideas: All living things have similarities. They change in response to their environment, and need energy. They also have specific structures designed for specific functions.

Boundaries: Grade level examples of patterns in living things could include that animals need to take in food but plants do not; the different kinds of food needed by different types of animals; the requirement of plants to have light; and that all living things need water. (K-LS1-1)

No appropriate content for this grade level. Please use the navigation arrows to switch levels.

Grades 3-5 or Adult Emerging Learner

All living things on Earth have a lot in common. Both inside and outside. On the inside, all lifeforms have tiny structures inside their bodies that are almost exactly the same and help them do all the things that they need to do so they can live – things like walking, flying, or swimming, and even basic functions like breathing and digesting food. All lifeforms have similar characteristics or behaviors, too. There is order and structure to living things. All lifeforms exist in a body of some kind that is highly organized. Think of a tree – it has roots to absorb water, a trunk and branches, and leaves to absorb sunlight.

All living things have the ability to reproduce, or procreate. Mammals, like whales and giraffes, do so by giving birth to young. All living things consume energy (they eat food), and use that energy for work, play, and growth. All living things respond to changes in the world around them. When the environment changes, life responds to those changes. For example, when the weather turns cold, bears return to their dens and hibernate for the winter. When spring comes, the bears can come out again. All across different types of life, some individuals will have characteristics that make them better at a particular task, which makes them more likely to survive. For example, in a population of giraffes, there may be a few who have longer necks than the rest. When the only leaves remaining to be eaten are at the very tops of the trees, only the giraffes with longest necks can reach them, and this makes them more likely to survive. Even though living things look very different, they are more the same than different.

LS1.A: Structure and Function: Plants and animals have both internal and external structures that serve various functions in growth, survival, behavior, and reproduction. (4-LS1-1)

LS1.B: Growth and Development of Organisms: Reproduction is essential to the continued existence of every kind of organism. Plants and animals have unique and diverse life cycles. (3-LS1-1)

LS1.C: Organization for Matter and Energy Flow in Organisms: Food provides animals with the materials and energy they need for body repair, growth, warmth, and motion. Plants acquire material for growth chiefly from air, water, and process matter and obtain energy from sunlight, which is used to maintain conditions necessary for survival. (5-LS1-1)

LS2.A: Interdependent Relationships in Ecosystems: The food of almost any animal can be traced back to plants. Organisms are related in food webs in which some animals eat plants for food and other animals eat the animals that eat plants. Some organisms, such as fungi and bacteria, break down dead organisms (both plants or plants parts and animals) and therefore operate as “decomposers.” Decomposition eventually restores (recycles) some materials back to the soil. Organisms can survive only in environments in which their particular needs are met. A healthy ecosystem is one in which multiple species of different types are each able to meet their needs in a relatively stable web of life. Newly introduced species can damage the balance of an ecosystem. (5-LS2-1)

LS2.B: Cycles of Matter and Energy Transfer in Ecosystems: Matter cycles between the air and soil and among plants, animals, and microbes as these organisms live and die. Organisms obtain gases, and water, from the environment, and release waste matter (gas, liquid, or solid) back into the environment. (5-LS2-1)

LS2.C: Ecosystem Dynamics, Functioning, and Resilience: When the environment changes in ways that affect a place’s physical characteristics, temperature, or availability of resources, some organisms survive and reproduce, others move to new locations, yet others move into the transformed environment, and some die.

LS2.D: Social Interactions and Group Behavior: Being part of a group helps animals obtain food, defend themselves, and cope with changes. Groups may serve different functions and vary dramatically in size. (3-LS2-1)

LS3.A: Inheritance of Traits: Many characteristics of organisms are inherited from their parents. (3-LS3-1) Other characteristics result from individuals’ interactions with the environment, which can range from diet to learning. Many characteristics involve both inheritance and environment. (3-LS3-2)

LS4.A: Evidence of Common Ancestry and Diversity: Some kinds of plants and animals that once lived on Earth are no longer found anywhere. (3-LS4-1) Fossils provide evidence about the types of organisms that lived long ago and also about the nature of their environments. (3-LS4-1)

LS4.B: Natural Selection: Sometimes the differences in characteristics between individuals of the same species provide advantages in surviving, finding mates, and reproducing. (3-LS4-2)

LS4.C: Adaptation: For any particular environment, some kinds of organisms survive well, some survive less well, and some cannot survive at all. (3-LS4-3)

LS4.D: Biodiversity and Humans: Populations live in a variety of habitats, and change in those habitats affects the organisms living there. (3-LS4-4)

ESS2.E: Biogeology: Living things affect the physical characteristics of their regions. (4-ESS2-1)

Patterns: Similarities and differences in patterns can be used to sort and classify natural phenomena. (3-LS3-1) *Cause and Effect: Cause and effect relationships are routinely identified and used to explain change. (3-LS3-2, 3-LS4-2)

Big Ideas: All living things share certain things in common. They all have internal and external similarities, change to better suit their environment, respond to their surroundings, and need energy. Plants are at the base of the energy cycle capturing sunlight along with air and water. Organisms sense and respond to their environment. They also have specific structures designed for specific functions. Organisms inherit traits from their parents. Some traits are more advantageous than others. Organisms are adapted to survive in certain environments.

Boundaries: Internal and external differences primarily focuses on macroscopic structures of plant and animal systems (ie thorns, stems, roots, colored petals, arms, heart, lungs, etc). (4-LS1-1) Regarding traits inherited from parents, the emphasis within this grade band is on organisms other than humans, and non-human examples. (3-LS3-1)

4-12 Finding Life beyond Earth, Activity 2: What is Life? Page 16. In this activity, students observe a number of objects, make a list of life’s characteristics, and develop a working definition of life. https://d43fweuh3sg51.cloudfront.net/media/assets/wgbh/nvfl/nvfl_doc_collection/nvfl_doc_collection.pdf

5-8 *Astrobiology in Your Classroom: Life on Earth….*and Elsewhere. Activity 1: What is Life? Activity 1 takes a close look at what characterizes life, and lays the groundwork to examine what life requires, what physical limits it can tolerate, and where it might be found in the solar system. Students compare real and fake or live and dead objects, play 20 Questions, and compare mystery samples (p.5) NASA . https://nai.nasa.gov/media/medialibrary/2013/10/Astrobiology-Educator-Guide-2007.pdf

Grades 6-8 or Adult Building Learner

Have you ever thought about how we know something is alive or not alive? For instance, what makes a rock not alive while a whale is alive? All living things share many different traits. One way to consider something to be alive is if it has all of the traits shared by living organisms. For instance, the bodies of all living things are structured into cells, and use the same types of molecules to carry out functions inside of their cells. These cellular functions translate into everyday activities such as breathing, walking, flying, digesting food, etc.

All living things have the ability to reproduce, or procreate. Mammals, like humans, do so by giving birth to live young while birds lay eggs that have to hatch and plants make seeds from which new plants can grow. All living things consume energy (they eat food), and use that energy for work, play, and growth. All living things exhibit “homeostasis,” which is the ability to maintain a steady internal environment regardless of their external environment. For example, most humans maintain a body temperature of 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit regardless of whether they are out playing in the snow or hiking in the hot desert. Homeostasis is achieved because of strict biochemical regulations in cells and organs.

Living things also respond to stimuli (or changes in the environment). For example, when autumn comes, the leaves in many trees stop doing photosynthesis. The leaves then turn from green to brown and fall off, and the tree becomes dormant throughout winter. And all living things have the ability to adapt to their environment as it changes. For example, if there is a prolonged drought (or a period with little water), certain plants in a population will have the ability to survive it and others won’t. The ones that survive it pass on that ability to their offspring. Over time in a prolonged drought, the population of plants will be more adapted to its environment. We call this process natural selection, wherein the environmental pressures “select” for certain traits in a population.

All life shares these aspects and abilities, from worms to birds to fish to tigers. Things that we don’t consider to be alive may have some of these traits, but not all of them. For example, a fire exhibits some of these traits. It consumes energy (wood and oxygen) and gives off by-products such as carbon dioxide and heat, it grows in size as it consumes more and more fuel, and may even appear to reproduce as it spreads. But because it doesn’t exhibit all of the traits of life, we don’t consider fire to be alive. Defining life from the viewpoint of examining its characteristics reveals how much life on Earth has in common, and helps distinguish between living and non-living things, which is important for learning if life could be possible beyond Earth.

LS1.A: Structure and Function: All living things are made up of cells, which is the smallest unit that can be said to be alive. An organism may consist of one single cell (unicellular) or many different numbers and types of cells (multicellular). (MS-LS1-1) ▪ Within cells, special structures are responsible for particular functions, and the cell membrane forms the boundary that controls what enters and leaves the cell. (MS-LS1-2) ▪ In multicellular organisms, the body is a system of multiple interacting subsystems. These subsystems are groups of cells that work together to form tissues and organs that are specialized for particular body functions. (MS-LS1-3)

LS1.B: Growth and Development of Organisms: Organisms reproduce, either sexually or asexually, and transfer their genetic information to their offspring. (secondary to MS-LS3-2) ▪ Animals engage in characteristic behaviors that increase the odds of reproduction. (MS-LS1-4)

LS1.C: Organization for Matter and Energy Flow in Organisms: Plants, algae (including phytoplankton), and many microorganisms use the energy from light to make sugars (food) from carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and water through the process of photosynthesis, which also releases oxygen. These sugars can be used immediately or stored for growth or later use. (MS-LS1-6) ▪ Within individual organisms, food moves through a series of chemical reactions in which it is broken down and rearranged to form new molecules, to support growth, or to release energy. (MS-LS1-7)

LS2.A: Interdependent Relationships in Ecosystems: Organisms, and populations of organisms, are dependent on their environmental interactions both with other living things and with nonliving factors. (MS-LS2-1) ▪ In any ecosystem, organisms and populations with similar requirements for food, water, oxygen, or other resources may compete with each other for limited resources, access to which consequently constrains their growth and reproduction. (MS-LS2-1) ▪ Growth of organisms and population increases are limited by access to resources. (MS-LS2-1)

LS2.B: Cycle of Matter and Energy Transfer in Ecosystems: Food webs are models that demonstrate how matter and energy is transferred between producers, consumers, and decomposers as the three groups interact within an ecosystem. Transfers of matter into and out of the physical environment occur at every level. Decomposers recycle nutrients from dead plant or animal matter back to the soil in terrestrial environments or to the water in aquatic environments. The atoms that make up the organisms in an ecosystem are cycled repeatedly between the living and nonliving parts of the ecosystem. (MS-LS2-3)

LS2.C: Ecosystem Dynamics, Functioning, and Resilience: Ecosystems are dynamic in nature; their characteristics can vary over time. Disruptions to any physical or biological component of an ecosystem can lead to shifts in all its populations. (MS-LS2-4)

LS3.A: Inheritance of Traits: Genes are located in the chromosomes of cells, with each chromosome pair containing two variants of each of many distinct genes. Each distinct gene chiefly controls the production of specific proteins, which in turn affects the traits of the individual. Changes (mutations) to genes can result in changes to proteins, which can affect the structures and functions of the organism and thereby change traits. (MS-LS3-1) ▪ Variations of inherited traits between parent and offspring arise from genetic differences that result from the subset of chromosomes (and therefore genes) inherited. (MS-LS3-2)

LS3.B: Variation of Traits: In sexually reproducing organisms, each parent contributes half of the genes acquired (at random) by the offspring. Individuals have two of each chromosome and hence two alleles of each gene, one acquired from each parent. These versions may be identical or may differ from each other. (MS-LS3-2) ▪ In addition to variations that arise from sexual reproduction, genetic information can be altered because of mutations. Though rare, mutations may result in changes to the structure and function of proteins. Some changes are beneficial, others harmful, and some neutral to the organism. (MS-LS3-1)

LS4.A: Evidence of Common Ancestry and Diversity: The collection of fossils and their placement in chronological order (e.g., through the location of the sedimentary layers in which they are found or through radioactive dating) is known as the fossil record. It documents the existence, diversity, extinction, and change of many life forms throughout the history of life on Earth. (MS-LS4-1) ▪ Anatomical similarities and differences between various organisms living today and between them and organisms in the fossil record, enable the reconstruction of evolutionary history and the inference of lines of evolutionary descent. (MS-LS4-2) ▪ Comparison of the embryological development of different species also reveals similarities that show relationships not evident in the fully-formed anatomy. (MS-LS4-3)

LS4.B: Natural Selection: In artificial selection, humans have the capacity to influence certain characteristics of organisms by selective breeding. One can choose desired parental traits determined by genes, which are then passed onto offspring. (MS-LS4-5)

LS4.C: Adaptation: Adaptation by natural selection acting over generations is one important process by which species change over time in response to changes in environmental conditions. Traits that support successful survival and reproduction in the new environment become more common; those that do not become less common. Thus, the distribution of traits in a population changes. (MS-LS4-6)

Patterns ▪ Patterns can be used to identify cause and effect relationships. (MS-LS4-2) ▪ Graphs, charts, and images can be used to identify patterns in data. (MS-LS4-1, MS-LS4-3) ▪ Cause and effect relationships may be used to predict phenomena in natural systems. (MS-LS3-2) ▪ Phenomena may have more than one cause, and some cause and effect relationships in systems can only be described using probability. (MS-LS1-4, MS-LS1-5, MS-LS4-5)

Big Ideas: All living things have certain traits in common: Cellular organization, the ability to reproduce, growth & development, energy use, homeostasis, response to their environment, and the ability to adapt. Living things will exhibit all of these traits. Nonliving things may exhibit some, but not all, of these traits.

Boundaries: For cellular organization, this grade band emphasizes the conceptual understanding that cells form tissues and tissues form organs specialized for particular body functions (MS-LS1-3.) *Evolution of species focuses on explanations of the evolutionary relationships among organisms in terms of similarity or differences of the gross appearance of anatomical structures (MS-LS4-2)

6-12 Astrobiology Math. This collection of math problems provides an authentic glimpse of modern astrobiology science and engineering issues, often involving actual research data. Students explore concepts in astrobiology through calculations. Relevant topics include DNA and the Genome (page 15) and An Organism Based upon Arsenic not Phosphorus (page 17). NASA . https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/637832main_Astrobiology_Math.pdf

6-12 Astrobiobound! Students create a space mission which requires them to balance the return of their science data with engineering limitations such as power, mass and budget. Astrobiobound engage students by giving them the opportunity to identify a significant target of interest in astrobiology and allowing them to plan their own NASA mission within our Solar System. This simulation follows the same considerations and challenges facing NASA scientists and engineers as they search for life in our Solar System and as they try to answer the compelling question, “Are we Alone?” NASA /Arizona State University. https://marsed.asu.edu/lesson-plans/astrobiobound

6-12 Astrobiology Education Poster and Activities: What is Life? Where is it? (Activity 1-2) and How do we find it? (Activity 3). With gorgeous graphics, supporting background reading, and three inquiry and standards-based, field-tested activities, this poster is a great addition to any middle or high school classroom. It explores the connection between extreme environments on Earth, and potentially habitable environments elsewhere in the Solar System. NASA .

Posters: https://nai.nasa.gov/media/medialibrary/2015/01/ABposter2012-lowres.pdf https://nai.nasa.gov/media/medialibrary/2015/01/ABposter2012.pdf https://nai.nasa.gov/media/medialibrary/2015/01/AB-Poster-ScienceBackgroundText.pdf https://nai.nasa.gov/media/medialibrary/2013/10/AstrobioPosterActivity1.pdf https://nai.nasa.gov/media/medialibrary/2015/01/AstrobioPosterActivity2.pdf https://nai.nasa.gov/media/medialibrary/2015/01/AstrobioPosterActivity3.pdf

8-10 SpaceMath Problem 392: Exploring the DNA of an organism based upon arsenic. Students estimate the increase in the mass of the DNA from an arsenic-loving bacterium in which phosphorus atoms have been replaced with arsenic. [Topics: integer math; percentages] https://spacemath.gsfc.nasa.gov/astrob/7Page57.pdf

Grades 9-12 or Adult Sophisticated Learner

How do we know that something is alive? The answer seems obvious and intuitive, but when you ask that question in the context of searching for life on other planets, it becomes more difficult to pin down. In the unfamiliar environments of other planets, we need to find a way to distinguish between a phenomenon that isn’t alive as compared to one that is. One way to address this is by considering the characteristics of living things, which reveals how much all living things have in common. All life on Earth adheres to a common biochemistry. In all living things, cells are the main unit of organization, cellular membranes are made up of molecules called phospholipids, genetic information is made up of molecules called nucleic acids, and functions within and between cells are mostly carried out by molecules called proteins. This means that a fly has the same basic biochemistry as an elephant!

Beyond this shared biochemistry, all life has certain general traits in common, too. Here are some of the key traits of life as we know it:

1) All life is highly ordered and structured. Not only do all living things that we know of have cells and cellular structures, but many living things also have larger-scale structure such as bilateral symmetry (in humans) or radial symmetry (in starfish).

2) All life reproduces itself, either sexually (as animals do) or asexually (such as budding in yeast or one cell splitting into two identical daughter cells via binary fission as bacteria do).

3) All life grows and develops to reach maturity, such as from a caterpillar to a butterfly.

4) All life takes in and utilizes energy to carry out the functions of its cells, which results in growth and development. Mechanisms for energy intake are vastly different across all species, and can range from eating food like humans do, to converting sunlight into sugars like plants do, to the harnessing of the energy produced when rocks radioactively decay like some bacteria do.

5) All living things exhibit homeostasis, which is the ability to maintain a steady internal environment regardless of their external environment. For example, most humans maintain a body temperature of 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit regardless of whether they are out playing in the snow or hiking in the hot desert. Homeostasis is achieved because of strict biochemical regulations in cells and organs.

6) All living things respond to their environment by sensing external stimuli and changing their biochemistry and/or behavior. For example, when cuttlefish sense danger, they can instantaneously change their colors to match whatever background they are against to avoid being seen by a predator.

7) Finally, all living things adapt to external pressures, and evolve because of them. Adapting is much like responding to a stimulus in the environment, but takes it to the next level. In evolutionary adaptation, one cuttlefish will have the ability to change colors more quickly and effectively than another (because of its genetic makeup), and it will inherently be more likely to survive than another one that doesn’t do it as well or as quickly. The first one is more likely to pass on its genes to its offspring, and that offspring will pass it on to their offspring, and so on. Over time, the population of cuttlefish descended from that one who changed colors more quickly and effectively is more highly adapted to its environment. They have undergone the process of natural selection and are more likely to survive. Their genes were “selected for” by the external pressures of the environment.

Something that is alive will exhibit all of these traits, while phenomena that we do not consider to be alive can exhibit some, but not all of them. For example, a fire exhibits some of these traits – it consumes energy (wood and oxygen) and gives off by-products such as CO~2~ and heat, it grows in size as it consumes more and more fuel, and it may appear to reproduce as it spreads. But because it doesn’t exhibit all of these traits, we don’t consider fire to be alive. Defining life from the viewpoint of examining its characteristics reveals how much life on Earth has in common, and helps distinguish between living and non-living things. If there is other life out there in the cosmos and it’s like the life that we know, then we would expect it to also show these traits of living things.

