presentation on rain water harvesting

• My presentations

Auth with social network:

Download presentation

We think you have liked this presentation. If you wish to download it, please recommend it to your friends in any social system. Share buttons are a little bit lower. Thank you!

Presentation is loading. Please wait.

RAIN WATER HARVESTING.

Published by Malcolm Carson Modified over 6 years ago

Similar presentations

Presentation on theme: "RAIN WATER HARVESTING."— Presentation transcript:

Groundwater What is it and why is it important?

Rain Water Harvesting : An alternate Source of Water

PRESENTED BY S.S.GEHLOT ADEN/BR/JU G.S. GAUTAM ADEN/JND S.P.VYAS AXEN/C/JU R. MATHUR AXEN/C/JP GUIDED BY SH. A.K.GUPTA PROF.TRACK-I IRICEN-PUNE.

RAIN WATER HARVESTING By KASHMIR DASS BAWA. Every year, the water level in the state PUNJAB goes down by one metre. If this continues, the state will.

Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting Pre-implementation guide for schools.

Kathmandu Valley And Scarcity Rainwater Harvesting.

Chapter 14 Water.

SAVE WATER:RAIN WATER HARVESTING WHAT IS RAIN WATER HARVESTING Rainwater harvesting is the accumulating and storing of rainwater for reuse before it.

RAINWATER HARVESTING IN THE HOSPITALITY SECTOR

Rainwater Harvesting.

Sanitary Engineering Lecture 16

Our Society needs a better understanding

GAUTAM BANERJEE UP Jal Nigam

Training of Trainers in Entrepreneurship Development in Rain Water Harvesting Techniques of rain water harvesting Workshop Conducted By Eureka Forbes Institute.

How to reduce water consumption and reduce costs

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF Ms.D.TARANGINI Rain Water Harvesting System & Management.

Groundwater and Surface water in a Watershed

Sanitary Engineering Lecture 11. Storm Water Runoff Storm water runoff is the precipitation which seeps into the ground if precipitation occurs faster.

Fresh Water and Resources Chapter 11 and Chapter 12.

Watersheds and Groundwater. What is a WATERSHED?  What do you think of when you hear the term “watershed”?

About project

© 2024 SlidePlayer.com Inc. All rights reserved.

Let your search flow

Explore perspectives, what is a perspective.

Perspectives are different frameworks from which to explore the knowledge around sustainable sanitation and water management. Perspectives are like filters: they compile and structure the information that relate to a given focus theme, region or context. This allows you to quickly navigate to the content of your particular interest while promoting the holistic understanding of sustainable sanitation and water management.

Lecture 2: Rainwater Harvesting

Rainwater harvesting describes decentralised water management system that can be installed in houses, institutions and communities. This lecture slides introduce the different components of rainwater harvesting systems (for a thematic overview and possible measures for rural and urban areas, see also precipitation harvesting ).

Rainwater Harvesting and Utilisation: An Environmentally Sound Approach for Sustainable Urban Water Management: An Introductory Guide for Decision-Makers

This document serves as guide for decision-makers. It explains the importance of rainwater harvesting in urban areas and includes examples and technology description.

Rainwater Reservoirs above Ground Structures for Roof Catchment

This manual offers advice on the construction of different types of storage tanks and includes technical advice for the construction work as well as illustrative sketches.

Water Harvesting

Water harvesting has been practiced successfully for millennia in parts of the world – and some recent interventions have also had significant local impact. Yet water harvesting’s potential remains largely unknown, unacknowledged and unappreciated. These guidelines cover a wide span of technologies from large-scale floodwater spreading to practices that collect and store water from household compounds.

Rainwater harvesting: Solution to water crisis - Technology and systems

This website provides a lot of information on RWH including different technologies for rural as well as urban applications and examples from India.

www.eng.warwick.ac.uk

The International Rainwater Catchment Systems Association (IRCSA) aims to promote and advance rainwater catchment systems technology with respect to planning, development, management, science, technology, research and education worldwide. Its website contains factsheets and papers related to rainwater harvesting.

www.irha-h2o.org

The International Rainwater Harvesting Alliance (IRHA) was created in Geneva in November 2002 following recommendations formulated during the World Summit for Sustainable Development in Johannesburg two months earlier. The mandate calls for federation and unification of the disparate rainwater harvesting (RWH) movement around the world.

www.gharainwater.org

The Greater Horn of Africa Rainwater Partnership (GHARP) is a regional network of National Rainwater Associations (NRWA) from the Greater Horn of Africa (GHA) countries. This website includes the GHARP newsletter, media articles, publications on the topic of rainwater harvesting.