LS1.A: Structure and Function: All cells contain genetic information in the form of DNA molecules. Genes are regions in the DNA that contain the instructions that code for the formation of proteins. (HS-LS1-1)

LS1.B: Growth and Development of Organisms: In multicellular organisms individual cells grow and then divide via a process called mitosis, thereby allowing the organism to grow. The organism begins as a single cell (fertilized egg) that divides successively to produce many cells, with each parent cell passing identical genetic material (two variants of each chromosome pair) to both daughter cells. Cellular division and differentiation produce and maintain a complex organism, composed of systems of tissues and organs that work together to meet the needs of the whole organism. (HS-LS1-4)

LS1.C: Organization for Matter and Energy Flow in Organisms: The process of photosynthesis converts light energy to stored chemical energy by converting carbon dioxide plus water into sugars plus released oxygen. (HS-LS1-5) The sugar molecules thus formed contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen: their hydrocarbon backbones are used to make amino acids and other carbon-based molecules that can be assembled into larger molecules (such as proteins or DNA ), used for example to form new cells. (HS-LS1-6) As matter and energy flow through different organizational levels of living systems, chemical elements are recombined in different ways to form different products. (HS-LS1-6, HS-LS1-7)

LS2.B: Cycles of Matter and Energy Transfer in Ecosystems: Photosynthesis and cellular respiration (including anaerobic processes) provide most of the energy for life processes. (HS-LS2-3)

LS2.D: Social Interactions and Group Behavior: Group behavior has evolved because membership can increase the chances of survival for individuals and their genetic relatives. (HS-LS2-8)

LS3.A: Inheritance of Traits: Each chromosome consists of a single very long DNA molecule, and each gene on the chromosome is a particular segment of that DNA . The instructions for forming species’ characteristics are carried in DNA . All cells in an organism have the same genetic content, but the genes used (expressed) by the cell may be regulated in different ways. Not all DNA codes for a protein; some segments of DNA are involved in regulatory or structural functions, and some have no as-yet known function. (HS-LS3-1)

LS3.B: Variation of Traits: In sexual reproduction, chromosomes can sometimes swap sections during the process of meiosis (cell division), thereby creating new genetic combinations and thus more genetic variation. Although DNA replication is tightly regulated and remarkably accurate, errors do occur and result in mutations, which are also a source of genetic variation. Environmental factors can also cause mutations in genes, and viable mutations are inherited. (HS-LS3-2) Environmental factors also affect expression of traits, and hence affect the probability of occurrences of traits in a population. Thus the variation and distribution of traits observed depends on both genetic and environmental factors. (HS-LS3-2, HS-LS3-3)

LS4.A: Evidence of Common Ancestry and Diversity: Genetic information provides evidence of evolution. DNA sequences vary among species, but there are many overlaps; in fact, the ongoing branching that produces multiple lines of descent can be inferred by comparing the DNA sequences of different organisms. Such information is also derivable from the similarities and differences in amino acid sequences and from anatomical and embryological evidence. (HS-LS4-1)

LS4.B: Natural Selection: Natural selection occurs only if there is both (1) variation in the genetic information between organisms in a population and (2) variation in the expression of that genetic information — that is, trait variation — that leads to differences in performance among individuals. (HS-LS4-2, HS-LS4-3) The traits that positively affect survival are more likely to be reproduced, and thus are more common in the population. (HS-LS4-3)

LS4.C: Adaptation: Evolution is a consequence of the interaction of four factors: (1) the potential for a species to increase in number, (2) the genetic variation of individuals in a species due to mutation and sexual reproduction, (3) competition for an environment’s limited supply of the resources that individuals need in order to survive and reproduce, and (4) the ensuing proliferation of those organisms that are better able to survive and reproduce in that environment. (HS-LS4-2) Natural selection leads to adaptation, that is, to a population dominated by organisms that are anatomically, behaviorally, and physiologically well suited to survive and reproduce in a specific environment. That is, the differential survival and reproduction of organisms in a population that have an advantageous heritable trait leads to an increase in the proportion of individuals in future generations that have the trait and to a decrease in the proportion of individuals that do not. (HS-LS4-3, HS-LS4-4) Adaptation also means that the distribution of traits in a population can change when conditions change. (HS-LS4-3) Changes in the physical environment, whether naturally occurring or human induced, have thus contributed to the expansion of some species, the emergence of new distinct species as populations diverge under different conditions, and the decline – and sometimes the extinction – of some species. (HS-LS4-5) Species become extinct because they can no longer survive and reproduce in their altered environment. If members cannot adjust to change that is too fast or drastic, the opportunity for the species’ evolution is lost. (HS-LS4-5)

LS4.D: Biodiversity and Humans: Biodiversity is increased by the formation of new species (speciation) and decreased by the loss of species (extinction). (HS-LS2-7) Humans depend on the living world for the resources and other benefits provided by biodiversity. But human activity is also having adverse impacts on biodiversity through overpopulation, overexploitation, habitat destruction, pollution, introduction of invasive species, and climate change. Thus sustaining biodiversity so that ecosystem functioning and productivity are maintained is essential to supporting and enhancing life on Earth. Sustaining biodiversity also aids humanity by preserving landscapes of recreational or inspirational value. (secondary to HS-LS2-7, HS-LS4-6)

Stability and Change: Much of science deals with constructing explanations of how things change and how they remain stable. (HS-LS2-6, HS-LS2-7)

Boundaries: Grade level appropriate examples of maintenance of homeostasis include heart rate response to exercise, stomate response to moisture and temperature, and root development in response to water levels. (HS-LS1-3)

9-10 Voyages through Time: Origin of Life. Through the Origin of Life module, students address questions such as: What is life? What is the evidence for early evolution of life on Earth? How did life begin? Sample lesson on the website and the curriculum is available for purchase. SETI . http://www.voyagesthroughtime.org/origin/index.html

10-12 The Rules of Life. This podcast covers how we predict the phenotype, the structure, function and behavior of an organism, based on what we know about its genes and environment. If we can identify some of the basic rules of life across scales of time, space and complexity, we may be able to predict how cells, brains, bodies and biomes respond to changing environments. NSF . https://www.nsf.gov/discoveries/disc_summ.jsp?cntn_id=242752&WT.mc_id=USNSF_1

Low-calorie snacks for weight loss: how to easily incorporate them into your routine

Healthy meals are the foundation of a healthy eating plan, but adding healthy snacks to your daily food intake can give you the fuel you need to feel healthier overall and manage healthy weight loss. In fact, one-third of a person's daily energy intake is derived from snacks.

What is a good low-calorie snack? A visit to any supermarket or convenience store can be a dizzying experience when you're shopping for snacks to power you through a busy morning or sustain you during a hectic afternoon. Snacks loaded with salty and sugary foods line the shelves, with only a few healthy options hidden between the tempting treats.

The key to ensuring you've got healthy snacks on hand when you need them is careful planning . Let's dive in and explore some ideas for easy, healthy snacks that can complement your weight-loss grocery list .

Understanding the role of snacks in weight loss

Research has established that snacking can play an important role in weight-loss planning. When you snack on nutrient-dense foods high in protein and fiber, you're likely to feel more satisfied and fuller.

In terms of satiety, high-protein snacks give a more positive energy balance, especially when compared with snack-free stretches of time. Equally important, one study published in the Journal of the American Dietetic Association found that high-fiber snacks may help curb your appetite, which aids in weight control. Additionally, a separate study published in the same journal found that average-weight people snack more often than overweight people.

Benefits of incorporating low-calorie snacks into your diet

Snacking on nutritious foods offers these benefits and more:

• Snacking can add more nutrient-rich foods such as vegetables and fruits to your diet if you don't add enough of these to your meals.
• Foods high in protein and fiber can give you a quick energy boost between meals.
• Snacking may boost your brain power. Focus-boosting snacks such as a small amount of dark chocolate or a handful of blueberries may help you stay alert when you're working on a task that requires your full concentration.
• Smaller amounts of food can help you maintain adequate nutrition if you're experiencing a poor appetite or can't eat full meals because of an illness.

Characteristics of ideal low-calorie snacks

In short, a snack is loosely defined as a smaller portion of food eaten between meals. However, when looking for healthy snacks, try to keep nutrition density in mind instead of volume.

A small candy bar may seem like a smaller portion. However, you can enjoy a whole bowl of popcorn that will add tasty fiber-rich food to your meal plan and make you feel fuller for a fraction of the calories of that tiny candy bar. In other words, a low-calorie, high-volume snack is much more satisfying than a small sugary snack.

Practical tips for selecting and preparing low-calorie snacks

When not chosen carefully, snacks can quickly rack up the calories in your daily food intake. Some studies suggest that many snacks tend to be lower in nutrients and higher in calories than meals. Excess calories at snack time may help some people eat smaller meals. However, one small study found that young men still eat the same amount of food at dinner, even if they've enjoyed a healthy snack in the afternoon.

The answer to this dilemma is finding snacks low in calories and eating them at the right time. Here are some more tips:

• Plan your snacks to stay on track. Sticking to a schedule will help you incorporate snacking into your healthy eating plan.
• Try to eat a meal or healthy snack every three or four hours. Blood sugar levels begin to drop about four hours after your last meal.
• Opt for whole foods instead of packaged foods. Often, packaged foods are loaded with sugar or extra sodium to add flavor.

Low calorie snack options

What are some low-calorie snacks? Try some of the ones we've listed below.

Chia pudding

When you want something sweet and creamy, reach for a serving of chia seed pudding. The tiny but mighty chia seed packs heart-healthy omega-3 fatty acids and plenty of beneficial protein. A quarter of chia seeds mixed with one cup of non-dairy milk contains just 340 calories .

Apple and peanut butter

Sweet and salty makes for a great combination when snacking. The natural sweetness of fruit won't make your blood sugar spike. Best of all, enjoy your apple slices with peanut butter for an extra boost of protein, which research shows can help you reduce hunger and maintain a healthy body weight. Keep in mind that peanut butter is high in calories, so stick to about two teaspoons of nut butter.

Roasted chickpeas

High in fiber and protein, an ounce of roasted chickpeas packs a whopping six grams of protein, along with five grams of fiber. And you can enjoy all of these benefits with just 120 calories. Studies show snacking on chickpeas may reduce appetite, control blood sugar levels, and reduce caloric intake at meals.

For a high-volume, low-calorie snack, you can't go wrong with popcorn. You can make popcorn using a microwave popcorn popper, or shop for microwavable popcorn packets that are lower in salt with minimal additives. Four cups of air-popped popcorn has only 122 calories .

You can easily pair your favorite vegetables with hummus , a flavorful, creamy spread made with tahini, chickpeas, lemon juice, olive oil, and salt. Veggies and hummus can be a satisfying snack or even a light lunch .

Cottage cheese

Some days call for a protein powerhouse, and that's a great time to indulge in some creamy cottage cheese. You can eat your cottage cheese plain or serve it with a side of fruit or berries. Try taking a half cantaloupe with the seeds scooped out. Spoon the cottage cheese into the cantaloupe half for a satisfying treat that feels decadent. Cottage cheese is also great to have in the fridge for a quick and easy high-protein breakfast .

Most nuts are high in fat, but most of the fat in nuts like pistachios is "good fat," or unsaturated fat. While eating 20 pistachios feels indulgent, you'll only consume 80 calories with less than a gram of saturated fat. Pistachios are rich in fiber, protein, and essential vitamins and minerals.

Fermented vegetables

Foods rich in probiotics include kimchi, sauerkraut, and fermented carrot sticks. Similarly to yogurt, fermented vegetables may benefit health by strengthening your immune system and improving your digestion.

Low-Calorie Snacks for Healthy Weight Loss

It's essential to integrate low-calorie snacks into a nutritious eating plan and a healthy lifestyle . A power breakfast gives you the best start to a productive day, and snacking on healthy foods can satisfy you between meals. With the Evidation app, you can track your healthy habits and learn more about living your best life. Download the app today to get started.

Similar Posts

15 best fruits for weight loss: how to incorporate them into your recipes

Fruits are delicious and refreshing, but there's so much more to them than that. For a weight loss diet, fruits are the perfect treat.

10 delicious summer meal ideas to stay healthy and fresh

Healthy summer meal ideas including citrus grilled salmon, watermelon and feta salad, and more.

5 healthy smoothies for a great summer breakfast

Healthy smoothies are the ideal compromise you need for a quick and easy breakfast that's also good for you.

Download the Evidation app and never miss a post. Learn more

Studies in language and society

Celebrities and Controversies: What Works and What Doesn’t in Apology Videos

In today’s high society of “cancel culture,” apologizing has become a language that has diversified. This study dives deep into the world of online apologies, exploring how the majority of our influential figures today, celebrities, use language in public apology videos to mend what’s been broken and rebuild trust with their audience. The emotions, words, and actions can all seem like an act crafted for the cameras. Through the analysis of 15 apology videos, we navigate the comments and perceptions made in the landscape of the online audience to decide whether a public apology is genuine or insincere. Using digital ethnography and discourse analysis to give us insight into solving this issue, we translate the visual and verbal cues that aren’t in the spotlight – the tone, the gestures, and the choice of words, which shape the perceptions of authenticity. But it’s not just about dissecting these apologies. We also evoke what characteristics make for a genuine apology– the unscripted words, raw emotions, and simple background. By differentiating successful apologies from those that were unsuccessful, we reveal candor in the meaning of language that is displayed in front of a public audience. Beyond what the surface entails, we explore the morality behind celebrity apologies. They can be a mirror reflecting societal values, fluctuations in power, and the road to redemption. This research is not for mere insight, but also offers a deeper understanding of what it truly is like behind the screens in this digital age. There is much power in how we express ourselves; dictating how we shape relationships, rebuild trust, and craft a shared narrative.

Introduction

Growing up, we are taught from a very young age that an apology consists of the words, “I’m sorry.” Is that all it takes as we grow up? In society today, apologies have become very normalized and with the rise of social media in place, it appears highly important to delve into the study of online public apologies by influential people, focusing on the linguistic features chosen to elicit successful apologies throughout crisis communication (Loisa, 2021). As social influencers carry much power, it is important to hold them accountable for their wrongdoings and not allow them to manipulate the public into thinking that something is okay when it is not. Through analysis, we found that sincerity and genuineness are key to carrying out a successful apology video. By having a good understanding of linguistics and the different meanings certain words and phrases obtain, we analyzed the linguistic repair strategies influencers use when creating online apology videos, validating a successful apology or a manipulative one. Through our analysis, our main concern focused on the language strategies used by content creators and celebrities in apology videos to convey sincerity and repair their image. On the contrary, we also focused on why some apology videos completely flop and are seen as manipulated tactics to convey an insincere apology.

To better understand apology videos, we decided to watch some of them. We selected 15 apology videos from a selection of prominent celebrities and content creators with over 1 million subscribers on YouTube at the time of their controversy (some lost subscribers due to their controversies and are now below 1 million subscribers as a result). We chose creator apologies resulting from major controversies that had an impact on both fans and people outside of their fan community. Critical to our study was selecting videos with varied audience responses, including, positive, negative, and mixed responses in order to gauge which strategies led to successful apologies and which ones didn’t.

We fully submerged ourselves in the virtual worlds where these apologies occurred in order to gain a comprehensive understanding of the surrounding context. Our digital ethnography involved analyzing the situations that necessitated an apology and the characteristics of the individuals giving the apology. We performed discourse analysis on spoken and unspoken communication in the films, assessing elements such as intonation, physical gestures, and vocabulary selection. To comprehend audience responses, we meticulously observed the comments that garnered the highest number of likes as an indicator of public sentiment, noting which strategies succeeded or fell flat. The inquiry did not focus on the more technical parts of discourse analysis, such as specific language frameworks and computer methods, which have been covered well in previous studies (Sandlin and Gracyalny, 2018). Our analysis, however, concentrated on overarching themes and tactics deemed significant in determining perceptions of sincerity and the effectiveness of apologies.

Our research yielded a variety of results on the nature of apology videos and the success or lack thereof of various apology strategies. We noted the development of a unique speech register in apology videos, something that has been expounded upon previously (Choi, 2021). Similar filming choices emerge, including directly facing the camera from the shoulders or neck up, maintaining a plain personal appearance, and setting the video in a lightly colored, simple, domestic room. Despite an uncomplicated backdrop and a lack of extravagant accessories being intended to index sincerity, we found that these decisions had no real effect on the apology’s perception.

We found three major strategies: apologizing, refuting the need to apologize and defending oneself, and apologizing while defending and minimizing one’s actions. Genuine apologies with the use of the word “Sorry” and assumption of responsibility or well-evidenced, thorough rebuttals of accusations were well-received, but poorly-evidenced or incomplete rebuttals were criticized. Fans want natural speech with an unscripted tone, criticizing apologies they perceive as stilted or relying on a script, but still want meticulous, well-thought-out responses, while also wanting concise apologies that allow anyone to grasp the core message without delving extensively into the subject matter, a high and somewhat contradictory standard. Musical apologies like Colleen Ballinger’s ukulele song apology or Sienna Mae’s interpretive dance apology were seen as bizarre and inappropriate, especially in response to accusations of grooming minors and sexual assault respectively. Sympathy-baiting distractions, like TmarTn doing baby-talk to his dog in his apology , were also heavily criticized.

Gaming and commentary YouTuber PewDiePie’s apology gives us an example of some strategies being successfully employed. In his succinctly titled “My Response” , PewDiePie was praised for directly apologizing and not excusing his behavior. His acknowledgment of his status as a role model and influential figure and his need to be better, particularly due to his other recent controversies, were appreciated by fans.

PewDiePie’s apology was favorably compared to later apology videos, particularly for its lack of forced emotion or other forms of sympathy-baiting. Fans derived sincerity from a lack of attempted markers of sincerity, feeling like they were not being tricked but allowed to judge only the content of the apology.

In contrast, hip-hop artist Travis Scott’s apology video gives us an example of how an apology video and its strategies can backfire. Scott was mocked for his “over-dramatic” black-and-white filter, along with the frequency with which he rubbed his face. While his frequent blinking and facial rubbing could indicate crying and remorse, viewers noted his lack of tears or an actual “I’m sorry”. It is advisable to maintain an emotional equilibrium, effectively conveying genuine emotion appropriate for the video without being excessive or appearing to force it for sympathy.

His lack of concern and failure to stop his concert while his fans were being crushed to death in the crowd contrasted with this sudden change of heart two days later seemed dishonest. Scott’s apology was widely labeled as disingenuous, something advised by lawyers or publicists to shore up his image while refusing to actually accept responsibility for legal reasons.

When actions that typically index sincerity seem forced or incongruent with the context of the apology, it becomes a target for accusations of insincerity and dishonesty, which can be crippling to any apology (Hope, 2019). It is not enough to perform actions and apology video tropes that might be perceived to index sincerity (e.g. a plain appearance, emotionality); the content and tone of the apology and their appropriateness in relation to the inciting event are more important. While some strategies are more successful than others, how they are used is most important.

Discussion and Conclusions

Studying celebrity public apologies is essential for understanding how individuals in the public eye navigate accountability and redemption. These apologies offer valuable insights into the complex strategies of communication and public relations. We can gain a better understanding of celebrities’ relationships with their fans and what each party feels they owe each other through apologies and celebrities’ motivations for apologizing (Matheson, 2023). Language, tone, and framing play pivotal roles in shaping public perception and reception of these apologies. Celebrities employ linguistic devices to manage their image and reputation, illustrating the significant impact of language on social influence. Moreover, celebrity apologies serve as cultural artifacts, reflecting broader societal values and norms. Analyzing these apologies unveils the nuanced dynamics between language, culture, and public opinion. They provide a lens through which we can explore themes such as ethics, power dynamics, and identity. Furthermore, studying celebrity apologies offers insights into psychological processes like guilt, remorse, and forgiveness. Language becomes a medium through which individuals convey sincerity, empathy, or deflect responsibility. By dissecting these linguistic choices, we gain a deeper understanding of human behavior and interpersonal dynamics. In essence, celebrity apologies serve as rich sources for examining the intersection of language, culture, psychology, and social influence. They highlight the intricate ways in which language shapes and reflects our understanding of accountability, redemption, and societal values.

Related resources:

• The best way to apologize (according to science)
• The Power of the Apology Video (And Why So Many Fail)
• How YouTubers Turned the Apology Video Into a Genre
• Language Strategies in Apology Videos

Battistella, Edwin L. Sorry about That: The Language of Public Apology / Edwin L. Battistella. Oxford University Press, 2014.

Choi, G. Y., & Mitchell, A. M. (2022). So sorry, now please watch: Identifying image repair strategies, sincerity and forgiveness in Youtubers’ apology videos. Public Relations Review, 48(4), 102226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2022.102226

Croley, MacKenzie. “A Linguistic View of a Twitter Apology.” Journal of Student Research (Houston, Tex.), vol. 10, no. 2, 2021, https://doi.org/10.47611/jsr.v10i2.1230 .