Alliance internationale pour la gestion d'eau de pluie

The video corner of the IRHA (International Rainwater Harvesting Alliance) provides, among others, videos related to rainwater harvesting.

Alternative Versions to

Perspective structure.

• Module 1: Sustainability in Relation to Water and Sanitation
• Course Material
• Further Resources: SSWM Concept
• Further Resources: SSWM background
• Module 2: Centralised and Decentralised Systems for Water and Sanitation
• Further Resources: Water Distribution
• Further Resources: Water Purification
• Further Resources: Wastewater Collection
• Further Resources: Wastewater Treatment
• Module 3: Ecological Sanitation and Natural Systems for Wastewater Treatment
• Further Resources: Reuse and Recharge
• Further Resources: SSWM Background
• Module 4: Sustainable Water Supply
• Further Resources: Water Sources Hardware
• Further Resources: Water Sources Software
• Further Resources: Water Use
• Module 5: Health and Hygiene
• Further Resources: Background (Health and Hygiene Issues)
• Further Resources: Softwares
• Module 6: Disaster Situations: Planning and Preparedness
• Module 7: Socio-Economic Aspects
• Further Resources: Background
• Module 8: Water and Sanitation for Future Challenges
• Further Resources: Climate Change
• Further Resources: Phosphorus and Food Security
• Further Resources: Water and Sanitation to All
• Training of Trainers

You Might Be Interested In

• Leach Field
• Waste Stabilization Ponds (WSP)
• Operation and Maintenance

Contenidos de la ficha

Comparte con otros, subscribe to our newsletter.

• YouTube Thumbnail Downloader
• Image Compressor
• QR Code Generator
• Environment
• Submit An Article
• Privacy Policy
• Terms and Conditions

What is Rainwater Harvesting Technique? – PowerPoint Presentation

• by Refresh Science
• May 10, 2020 January 6, 2022

Rainwater Harvesting is a technique used to collect rainwater from roofs & above surfaces of the buildings and store it for later use. Rainwater harvesting is collecting, storing, filtering & purifying of rainwater for future. It has been adapted in various parts of the world where conventional water supply systems fail to meet people’s needs. It is the best way to collect rainwater that flows off waste.  

Water is natural resource which is necessary for all the living beings to survive in the word. Even though our planet is surrounded by 3/4 parts of water, only 1% of it can be utilised for human use. Water is necessary not only for drinking but also for day to day usage, agriculture, industrial & commercial purposes. Due to the globalisation, contamination and other reasons, water scarcity is developed all over the world. Water is important for the existence of all the organisms in the world. So, it is necessary to conserve water for our self and the future to come.  

Water ratio is balanced by rainfall & evaporation by the nature. Rainwater harvesting is an effective method implemented to prevent water scarcity.

What are the benefits of rainwater harvesting ?

The best part of rainwater harvesting is that it saves time and money. It is a sustainable water management practice that can be implemented by anyone in different levels.

• It can be implemented in less cost.
• It reduce the water bill
• Prevents soil erosion
• Prevents quality & quantity of ground water
• It is easy to implement and operate
• Can get pure water that is free from chemicals

Download Rainwater Harvesting as PowerPoint Presentation:

Components of rainwater harvesting, 1. catchment area.

The collection area, i.e., the roof of the building is the first component to collect water.

2. Conveyance system

The gutter is referred as the conveyance system. That is the pathway of the water to flow from roof to the storage area.  

3. First flush & filter

It is used to flush out the first spell of rain to clear the dust particles in the roof and to remove the pollutants . If proper filter installation is not maintained, there is chances of ground water being contaminated. After first flush of rainfall, the water should pass through filters. Filters are used to treat water effectively without contamination and store the water clean. It filters dust, leaves and other organic matters. There are different types of filter. They are sand gravel filter, charcoal filter, PVC pipe filter, sponge filter. The basic function of the filter is to purify water and send pure water to storage system. The type of filter to be implemented depends on testing the density of the soil, cost, nature of surface and intensity of rainfall.  

4. Storage system

  It depends and varies according the building structure, size and material of construction. It can be stored in underground tanks or above tanks. The tanks should always be placed on a stable and level area to prevent it from leaking or collapsing. It can also be allowed to recharge the bore wells or dig wells as a recharge system to increase the quality & quantity of water.  