Hope, Jessamyn. “Seven Steps to a Successful Apology.” The Hopkins Review, vol. 12, no. 1, 2019, pp. 60–80, https://doi.org/10.1353/thr.2019.0007 .

Loisa, J. (2021).” I’m just letting everyone know that I’m an idiot”: Apology Strategies in YouTubers’ Apology Videos (Master’s thesis, Itä-Suomen yliopisto).

Matheson, Benjamin. “Fame and Redemption: On the Moral Dangers of Celebrity Apologies.” Journal of Social Philosophy, 2023, https://doi.org/10.1111/josp.12510 .

Sandlin, J. K., & Gracyalny, M. L. (2018). Seeking sincerity, finding forgiveness: YouTube apologies as Image Repair. Public Relations Review, 44(3), 393–406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2018.04.007

Related Posts

Gender differences in written language, why do people interrupt it depends on the situation you are in., okay so…vloggers you know, leave a comment cancel reply.

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Notify me of followup comments via e-mail

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Please enter an answer in digits: seven + five =

• Open access
• Published: 28 May 2024

Epidemiological characteristics of asthma-COPD overlap, its association with all-cause mortality, and the mediating role of depressive symptoms: evidence from NHANES 2005–2018

• Meng Zhu 1 , 2   na1 &
• An Chen 1 , 3   na1  

BMC Public Health volume  24 , Article number:  1423 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

412 Accesses

Metrics details

Asthma-COPD overlap (ACO) is a distinct and intricate respiratory condition that requires specific attention and management. The objective of this cohort study was to examine the epidemiological characteristics of ACO, explore the association between ACO and all-cause mortality, and investigate the potential mediating role of depressive symptoms in this association.

This retrospective cohort study used data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005–2018 and National Death Index (NDI) 2019. A total of 22,745 participants were included: 705 with ACO, 2352 with asthma-only, 853 with COPD-only, and 18,835 without asthma or COPD. The non-ACO group ( N  = 22,040) referred to the individuals without ACO. Statistical tests were employed to assess differences in some characteristics between the ACO group and the other groups. Cox proportional hazards models were applied to evaluate the relationship between ACO and all-cause mortality, estimating hazard ratios (HR) with 95% confidence intervals. Mediation analysis was conducted to investigate the potential mediating effects of depressive symptoms on the association of ACO with all-cause mortality.

The prevalence of ACO was 3.10% in our study population. Compared to the non-ACO participants, the ACO participants exhibited significantly different characteristics, including higher age, a lower family income-to-poverty ratio, a higher body mass index, higher rates of comorbidities i.e., hypertension, diabetes, hyperlipidemia, cardiovascular disease, and cancer, poorer dietary habits, and a higher rate of depressive disorders. Compared to the participants without ACO, the participants with ACO exhibited a significant increase in all-cause mortality (HR = 1.908, 95%CI 1.578–1.307, p  < 0.001). The proportions mediated by depressive symptoms for ACO -associated all-cause mortality were 8.13% (CI: 4.22%-14.00%, p  < 0.001).

Conclusions

This study revealed a strong relationship between ACO and all-cause mortality and uncovered a potential psychological mechanism underlying this relationship. Our study indicates the possible necessity of offering comprehensive care to ACO patients, encompassing early detection, lifestyle guidance, and mental health support. Nevertheless, due to the limitations in the study design and the dataset, the results should be interpreted with caution.

Peer Review reports

The two common progressive lung diseases, asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), are leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide [ 1 ]. They have unique clinical features requiring different management strategies but can coexist. Despite a lack of consensus on its recognition, definition, and diagnosis [ 2 , 3 ], the term "Asthma-COPD overlap" (ACO), describing a condition where individuals show symptoms of both asthma and COPD, has gained widespread use since it was recommended by the Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA) and the Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) in 2017 [ 2 , 4 , 5 ]. While the debate about the term is still ongoing, there is agreement among healthcare professionals that patients presenting symptoms of both Asthma and COPD require personalized care for better outcomes [ 3 , 6 ]. Despite the recommendation by the GOLD report in 2021 to discontinue the term "ACO" [ 7 ], ACO as a medical condition or trait remains a subject of considerable interest and discussion, attracting significant attention [ 8 ]. As proposed by various recommendations and guidelines, ACO can be broadly understood as a medical condition characterized by persistent airflow limitation and clinical features that exhibit characteristics of both asthma and COPD [ 6 , 8 ].

Due to a lack of consensus on identification or diagnostic criteria, the prevalence of ACO has not been firmly established [ 3 ]. However, currently available evidence suggests that ACO is not uncommon, with a prevalence ranging from 1 to 30% in the general population, representing around 10%-60% of COPD patients and around 15%-66% of asthma patients [ 2 , 3 , 6 , 8 , 9 , 10 ]. It has been estimated that the number of ACO patients will increase significantly alongside the rising numbers of asthma and COPD patients [ 6 ]. Patients with ACO may experience a greater symptom burden, worse quality of life and more frequent and severe respiratory exacerbations than those with asthma or COPD alone, resulting in increased healthcare services and substantial economic costs [ 6 , 8 , 10 ]. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop a comprehensive understanding of ACO and implement appropriate measures to address it effectively.

Substantial progress has been made in ACO research [ 8 ], but current knowledge and experience for ACO and its management are notably limited [ 11 ] . Our current understandings of ACO and the targeted treatments and care are mainly informed by studies in asthma and COPD that usually excluded ACO patients [ 2 , 6 , 8 ]. From an epidemiological perspective, characteristics of ACO have not been thoroughly studied and current evidence holds conspicuous inconsistencies. While Inoue et al. (2017) [ 12 ] found patients identified as having ACO syndromes were significantly younger, Koleade et al. (2018) and Ekerljung et al. (2018) suggested a higher age was associated with an increased risk of ACO [ 13 , 14 ]. Lee et al. (2021) and Koleade et al. (2018) presented conflicting conclusions regarding the association between gender and ACO [ 13 , 15 ]. Although many studies have reported that ACO is associated with increased mortality [ 16 , 17 ], Leung and Sin (2023) [ 8 ] have suggested that the current evidence about the mortality related to ACO is still limited and even inconsistent, partially attributed to the varying criteria of identification and different populations.

While mental health is crucial in managing physical health issues and improving the quality of patients’ lives [ 18 ], research on mental health conditions like depression among ACO patients is scarce. Depression, which has a strong association with higher mortality rates [ 19 ] and has gained significant attention globally in recent years, was widely reported as a prevalent comorbidity among patients with lung diseases, including asthma and COPD [ 20 , 21 , 22 ]. Numerous studies have investigated how depression may mediate the relationship between lung diseases and mortality or adverse health outcomes, aiming to develop targeted interventions for managing these diseases and preventing negative consequences [ 22 ]. However, current understandings of the association between ACO and depression are limited to specific observations in asthma and COPD patients [ 23 , 24 ], and the role of depression in the development of ACO remains unclear.

This study aims to advance current understandings of ACO by investigating 1) the prevalence and epidemiological characteristics of ACO using the commonly used definition of ACO [ 25 ] and well-accepted approaches to its identification, 2) the association of ACO with all-cause mortality, and 3) the potential mediating role of depressive symptoms in this association.

Study design and population

We conducted a retrospective longitudinal study utilizing the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005–2018 database, and National Death Index (NDI) records that were updated to December 31, 2019. NHANES is a national cross-sectional survey program conducted by the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in two-year cycles, with a goal of providing insights into various health conditions, risk factors, and nutritional patterns of families and populations in the United States ( https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/index.htm ). NHANES offers a distinctive opportunity for studying ACO due to its provision of a representative sample of approximately 5000 individuals on a yearly basis, combining data from interviews, physical examinations, and laboratory tests (datasets from every two years are incorporated into one cycle) [ 1 , 26 ]. The dataset encompasses Demographic Data, Dietary Data, Examination Data, Laboratory Data, Questionnaire Data, and Limited Access Data.

The NHANES data can be linked with death certificate records from the National Death Index (NDI), i.e., Linked Mortality Files (LMFs) provided by NCHS, which have been updated with mortality follow-up data through December 31, 2019. For protecting the identities of the individuals involved, the NHANES database anonymizes participants’ data and employs unique identifiers (called ‘SEQN’) that could help match participants’ data with LMFs. For more information on accessing the mortality files, please refer to the official website ( https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data-linkage/mortality.htm ) [ 27 ].

For this investigation, we retrieved data from seven NHANES cycles spanning the years from 2005 to 2018, specifically encompassing the 2005–2006, 2007–2008, 2009–2010, 2011–2012, 2013–2014, 2015–2016, and 2017–2018 cycles, and a total of 70,190 individuals were identified. After excluding the ones with missing information on depressive symptoms assessed by the PHQ-9 questionnaire ( N  = 33,800), pulmonary disease diagnosis ( N  = 2,095), and mortality ( N  = 64), 34,231 individuals were selected. Since one well-accepted criterion in identifying both ACO and COPD was an age equal to or over 40 [ 28 , 29 , 30 ], in this study we excluded 11,486 individuals whose age was less than 40 years. Finally, 22,745 participants were included in the analysis. NHANES created weights applied to data to account for oversampling, nonresponse, and noncoverage, thereby forming representative samples of the U.S. civilian noninstitutionalized resident population. In this study involving Mobile Examination Center (MEC) data, the 2-year sample weight– wtmec2yr accounted for 7 cycles (1/7*wtmec2yr) was used for all analyses, which allowed for the generation of nationally representative estimates with a weighted population estimated to be around 130 million. More information about the weights and their associated process could be found on the NHANES website via the following link: https://wwwn.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/tutorials/weighting.aspx .

ACO and the referenced groups

By using the commonly used criteria of or available approaches to identifying the focused diseases and clinical conditions, and relying on the data availability within the NHANES 2005–2018, this study grouped participants as follows: 1) the asthma-only group ( N  = 2352) [ 1 , 4 , 31 , 32 , 33 ], including participants who reported at least one of the following conditions: a) having an episode of asthma or an asthma attack during the past 12 months, b) ever being told by a doctor or other health professionals that they had asthma, and c) using drugs including selective phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitors, mast cell stabilisers, leukotriene modifiers or inhaled corticosteroids, and excluding participants with chronic bronchitis and emphysema; 2) the COPD-only group ( N  = 853) [ 4 , 31 , 34 , 35 ], including participants who had at least one of the following conditions: a) reporting having emphysema, b) reporting ever being told they had emphysema, c) having a ratio of forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1) and forceful lung volume (FVC) (FEV1/FVC) after bronchodilator use less than 0.70 in laboratory test, and d) reporting ever being told they had chronic bronchitis and used drugs including selective phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitors, mast cell stabilisers, leukotriene modifiers, inhaled corticosteroids, and excluding participants with asthma; 3) the ACO group ( N  = 705) [ 4 , 6 , 36 , 37 ], including participants who met the identification criteria for both asthma and COPD (at least 1 characteristic from each); 4) the non-asthma/COPD group, including participants who did not meet any identification criteria for the asthma-only or COPD-only group. We formed the non-ACO group by combining participants from the asthma-only, COPD-only, and non-asthma/COPD groups. In this study, smoking was not considered as a condition to identify COPD [ 38 , 39 ], mainly because while it has been regarded as the best-known and most important risk factor for irreversible airflow obstruction, non-smokers can also develop COPD [ 40 ]. Figure  1 is the flow chart of identifying study population and grouping.

The flow chart of identifying study population and grouping

All-cause mortality as the outcome

This study defined the outcome as all-cause mortality, i.e., death due to any cause, using the data extracted from NHANES linked Public-Use Linked Mortality Files through December 31, 2019. Participants with mortality status 0 (MORTSTAT = 0) were considered to be alive through the end of 2019. The follow-up period started at baseline defined as the date of NHANES participation and ended on the date of death or December 31, 2019 if the participant was still alive.

• Depressive symptoms

Rather than a diagnostic tool, the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9), a nine-item instrument that utilizes a 0–3-point Likert scale containing 9 items totaling 27 points, is widely recognized as a brief, reliable and valid screening or assessment tool for depression [ 41 , 42 ]. Since 2005, the NHANES program has utilized the PHQ-9 to evaluate participants' depressive symptoms, and the majority of depression-related studies using the NHANES database have employed the PHQ-9 as the measurement for depression, with a PHQ-9 score of ≥ 10 indicating major depression [ 43 , 44 ]. In this study, the assessment of participants' depressive status was conducted using PHQ-9 scores, and a score of 10 was set as the cut-off point indicating the presence of depressive disorders or clinically relevant depression (CRD) [ 42 , 45 , 46 ].

Variables with available data from the NHANES 2005–2018 (missing data < 60%), representing the baseline characteristics of the participants, and identified as potential confounding factors that could exert an influence on the outcome based on previous studies, were considered in this study and grouped into three categories as follows:

1) demographic characteristics, including age (years), gender (male, female), race (non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, Mexican American, other races), marital status (married or living with partner, widowed/divorced/separated, never married), education (less than high school, high school or equivalent, college and above), and family income to poverty ratio (PIR) (a proxy measure for socio-economic status, calculated by dividing household or individual income by a poverty threshold specific to the survey year and state) [ 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 ]; 2) other medical conditions, including body mass index (BMI), hypertension (no/yes) (defined by systolic blood pressure ≥ 140 mmHg, diastolic blood pressure ≥ 90 mmHg, taking blood pressure medication, or participants self-reporting having hypertension), diabetes mellitus (DM) (no/yes) (defined by participants’ self-report of having diabetes mellitus or having a previous diagnosis of diabetes mellitus), hyperlipidemia (no/yes) (defined by participants’ self-report of using cholesterol-lowering medications, triglycerides ≥ 150 mg/dL, total cholesterol ≥ 200 mg/dL, low-density lipoprotein ≥ 130 mg/dL, or HDL ≤ 40 mg/dL in males and ≤ 50 mg/dL in females), cancer (no/yes) (defined by participants’ self-report of being told by a doctor or another health professional that they had cancer or a malignancy of any kind), and cardiovascular disease (CVD) (no/yes) (defined if the respondents reported being told by a doctor or another health professional that they had a diagnosis of congestive heart failure, coronary heart disease, angina, heart attack, or stroke) [ 53 , 54 , 55 ]; 3) health-related lifestyle, including alcohol intake ≥ 12 drinks per year (no/yes) (defined by participants’ self-report of having at least 12 drinks of any type of alcoholic beverage in one year), healthy eating index (HEI) (0–100, a higher score indicating better adherence to the 2010–2015 Dietary Guidelines for Americans) [ 56 , 57 , 58 ], and serum cotinine level (ng/ml), a biomarker of the exposure to tobacco smoke and reflecting smoking status (both active and passive), with a higher level indicating greater exposure to tobacco smoke [ 38 , 59 , 60 ].

Statistical analyses

Our analysis incorporated the complex sampling design and considered the sampling weight -wtmec2yr/7 to enhance representativeness and accuracy in estimation. The normality of the distribution of continuous variables in the dataset was assessed by Kolmogorov–Smirnov test, and tests showed that all continuous variables included in this study satisfied or almost satisfied with the assumption of normality. Descriptive statistics included mean and standard deviation for continuous data, and frequencies and proportions for categorical data. Student t-tests were used to estimate if there were significant differences between the ACO participants and the ones from other groups (asthma-only, COPD-only, non-Asthma/COPD, or non-ACO) in terms of characteristics measured by continuous variables, and the Chi-square (χ2) tests used for characteristics measured by categorical variables.

Weighted univariable and multivariable Cox proportional hazards models were employed to perform survival analyses, examining the relationship between ACO (exposure) and all-cause mortality (event). The hazard ratio (HR) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) was estimated. The follow-up period commenced at the time of the individual’s participation in the NHANES program and concluded on the date of death or December 31, 2019. Before conducting the survival analyses, we evaluated the proportional hazards assumption using the Schoenfeld individual test, with a significance level of p  < 0.05 indicating a violation, and observed that the assumption was met (see Additional file 1). In the modelling process, we intentionally introduced the groups of covariates step by step, gradually controlling for potential confounders representing demographic characteristics, other medical conditions, and health-related lifestyle, to observe the specific effects of different confounding factors on the outcome and the changes in the model’s explanatory power.

In detecting the potential mediating role of depressive symptoms in the association between ACO and all-cause mortality, we applied the strategy of distribution–of–the–product. The assessment of the mediating role of depressive symptoms between ACO (non-ACO, i.e., the combination of asthma-only, COPD-only, and non-asthma/COPD as the reference) and all-cause death involved the following steps: 1) examining the total effect of ACO on all-cause mortality after controlling for all covariates, 2) analyzing the direct effect of ACO on all-cause mortality after controlling for all covariates and depressive symptoms, 3) evaluating the indirect effect of ACO on all-cause mortality through depressive symptoms after controlling for all covariates, and 4) determining the proportion mediated by depressive symptoms in the link between ACO and all-cause mortality (i.e., indirect effect/total effect). In order to capture more nuanced variations in the relationship between the variables and to establish a more precise understanding of the underlying mechanisms and the strength of the mediation effect, we treated the hypothesized mediator, depressive symptoms, as a continuous variable in the present mediation analysis.

Statistical analyses were conducted using R version 4.3.0 ( https://www.r-project.org/ ) and, when applicable, SPSS 26. The mediation analysis was performed using the available R package named “mediation” [ 61 ]. Two sided p -value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Ethical approval

The NCHS ethical review board approved all NHANES protocols, and written informed consent was obtained from all participants.

Data sharing

The data from NHANES and NDI are publicly available.

Characteristics of study population

The selected characteristics of our participants are showed in Table  1 . Among the total of 22,745 individuals aged ≥ 40 years old, there are 705 participants with ACO, 2352 with asthma-only, 853 with COPD-only, and 18,835 without asthma or COPD. The prevalence of ACO was 3.10% in our study population, 23.08% among the participants having asthma (the ACO group / [the ACO group + the asthma-only group]), and 45.25% having COPD (the ACO group / [the ACO group + the COPD-only group]).

Compared to those from the non-ACO group (combination of the asthma-only, COPD-only, and non-asthma/COPD groups), participants from the ACO group were more likely to be older, had a higher rate of reporting races of non-Hispanic white and other races, had a higher rate of having unsatisfied marriage outcomes (widowed/divorced/separated), had a lower PIR, had a higher BMI, had higher rates of suffering other diseases, including hypertension, DM, hyperlipidemia, CVD, and cancer, had a lower HEI, had a higher level of serum cotinine, consumed less alcohol, and were more likely to suffer depressive disorders ( p  < 0.05 for all comparisons). Compared to those with asthma-only, COPD-only or non-asthma/COPD respectively, participants with ACO had a higher rate of reporting races rather than non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, or Mexican American, a lower PIR, higher rates of suffering from hypertension, DM, and CVD, a lower HEI, and a higher rate of suffering from depressive disorders ( p  < 0.05 for all comparisons).

In addition, in comparison to the non-asthma/COPD group, besides the differences in the characteristics mentioned above, the ACO group exhibited significantly higher age, a higher proportion of females, a higher percentage of unmarried participants, an elevated BMI, a lower prevalence of hyperlipidemia, but a lower proportion of consuming alcohol at a rate of ≥ 12 drinks per year ( p  < 0.05 for all comparisons). Compared to the asthma-only group, the ACO group had more participants with widowed/divorced/separated, a lower level of education, a higher rate of cancer, and a lower BMI ( p  < 0.05 for all comparisons). Compared to the COPD-only group, the ACO group had more female and more participants with an education level of below high school and college or above, but experienced a lower level of serum cotinine ( p  < 0.05 for all comparisons).

Association between ACO and all-cause mortality

Table 1 shows the survival status of different groups. During an average of 86.63-month follow-up (from the time point of the individual’s participantion to the NHANES program to the date of death or December 31, 2019), 3462 all-cause deaths occurred, accounting for 11.35% of the total study population, including 227 (27.10%) from the ACO group, 258(7.64%) from the asthma-only group, 283(25.45%) from the COPD-only group, and 2694(10.61%) from the non-asthma/COPD group. According to Table  1 , compared to those from the non-ACO group, participants from the ACO group had a higher rate of all-cause death ( p  < 0.001). More specifically, compared to the asthma-only group and the non-asthma/COPD group respectively, the ACO group had significantly higher rates of all-cause mortality ( p -value of ACO vs asthma-only < 0.001, p -value of ACO vs non-asthma/COPD < 0.001). Meanwhile, the ACO group has a significantly shorter period of follow-up ( p -value of ACO vs asthma-only = 0.002, p -value of ACO vs COPD-only < 0.001, and p -value of ACO vs non-asthma/COPD = 0.003).