5. Delivery system

  It is the pump that required to distribute the water inside or outside the building.  

Types of Rainwater Harvesting

There are two types rainwater harvesting:

1. Surface Runoff harvesting

In urban areas water flows away unwantedly into the sea or as surface runoff. This runoff water can be collected and used for recharging system by adopting harvesting methods.

2. Rooftop Rainwater harvesting

The rainwater is collected from the buildings roof and stored to the tank or the recharge system. It is less expensive and is useful to increase the ground water level if implemented in correct manner.

There are various methods of rooftop rainwater harvesting. They are described below.

Storing for Direct use

This is the most cost effective way of rainwater harvesting. In this rainwater collected from the rooftop is stored directly in the tank. The tank is designed accordingly with first flush and filtration system before the storage tank. It is also designed with a overflow control system, so that the excess water can be diverted to the recharge system. This method is most commonly implemented in houses and buildings. The stored water can be used for secondary purposes as house hold usages. It not only saves rainwater, but also the cost of transporting and distributing water to doorstep. It is useful to conserve ground water and collect rainwater effectively.

Recharging groundwater aquifers

Groundwater can be recharged by draining the rainwater into the borewells, dugwells, pits, trenches or percolation tanks.

Recharging of Borewells

The collected water from the rooftop is send directly to the filtration system. After filtration the water is diverted to borewells to get recharged. Abandoned borewells are also used as recharging aquifers. The first flow of rain should be flushed out to avoid contamination and to restrict clogs.

Recharging of Dugwells

Dug wells can also be used as recharging system. The collected water from the catchment pipes are directly send to the dug wells after filtration process. The filtration can be suggested as done in the bore well recharging system. The dug wells should be maintained by cleaning and desalting in regular intervals to maintain the recharged water quality.

Recharge pits

Recharge pits are smalls pits that are constructed using bricks or masonry walls. The pits can be made of any shape circle, rectangle or square. It is mostly implemented in small houses or buildings. The top of pit can be covered and the bottom is filled with filter medium. The capacity of the pit is designed depending on the catchment area, density of the soil and the usual intensity of rainfall in the area.

Recharge Trenches

The recharge trenches are made where the upper layer of the soil does not allow fluids to pass into. The recharge trenches are dig in the ground and is refilled with stones, small rocks or bricks. It is usually implemented in the surface runoff areas to enhance percolation. It is suitable in parks, playgrounds and roadside drains.

Percolation Tanks

Percolation tanks are artificial tanks that are constructed on land that is highly permeable. It is constructed by earthen materials that allows the water to pass through it. The water then collected is percolated in the ground. It allows to enhance the groundwater quality. Both surface runoff and roof top water can be diverted into percolation tanks. It can be implemented in gardens, open spaces and roadside of urban areas. The collected water can be used for gardening purposes, and other raw uses.

  As a result of harvesting rainwater, the need amount of water is obtained through many operations for industrial wide and house needs without depending on other water sources. It also reduces the soil erosion and floods. It reduces the water bills and also can be implemented in less cost. Chemical free water is obtained for irrigation and watering gardens. Can be used for several non- drinking purposes. With increase in population the water needs are continuously increasing and rainwater harvesting decreases the demand of ground water in the areas of water scarcity.  

Every Drop Counts… 

2 thoughts on “What is Rainwater Harvesting Technique? – PowerPoint Presentation”

Pingback:  List of Top 20 Environmental concerns across the world - Refresh Science

Pingback:  Is drinking alkaline water good for you ? - Refresh Science

Comments are closed.

The Potential of RainWater Harvesting Systems in Europe – Current State of Art and Future Perspectives

• Open access
• Published: 16 May 2024

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Katarzyna Wartalska   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5855-3607 1 ,
• Martyna Grzegorzek   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6245-9090 2 ,
• Maciej Bełcik   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7652-6031 1 ,
• Marcin Wdowikowski   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2693-0946 1 ,
• Agnieszka Kolanek   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2305-5763 1 , 4 ,
• Elżbieta Niemierka   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4846-6550 3 ,
• Piotr Jadwiszczak   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3896-2056 3 &
• Bartosz Kaźmierczak   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4933-8451 1  