Table 2 shows the results of weighted Cox regressions for investigating the association between ACO and all-cause mortality, using non-ACO as reference. After adjusting for all potential confounders that represented demographic characteristics, health-related lifestyle and other medical conditions, and controlling for depressive disorders (Model 4 in Table  2 ), we found that referencing to participants without ACO, participants with ACO had a higher risk of all-cause mortality (HR = 1.856, 95%CI 1.535–2.245, p  < 0.001). The R-squared, representing the proportion of the variance in the dependent variable that can be explained by the independent variables in the model, was 20.5% in Model 4. From the crude model to Model 4, by introducing the groups of covariables (demographic characteristics, health-related lifestyle and other medical conditions) gradually, R-square increased significantly, as all the values of F change were statistically significant. This suggested that the additional variables had a significant impact on the dependent variable, i.e., all-cause mortality, and the model’s explanatory power increased significantly as the focused controlled variables were added. In addition, across the models, the p -values for the trend analyses ( p for trend) were all less than 0.001.

Table 3 shows the results of weighted cox regressions for investigating the association between ACO and all-cause mortality, with lung disease groups (ACO as the reference, asthma-only, COPD-only, and non-asthma/COPD) as the independent variable and all-cause mortality as the dependent variable. After adjusting for all potential confounders that represented demographic characteristics, health-related lifestyle and other medical conditions, and controlling for depressive disorders (Model 4 in Table  3 ), we found that referencing to participants with ACO, participants with other three conditions: asthma-only, COPD-only and non-asthma/COPD had lower mortality rates, with HRs = 0.411 ( p  < 0.001, 95%CI 0.311–0.543), 0.713 ( p  = 0.006, 95%CI 0.559–0.910) and 0.530 ( p  < 0.001, 95%CI 0.438–0.641) respectively. The R-squared of Model 4 was over 20%. Similar to Table  2 , in Table  3 , from the crude model to Model 4, by gradually adding the groups of controlled variables, R-square increased significantly, as all the values of F change were statistically significant. In addition, across the models, the p -values for the trend analyses ( p for trend) were all less than 0.001.

Mediating effect of depressive symptoms between ACO and all-cause mortality

As mentioned earlier, according to Table  1 , participants in the ACO group were more likely to experience depressive disorders compared to those in the other groups. Tables 2 and 3 shows that after controlling for all covariates, ACO was significantly associated with all-cause mortality, and the presence of depressive disorders was found to increase all-cause mortality ( p  < 0.01). Table 4 presents the mediating effect of depressive symptoms in the association between ACO (non-ACO as the reference) and all-cause mortality, showing that after controlling for all covariates, the total effect, direct effect, and indirect effect of ACO on all-cause mortality were all significant ( p  < 0.001). The proportions mediated by depressive symptoms for ACO -associated all-cause mortality were 8.13% (CI: 4.22–14.00, p  < 0.001).

This study enhances current understandings of ACO by investigating its prevalence and epidemiological characteristics among a large population from the NHANES 2005–2018. The prevalence of ACO revealed by this study, 3.10%, was consistent with what was suggested in a review recently made by Alsayed et al. (2023) [ 2 ]. It reported that the prevalence of ACO in the general population ranged from 2 to 3 percent. Our finding was higher than what was observed by some previous studies based on NHANES, e.g., around 1% in Mendy et al. (2018) [ 26 ] with NHANES 2007–2012, 1.47% in Llanos et al. (2018) with NHANES 2009–2012 [ 1 ] with NHANES 2009–2012, and 2.88% in Wang et al. (2023) [ 4 ] with NHANES 1999–2018, which was probably due to the fact that our study included the data from the NHANES 2005–2018 that encompassed more recent years. This may suggest that the prevalence of ACO has increased in recent years. Our observation, the prevalence of ACO in the asthma patients was 23.08%, fell within the range of 10%- 31% suggested in Alsayed et al. (2023)’ review [ 2 ]. Our finding of the prevalence of ACO among COPD patients, which was 45.25%, aligned with the range of 4.2% to 66.0% in Leung and Sin (2022)’s suggestion [ 8 ]. Our study supported the current knowledge that ACO is not uncommon, especially among people with asthma or COPD.

Our study revealed some epidemiological characteristics of people with ACO. Our findings resonated Wang et al. (2023)’s [ 4 ] and Llanos et al. (2018)’s [ 1 ] discoveries with the NHANES database, showing that the mean age of participants with ACO was lower than that of those with COPD-only but higher than that of individuals with asthma-only. While in this study the ACO group had a more similar demographic pattern with the COPD-only group than the asthma-only group and the non-asthma/COPD group, the ACO group was significantly different from the COPD-only group in terms of gender, race and BMI, as the ACO group had more individuals from non-White population, more female, and more with a higher BMI, like what was suggested in Alsayed et al. (2023)’s [ 2 ] review. Similar to Wang et al. (2023) [ 4 ], this study noticed that individuals with ACO could be more likely to not only have a lower economic status but also a higher risk of suffering other diseases, like hypertension, DM, and CVD, compared to individual with asthma-only, COPD-only, or non-asthma/COPD. Thus, addressing comorbidity should be prioritized in managing ACO patients.

Furthermore, our study made an additional observation that individuals with ACO exhibited a higher likelihood of adopting an unhealthy dietary pattern reflected by a lower HEI. These results highlight the importance of providing dietary instructions to ACO patients and monitoring their dietary patterns. It is also noteworthy that our study revealed relatively lower alcohol consumption among individuals with ACO, which aligns with the findings reported by Wang et al. (2023) [ 4 ]. This observation suggests that individuals in the ACO group may be more inclined to prioritize their health and exercise control over their alcohol intake.

Aligning with the most population-based studies [ 4 , 8 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 ] that used different ACO definitions or identification criteria, our study suggests that individuals with ACO have a higher risk of all-cause mortality, compared to individuals from the groups of asthma-only, COPD-only, non-asthma/COPD, or non-ACO. However, our findings were notably different from conclusions given by many observational studies that comparing to patients suffering from other lung diseases, patients with ACO had similar or lower all-cause mortality risks [ 3 , 68 ]. These contradictory conclusions have been noticed by Mekov et al. (2021) and Uchida et al. (2018) [ 3 , 68 ], who suggested that these conflicting observations could be partially contributed to the better management delivered to the targeted ACO patients in observational studies. Our results, combined with the previous conclusions, imply that ACO may be associated with increased mortality risks and the implementation of appropriate management strategies should be important to mitigate the risks. Furthermore, it would be important to conduct more rigorously controlled research that accounts for various definitions and management approaches of ACO to obtain more reliable and confident insights into the ACO-associated all-cause mortality. In addition, it would be valuable to conduct comparative studies between different management approaches for ACO patients. This would further the understanding of how various treatment strategies influence health outcomes and help identify the most effective approaches to managing ACO.

While the relationship between mental health and other lung diseases (e.g., asthma and COPD) has been extensively explored [ 69 ], the incidence of depressive disorders among patients with ACO was little known [ 70 ]. Paying attention to the mental health of ACO patients, this study found that there was a higher proportion of people suffering from depressive disorders in the ACO group than in the asthma-only group, COPD-only group, non-asthma/COPD group, and non-ACO group. Using non-ACO participants as reference, these results revealed that ACO patients might have a higher risk of experiencing depressive disorders, which were consistent with the insights given by previous studies, e.g., Homętowska et al. (2022) [ 71 ] and Kang et al. (2019) [ 70 ], Chabowski et al. (2016) [ 72 ], and Lee et al. (2021) [ 15 ]. Although the present findings did not provide definitive evidence of the causal relationship between ACO and depressive states or conclusive reasons for the elevated risks of depression in ACO patients, several factors may contribute to this association. For instance, the increased severity of airflow obstruction, indicated by a lower FEV1/FVC ratio [ 73 , 74 ], or the presence of more pronounced airway constriction and alveolar damage in ACO patients can progressively lead to respiratory failures, which in turn can result in cerebral hypoxia, carbon dioxide retention, and acidosis, causing damage to brain blood vessels and brain cells, and can impact the central nervous system, potentially amplifying negative emotions [ 75 , 76 ]. The presence of an elevated risk of depressive disorders in the ACO group emphasizes the need for healthcare providers to pay attention to the mental well-being of ACO patients.

Our suggestion to address depressive symptoms in individuals with ACO is further supported by the evidence showing that depressive symptoms played a mediating role in the association between ACO and all-cause mortality and the mediating effect was significant, accounting for 8.47% of the total effect of ACO on all-cause death. According to the existed evidence presented above, ACO events may increase depressive symptoms, and people suffering from depression may have unhealthier lifestyles and self-harm behaviours that have consistently been shown to be causal risk factors of premature death [ 19 ]. Thus, giving careful attention to and effectively managing depressive symptoms may be beneficial to reduce all-cause mortality for those with ACO. By recognizing the increased risk of depressive disorders in ACO patients and the strong mediating role played by depressive symptoms in the development of ACO to death, healthcare professionals should deliver appropriate strategies to support their ACO patients. Necessary measures may include screening for and addressing depressive disorders, providing patient with the access to mental health resources, and integrating mental health care into the overall management of ACO. Additional research is necessary to determine whether the prevention and treatment of depressive symptoms can potentially enhance overall survival in individuals with ACO. Although there is little empirical evidence regarding the impact of addressing depressive symptoms on survival rates in ACO patients, managing depressive symptoms is still valuable for other reasons, such as potentially alleviating symptoms and improving the quality of life [ 77 ].

One noteworthy observation that requires special attention is the association between hyperlipidemia and the risk of all-cause mortality in our study population. Interestingly, our findings align with previous studies such as Yeramaneni et al. (2017) [ 78 ], which also reported a lower risk of all-cause mortality in individuals with hyperlipidemia. However, it is important to note that our results conflict with the conclusions drawn by other studies like Feng et al. (2022) [ 79 ]. Given the conflicting findings, it is crucial to conduct further studies to generate more robust evidence regarding the relationship between hyperlipidemia and all-cause mortality.

Strengths and limitations

With a large population from the NHANES 2005–2018, our research advanced the current epidemiological understandings of ACO, particularly in relation to its psychological characteristics. To increase the robustness of our findings, we carefully considered and controlled for potential confounding factors, such as demographic factors, clinical factors and lifestyle factors, which were adjusted for in our regression analyses. One of the key strengths of our research is that it was the first study to investigate the underlying mechanisms linking ACO to mortality outcomes. Specifically, we explored the mediating role of depressive symptoms in the relationship between ACO and all-cause mortality. By examining the psychological pathway through which ACO may increase mortality, our study could help to fill the gap in the literature regarding the psychological characteristics of ACO and the role of mental health in ACO development. Moreover, aligning our approaches to identifying diseases and clinical conditions with that of other studies enhances the comparability of our findings with other relevant studies based on the NHANES dataset. Overall, this study could contribute to the existing knowledge that may inform clinical practice and interventions aimed at improving the health outcomes of ACO patients.

However, it is important to acknowledge the limitations of our study. Firstly, our study population was limited to individuals aged 40 and above, which may restrict the generalizability of our findings to younger age groups. Further research is needed to investigate the incidence trends in different age groups. Secondly, the scope of our study and the data availability may have constrained the selection and categorization of covariates, which might lead to the omission of certain important comorbidities that should be considered. More potential confounders should be included and addressed in future studies. Additionally, while our study investigated the mediating role of depressive symptoms in the association between ACO and all-cause mortality, it is important to acknowledge that there may be other mechanisms at play. Further research is needed to explore these additional mechanisms in order to gain a deeper understanding of the complex relationship between ACO and the mortality outcome. Another point that requires attention is the use of the PHQ-9, a commonly used tool for assessing depressive symptoms, rather than a diagnostic tool. It is important to note that the PHQ-9 scores have been found to be significantly associated with COPD and other comorbidities [ 69 ]. Given the present analyses, we cannot guarantee the complete removal of the effect of COPD and other comorbidities on PHQ-9 scores when assessing the association between ACO and depressive symptoms. Therefore, caution is advised when interpreting the mediating effect of depressive symptoms in the association between ACO and mortality as observed in this study.

It is also important to note that certain limitations within the NHANES database may introduce potential biases into this study. Primarily, considering the constraints of the data availability and the reliance on self-reported data within the NHANES, coupled with the absence of precise diagnostic information, it is essential to recognize the potential of making biases in the identification of those diseases or medical conditions considered in this study. Further, the NHANES database lacks the exact index date, which signifies the specific time when a diagnosis, examination or measurement is made. In our study, the absence of the information about the timing of diagnosis for lung diseases such as asthma and COPD hinders our ability to ascertain the lead time of these conditions at the point of an individual's recruitment into the survey. This limitation could potentially introduce biases when comparing the characteristics of different diseases, such as ACO versus asthma-only or COPD-only. In addition, the depressive symptoms of our participants were assessed at the time of their entry into the survey, and we are unable to establish the temporal sequence between depression and ACO or other lung diseases. As a result, this study can only exploratively investigate the association between lung health issues and depressive symptoms and statistically assess the potential role of depression in this association. Moreover, there was a lack of information of whether our participants had received any psychological supports or not. Thus, prospective longitudinal studies that track patients over time and control for any interventions are needed to establish the temporal sequence between lung diseases and depression more accurately and provide more robust evidence. Furthermore, this study used the time of survey participation as the baseline for constructing follow-up periods in time-to-event analyses, which may introduce certain biases to the results. All these limitations emphasize the need for caution in interpreting the results of the study and call for more rigorous longitudinal studies with follow-up data available between measurements, the incidence of diseases, and mortality.

Using the NHANES 2005–2018, this cohort study indicates that ACO is not uncommon, especially among patients with asthma or COPD, and that individuals with ACO tend to have a lower socio-economic status, poorer health conditions, unhealthier dietary pattern, and decreased mental health status. In addition, this study sheds light on the enhanced risks of all-cause mortality among ACO patients and uncovers a potential psychological mechanism underlying the relationship between ACO and all-cause mortality. This study has important implications for clinical practice and public health management to improve the outcomes and quality of life for individuals living with ACO, suggesting the potential necessity of providing early detection, healthy lifestyle instruction, comprehensive comorbidity management, and mental health care to ACO patients, especially those living with disadvantaged conditions.

Availability of data and materials

The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) data are publicly available at https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/index.htm .

Abbreviations

95% Confidence interval

Asthma-chronic obstructive pulmonary disease overlap

Body mass index

Cardiovascular Disease

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Clinically relevant depression

Diabetes mellitus

Family poverty income ratio

Forced expiratory volume/forced vital capacity

Hazard ratio

Healthy eating index

National Center for Health Statistics

National death index

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

Patient Health Questionnaire-9

The Mobile Examination Centre

Llanos JP, Ortega H, Germain G, Duh MS, Lafeuille MH, Tiggelaar S, Bell CF, Hahn B. Health characteristics of patients with asthma, COPD and asthma-COPD overlap in the NHANES database. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 2018;13:2859–68. https://doi.org/10.2147/copd.S167379 .

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Alsayed AR, Abu-Samak MS, Alkhatib M. Asthma-COPD overlap in clinical practice (ACO_CP 2023): toward precision medicine. J Pers Med. 2023;13(4):677. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm13040677 .

Mekov E, Nuñez A, Sin DD, Ichinose M, Rhee CK, Maselli DJ, Coté A, Suppli Ulrik C, Maltais F, Anzueto A, et al. Update on asthma-COPD overlap (ACO): a narrative review. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 2021;16:1783–99. https://doi.org/10.2147/copd.S312560 .

Article   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Wang X, Wen J, Gu S, Zhang L, Qi X. Frailty in asthma-COPD overlap: a cross-sectional study of association and risk factors in the NHANES database. BMJ Open Respir Res. 2023;10(1):e001713. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjresp-2023-001713

Diagnosis and initial treatment of asthma COPD and asthma - COPD overlap. Available online: https://ginasthma.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/GINA-GOLD-2017-overlap-pocket-guide-wms-2017-ACO.pdf . Accessed 31 Dec 2023.

Yanagisawa S, Ichinose M. Definition and diagnosis of asthma-COPD overlap (ACO). Allergol Int. 2018;67(2):172–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alit.2018.01.002 .

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD). 2021 Global strategy for prevention, diagnosis and management of COPD. Available online: https://goldcopd.org/archived-reports/ . Accessed 31 Dec 2023.

Leung C, Sin DD. Asthma-COPD overlap: what are the important questions? Chest. 2022;161(2):330–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chest.2021.09.036 .

Fuhlbrigge AL. Epidemiology of asthma-chronic obstructive pulmonary disease overlap. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2022;42(3):533–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iac.2022.03.001 .

Barrecheguren M, Pinto L, Mostafavi-Pour-Manshadi SM, Tan WC, Li PZ, Aaron SD, Benedetti A, Chapman KR, Walker B, Fitzgerald JM, et al. Identification and definition of asthma-COPD overlap: the CanCOLD study. Respirology. 2020;25(8):836–49. https://doi.org/10.1111/resp.13780 .

Barnes PJ. Therapeutic approaches to asthma-chronic obstructive pulmonary disease overlap syndromes. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2015;136(3):531–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2015.05.052 .

Inoue H, Nagase T, Morita S, Yoshida A, Jinnai T, Ichinose M. Prevalence and characteristics of asthma-COPD overlap syndrome identified by a stepwise approach. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 2017;12:1803–10. https://doi.org/10.2147/copd.S133859 .

Koleade A, Farrell J, Mugford G, Gao Z. Prevalence and risk factors of ACO (asthma-COPD overlap) in aboriginal people. J Environ Public Health. 2018:4657420. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/4657420 .

Ekerljung L, Mincheva R, Hagstad S, Bjerg A, Telg G, Stratelis G, Lötvall J. Prevalence, clinical characteristics and morbidity of the asthma-COPD overlap in a general population sample. J Asthma. 2018;55(5):461–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/02770903.2017.1339799 .

Lee H, Kim SH, Kim BK, Lee Y, Lee HY, Ban GY, Kim MH, Kim JH, Kwon JW, Park SY, et al. Characteristics of specialist-diagnosed asthma-COPD overlap in severe asthma: observations from the Korean Severe Asthma Registry (KoSAR). Allergy. 2021;76(1):223–32. https://doi.org/10.1111/all.14483 .

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Sorino C, Pedone C, Scichilone N. Fifteen-year mortality of patients with asthma-COPD overlap syndrome. Eur J Intern Med. 2016;34:72–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejim.2016.06.020 .

Luyster F, Scott P, Chasens E, Imes C, Jeon B, Shi X, Strollo P, Baniak L. 0571 Associations between sleep problems and cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality in asthma-COPD overlap. Sleep. 2022;45(Supplement_1):A251–2. https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsac079.568 .

Article   Google Scholar  

Kolappa K, Henderson DC, Kishore SP. No physical health without mental health: lessons unlearned? Bull World Health Organ. 2013;91(1):3–3a. https://doi.org/10.2471/blt.12.115063 .

Machado MO, Veronese N, Sanches M, Stubbs B, Koyanagi A, Thompson T, Tzoulaki I, Solmi M, Vancampfort D, Schuch FB, et al. The association of depression and all-cause and cause-specific mortality: an umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. BMC Med. 2018;16(1):112. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-018-1101-z .

Ryerson CJ, Arean PA, Berkeley J, Carrieri-Kohlman VL, Pantilat SZ, Landefeld CS, Collard HR. Depression is a common and chronic comorbidity in patients with interstitial lung disease. Respirology. 2012;17(3):525–32. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1843.2011.02122.x .

Zhang MW, Ho RC, Cheung MW, Fu E, Mak A. Prevalence of depressive symptoms in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2011;33(3):217–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2011.03.009 .

Zheng J, Li J, Pei T, Zhu T, Cheong IH, Li S, Wang X, Hall BJ, Li X, Wang H. Depressive symptoms and chronic lung disease in middle-aged and older Chinese adults: prospective bidirectional association and mediation analysis. J Affect Disord. 2022;297:283–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.10.023 .

Yohannes AM, Alexopoulos GS. Depression and anxiety in patients with COPD. Eur Respir Rev. 2014;23(133):345–9. https://doi.org/10.1183/09059180.00007813 .

Wong KO, Hunter Rowe B, Douwes J, Senthilselvan A. Asthma and wheezing are associated with depression and anxiety in adults: an analysis from 54 countries. Pulm Med. 2013:929028. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/929028 .

Barczyk A, Maskey-Warzęchowska M, Górska K, Barczyk M, Kuziemski K, Śliwiński P, Batura-Gabryel H, Mróz R, Kania A, Obojski A, et al. Asthma-COPD overlap-a discordance between patient populations defined by different diagnostic criteria. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2019;7(7):2326-2336.e2325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2019.04.022 .

Mendy A, Forno E, Niyonsenga T, Carnahan R, Gasana J. Prevalence and features of asthma-COPD overlap in the United States 2007–2012. Clin Respir J. 2018;12(8):2369–77. https://doi.org/10.1111/crj.12917 .

National Center for Health Statistics. Linked mortality files matching methodology. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/datalinkage/2011_linked_mortality_file_matching_methodology.pdf . Accessed 31 Dec 2023.

Adeloye D, Song P, Zhu Y, Campbell H, Sheikh A, Rudan I. Global, regional, and national prevalence of, and risk factors for, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) in 2019: a systematic review and modelling analysis. Lancet Respir Med. 2022;10(5):447–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2213-2600(21)00511-7 .

Group CW. Pulmonary rehabilitation for patients with chronic pulmonary disease (COPD): an evidence-based analysis. Ont Health Technol Assess Ser. 2012;12(6):1–75.

Google Scholar  

Vogelmeier CF, Criner GJ, Martinez FJ, Anzueto A, Barnes PJ, Bourbeau J, Celli BR, Chen R, Decramer M, Fabbri LM, et al. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive lung disease 2017 report. GOLD executive summary. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2017;195(5):557–82. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201701-0218PP .

Kim SR, Rhee YK. Overlap Between asthma and COPD: where the two diseases converge. Allergy Asthma Immunol Res. 2010;2(4):209–14. https://doi.org/10.4168/aair.2010.2.4.209 .

Zhang G, Li X, Zheng X. Associations of serum carotenoids with asthma and mortality in the US adults. Heliyon. 2024;10(3):e24992. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e24992 .

Wen J, Wang C, Xia J, Giri M, Guo S. Relationship between serum iron and blood eosinophil counts in asthmatic adults: data from NHANES 2011–2018. Front Immunol. 2023;14:1201160. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2023.1201160 .

Liu Z, Li J, Chen T, Zhao X, Chen Q, Xiao L, Peng Z, Zhang H. Association between dietary antioxidant levels and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a mediation analysis of inflammatory factors. Front Immunol. 2023;14:1310399. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2023.1310399 .

Wen J, Gu S, Wang X, Qi X. Associations of adherence to the DASH diet and the Mediterranean diet with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease among US adults. Front Nutr. 2023;10:1031071. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2023.1031071 .

Hikichi M, Hashimoto S, Gon Y. Asthma and COPD overlap pathophysiology of ACO. Allergol Int. 2018;67(2):179–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alit.2018.01.001 .

Poh TY, Mac Aogáin M, Chan AK, Yii AC, Yong VF, Tiew PY, Koh MS, Chotirmall SH. Understanding COPD-overlap syndromes. Expert Rev Respir Med. 2017;11(4):285–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/17476348.2017.1305895 .

Lei T, Li M, Zhu Z, Yang J, Hu Y, Hua L. Comprehensive evaluation of serum cotinine on human health: novel evidence for the systemic toxicity of tobacco smoke in the US general population. Sci Total Environ. 2023;892:164443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.164443 .

Wang Y, Zhang J, Zhang J, Hou M, Kong L, Lin X, Xu J, Yan C, Lin F, Ke S. Association between per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances exposure and prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: the mediating role of serum albumin. Sci Total Environ. 2024;925:171742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171742 .

Al Wachami N, Guennouni M, Iderdar Y, Boumendil K, Arraji M, Mourajid Y, Bouchachi FZ, Barkaoui M, Louerdi ML, Hilali A, et al. Estimating the global prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public Health. 2024;24(1):297. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-17686-9 .

Qu Z, Wang Y, Guo D, He G, Sui C, Duan Y, Zhang X, Lan L, Meng H, Wang Y, et al. Identifying depression in the United States veterans using deep learning algorithms, NHANES 2005–2018. BMC Psychiatry. 2023;23(1):620. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-05109-9 .

Accuracy of Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) for screening to detect major depression: individual participant data meta-analysis. Bmj. 2019;365:l1781. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.l1781 .

Cao C, Hu L, Xu T, Liu Q, Koyanagi A, Yang L, Carvalho AF, Cavazos-Rehg PA, Smith L. Prevalence, correlates and misperception of depression symptoms in the United States, NHANES 2015–2018. J Affect Disord. 2020;269:51–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.03.031 .

Yu B, Zhang X, Wang C, Sun M, Jin L, Liu X. Trends in depression among adults in the United States, NHANES 2005–2016. J Affect Disord. 2020;263:609–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.11.036 .

Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JB. The PHQ-9: validity of a brief depression severity measure. J Gen Intern Med. 2001;16(9):606–13. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x .

Okereke OI, Reynolds CF 3rd, Mischoulon D, Chang G, Vyas CM, Cook NR, Weinberg A, Bubes V, Copeland T, Friedenberg G, et al. Effect of long-term vitamin D3 supplementation vs placebo on risk of depression or clinically relevant depressive symptoms and on change in mood scores: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2020;324(5):471–80. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.10224 .

Wang MC, Dixon LB. Socioeconomic influences on bone health in postmenopausal women: findings from NHANES III, 1988–1994. Osteoporos Int. 2006;17(1):91–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-005-1917-1 .

Global, regional, and national age-sex specific mortality for 264 causes of death, 1980-2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. Lancet. 2017;390(10100):1151-1210. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(17)32152-9 .

Wang Z, Li Y, Lin J, Huang J, Zhang Q, Wang F, Tan L, Liu S, Gao Y, Peng S, et al. Prevalence, risk factors, and mortality of COPD in young people in the USA: results from a population-based retrospective cohort. BMJ Open Respir Res. 2023;10(1):e001550. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjresp-2022-001550 .

Fermín-Martínez CA, Márquez-Salinas A, Guerra EC, Zavala-Romero L, Antonio-Villa NE, Fernández-Chirino L, Sandoval-Colin E, Barquera-Guevara DA, Campos Muñoz A, Vargas-Vázquez A, et al. AnthropoAge, a novel approach to integrate body composition into the estimation of biological age. Aging Cell. 2023;22(1):e13756. https://doi.org/10.1111/acel.13756 .

Yoo KH, Kim YS, Sheen SS, Park JH, Hwang YI, Kim SH, Yoon HI, Lim SC, Park JY, Park SJ, et al. Prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in Korea: the fourth Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2008. Respirology. 2011;16(4):659–65. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1843.2011.01951.x .

Lee H, Shin SH, Gu S, Zhao D, Kang D, Joi YR, Suh GY, Pastor-Barriuso R, Guallar E, Cho J, et al. Racial differences in comorbidity profile among patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. BMC Med. 2018;16(1):178. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-018-1159-7 .

Cathey AL, Nguyen VK, Colacino JA, Woodruff TJ, Reynolds P, Aung MT. Exploratory profiles of phenols, parabens, and per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances among NHANES study participants in association with previous cancer diagnoses. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol. 2023;33(5):687–98. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-023-00601-6 .

Zhang Y, Liu W, Zhang W, Cheng R, Tan A, Shen S, Xiong Y, Zhao L, Lei X. Association between blood lead levels and hyperlipidemiais: results from the NHANES (1999–2018). Front Public Health. 2022;10:981749. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.981749 .

Liang Y, Liu F, Yin H, Shi X, Chen Y, Wang H, Wang Y, Bai B, Liu Y, Liu Q, et al. Trends in unhealthy lifestyle factors in US NHANES respondents with cardiovascular disease for the period between 1999 and 2018. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2023;10:1169036. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2023.1169036 .

Zhang YB, Chen C, Pan XF, Guo J, Li Y, Franco OH, Liu G, Pan A. Associations of healthy lifestyle and socioeconomic status with mortality and incident cardiovascular disease: two prospective cohort studies. BMJ. 2021;373:n604. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n604 .

Jayanama K, Theou O, Godin J, Cahill L, Shivappa N, Hébert JR, Wirth MD, Park YM, Fung TT, Rockwood K. Relationship between diet quality scores and the risk of frailty and mortality in adults across a wide age spectrum. BMC Med. 2021;19(1):64. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-021-01918-5 .

Karavasiloglou N, Pestoni G, Faeh D, Rohrmann S. Post-diagnostic diet quality and mortality in females with self-reported history of breast or gynecological cancers: results from the third national health and nutrition examination survey (NHANES III). Nutrients. 2019;11(11):e0218048. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11112558 .

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Eisner MD. Environmental tobacco smoke exposure and pulmonary function among adults in NHANES III: impact on the general population and adults with current asthma. Environ Health Perspect. 2002;110(8):765–70. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.02110765 .

Sun D, Wang Y, Wang J, Dilixiati N, Ye Q. Inflammation mediates the association between furan exposure and the prevalence and mortality of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2013–2018. BMC Public Health. 2024;24(1):1046. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18442-9 .

Tingley D, Yamamoto T, Hirose K, Keele L, Imai K. mediation: R package for causal mediation analysis. J Stat Softw. 2014;59(5):1–38. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v059.i05 .

Hosseini M, Almasi-Hashiani A, Sepidarkish M, Maroufizadeh S. Global prevalence of asthma-COPD overlap (ACO) in the general population: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Respir Res. 2019;20(1):229. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12931-019-1198-4 .

Hardin M, Silverman EK, Barr RG, Hansel NN, Schroeder JD, Make BJ, Crapo JD, Hersh CP. The clinical features of the overlap between COPD and asthma. Respir Res. 2011;12(1):127. https://doi.org/10.1186/1465-9921-12-127 .

Sadatsafavi M, Tavakoli H, Kendzerska T, Gershon A, To T, Aaron SD, FitzGerald JM. History of asthma in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. A comparative study of economic burden. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2016;13(2):188–96. https://doi.org/10.1513/AnnalsATS.201508-507OC .

Baarnes CB, Andersen ZJ, Tjønneland A, Ulrik CS. Incidence and long-term outcome of severe asthma-COPD overlap compared to asthma and COPD alone: a 35-year prospective study of 57,053 middle-aged adults. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 2017;12:571–9. https://doi.org/10.2147/copd.S123167 .

Çolak Y, Nordestgaard BG, Lange P, Vestbo J, Afzal S. Prognosis of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease not eligible for major clinical trials. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2022;206(3):271–80. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.202110-2441OC .

Lange P, Çolak Y, Ingebrigtsen TS, Vestbo J, Marott JL. Long-term prognosis of asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and asthma-chronic obstructive pulmonary disease overlap in the Copenhagen City Heart study: a prospective population-based analysis. Lancet Respir Med. 2016;4(6):454–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2213-2600(16)00098-9 .

Uchida A, Sakaue K, Inoue H. Epidemiology of asthma-chronic obstructive pulmonary disease overlap (ACO). Allergol Int. 2018;67(2):165–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alit.2018.02.002 .

von Siemens SM, Jörres RA, Behr J, Alter P, Lutter J, Lucke T, Söhler S, Welte T, Watz H, Vogelmeier CF, et al. Effect of COPD severity and comorbidities on the result of the PHQ-9 tool for the diagnosis of depression: results from the COSYCONET cohort study. Respir Res. 2019;20(1):30. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12931-019-0997-y .

Kang HR, Hong SH, Ha SY, Kim TB, Lee EK. Differences in the risk of mood disorders in patients with asthma-COPD overlap and in patients with COPD alone: a nationwide population-based retrospective cohort study in Korea. Respir Res. 2019;20(1):80. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12931-019-1039-5 .

Homętowska H, Klekowski J, Świątoniowska-Lonc N, Jankowska-Polańska B, Chabowski M. Fatigue, depression, and anxiety in patients with COPD, asthma and asthma-COPD overlap. J Clin Med. 2022;11(24):7466. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11247466 .

Uchmanowicz I, Jankowska-Polanska B, Motowidlo U, Uchmanowicz B, Chabowski M. Assessment of illness acceptance by patients with COPD and the prevalence of depression and anxiety in COPD. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 2016;11:963–70. https://doi.org/10.2147/copd.S102754 .

Chung JW, Kong KA, Lee JH, Lee SJ, Ryu YJ, Chang JH. Characteristics and self-rated health of overlap syndrome. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 2014;9:795–804. https://doi.org/10.2147/copd.S61093 .

Bai JW, Mao B, Yang WL, Liang S, Lu HW, Xu JF. Asthma-COPD overlap syndrome showed more exacerbations however lower mortality than COPD. QJM. 2017;110(7):431–6. https://doi.org/10.1093/qjmed/hcx005 .

Yang XH, Wang Y, Wang DF, Tian K, Cheung EFC, Xie GR, Chan RCK. White matter microstructural abnormalities and their association with anticipatory anhedonia in depression. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging. 2017;264:29–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2017.04.005 .

Dias RM, Chacur FH, Carvalho SR, Neves DD. Which functional parameters can help differentiate severe asthma from COPD? Rev Port Pneumol. 2010;16(2):253–72.

Tran BX, Ha GH, Nguyen DN, Nguyen TP, Do HT, Latkin CA, Ho CSH, Ho RCM. Global mapping of interventions to improve quality of life of patients with depression during 1990–2018. Qual Life Res. 2020;29(9):2333–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-020-02512-7 .

Yeramaneni S, Kleindorfer DO, Sucharew H, Alwell K, Moomaw CJ, Flaherty ML, Woo D, Adeoye O, Ferioli S, de Los Rios La Rosa F, et al. Hyperlipidemia is associated with lower risk of poststroke mortality independent of statin use: a population-based study. Int J Stroke. 2017;12(2):152–60. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747493016670175 .

Feng X, Zhan X, Wen Y, Peng F, Wang X, Wang N, Wu X, Wu J. Hyperlipidemia and mortality in patients on peritoneal dialysis. BMC Nephrol. 2022;23(1):342. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12882-022-02970-w .

Download references

Acknowledgements

We express our gratitude to all the staff at NHANES for their valuable contribution in data acquisition. Additionally, we extend our thanks to Dr. HUANG Guang for his generous support in data analysis.

This study was supported by Funds for Cultivating Young Talents of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University (701100E005, 701100E029).

Author information

Meng Zhu and An Chen are co-first authors and contributed equally to this work.

Authors and Affiliations

School of Public Health, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, No. 548 Binwen Road, Binjiang District, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, 310053, China

Meng Zhu & An Chen

School of Basic Medicine, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, No. 548 Binwen Road, Binjiang District, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, 310053, China

Department of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Biomedicum 1, Helsinki, 00290, Finland

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

CRediT author statement. MZ: conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, investigation, data curation, writing—original draft, writing—review & editing, visualization. AC: conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, investigation, data curation, writing—original draft, writing—review & editing, visualization, funding acquisition.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to An Chen .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

The NHANES protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the CDC's National Center for Health Statistics. Written informed consent was obtained from each participant prior to their participation in NHANES programme.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Additional file 1. proportional hazards assumption tests, rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Zhu, M., Chen, A. Epidemiological characteristics of asthma-COPD overlap, its association with all-cause mortality, and the mediating role of depressive symptoms: evidence from NHANES 2005–2018. BMC Public Health 24 , 1423 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18911-1

Download citation

Received : 11 January 2024

Accepted : 21 May 2024

Published : 28 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18911-1

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Asthma-COPD overlap
• All-cause mortality
• Mediation analysis

BMC Public Health

ISSN: 1471-2458

• General enquiries: [email protected]

• Open access
• Published: 30 May 2024

A comparative study of smooth muscle cell characteristics and myofibroblasts in processus vaginalis of pediatric inguinal hernia, hydrocele and undescended testis

• Nellai Krishnan 1 ,
• Aanchal Kakkar 2 ,
• Tapas Chandra Nag 3 ,
• Sandeep Agarwala 1 ,
• Prabudh Goel 1 &
• Anjan Kumar Dhua 1  

BMC Urology volume  24 , Article number:  115 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

95 Accesses

Metrics details

Congenital inguinal hernia, hydrocele and undescended testis (UDT) are associated with patent processus vaginalis. The smooth muscles present in the processus vaginalis aid in the descent of the testis and undergo programmed cell death after testicular descent leading to obliteration. The persisting amount of smooth muscle in the processus vaginalis influences the clinical outcome as inguinal hernia, hydrocele or UDT. Therefore, a study was conducted to evaluate the processus vaginalis in these three conditions to observe the presence and phenotype of smooth muscle cells and the presence of myofibroblasts.

Materials and methods

The processus vaginalis sacs in patients with inguinal hernia, hydrocele and UDT were examined using light microscopy for the presence and distribution of smooth muscle cells and immunohistochemical staining for vimentin, desmin, and α-smooth muscle actin (SMA) to identify the smooth muscle phenotype. Transmission electron microscopy was also performed in all the sacs to observe the presence of myofibroblasts.

Seventy-eight specimens of processus vaginalis (from seventy-four patients), distributed as 47%, 27%, and 26% as inguinal hernia, hydrocele and UDT respectively, were included in the study. The sacs from inguinal hernia and hydrocele had significantly more presence of smooth muscles distributed as multiple smooth muscle bundles ( p  < 0.001). Desmin and SMA staining of smooth muscle cells was observed in significantly more sacs from hydrocele, followed by inguinal hernia and UDT ( p  < 0.001). The sacs from UDT had a significant presence of striated muscles ( p  = 0.028). The sacs from inguinal hernia had a significant presence of myofibroblasts, followed by hydrocele and UDT ( p  < 0.001) and this significantly correlated with the light microscopy and immunohistochemical features. The processus vaginalis sacs from four female patients did not differ statistically from the male inguinal hernia sacs in any of the above parameters.

The processus vaginalis sacs in pediatric inguinal hernia, hydrocele and undescended testis differ in the presence, distribution and phenotype of smooth muscles and the presence of myofibroblasts. The clinical presentations in these entities reflect these differences.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Inguinal hernia, undescended testis (UDT) and hydrocele are common conditions that need pediatric surgical consultation during childhood. The overall incidence of inguinal hernias is 5% for males [ 1 ]. Inguinal hernia is 5 to 10 times more common in males than females. Bilateral inguinal hernias are seen in 10% of patients. Undescended testis occurs in approximately 3% of term male infants but in preterm, the incidence rises to 33–45%. Most testes descend within the first 6–12 months and the incidence of undescended testis decreases to 1% at one year. Congenital hydrocele typically resolves by two years of age, so surgery is not recommended in the first 2 years of life unless the hydrocele is communicating. Hydroceles that persist beyond 2 years of age require operation.

Congenital inguinal hernia and hydrocele are associated with patent processus vaginalis. Although the processus vaginalis is also patent in children with undescended testis, clinical inguinal hernia is rare and is encountered in approximately 10-15% of cases [ 2 ]. The processus vaginalis is an evagination of the peritoneum through the deep inguinal ring. It can first be identified during the third month of gestation [ 3 ]. The intra-abdominal testis passes through the processus vaginalis during the inguinoscrotal phase of testicular descent in the seventh to ninth months of gestation. Following this, the portion of processus vaginalis lying above the testicle obliterates, thereby closing the internal inguinal ring. In females, the canal of Nuck corresponds to the processus vaginalis and it communicates with the labia majora. The canal of Nuck closes approximately at the seventh month of gestation.