225 Accesses

Explore all metrics

Water scarcity and climate change led to changes in water management, especially in urban areas. RainWater Harvesting (RWH) is a promising technique that allows the collection and reuse of rainwater, as well as protecting sewage systems from overload. This article reviews the current state of RWH in Europe, including advantages, implementation, potential efficiency, usage requirements, quality, and treatment processes. The main findings include the importance of RWH as a sustainable water management technique, the historical background and renewed interest in RWH systems in recent years, the positive impact of RWH on reducing energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions, the versatility of rainwater usage, and the potential cost savings and benefits in various regions. RWH systems are gaining popularity in Europe, particularly in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. Climate change and precipitation patterns affect rainwater availability and quality. RWH can be used for various purposes, including drinking, but requires proper purification for health safety. It is also being implemented in new locations like airports and large buildings. RWH systems have a high potential to overcome undesired results of climate change. Among that, numerous aspects still need to be considered in the future that allow the application of RWH systems on a larger scale.

Similar content being viewed by others

A comprehensive review of water quality indices (WQIs): history, models, attempts and perspectives

Advantages and disadvantages of techniques used for wastewater treatment

Drinking Water Quality and Public Health

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

Historically, rainwater in European cities was considered a waste and hazard, and infrastructure was built to quickly remove it from building surroundings (Gimenez-Maranges et al. 2020 ). City growth and surface sealing exacerbated the issue and, as a consequence, stormwater drainage systems became more complex (Porse 2013 ). However, they can harm the ecosystem polluting incoming waterways severely and degrading the environment (Todeschini et al. 2014 ). Sealed surfaces lead to distraction in urban water cycle by decreasing the infiltration abilities and resulting in groundwater resources being difficult to recharge. Groundwater and surface water are inseparably linked (Banerjee and Ganguly 2023 ). Interactions between them are responsible e.g. for contaminant transport, and understanding it helps to estimate the effects of climate change, land use on chemical behavior, and the nature of water. Thus the understanding of their interactions is crucial for proper water management (Banda et al. 2023 ; Duque et al. 2023 ). More frequent intensive rainfall, related with climate change, enhance rapid surface runoff concentration (Kleidorfer et al. 2014 ; Hassan et al. 2017 ). The overlap of abovementioned factors results in cities being more prone both to urban flooding (excess water) and drought periods (water scarcity) phenomena (Mohammed et al. 2003 ).

Sustainable and resilient stormwater management is crucial. Low-Impact Development (LID) approach is nowadays recognized as a sustainable and economic solution to mitigate the negative impact of urbanization and climate change on hydrological processes, e.g. by restoring infiltration and runoff control (both peak flow and volume reduction) at the urban catchment scale (Liu et al. 2019 ; Singh et al. 2020 ; Castillo-Rodríguez et al. 2021 ; Cristiano et al. 2021 ; Ghodsi et al. 2021 ; Kaur and Gupta 2022 ). Rainwater is retained at the place of it occurrence. The LID structures relieve stormwater drainage systems, enhancing water infiltration and evapotranspiration processes (Palla and Gnecco 2022 ).

LID is also a solution for water scarcity issues. Overexploitation of water resources affects global food security and well-being. Only 2% of worldwide water resources are available to people. Importantly, water demand increased 6 times between 1990 and 1995. Agriculture accounted for about 70% of demand (Bwambale et al. 2022 ). Current water resources are scarce or seasonal. About 25% of the world’s population has water-related health issues. Therefore, it is important to control microbiological and physico-chemical water characteristics. Population development, forest fires, and industrial expansion change rainwater chemistry. To improve its quality, treatment techniques must be implemented (Morales Rojas et al. 2021 ). Following treatment, rainwater can be used for potable purposes, including cooking and drinking, and non-potable purposes like flushing toilets, cleaning, and watering (Khan 2023 ).

Rainwater harvesting is not a new solution. Term “Water Sowing and Harvesting” was adopted from Latin America, where it involved gathering and infiltration (sowing) of rainwater, surface runoff, and groundwater to recover (harvesting) it later (Albarracín et al. 2021 ). This approach based on integrated water resources management and nature based solutions for water retention in aquifers. Promoting RainWater Harvesting (RWH), as an element of LID approach, is a promising way to reduce water scarcity and find an alternative water supply (Shanmugavel and Rajendran 2022 ). RWH systems become a viable economic and environmental option for populations without potable water (Akuffobea-Essilfie et al. 2020 ). There were grounds for the recent introduction of RWH systems to solve water scarcity: (1) humans use over half of freshwater runoff; (2) over 1 billion people lack access to clean potable water and almost 3 billion lack basic sanitation services; (3) the human population grows faster than freshwater recharge (availability per capita will decrease in the coming century); and (4) climate change will intensify water cycle. RWH systems can reduce resource use (Campisano et al. 2017 ), but their effectiveness depends on various factors: water demand, climate parameters, and sustainable design (Kapli et al. 2023 ). Cheap and cost-effective extended-operation RWH systems are essential for sustainability (Musz-Pomorska et al. 2020 ).