The genitofemoral nerve (GFN) and calcitonin gene–related protein (CGRP) has been implicated in both testicular descent and obliteration of the processus vaginalis [ 4 , 5 ]. Reduced CGRP release from the GFN prenatally may result in undescended testis, whereas reduced CGRP postnatally may lead to hernias and hydroceles. The physical force for the descent of the testis is provided by the intra-abdominal pressure and the propulsive force generated by the muscles derived from the gubernaculum. Since the obliterated processus vaginalis is devoid of smooth muscle, the obliteration of the processus vaginalis is associated with disappearance of smooth muscle by programmed cell death [ 2 , 6 , 7 ]. The smooth muscle cells undergo programmed cell death after the descent of the testis resulting in the closure of the processus vaginalis. Dedifferentiation of the smooth muscle cells into myofibroblasts is an important step in this transformation. Myofibroblasts may represent their attempts to disappear through apoptosis. The accurate detection of myofibroblasts requires electron microscopy as their cytoskeletal phenotypes vary and immunohistochemistry may not be adequate to detect them [ 8 ]. Few studies have shown that the persisting amount of smooth muscle in the processus vaginalis influences the clinical outcome as inguinal hernia, hydrocele or undescended testis [ 2 , 6 , 9 , 10 ].

The smooth muscle cells at various stages of maturity stain differently with the immunohistochemical markers such as desmin, α-smooth muscle actin (SMA) and vimentin. Desmin is an intermediate filament present in smooth muscle, vimentin is seen in mesenchymal tissue and SMA is present in myofibroblasts. Mature smooth muscle cells, which are highly contractile, fully differentiated phenotypes, are characterized by a well-developed system of contractile myofilaments, instead of synthetic organelles. These cells express desmin and SMA. Immature smooth muscle cells, which are of synthetic phenotype, are characterized by well-developed synthetic organelles, especially Golgi apparatus, and reduced contractile myofilaments. These cells express high amounts of vimentin but low amounts of desmin and SMA. Few studies have evaluated the diversity and differentiation of smooth muscle phenotypes in processus vaginalis through the expression of desmin, vimentin and SMA immunohistochemically [ 11 , 12 ]. However, these studies have not examined the smooth muscle phenotypes in inguinal hernia, hydrocele and undescended testis concurrently.

Since the defective closure of processus vaginalis results leads to varied presentations in inguinal hernia, hydrocele and undescended testis; the histopathology, immunohistochemical features and electron microscopic examination would differ between these entities. Therefore, a study was planned to evaluate the processus vaginalis from inguinal hernia, hydrocele and undescended testis to elucidate the reason for the varied clinical presentation of defective closure of processus vaginalis in these three conditions to provide insight into the role of differentiation of smooth muscle cells.

The institute’s ethical clearance vide Ref No.: IECPG-237/22.04.2019 was taken and then patients were recruited. This was a single-centre cross-sectional study. The inclusion criteria were pediatric patients with inguinal hernia, hydrocele or undescended testis and pediatric patients undergoing laparotomy for various other pathologies were included as controls. The patients with associated conditions such as ventriculoperitoneal shunt, bladder exstrophy, and spinal defect were excluded. The patients with more than one pathology (inguinal hernia, hydrocele or undescended testis) on the same side or those undergoing laparoscopic surgery for inguinal hernia, or undescended testis were also excluded.

Sample size calculation was based on convenient sampling due to the logistics and cost involved. We planned to include at least 20 patients, each with an inguinal hernia, hydrocele and undescended testis. Peritoneum samples from five children who underwent laparotomy for various other indications were taken as negative controls. Histopathological examination, immunohistochemical staining and electron microscopy were done in all the specimens. Parental informed consent was taken for all the children enrolled in the study.

Overview of study protocol

Herniotomy was performed after high ligation of the sac at the deep ring. In the case of bilateral pathologies, the sacs of each side were analysed independently. Peritoneal samples were taken from pediatric patients undergoing laparotomy or laparoscopy for various other indications to serve as controls. The excised processus vaginalis sac and peritoneal specimen were divided into two parts for further analysis, one each for histopathology and electron microscopy examination. The pathologist and anatomist evaluating the specimens were blinded regarding the diagnosis.

The first part was fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin and sections from them were embedded in paraffin as done routinely. 4 μm thick paraffin sections were stained with haematoxylin and eosin. These were examined under light microscopy for the presence and distribution of smooth muscle cells and for the presence of myofibroblasts, if any. If present, the smooth muscle bundles were graded semi-quantitatively as few (dispersed) or multiple smooth muscle bundles.

Immunohistochemical markers: Unstained paraffin sections were used for immunohistochemical staining. Immunostaining for vimentin, desmin and α-smooth muscle actin (SMA) were performed. Samples were deparaffinized in xylene and rehydrated in graded ethanol solutions. Then, the sections were subjected to pre-treatment to enhance antigen retrieval. A standard streptavidin–biotin method was used. Finally, counterstaining with haematoxylin was performed. Samples were considered positive for desmin, vimentin, or SMA when specific intracytoplasmic and/or membranous staining was observed. The immunoreactivity of smooth muscle cells to all of the above-mentioned immunostains was evaluated. Positive and negative controls were used to assess the specificity of the staining.

Electron Microscopy: The second part of the tissue sample was fixed in Karnovsky fixative (2% glutaraldehyde and 4% paraformaldehyde) for 24 h, following which the sample was washed with phosphate buffer. Then post-fixation was done with osmium tetroxide in a phosphate buffer. After dehydrating in ethanol gradient at room temperature, tissue samples were embedded in epoxy resin. Ultra-thin Sect. (70 nm thick) were cut with ultramicrotome and copper grids were prepared. Then the sections were stained with uranyl acetate and lead citrate. The grids were placed in a specimen holder and observed in a Tecnai transmission electron microscope for the presence of myofibroblasts. Myofibroblasts are large spindle-shaped or stellate cells with several long cytoplasmic extensions, are enveloped in an external lamina and have distinct sub-plasmalemmal attachment plaques and are characterised by finely granular chromatin, prominent nucleoli, poorly developed Golgi apparatus and rough endoscopic reticulum. They represent an intermediate stage in differentiating smooth muscle cells into fibroblasts.

Statistical analysis

Data entry was done using Microsoft® Excel® 2019 (Version 2306 Build16.0.16529.20164) 64-bit and statistical analysis was done using IBM Statistical Package for Social Sciences Statistics (Version 29.0.1). The groups were compared by One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), χ2 (chi-square) test or Fisher’s exact test with a threshold of significance of P  < 0.05.

Patient characteristics

Seventy- four patients were included in the study. Out of these, four patients had bilateral pathology (two each had bilateral inguinal hernia and UDT). Therefore, seventy-eight patient specimens of processus vaginalis were included in the study. Out of these, thirty-seven (47%) were inguinal hernia, twenty-one (27%) were hydrocele and twenty (26%) specimens were UDT. This included four female patients with inguinal hernia. The mean age (months) of the patients in the three groups were 45 (± 37.7), 45.3 (± 29.8) and 44.1 (± 29.2) respectively and there was no statistical difference ( p  = 0.993, ANOVA) amongst the groups. Peritoneum samples (controls) were taken from five patients who underwent laparotomy for unrelated pathology. The control specimens showed the presence of fibro-collagenous tissue only.

Histology and immunohistochemistry

Smooth muscles were observed in 28 (76%) specimens of inguinal hernia, 18 (86%) of hydrocele and 4 (20%) of UDT; p = < 0.001 (Table  1 ).

The smooth muscles were distributed as few and scattered in 15 (40%), 11 (52%) and 4 (20%) specimens of inguinal hernia, hydrocele and UDT respectively. Multiple smooth muscle bundles were observed in 13 (35%) and 7 (33%) specimens of inguinal hernia and hydrocele respectively (Figs.  1 and 2 ). None of the specimens of UDT showed multiple smooth muscle bundles (Fig.  3 ). These differences were statistically significant ( p  < 0.001) (Table  2 ).

Multiple smooth muscle bundles observed in sacs of inguinal hernia. (H&E X100)

Few smooth muscle bundles observed in sacs of hydrocele. (H&E X100)

No smooth muscles observed in sacs of undescended testis. (H&E X100)

Immunohistochemical staining was conducted on the processus vaginalis sacs to evaluate the maturation of smooth muscle. None of the specimens of inguinal hernia, hydrocele and UDT showed any vimentin positive smooth muscle (Fig.  4 ). Two processus vaginalis sacs of inguinal hernia showed few scattered smooth muscles which were negative for both desmin and smooth muscle actin (SMA). One specimen of inguinal hernia was positive for desmin but negative for SMA and another specimen of inguinal hernia was positive for SMA but negative for desmin. Both of these specimens had few and scattered smooth muscles. In the rest of the specimens, smooth muscles when present showed positivity to both desmin and SMA (Figs.  5 and 6 ). Overall, positive staining for desmin and SMA was observed in 25 (68%), 18 (86%) and 4 (20%) specimens of inguinal hernia, hydrocele and UDT respectively; p <0.001 (Table  3 ).

Smooth muscle cells on processus vaginalis negative for vimentin (x100)

Smooth muscle cells on processus vaginalis positive for smooth muscle actin (x100)

Smooth muscle cells on processus vaginalis positive for desmin (x100)

Striated muscles were observed in the processus vaginalis sacs of 10 (27%), 1 (5%) and 8 (40%) specimens of inguinal hernia, hydrocele and UDT respectively and this difference was statistically significant ( p  = 0.028).

Myofibroblasts were noted in light microscopy in four specimens (two each of inguinal hernia and UDT). The immunohistochemical expression of the myofibroblasts in these four specimens were variable. Desmin positive and vimentin negative myofibroblasts were seen in the two UDT processus vaginalis specimens. However, one specimen of inguinal hernia showed desmin positive and vimentin positive myofibroblasts and another specimen of inguinal hernia showed desmin positive and smooth muscle actin positive myofibroblast. The accurate detection of myofibroblasts requires electron microscopy as their cytoskeletal phenotypes vary and immunohistochemistry may not be adequate to detect them. Therefore, electron microscopy was conducted in the processus vaginalis specimens and myofibroblasts were noted in a significantly greater number of specimens using electron microscopy (detailed subsequently).

Transmission electron microscopy

Myofibroblasts are large cells, spindle shaped or stellate with several long cytoplasmic extensions, enveloped in an external lamina and have distinct sub-plasmalemmal attachment plaques, finely granular chromatin, prominent nucleoli and have poorly developed Golgi area and rough endoscopic reticulum (Fig.  7 ). The ultrastructural features of myofibroblasts were present in 35 (95%), 14 (67%) and 3 (15%) of processus vaginalis specimens of inguinal hernia, hydrocele and UDT respectively; p  < 0.001 (Table  4 ).

Transmission electron microscope showing myofibroblasts. These cells are enveloped in an external lamina (arrow) and have distinct sub-plasmalemmal attachment plaques (arrowhead), finely granular chromatin (asterisk) and prominent nucleoli (caret). (x2550)

The presence of myofibroblasts on electron microscopy significantly correlated with the presence of smooth muscle in light microscopy and expression of desmin and smooth muscle actin on immunohistochemistry (Table  5 )

Influence of gender on the processus vaginalis characteristics

The processus vaginalis sacs from four female patients with inguinal hernia did not differ statistically from the processus vaginalis sacs from thirty-three male patients with inguinal hernia with respect to presence of smooth muscles ( p  = 0.69), distribution of smooth muscle bundles ( p  = 0.146), expression of desmin ( p  = 0.609), smooth muscle actin ( p  = 0.609), presence of striated muscles ( p  = 0.052) and presence of myofibroblasts ( p  = 0.207).

The processus vaginalis is a diverticulum of the peritoneum, inside the gubernaculum. The gubernacular mesenchyme gives rise to smooth muscles, which aids in the descent of the testis into scrotum. The processus vaginalis obliterates after the descent of the testis and the obliterated processus vaginalis is devoid of smooth muscle cells. Inguinal hernia and hydrocele in children are closely associated with the presence of the smooth muscle bundles in processus vaginalis. The patent processus vaginalis in hydrocele seems to allow only the passage of fluid in contrast to inguinal hernia. The patent processus vaginalis in undescended testis usually is not associated with inguinal hernia or hydrocele. This suggests that the patent processus vaginalis differs in these three entities. Therefore, we evaluated the processus vaginalis sacs in these three pathologies using histopathology, immunohistochemistry and electron microscopy to understand the phenotypical differences in these conditions.

In our study, smooth muscles were present in 76% of inguinal hernia and 86% of hydrocele specimens, but only 20% of specimens of UDT had the presence of smooth muscles and this difference was statistically significant. Moreover, the smooth muscle cells were organised as multiple bundles in inguinal hernia and hydrocele specimens compared to UDT specimens, where the smooth muscles were sparse and scattered, if present. Our study partially concurs with the studies by Tanyel, et al. wherein the authors reported smooth muscle was present in inguinal hernia sacs but only sparse smooth muscles were seen in hydrocele and UDT sacs [ 6 , 9 ]. Whereas, a study by Piçarro, et al. observed smooth muscles in 68% of the sacs in UDT cases [ 10 ]. In all these studies, the smooth muscle cells were present in fewer patients of UDT as compared to inguinal hernia. The apparent differences in the presence of smooth muscles might be due to the age of the patients enrolled in the study. The mean (SD) of the patients enrolled in our study were 45 (± 37.7), 45.3 (± 29.8) and 44.1 (± 29.2) in inguinal hernia, hydrocele and UDT, respectively. The mean ages of the patients in the study by Tanyel, et al. [ 9 ] and Piçarro, et al. [ 10 ] were both higher. This could suggest that although processus vaginalis persists in these three conditions, the processus undergoes changes as the child grows. The smooth muscle content increases when there is failure of obliteration of processus vaginalis.

Immunohistochemical staining was done to evaluate the smooth muscle phenotype in the processus vaginalis specimens. Our study showed positive staining for desmin and SMA in 68%, 86% and 20% of the processus vaginalis sac of inguinal hernia, hydrocele and UDT, respectively and this difference was statistically significant. There was no vimentin-positive smooth muscle in any specimen. This contrasts with the report by Mouravas, et al., wherein the authors reported that vimentin was expressed by all sacs of hydrocele and half of the inguinal hernia sacs [ 11 ]. Another study by the same centre reported that vimentin was expressed in more than 90% of the UDT specimens [ 12 ]. Since vimentin is not expressed by mature smooth muscle cells, therefore the smooth muscles in processus vaginalis identified in our study were of mature phenotype. In our study, although the quantity of smooth muscle cells decreased in sacs of UDT, there was no change in the smooth muscle phenotype. Therefore, the processus vaginalis in UDT specimens are deficient in smooth muscles. Since smooth muscles in the processus vaginalis contribute to the descent of the testis, therefore the deficient smooth muscle in these specimens might contribute to the disease pathology. As the obliteration of processus vaginalis starts after the descent of the testis, the de-differentiation and apoptosis of smooth muscle cells have not started in these sacs, as evident by the mature phenotypic staining.

Myofibroblasts are intermediary cells in the process of dedifferentiation of smooth muscle cells to fibroblasts. The presence of the myofibroblasts were noted in 95%, 67% and 15% of the processus vaginalis specimens of inguinal hernia, hydrocele specimens and UDT. The presence of myofibroblasts in the majority of the specimens of hernia and hydrocele supports the theory of de-differentiation of smooth muscle cells to fibroblasts. This concurs with the results by Tanyel et al., wherein myofibroblasts were observed in all sacs of the inguinal hernia [ 13 ]. However, there is no previous literature available regarding the presence of myofibroblasts in specimens of hydrocele and UDT. The scarce presence of myofibroblasts in UDT specimens suggests that de-differentiation has not yet started in the sacs of UDT, thereby indicating the processus vaginalis undergoes de-differentiation once the descent of testis is completed. The presence of myofibroblasts on electron microscopy significantly correlated with the presence of smooth muscle in light microscopy and the expression of desmin and smooth muscle actin on immunohistochemistry in our study.

Striated muscles were observed in a few specimens of processus vaginalis in all three pathologies and this was statistically significant. The striated muscle believed to develop within the gubernaculum is the cremaster muscle. The striated muscle may have also developed through trans differentiation of the smooth muscle. Innervation appears to play a role in trans differentiation.

The processus vaginalis sacs from four female patients of inguinal hernia did not differ statistically from the processus vaginalis sacs from thirty-three male patients with inguinal hernia with respect to the presence of smooth muscles, distribution of smooth muscle bundles, expression of desmin, smooth muscle actin, presence of striated muscles and presence of myofibroblasts. This contrasts with the results of Tanyel, et al., wherein the authors reported that striated muscles were observed in sacs from girls and not the sacs from boys with inguinal hernia [ 9 ]. However, we observed striated muscles in sacs from hydrocele and UDT as well. The study by Tanyel, et al. [ 9 ] had not evaluated the other characteristics of the sacs, unlike our study. In both the studies the sample size of girls with inguinal hernia was small. Therefore, larger studies on this aspect may yield a conclusive answer regarding sexual dimorphism of the processus vaginalis sacs.

Processus vaginalis is a special structure with smooth muscle content. If the smooth muscle does not disintegrate, it may hinder the obliteration and give rise to hydrocele and inguinal hernia. The amount of persisting smooth muscle determines the clinical outcome as hernia, hydrocele or UDT. The genitofemoral nerve has been proposed to respond to androgens by release of calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) from its sensory nerve endings to control growth of the gubernaculum to the scrotum. Smooth muscles develop as a result of this signal to help in the descent of the testis. The processus vaginalis obliterates after the descent of testis. The exact mechanism of obliteration of the processus vaginalis is unknown. Failure of the obliteration of the processus vaginalis results in an inguinal hernia, hydrocele or UDT.

Our study highlights the differences in tissue composition in the processus vaginalis sacs in inguinal hernia, hydrocele and UDT, thereby resulting in the varied clinical presentation. Inguinal hernia and hydrocele sacs contain more smooth muscle cells and myofibroblasts and express desmin and SMA in greater magnitude than the sacs from UDT. Newer studies have shown the role of cytokines such as hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) and transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-b1) in the closure of processus vaginalis. The presence of HGF receptors in the processus vaginalis may indicate the role of HGF in triggering epithelial-mesenchymal transformation during inguinal hernia closure [ 14 ]. TGF-b1 is a potent fibrogenic agent and stimulates fibrosis of processus vaginalis. Mosavi, et al. have observed that the amount of TGF-b1 was higher in communicating hydrocele fluid than in non-communicating hydrocele [ 15 ]. Further studies on the role of cytokines may provide insight into the exact mechanism of obliteration of processus vaginalis.

Ours is the first study to analyze the processus vaginalis sacs of inguinal hernia, hydrocele and UDT using histology, immunohistochemistry and electron microscopy simultaneously. We evaluated the presence and maturity of smooth muscle cells using histology and immunohistochemistry and confirmed the presence of myofibroblasts using electron microscopy in all the specimens. We also analyzed the processus vaginalis sacs from female hernia patients; albeit in a smaller number. Due to the implementation of uniform protocol and accurate tests employed to evaluate the stated objectives, our study carried out in a larger sample size adds significantly to the available literature on the characteristics of the processus vaginalis in inguinal hernia, hydrocele and UDT. However, there are a few limitations of our study. The sample size of female inguinal hernia patients was small. Therefore, the validity of our results need to be studied in a larger sample before generalizing the results in this subset. We conducted a qualitative and semi-quantitative analysis on the smooth muscle presence in the processus vaginalis specimens due to technical limitations. In spite of these limitations, our study highlights the differences in the characteristics of the smooth muscle cells in inguinal hernia, hydrocele and UDT which lead to the variation in presentation in these conditions.

The processus vaginalis sacs in pediatric inguinal hernia, hydrocele and undescended testis differ in the tissue composition. The sacs in inguinal hernia and hydrocele contain smooth muscle cells distributed in bundles which express desmin and SMA. In contrast to this, the sacs from UDT contain sparse smooth muscles, if any. Similarly, the myofibroblasts are present in the sacs of inguinal hernia and hydrocele and rarely found in the sacs of UDT. Between inguinal hernia and hydrocele, smooth muscle bundles and myofibroblasts are present more often in the sacs of inguinal hernia. The clinical presentations in these entities reflect these differences.

Data availability

The raw data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Undescended Testis

Genitofemoral Nerve

Calcitonin Gene–Related Protein

α-Smooth Muscle Actin

Haematoxylin and Eosin

One-way analysis of variance

Hepatocyte growth factor

Transforming Growth Factor beta 1

Holcomb GW, Murphy JP, Peter S SD, editors. Holcomb and Ashcraft’s pediatric surgery. Seventh edition. Edinburgh; New York: Elsevier; 2020.

Google Scholar  

Tanyel FC. Obliteration of processus vaginalis: aberrations in the regulatory mechanism result in an inguinal hernia, hydrocele or undescended testis. Turk J Pediatr. 2004;46:18–27.

PubMed   Google Scholar  

Coran AG, Adzick NS. Pediatric surgery. 7th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Mosby; 2012.

Yamanaka J, Metcalfe SA, Hutson JM. Demonstration of calcitonin gene-related peptide receptors in the gubernaculum by computerized densitometry. J Pediatr Surg. 1992;27:876–8.

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Clarnette TD, Hutson JM. The genitofemoral nerve may link testicular inguinoscrotal descent with congenital inguinal hernia. Aust N Z J Surg. 1996;66:612–7.

Tanyel FC, Dağdeviren A, Müftüoğlu S, Gürsoy MH, Yürüker S, Büyükpamukçu N. Inguinal hernia revisited through comparative evaluation of peritoneum, processus vaginalis, and sacs obtained from children with hernia, hydrocele, and undescended testis. J Pediatr Surg. 1999;34:552–5.

Hosgor M, Karaca I, Ozer E, Erdag G, Ulukus C, Fescekoglu O, et al. The role of smooth muscle cell differentiation in the mechanism of obliteration of processus vaginalis. J Pediatr Surg. 2004;39:1018–23.

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Schürch W, Seemayer TA, Gabbiani G. The myofibroblast: a quarter century after its discovery. Am J Surg Pathol. 1998;22:141–7.

Tanyel FC, Talim B, Kale G, Boyokpamukçu N. Differences in the morphology of the processus vaginalis with sex and underlying disease condition. Pathol Res Pract. 2000;196:767–70.

Piçarro C, Tatsuo ES, Amaral VF, Gomez RS, Cruzeiro PC, Lanna JCBD. Morphological comparison of processus vaginalis from boys with undescended testis and hernia sacs from boys with inguinal hernia. Eur J Pediatr Surg off J Austrian Assoc Pediatr Surg Al Z Kinderchir. 2009;19:145–7.

Mouravas VK, Koletsa T, Sfougaris DK, Philippopoulos A, Petropoulos AS, Zavitsanakis A, et al. Smooth muscle cell differentiation in the processus vaginalis of children with hernia or hydrocele. Hernia J Hernias Abdom Wall Surg. 2010;14:187–91.

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Sfoungaris D, Mouravas V, Koletsa T, Lambropoulos V, Kostopoulos I, Spyridakis I. Differences in the development of the processus vaginalis between children with undescended testis and inguinal hernia. J Clin Neonatol. 2016;5:31.

Article   Google Scholar  

Tanyel FC, Müftüoglu S, Dagdeviren A, Kaymaz FF, Büyükpamukçu N. Myofibroblasts defined by electron microscopy suggest the dedifferentiation of smooth muscle within the sac walls associated with congenital inguinal hernia. BJU Int. 2001;87:251–5.

Ting AYS, Huynh J, Farmer P, Yong EXZ, Hasthorpe S, Fosang A, et al. The role of hepatocyte growth factor in the humoral regulation of inguinal hernia closure. J Pediatr Surg. 2005;40:1865–8.

Mousavi SA, Larijani LV, Mousavi SJ, Kenari SA, Darvish A. The role of transforming growth factor beta 1 in communicating and non-communicating hydrocele. Hernia J Hernias Abdom Wall Surg. 2016;20:589–92.

Download references

This study was selected for the award of financial assistance from the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) vide Ref No.3/2/March-2019/PG-Thesis-HRD.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Paediatric Surgery, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India

Nellai Krishnan, Sandeep Agarwala, Prabudh Goel & Anjan Kumar Dhua

Department of Pathology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India

Aanchal Kakkar

Department of Anatomy, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India

Tapas Chandra Nag

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

Conceptualization, N.K. and A.K.D.; Data acquisition, N.K., A.K. and T.C.N.; Formal analysis, N.K. and A.K.D.; Writing—original draft preparation, N.K.; Writing—review and editing, P.G., S.A., A.K.D., A.K., and T.C.N.; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 and A.K. and T.C.N. All authors have approved the final version of the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Anjan Kumar Dhua .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

The study was approved by the Institute Ethics Committee, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi (Ref No.: IECPG-237/22.04.2019). All procedures performed were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and is in accordance with the ethical standards of the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Informed consent was obtained from all parents of the participants.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors have no competing interests to disclose.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Krishnan, N., Kakkar, A., Nag, T.C. et al. A comparative study of smooth muscle cell characteristics and myofibroblasts in processus vaginalis of pediatric inguinal hernia, hydrocele and undescended testis. BMC Urol 24 , 115 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12894-024-01449-0

Download citation

Received : 03 October 2023

Accepted : 04 March 2024

Published : 30 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12894-024-01449-0

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Smooth muscle
• Myofibroblasts
• Processus vaginalis
• Electron microscopy
• Immunohistochemistry
• Inguinal hernia
• Undescended testis

BMC Urology

ISSN: 1471-2490

• General enquiries: [email protected]

• Open access
• Published: 01 June 2024

Biomarkers for personalised prevention of chronic diseases: a common protocol for three rapid scoping reviews

• E Plans-Beriso   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9388-8744 1 , 2   na1 ,
• C Babb-de-Villiers 3   na1 ,
• D Petrova 2 , 4 , 5 ,
• C Barahona-López 1 , 2 ,
• P Diez-Echave 1 , 2 ,
• O R Hernández 1 , 2 ,
• N F Fernández-Martínez 2 , 4 , 5 ,
• H Turner 3 ,
• E García-Ovejero 1 ,
• O Craciun 1 ,
• P Fernández-Navarro 1 , 2 ,
• N Fernández-Larrea 1 , 2 ,
• E García-Esquinas 1 , 2 ,
• V Jiménez-Planet 7 ,
• V Moreno 2 , 8 , 9 ,
• F Rodríguez-Artalejo 2 , 10 , 11 ,
• M J Sánchez 2 , 4 , 5 ,
• M Pollan-Santamaria 1 , 2 ,
• L Blackburn 3 ,
• M Kroese 3   na2 &
• B Pérez-Gómez 1 , 2   na2  

Systematic Reviews volume  13 , Article number:  147 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

241 Accesses

2 Altmetric

Metrics details

Introduction

Personalised prevention aims to delay or avoid disease occurrence, progression, and recurrence of disease through the adoption of targeted interventions that consider the individual biological, including genetic data, environmental and behavioural characteristics, as well as the socio-cultural context. This protocol summarises the main features of a rapid scoping review to show the research landscape on biomarkers or a combination of biomarkers that may help to better identify subgroups of individuals with different risks of developing specific diseases in which specific preventive strategies could have an impact on clinical outcomes.

This review is part of the “Personalised Prevention Roadmap for the future HEalThcare” (PROPHET) project, which seeks to highlight the gaps in current personalised preventive approaches, in order to develop a Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda for the European Union.

To systematically map and review the evidence of biomarkers that are available or under development in cancer, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases that are or can be used for personalised prevention in the general population, in clinical or public health settings.

Three rapid scoping reviews are being conducted in parallel (February–June 2023), based on a common framework with some adjustments to suit each specific condition (cancer, cardiovascular or neurodegenerative diseases). Medline and Embase will be searched to identify publications between 2020 and 2023. To shorten the time frames, 10% of the papers will undergo screening by two reviewers and only English-language papers will be considered. The following information will be extracted by two reviewers from all the publications selected for inclusion: source type, citation details, country, inclusion/exclusion criteria (population, concept, context, type of evidence source), study methods, and key findings relevant to the review question/s. The selection criteria and the extraction sheet will be pre-tested. Relevant biomarkers for risk prediction and stratification will be recorded. Results will be presented graphically using an evidence map.

Inclusion criteria

Population: general adult populations or adults from specific pre-defined high-risk subgroups; concept: all studies focusing on molecular, cellular, physiological, or imaging biomarkers used for individualised primary or secondary prevention of the diseases of interest; context: clinical or public health settings.

Systematic review registration

https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/7JRWD (OSF registration DOI).

Peer Review reports

In recent years, innovative health research has moved quickly towards a new paradigm. The ability to analyse and process previously unseen sources and amounts of data, e.g. environmental, clinical, socio-demographic, epidemiological, and ‘omics-derived, has created opportunities in the understanding and prevention of chronic diseases, and in the development of targeted therapies that can cure them. This paradigm has come to be known as “personalised medicine”. According to the European Council Conclusion on personalised medicine for patients (2015/C 421/03), this term defines a medical model which involves characterisation of individuals’ genotypes, phenotypes and lifestyle and environmental exposures (e.g. molecular profiling, medical imaging, lifestyle and environmental data) for tailoring the right therapeutic strategy for the right person at the right time, and/or to determine the predisposition to disease and/or to deliver timely and targeted prevention [ 1 , 2 ]. In many cases, these personalised health strategies have been based on advances in fields such as molecular biology, genetic engineering, bioinformatics, diagnostic imaging and new’omics technologies, which have made it possible to identify biomarkers that have been used to design and adapt therapies to specific patients or groups of patients [ 2 ]. A biomarker is defined as a substance, structure, characteristic, or process that can be objectively quantified as an indicator of typical biological functions, disease processes, or biological reactions to exposure [ 3 , 4 ].

Adopting a public health perspective within this framework, one of the most relevant areas that would benefit from these new opportunities is the personalisation of disease prevention. Personalised prevention aims to delay or avoid the occurrence, progression and recurrence of disease by adopting targeted interventions that take into account biological information, environmental and behavioural characteristics, and the socio-economic and cultural context of individuals. These interventions should be timely, effective and equitable in order to maintain the best possible balance in lifetime health trajectory [ 5 ].

Among the main diseases that merit specific attention are chronic noncommunicable diseases, due to their incidence, their mortality or disability-adjusted life years [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]. Within the European Union (EU), in 2021, one-third of adults reported suffering from a chronic condition [ 10 ]. In addition, in 2019, the leading causes of mortality were cardiovascular disease (CVD) (35%), cancer (26%), respiratory disease (8%), and Alzheimer's disease (5%) [ 11 ]. For all of the above, in 2019, the PRECeDI consortium recommended the identification of biomarkers that could be used for the prevention of chronic diseases to integrate personalised medicine in the field of chronicity. This will support the goal of stratifying populations by indicating an individuals’ risk or resistance to disease and their potential response to drugs, guiding primary, secondary and tertiary preventive interventions [ 12 ]; understanding primary prevention as measures taken to prevent the occurrence of a disease before it occurs, secondary prevention as actions aimed at early detection, and tertiary prevention as interventions to prevent complications and improve quality of life in individuals already affected by a disease [ 4 ].

The “Personalised Prevention roadmap for the future HEalThcare” (PROPHET) project, funded by the European Union’s Horizon Europe research and innovation program and linked to ICPerMed, seeks to assess the effectiveness, clinical utility, and existing gaps in current personalised preventive approaches, as well as their potential to be implemented in healthcare settings. It also aims to develop a Strategy Research and Innovation Agenda (SRIA) for the European Union. This protocol corresponds to one of the first steps in the PROPHET, namely a review that aims to map the evidence and highlight the evidence gaps in research or the use of biomarkers in personalised prevention in the general adult population, as well as their integration with digital technologies, including wearable devices, accelerometers, and other appliances utilised for measuring physical and physiological functions. These biomarkers may be already available or currently under development in the fields of cancer, CVD, and neurodegenerative diseases.

There is already a significant body of knowledge about primary and secondary prevention strategies for these diseases. For example, hypercholesterolemia or dyslipidaemia, hypertension, smoking, diabetes mellitus and obesity or levels of physical activity are known risk factors for CVD [ 6 , 13 ] and neurodegenerative diseases [ 14 , 15 , 16 ]; for cancer, a summary of lifestyle preventive actions with good evidence is included in the European code against cancer [ 17 ]. The question is whether there is any biomarker or combination of biomarkers that can help to better identify subgroups of individuals with different risks of developing a particular disease, in which specific preventive strategies could have an impact on clinical outcomes. Our aim in this context is to show the available research in this field.

Given the context and time constraints, the rapid scoping review design is the most appropriate method for providing landscape knowledge [ 18 ] and provide summary maps, such as Campbell evidence and gap map [ 19 ]. Here, we present the protocol that will be used to elaborate three rapid scoping reviews and evidence maps of research on biomarkers investigated in relation to primary or secondary prevention of cancer, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases, respectively. The results of these three rapid scoping reviews will contribute to inform the development of the PROPHET SRIA, which will guide the future policy for research in this field in the EU.

Review question

What biomarkers are being investigated in the context of personalised primary and secondary prevention of cancer, CVD and neurodegenerative diseases in the general adult population in clinical or public health settings?

Three rapid scoping reviews are being conducted between February and June 2023, in parallel, one for each disease group included (cancer, CVD and neurodegenerative diseases), using a common framework and specifying the adaptations to each disease group in search terms, data extraction and representation of results.

This research protocol, designed according to Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) and Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) Checklist [ 20 , 21 , 22 ] was uploaded to the Open Science Framework for public consultation [ 23 ], with registration DOI https://doi.org/ https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/7JRWD . The protocol was also reviewed by experts in the field, after which modifications were incorporated.

Eligibility criteria

Following the PCC (population, concept and context) model [ 21 , 22 ], the included studies will meet the following eligibility criteria (Table  1 ):

Rationale for performing a rapid scoping review

As explained above, these scoping reviews are intended to be one of the first materials produced in the PROPHET project, so that they can inform the first draft of the SRIA. Therefore, according to the planned timetable, the reviews should be completed in only 4 months. Thus, following recommendations from the Cochrane Rapid Review Methods Group [ 24 ] and taking into account the large number of records expected to be assessed, according to the preliminary searches, and in order to meet these deadlines, specific restrictions were defined for the search—limited to a 3-year period (2020–2023), in English only, and using only MEDLINE and EMBASE as possible sources—and it was decided that the title-abstract and full-text screening phase would be carried out by a single reviewer, after an initial training phase with 10% of the records assessed by two reviewers to ensure concordance between team members. This percentage could be increased if necessary.

Rationale for population selection

These rapid scoping reviews are focused on the general adult population. In addition, they give attention to studies conducted among populations that present specific risk factors relevant to the selected diseases or that include these factors among those considered in the study.

For cancer, these risk (or preventive) factors include smoking [ 25 ], obesity [ 26 ], diabetes [ 27 , 28 , 29 ], Helicobacter pylori infection/colonisation [ 30 ], human papillomavirus (HPV) infection [ 30 ], human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection [ 30 ], alcohol consumption [ 31 ], liver cirrhosis and viral (HVB, HVC, HVD) hepatitis [ 32 ].

For CVD, we include hypercholesterolemia or dyslipidaemia, arterial hypertension, smoking, diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, hyperglycaemia and obesity [ 6 , 13 ].

Risk groups for neurodegenerative diseases were defined based on the following risk factors: obesity [ 15 , 33 ], arterial hypertension [ 15 , 33 , 34 , 35 ], diabetes mellitus [ 15 , 33 , 34 , 35 ], dyslipidaemia [ 33 ], alcohol consumption [ 36 , 37 ] and smoking [ 15 , 16 , 33 , 34 ].

After the general search, only relevant and/or disease-specific subpopulations will be used for each specific disease. On the other hand, pregnancy is an exclusion criterion, as the very specific characteristics of this population group would require a specific review.

Rationale for disease selection

The search is limited to diseases with high morbidity and mortality within each of the three disease groups:

Cancer type

Due to time constraints, we only evaluate those malignant neoplasms with the greatest mortality and incidence rates in Europe, which according to the European Cancer Information System [ 38 ] are breast, prostate, colorectum, lung, bladder, pancreas, liver, stomach, kidney, and corpus uteri. Additionally, cervix uteri and liver cancers will also be included due to their preventable nature and/or the existence of public health screening programs [ 30 , 31 ].

We evaluate the following main causes of deaths: ischemic heart disease (49.2% of all CVD deaths), stroke (35.2%) (this includes ischemic stroke, intracerebral haemorrhage and subarachnoid haemorrhage), hypertensive heart disease (6.2%), cardiomyopathy and myocarditis (1.8%), atrial fibrillation and flutter (1.7%), rheumatic heart disease (1.6%), non-rheumatic valvular heart disease (0.9%), aortic aneurism (0.9%), peripheral artery disease (0.4%) and endocarditis (0.4%) [ 6 ].

In this scoping review, specifically in the context of CVD, rheumatic heart disease and endocarditis are not considered because of their infectious aetiology. Arterial hypertension is a risk factor for many cardiovascular diseases and for the purposes of this review is considered as an intermediary disease that leads to CVD.

• Neurodegenerative diseases

The leading noncommunicable neurodegenerative causes of death are Alzheimer’s disease or dementia (20%), Parkinson’s disease (2.5%), motor neuron diseases (0.4%) and multiple sclerosis (0.2%) [ 8 ]. Alzheimer’s disease, vascular dementia, frontotemporal dementia and Lewy body disease will be specifically searched, following the pattern of European dementia prevalence studies [ 39 ]. Additionally, because amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is the most common motor neuron disease, it is also included in the search [ 8 , 40 , 41 ].

Rationale for context

Public health and clinical settings from any geographical location are being considered. The searches will only consider the period between January 2020 and mid-February 2023 due to time constraints.

Rationale for type of evidence

Qualitative studies are not considered since they cannot answer the research question. Editorials and opinion pieces, protocols, and conference abstracts will also be excluded. Clinical practice guidelines are not included since the information they contain should be in the original studies and in reviews on which they are based.

Pilot study

We did a pilot study to test and refine the search strategies, selection criteria and data extraction sheet as well as to get used to the software—Covidence [ 42 ]. The pilot study consisted of selecting from the results of the preliminary search matrix 100 papers in order of best fit to the topic, and 100 papers at random. The team comprised 15 individual reviewers (both in the pilot and final reviews) who met daily to revise, enhance, and reach consensus on the search matrices, criteria, and data extraction sheets.

Regarding the selected databases and the platforms used, we conducted various tests, including PubMed/MEDLINE and Ovid/MEDLINE, as well as Ovid/Embase and Elsevier/Embase. Ultimately, we chose Ovid as the platform for accessing both MEDLINE and Embase, utilizing thesaurus Mesh and EmTrees. We manually translated these thesauri to ensure consistency between them. Given that the review team was spread across the UK and Spain, we centralised the search results within the UK team's access to the Ovid license to ensure consistency. Additionally, using Ovid exclusively for accessing both MEDLINE and Embase streamlined the process and allowed for easier access to preprints, which represent the latest research in this rapidly evolving field.

Identification of research

The searches are being conducted in MEDLINE via Ovid, Embase via Ovid and Embase preprints via Ovid. We also explored the feasibility of searching in CDC-Authored Genomics and Precision Health Publications Databases [ 43 ] . However, the lack of advanced tools to refine the search, as well as the unavailability of bulk downloading prevented the inclusion of this data source. Nevertheless, a search with 15 records for each disease group showed a full overlap with MEDLINE and/or Embase.

Search strategy definition

An initial limited search of MEDLINE via PubMed and Ovid was undertaken to identify relevant papers on the topic. In this step, we identified keytext words in their titles and abstracts, as well as thesaurus terms. The SR-Accelerator, Citationchaser, and Yale Mesh Analyzer tools were used to assist in the construction of the search matrix. With all this information, we developed a full search strategy adapted for each included database and information source, optimised by research librarians.