Although many research was undertaken on RWH utilization and effectiveness, many of them are case studies and are focused on specific aspects or presented with a high degree of generality. The information is scattered throughout many publications. The aim of the article is a systematic and comprehensive review of the RWH systems in Europe. The focus on this continent is related to the broad diversity of climatic, legislative, and socioeconomic conditions. The article covers various RWH aspects: utilization, factors affecting efficiency with climate change influence, implementation, limitations, application purposes, rainwater quality, and treatment processes. The innovation of the review lies in the synthesis of all these aspects in one paper, while these topics usually state separate publications.

2 Methodology

The work focused on reviewing the state of knowledge in 5 areas, presented in subsections:

the implementation of RWH systems in Europe and reasons why these solutions have become attractive to society (Chap. 3.1),

meteorological conditions that predispose European countries to effectively use rainwater and the impact of climate change on the RWH potential (Chap. 3.2),

water supply purposes in which tap water is replaced with rainwater, requirements and limitations on its use (Chap. 3.3),

characteristics and legislation regulating the rainwater quality (Chap. 3.4),

rainwater treatment processes (Chap. 3.5).

The paper focuses on scientific articles in peer-reviewed international journals, published in English, mainly between 2000 and 2023, except for a few published before 2000 due to the relevance of illustrating previous approaches to the topic and trends. The common search engines were used: Google Scholar, Scopus, Microsoft Academic, ScienceDirect, Mendeley, and ResearchGate, as well as websites of the water-related journals. To isolate publications related to RainWater Harvesting, a 4-step process was used:

Step 1 . A systematic literature review was conducted using keywords, citations, and related articles to identify relevant publications. A list of keywords used for subsequent subsections is provided below:

Section  3.1 : alternative water sources; rainwater purposes; water saving solutions; RWH: advantages, funding programs, implementation, RWH in Europe; RWH systems;

Section  3.2 : atmospheric circulation; climate change; hydrological factors; meteorological conditions; meteorological elements; precipitation patterns; water cycle;

Section  3.3 : rainwater in: cities, households, urban agriculture; rainwater outdoor uses; rainwater potable and non-potable uses; rainwater quality requirements; rainwater usage and limitations; RWH in airports; water consumption structure;

Section  3.4 and 3.5 : drinking water quality; rainwater: composition, compounds, contamination, disinfection, documents, filtration, legislation, ordinance, pollutants, pollution, purification, quality, treatment; water quality regulations.

Step 2. Reading abstracts for preliminary analysis and selection of publications found in Step 1 in terms of research topics. Papers not closely related to RWH, or in which the presented research was not conducted in Europe, were rejected.

Step 3 . Analysis of full texts of publications selected in the previous step. The decision to include publication in the review was made considering the following questions:

Is the article consistent with the topic of the work?

Does the publication cover Europe?

Do the methods described have practical applications?

Is the article consistent with current trends?

Is the data presented in the work up to date?

At this stage, publications cited in selected works were also checked.

Step 4 . Final selection of publications. Information resulting from the review was organized in Sect. 3 of this review.

3 Review of the Current Knowledge State

3.1 rwh advantages, implementation stage, and funding programs in europe.

RWH systems have a long history, described in many works (Fewkes 2012 ; Angelakis 2016 ; Yannopoulos et al. 2017 ). They were utilized less in the 20th century due to better supply technologies, but they are presently becoming more popular as a water source worldwide. Despite advancements in technology, providing clean drinking water remains a challenge worldwide due to increasing demand and depleting traditional sources (Lieste et al. 2007 ; Schets et al. 2010 ; Santos et al. 2020 ). These negative impacts are caused by unsustainable human activity, population increase, urbanization, and climate change (Che-Ani et al. 2009 ). Water supply systems often face long-distance water distribution issues (from water intake to the users). On hot days, when demand is high, the water supply will face one of their biggest challenges (Rak et al. 2021 ). In the event of waterworks failure or inefficient water supply wells, RWH systems provide an alternative source of water (Marlow et al. 2013 ), and sometimes may be even the principal source (de Sá Silva et al. 2022 ). RWH can reduce water stress and be an adaptation strategy to climate change (Hassell 2005 ; Yannopoulos et al. 2019 ).