Study evidence selection

The complete search strategies are shown in Additional file 3. The three searches are being conducted in parallel. When performing the search, no limits to the type of study or setting are being applied.

Following each search, all identified citations will be collated and uploaded into Covidence (Veritas Health Innovation, Melbourne, Australia, available at www.covidence.org ) with the citation details, and duplicates will be removed.

In the title-abstract and full-text screening phase, the first 10% of the papers will be evaluated by two independent reviewers (accounting for 200 or more papers in absolute numbers in the title-abstract phase). Then, a meeting to discuss discrepancies will lead to adjusting inclusion and exclusion criteria and to acquire consistency between reviewers’ decisions. After that, the full screening of the search results will be performed by a single reviewer. Disagreements that arise between reviewers at each stage of the selection process will be resolved through discussion, or with additional reviewers. We maintain an active forum to facilitate permanent contact among reviewers.

The results of the searches and the study inclusion processes will be reported and presented in a flow diagram following the PRISMA-ScR recommendations [ 22 ].

Expert consultation

The protocol has been refined after consultation with experts in each field (cancer, CVD, and neurodegenerative diseases) who gave input on the scope of the reviews regarding the diverse biomarkers, risk factors, outcomes, and types of prevention relevant to their fields of expertise. In addition, the search strategies have been peer-reviewed by a network of librarians (PRESS-forum in pressforum.pbworks.com) who kindly provided useful feedback.

Data extraction

We have developed a draft data extraction sheet, which is included as Additional file 4, based on the JBI recommendations [ 21 ]. Data extraction will include citation details, study design, population type, biomarker information (name, type, subtype, clinical utility, use of AI technology), disease (group, specific disease), prevention (primary or secondary, lifestyle if primary prevention), and subjective reviewer observations. The data extraction for all papers will be performed by two reviewers to ensure consistency in the classification of data.

Data analysis and presentation

The descriptive information about the studies collected in the previous phase will be coded according to predefined categories to allow the elaboration of visual summary maps that can allow readers and researchers to have a quick overview of their main results. As in the previous phases, this process will be carried out with the aid of Covidence.

Therefore, a summary of the extracted data will be presented in tables as well as in static and, especially, through interactive evidence gap maps (EGM) created using EPPI-Mapper [ 44 ], an open-access web application developed in 2018 by the Evidence for Policy and Practice Information and Coordinating Centre (EPPI-Centre) and Digital Solution Foundry, in partnership with the Campbell Collaboration, which has become the standard software for producing visual evidence gap maps.

Tables and static maps will be made by using R Studio, which will also be used to clean and prepare the database for its use in EPPI-Mapper by generating two Excel files: one containing the EGM structure (i.e. what will be the columns and rows of the visual table) and coding sets, and another containing the bibliographic references and their codes that reviewers had added. Finally, we will use a Python script to produce a file in JSON format, making it ready for importation into EPPI-Reviewer.

The maps are matrixes with biomarker categories/subcategories defining the rows and diseases serving as columns. They define cells, which contain small squares, each one representing each paper included in it. We will use a code of colours to reflect the study design. There will be also a second sublevel in the columns, depending on the map. Thus, for each group of diseases, we will produce three interactive EGMs: two for primary prevention and one for secondary prevention. For primary prevention, the first map will stratify the data to show whether any or which lifestyle has been considered in each paper in combination with the studied biomarker. The second map for primary prevention and the map for secondary prevention will include, as a second sublevel, the subpopulations in which the biomarker has been used or evaluated, which are disease-specific (i.e. cirrhosis for hepatic cancer) researched. The maps will also include filters that allow users to select records based on additional features, such as the use of artificial intelligence in the content of the papers. Furthermore, the EGM, which will be freely available online, will enable users to view and export selected bibliographic references and their abstracts. An example of these interactive maps with dummy data is provided in Additional file 5.

Finally, we will elaborate on two scientific reports for PROPHET. The main report, which will follow the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) recommendations, will summarise the results of the three scoping reviews, will provide a general and global interpretation of the results and will comment on their implication for the SRIA, and will discuss the limitations of the process. The second report will present the specific methodology for the dynamic maps.

This protocol summarises the procedure to carry out three parallel rapid scoping reviews to provide an overview of the available research and gaps in the literature on biomarkers for personalised primary and secondary prevention for the three most common chronic disease groups: cancer, CVD and neurodegenerative diseases. The result will be a common report for the three scoping reviews and the online publication of interactive evidence gap maps to facilitate data visualisation.

This work will be complemented, in a further step of the PROPHET project, by a subsequent mapping report on the scientific evidence for the clinical utility of biomarkers. Both reports are part of an overall mapping effort to characterise the current knowledge and environment around personalised preventive medicine. In this context, PROPHET will also map personalised prevention research programs, as well as bottlenecks and challenges in the adoption of personalised preventive approaches or in the involvement of citizens, patients, health professionals and policy-makers in personalised prevention. The overall results will contribute to the development of the SRIA concept paper, which will help define future priorities for personalised prevention research in the European Union.

In regard to this protocol, one of the strengths of this approach is that it can be applied in the three scoping reviews. This will improve the consistency and comparability of the results between them, allowing for better leveraging of efforts; it also will facilitate the coordination among the staff conducting the different reviews and will allow them to discuss them together, providing a more global perspective as needed for the SRIA. In addition, the collaboration of researchers with different backgrounds, the inclusion of librarians in the research team, and the specific software tools used have helped us to guarantee the quality of the work and have shortened the time invested in defining the final version of this protocol. Another strength is that we have conducted a pilot study to test and refine the search strategy, selection criteria and data extraction sheet. In addition, the selection of the platform of access to the bibliographic databases has been decided after a previous evaluation process (Ovid-MEDLINE versus PubMed MEDLINE, Ovid-Embase versus Elsevier-Embase, etc.).

Only 10% of the papers will undergo screening by two reviewers, and if time permits, we will conduct kappa statistics to assess reviewer agreement during the screening phases. Additionally, ongoing communication and the exchange and discussion of uncertainties will ensure a high level of consensus in the review process.

The main limitation of this work is the very broad field it covers: personalised prevention in all chronic diseases; however, we have tried to maintain decisions to limit it to the chronic diseases with the greatest impact on the population and in the last 3 years, making a rapid scoping review due to time constraints following recommendations from the Cochrane Rapid Review Methods Group [ 24 ]; however, as our aim is to identify gaps in the literature in an area of growing interest (personalisation and prevention), we believe that the records retrieved will provide a solid foundation for evaluating available literature. Additionally, systematic reviews, which may encompass studies predating 2020, have the potential to provide valuable insights beyond the temporal constraints of our search.

Thus, this protocol reflects the decisions set by the PROPHET's timetable, without losing the quality and rigour of the work. In addition, the data extraction phase will be done by two reviewers in 100% of the papers to ensure the consistency of the extracted data. Lastly, extending beyond these three scoping reviews, the primary challenge resides in amalgamating their findings with those from numerous other reviews within the project, ultimately producing a cohesive concept paper in the Strategy Research and Innovation Agenda (SRIA) for the European Union, firmly rooted in evidence-based conclusions.

Council of European Union. Council conclusions on personalised medicine for patients (2015/C 421/03). Brussels: European Union; 2015 dic. Report No.: (2015/C 421/03). Disponible en: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52015XG1217(01)&from=FR .

Goetz LH, Schork NJ. Personalized medicine: motivation, challenges, and progress. Fertil Steril. 2018;109(6):952–63.

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

FDA-NIH Biomarker Working Group. BEST (Biomarkers, EndpointS, and other Tools) Resource. Silver Spring (MD): Food and Drug Administration (US); 2016 [citado 3 de febrero de 2023]. Disponible en: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK326791/ .

Porta M, Greenland S, Hernán M, dos Silva I S, Last JM. International Epidemiological Association, editores. A dictionary of epidemiology. 6th ed. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press; 2014. p. 343.

Google Scholar  

PROPHET. Project kick-off meeting. Rome. 2022.

Roth GA, Mensah GA, Johnson CO, Addolorato G, Ammirati E, Baddour LM, et al. Global burden of cardiovascular diseases and risk factors, 1990–2019. J Am College Cardiol. 2020;76(25):2982–3021.

Article   Google Scholar  

GBD 2019 Cancer Collaboration, Kocarnik JM, Compton K, Dean FE, Fu W, Gaw BL, et al. Cancer incidence, mortality, years of life lost, years lived with disability, and disability-adjusted life years for 29 cancer groups from 2010 to 2019: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2019. JAMA Oncol. 2022;8(3):420.

Feigin VL, Vos T, Nichols E, Owolabi MO, Carroll WM, Dichgans M, et al. The global burden of neurological disorders: translating evidence into policy. The Lancet Neurology. 2020;19(3):255–65.

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

GBD 2019 Collaborators, Nichols E, Abd‐Allah F, Abdoli A, Abosetugn AE, Abrha WA, et al. Global mortality from dementia: Application of a new method and results from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. A&D Transl Res & Clin Interv. 2021;7(1). Disponible en: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/trc2.12200 . [citado 7 de febrero de 2023].

Eurostat. ec.europa.eu. Self-perceived health statistics. European health interview survey (EHIS). 2022. Disponible en: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Self-perceived_health_statistics . [citado 7 de febrero de 2023].

OECD/European Union. Health at a Glance: Europe 2022: State of Health in the EU Cycle. Paris: OECD Publishing; 2022. Disponible en: https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/health-at-a-glance-europe-2022_507433b0-en .

Boccia S, Pastorino R, Ricciardi W, Ádány R, Barnhoorn F, Boffetta P, et al. How to integrate personalized medicine into prevention? Recommendations from the Personalized Prevention of Chronic Diseases (PRECeDI) Consortium. Public Health Genomics. 2019;22(5–6):208–14.

Visseren FLJ, Mach F, Smulders YM, Carballo D, Koskinas KC, Bäck M, et al. 2021 ESC Guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice. Eur Heart J. 2021;42(34):3227–337.

World Health Organization. Global action plan on the public health response to dementia 2017–2025. Geneva: WHO Document Production Services; 2017. p. 27.

Norton S, Matthews FE, Barnes DE, Yaffe K, Brayne C. Potential for primary prevention of Alzheimer’s disease: an analysis of population-based data. Lancet Neurol. 2014;13(8):788–94.

Mentis AFA, Dardiotis E, Efthymiou V, Chrousos GP. Non-genetic risk and protective factors and biomarkers for neurological disorders: a meta-umbrella systematic review of umbrella reviews. BMC Med. 2021;19(1):6.

Schüz J, Espina C, Villain P, Herrero R, Leon ME, Minozzi S, et al. European Code against Cancer 4th Edition: 12 ways to reduce your cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol. 2015;39:S1-10.

Tricco AC, Langlois EtienneV, Straus SE, Alliance for Health Policy and Systems Research, World Health Organization. Rapid reviews to strengthen health policy and systems: a practical guide. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2017. Disponible en: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/258698 . [citado 3 de febrero de 2023].

White H, Albers B, Gaarder M, Kornør H, Littell J, Marshall Z, et al. Guidance for producing a Campbell evidence and gap map. Campbell Systematic Reviews. 2020;16(4). Disponible en: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cl2.1125 . [citado 3 de febrero de 2023].

Aromataris E, Munn Z. editores. JBI: JBI Manual for Evidence Synthesis; 2020.

Peters MDJ, Marnie C, Tricco AC, Pollock D, Munn Z, Alexander L, et al. Updated methodological guidance for the conduct of scoping reviews. JBI Evid Synth. 2020;18(10):2119–26.

Tricco AC, Lillie E, Zarin W, O’Brien KK, Colquhoun H, Levac D, et al. PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and Explanation. Ann Intern Med. 2018;169(7):467–73.

OSF. Open Science Framework webpage. Disponible en: https://osf.io/ . [citado 8 de febrero de 2023].

Garritty C, Gartlehner G, Nussbaumer-Streit B, King VJ, Hamel C, Kamel C, et al. Cochrane Rapid Reviews Methods Group offers evidence-informed guidance to conduct rapid reviews. Journal Clin Epidemiol. 2021;130:13–22.

Leon ME, Peruga A, McNeill A, Kralikova E, Guha N, Minozzi S, et al. European code against cancer, 4th edition: tobacco and cancer. Cancer Epidemiology. 2015;39:S20-33.

Anderson AS, Key TJ, Norat T, Scoccianti C, Cecchini M, Berrino F, et al. European code against cancer 4th edition: obesity, body fatness and cancer. Cancer Epidemiology. 2015;39:S34-45.

Barone BB, Yeh HC, Snyder CF, Peairs KS, Stein KB, Derr RL, et al. Long-term all-cause mortality in cancer patients with preexisting diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2008;300(23):2754–64.

Article   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Barone BB, Yeh HC, Snyder CF, Peairs KS, Stein KB, Derr RL, et al. Postoperative mortality in cancer patients with preexisting diabetes: systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Care. 2010;33(4):931–9.

Noto H, Tsujimoto T, Sasazuki T, Noda M. Significantly increased risk of cancer in patients with diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Endocr Pract. 2011;17(4):616–28.

Villain P, Gonzalez P, Almonte M, Franceschi S, Dillner J, Anttila A, et al. European code against cancer 4th edition: infections and cancer. Cancer Epidemiology. 2015;39:S120-38.

Scoccianti C, Cecchini M, Anderson AS, Berrino F, Boutron-Ruault MC, Espina C, et al. European Code against Cancer 4th Edition: Alcohol drinking and cancer. Cancer Epidemiology. 2016;45:181–8.

El-Serag HB. Epidemiology of viral hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Gastroenterology. 2012;142(6):1264-1273.e1.

Li XY, Zhang M, Xu W, Li JQ, Cao XP, Yu JT, et al. Midlife modifiable risk factors for dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 34 prospective cohort studies. CAR. 2020;16(14):1254–68.

Ford E, Greenslade N, Paudyal P, Bremner S, Smith HE, Banerjee S, et al. Predicting dementia from primary care records: a systematic review and meta-analysis Forloni G, editor. PLoS ONE. 2018;13(3):e0194735.

Xu W, Tan L, Wang HF, Jiang T, Tan MS, Tan L, et al. Meta-analysis of modifiable risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2015;86(12):1299–306.

PubMed   Google Scholar  

Guo Y, Xu W, Liu FT, Li JQ, Cao XP, Tan L, et al. Modifiable risk factors for cognitive impairment in Parkinson’s disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Mov Disord. 2019;34(6):876–83.

Jiménez-Jiménez FJ, Alonso-Navarro H, García-Martín E, Agúndez JAG. Alcohol consumption and risk for Parkinson’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Neurol agosto de. 2019;266(8):1821–34.

ECIS European Cancer Information System. Data explorer | ECIS. 2023. Estimates of cancer incidence and mortality in 2020 for all cancer sites. Disponible en: https://ecis.jrc.ec.europa.eu/explorer.php?$0-0$1-AE27$2-All$4-2$3-All$6-0,85$5-2020,2020$7-7,8$CEstByCancer$X0_8-3$CEstRelativeCanc$X1_8-3$X1_9-AE27$CEstBySexByCancer$X2_8-3$X2_-1-1 . [citado 22 de febrero de 2023].

Bacigalupo I, Mayer F, Lacorte E, Di Pucchio A, Marzolini F, Canevelli M, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis on the prevalence of dementia in Europe: estimates from the highest-quality studies adopting the DSM IV diagnostic criteria Bruni AC, editor. JAD. 2018;66(4):1471–81.

Barceló MA, Povedano M, Vázquez-Costa JF, Franquet Á, Solans M, Saez M. Estimation of the prevalence and incidence of motor neuron diseases in two Spanish regions: Catalonia and Valencia. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):6207.

Ng L, Khan F, Young CA, Galea M. Symptomatic treatments for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis/motor neuron disease. Cochrane Neuromuscular Group, editor. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2017;2017(1). Disponible en: http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/14651858.CD011776.pub2 . [citado 13 de febrero de 2023].

Covidence systematic review software. Melbourne, Australia: Veritas Health Innovation; 2023. Disponible en: https://www.covidence.org .

Centre for Disease Control and Prevention. Public Health Genomics and Precision Health Knowledge Base (v8.4). 2023. Disponible en: https://phgkb.cdc.gov/PHGKB/specificPHGKB.action?action=about .

Digital Solution Foundry and EPPI Centre. EPPI Centre. UCL Social Research Institute: University College London; 2022.

Download references

Acknowledgements

We are grateful for the library support received from Teresa Carretero (Instituto de Salud Carlos III, ISCIII) and, from Concepción Campos-Asensio (Hospital Universitario de Getafe, Comité ejecutivo BiblioMadSalud) for the seminar on the Scoping Reviews methodology and for their continuous teachings through their social networks.

Also, we would like to thank Dr. Héctor Bueno (Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares (CNIC), Hospital Universitario 12 de Octubre) and Dr. Pascual Sánchez (Fundación Centro de Investigación de Enfermedades Neurológicas (CIEN)) for their advice in their fields of expertise.

The PROPHET project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon Europe research and innovation program under grant agreement no. 101057721. UK participation in Horizon Europe Project PROPHET is supported by UKRI grant number 10040946 (Foundation for Genomics & Population Health).

Author information

Plans-Beriso E and Babb-de-Villiers C contributed equally to this work.

Kroese M and Pérez-Gómez B contributed equally to this work.

Authors and Affiliations

Department of Epidemiology of Chronic Diseases, National Centre for Epidemiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain

E Plans-Beriso, C Barahona-López, P Diez-Echave, O R Hernández, E García-Ovejero, O Craciun, P Fernández-Navarro, N Fernández-Larrea, E García-Esquinas, M Pollan-Santamaria & B Pérez-Gómez

CIBER of Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain

E Plans-Beriso, D Petrova, C Barahona-López, P Diez-Echave, O R Hernández, N F Fernández-Martínez, P Fernández-Navarro, N Fernández-Larrea, E García-Esquinas, V Moreno, F Rodríguez-Artalejo, M J Sánchez, M Pollan-Santamaria & B Pérez-Gómez

PHG Foundation, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

C Babb-de-Villiers, H Turner, L Blackburn & M Kroese

Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria Ibs. GRANADA, Granada, Spain

D Petrova, N F Fernández-Martínez & M J Sánchez

Escuela Andaluza de Salud Pública (EASP), Granada, Spain

Cambridge University Medical Library, Cambridge, UK

National Library of Health Sciences, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain

V Jiménez-Planet

Oncology Data Analytics Program, Catalan Institute of Oncology (ICO), L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, 08908, Spain

Colorectal Cancer Group, ONCOBELL Program, Institut de Recerca Biomedica de Bellvitge (IDIBELL), L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, 08908, Spain

Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain

F Rodríguez-Artalejo

IMDEA-Food Institute, CEI UAM+CSIC, Madrid, Spain

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

BPG and MK supervised and directed the project. EPB and CBV coordinated and managed the development of the project. CBL, PDE, ORH, CBV and EPB developed the search strategy. All authors reviewed the content, commented on the methods, provided feedback, contributed to drafts and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to E Plans-Beriso .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

There are no conflicts of interest in this project.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Additional file 1: glossary., additional file 2: glossary of biomarkers that may define high risk groups., additional file 3: search strategy., additional file 4: data extraction sheet., additional file 5: example of interactive maps in cancer and primary prevention., rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Plans-Beriso, E., Babb-de-Villiers, C., Petrova, D. et al. Biomarkers for personalised prevention of chronic diseases: a common protocol for three rapid scoping reviews. Syst Rev 13 , 147 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-024-02554-9

Download citation

Received : 19 October 2023

Accepted : 03 May 2024

Published : 01 June 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-024-02554-9

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Personalised prevention
• Precision Medicine
• Precision prevention
• Cardiovascular diseases
• Chronic diseases

Systematic Reviews

ISSN: 2046-4053

• Submission enquiries: Access here and click Contact Us
• General enquiries: [email protected]