RWH is not confined to water-scarce areas. Rainwater is free and decreases water companies’ costs. Energy used to collect, purify, distribute, and store water accounts for most of these expenditures, e.g. in Germany it accounts for 1.71 kWh/m 3 , and it is estimated that water supply systems use 7% of global electricity (Wakeel et al. 2016 ). Alternative water sources reduce tap water and energy use. However, RWH systems use electricity, therefore energy consumption is a key factor in assessing their profitability (de Sá Silva et al. 2022 ).

Due to reduced tap water consumption, RWH extend the lifespan of centralized water distribution infrastructure (Lopes et al. 2017 ; Viola et al. 2023 ) and can extend house devices life due to the purity of rainwater (Che-Ani et al. 2009 ). Many implementation manuals and design guidelines define local RWH system design configurations, including German (DIN 1989 ), British (British Standards Institute 2013a , b ), Italian (UNI 2012 ), and French industrial standards (AFNOR 2011 ). RWH systems are cheap and easy to maintain. Users benefit from their modularity, which allows extension, reconfiguration, and transfer (Che-Ani et al. 2009 ), as well as from reduction of tap water bills, e.g.in a typical Slovak household it accounts for €225/year (Pavolová et al. 2019 ). RWH systems improve the state economy by reducing tap water use and water purification expenses (Vargas-Parra et al. 2013 ). Reduced environmental pollution, heat waves, and fine dust (Dallman et al. 2021 ; Nandi and Gonela 2022 ; Jin et al. 2023 ), reduction of new investments in aging or expanding urban water infrastructure, and expanding water infrastructure are other benefits (Lopes et al. 2017 ).

Rainwater should be also seen as a hazard that must be controlled. Urban floods, erosion, landslides, and unexpected surges undermine infrastructure due to severe rainfall. Climate change affecting air temperature and precipitation patterns, and increases flood frequency (Faragò et al. 2019 ; Hofman-Caris et al. 2019 ; Bieroza et al. 2021 ). Urban drainage systems typically cannot absorb climate-induced rainwater streams (Hussain et al. 2022 ; Kumar et al. 2022 ), but can be relieved through rainwater collection, which makes RWH a strategy for minimizing the flood risk and surface water quality degradation (Palla et al. 2017 ; Stephan and Stephan 2017 ). New research has examined the application of RWH systems to reduce soil erosion (Jiang et al. 2013 ), urban runoff volumes and peaks (Malinowski et al. 2015 ), urban drainage system pressure and electricity demand (de Sá Silva et al. 2022 ).

Proper rainwater management reduces dry conditions and boosts resilience. Technical, economic, and social innovations are needed (Musz-Pomorska et al. 2020 ). RWH systems improve water use and energy efficiency (water-energy nexus), and bring environmental and social advantages (de Sá Silva et al. 2022 ). However, these systems need government actions to make them financially attractive (Wanjiru and Xia 2018 ) and numerous European governments begun legal or subsidy schemes to promote RWH, similarly as the EU (Campisano et al. 2013 ). RWH implementation and technology selection depend heavily on local rules, and varies between European countries (Campisano et al. 2017 ; Musz-Pomorska et al. 2020 ). Scientific literature also shows growing interest in RWH systems - in 2017, 57% of publications about rainwater collection were published in Europe (Morote et al. 2020 ).

Germany is one of the leaders in the RWH systems use and research. The concept of using rainwater appeared in 1970–1975 due to management issues with water supply and sewage systems (Fewkes 2012 ). It evolved in the 1980s with the focus on low impact development technologies (García Soler et al. 2018 ). In the 1990s, the conceptualization of combining several decentralized rainwater management techniques appeared, which is now the approach being a mandatory element of integrated storm water management (DWA 2016 ). Rainwater must be kept on site whenever possible under German water law (Fletcher et al. 2015 ). RWH systems became popular because urban drainage fees are based on impermeable property surfaces - disconnecting roofs from the sewage system is profitable (Herrmann and Schmida 2000 ). Around 75,000 RWH systems are installed in Germany each year, and 2/3 of newly built homes have them. Property owners only need to notify water supply companies about construction, no authorization is needed. Bremen subsidize RWH installation at 1/3 of the cost of residential RWH. Thuringia offers residential property program loans up to EUR 5,000. Saarland and Schleswig-Holstein both provide subsidies (Schuetze 2013 ).

For climate change adaptation, the Netherlands has set policy goals to increase urban water retention capacity. The first Water Plan (2001), Water City 2035 (2005), the transformation to the second integrated Water Plan (2007), the Rotterdam Climate Proof Program (2008), the Rotterdam Adaptation Strategy (2013), the Resilience Program (2014), and the Water Sensitive Rotterdam Program (2015) are programs related to the water management vision in Rotterdam. Rotterdam Water City 2035, a non-official policy approach produced by urban planners and urban water experts, is noteworthy (de Graaf and der Brugge 2010 ).

Great Britain also protects water resources. The 2008 Future Water Program (DEFRA 2008 ) aimed to cut tap water use to 130 L per person per day by 2030. It is achievable when using rainwater for flushing toilets or watering plants. About 7,500 residential and commercial RWH systems were installed in 2011 (Fewkes 2012 ). There is no regulation in the UK for them, but there is a code of practice (BS 8515:2009) for system design, installation, maintenance, water quality, and risk management (Ministry of Housing 2009 ).

RWH systems are not well-developed in other European countries. Italian researchers studied rainfall efficiency for rainwater use (Paciarotti, C.; Ciarapica, F.E.; Giacchetta; Liuzzo et al. 2016 ). The main obstacles to RWH system development in Italy were consumer reluctance and lack of design guidelines. Several Spanish towns mandate RWH system installation for new buildings with gardens (Domènech and Saurí 2011 ; Campisano et al. 2017 ). France imposed legal regulations in 2008 (now withdrawn) and a tax relief (Article 49 of the Water Act of December 30, 2006). RWH was used in sustainable urban development systems in a former big industrial and port area in southern Stockholm (Campisano et al. 2017 ). In Flanders (Belgium), new buildings with roofs over 100 m 2 must have RWH systems (De Gouvello et al. 2014 ). RWH is also becoming popular in Austria (Knoll et al. 2021 ), Switzerland, Denmark, and Poland (Carollo et al. 2023 ; Viola et al. 2023 ), where the main factor in RWH system development is the price of tap water (Campisano et al. 2017 ).

3.2 Meteorological Conditions in Europe – RWH Efficiency Potential

Climate change threatens water supply worldwide by changing meteorological variables (precipitation patterns, air temperature, humidity), affecting extreme weather events and heatwaves. RainWater Harvesting has been studied in susceptible places to improve community resilience to unexpected weather and climate change affecting water availability. The intricate interactions of air circulation, precipitation patterns, and climatic fluctuations affect European RWH systems. Exposure projections show substantial hazard scenarios, especially those associated with rising temperatures and geographical patterns largely regulated by local climate (Forzieri et al. 2016 ). European heatwaves and precipitation patterns are affected by the NAO and atmospheric blockage. The NAO phase index, in particular, has been associated with changes in precipitation distribution, e.g. with NAO positive, unrelated events leading to increased precipitation and cold air in the southern part of Europe, resulting in high temperatures contracting to the northern part of Europe (Li et al. 2020 ).Variations in regional air circulation across Europe during the Last Glacial Maximum affected precipitation patterns in Southern, Central, and Eastern Europe (Ludwig et al. 1955 ). Long-term variations in seasonal rainfall patterns in Europe have been connected to dynamics, highlighting the complex interaction between meteorological dynamics and precipitation patterns (Hoffmann and Spekat 2021 ). From the 1960s to 1990, synoptic weather patterns decreased anticyclonic and increased cyclonic, decreasing solar irradiance variability in Northern Europe (Parding et al. 2016 ). The need to understand and anticipate atmospheric circulation and precipitation patterns is also underscored by uncertainties in estimating future atmospheric river changes and their effects on heavy precipitation across Europe (Gao et al. 2016 ). Northern Europe has seen a 10–40% rise in rainfall, while Southern Europe has seen a 20% decline. This could lead to a decrease in drinking water availability in Southern Europe, affecting water resources (Senent-Aparicio et al. 2017 ; Dezsi et al. 2018 ; Gwoździej-Mazur et al. 2022 ).

Understanding how climate change affects RWH in Central European households, is crucial. Summerville and Sultana (Summerville and Sultana 2019 ) discovered that household RWH in 46 European cities can save 20–100% of non-potable water, depending on climate zones. Rainwater quality is affected by shifting European precipitation patterns. The health dangers assessment related to rainwater obtained from different rooftops has emphasized the need for a rigorous inquiry to determine the true effects of continuous rainwater consumption and alternative solutions (Hamilton et al. 2019 ; Osayemwenre and Osibote 2021 ; Juiani et al. 2023 ). These studies reveal the practical ramifications of RWH systems under varied meteorological circumstances and their efficiency in regulating precipitation outside Europe, making this topic global.

3.3 RWH as an Alternative Water Source, Requirements, and Limitations

RWH systems collect rainwater generated from roofs, terraces, and courtyards during rainfall events and store it in reservoirs to meet water demands for various uses (Zhang et al. 2019 ; Teston et al. 2022 ; Jegnie et al. 2023 ). Households use 10% of EU water for hygiene, flushing toilets, washing, cooking, watering gardens, and other cleaning activities (EEA 2017 ). The majority of tap water (62%) is used for hygiene and toilet flushing. Detailed water use structure in selected European countries is given in Online Resource 1. Water consumption purposes can be divided into potable and non-potable uses. In the first scenario, water must meet strict quality standards because it has contact with humans and may harm them. Potable uses include drinking, cooking, and hygiene. Due to no human contact, the water may be lower quality in the second situation. These include toilet flushing, laundry, cleaning, car washing, and garden watering (Antunes et al. 2020 ).

Rainwater replaces tap water for non-potable and potable uses worldwide (Campisano et al. 2017 ; Zhang et al. 2019 ). Depending on meteorological circumstances, RWH systems in residences can save 12–100% tap water. RWH is mostly pushed in wealthy nations like Belgium, France, and Germany to supplement non-potable uses including toilet flushing, clothes washing, outside washes, and irrigation (Silva et al. 2015 ). Still, using rainwater just for toilet flushing can cut tap water use by one-third for an average family (Nolde 2007 ; Campisano et al. 2013 ). Rainwater is eagerly used for home applications due to its often better properties in terms of composition compared to hard tap water (Sklenárová 2011 ):

effective dissolution effects (perfect for laundry, washing floors, cleaning),

no minerals (suitable for window cleaning or car washing – leaving no white patches),

no aggressive chlorine,

warmer (suitable for watering plants),

soft (does not form limescale),

behaves similarly to distilled water.

In certain nations, rainwater is only used for non-potable purposes due to industrial air pollution and severe water quality laws, e.g. according to The Netherlands’ water regulations (Schets et al. 2010 ) household rainwater can only be used as gray water for flushing toilets (a consequence of hundreds of people getting sick from low-quality home water due to drinking water and rainwater networks cross-connection). The standards warn of the danger of infection from gray water exposure – it should be less than one infection per 10,000 persons yearly. No worldwide standard governs potable or non-potable rainwater quality. In Germany, the DIN 1989 standard allows rainwater to be used without restrictions for non-potable purposes. Simultaneously, the German Drinking Water Act requires using tap water for washing (Schuetze 2013 ). The DL 23/95 in Portugal limits the use of non-tap water to pavement washing, irrigation, firefighting, and nonfood-related industrial production. Rainwater cannot be used for drinking or personal hygiene in France (Vialle et al. 2015 ).

Rainwater is used for outdoor purposes (Sample and Liu 2014 ; Zhang et al. 2019 ): watering lawns and gardens, composting, washing vehicles and equipment, fire protection, outdoor ponds, swimming pools, cleaning the exterior of buildings. Plants develop better when watered with rainwater (as being chlorine-free and salt-free). Plants grow faster by developing larger root system and become less sensitive to droughts by reducing salt accumulation in the soil (rainwater “moves” salts away from the root zone) (Che-Ani et al. 2009 ; Salehi-Lisar and Bakhshayeshan-Agdam 2016 ). Although there is limited study on using rainwater for urban agriculture, it can be used to grow food in the city (Hume et al. 2022 ). In Antalya, where half of Turkey’s greenhouses are located, RWH systems may cover plant needs (Ertop et al. 2023 ). Recently, green roofs and rain gardens have gained popularity due to improving urban microclimate. They require water for maintenance and using harvested rainwater saves water and cools the urban heat island (Fewkes 2012 ). The research on rainfall-runoff relation between green roof and RWH system in Paris has been investigated (Xie et al. 2023 ).

Rainwater is frequently collected in office buildings, which utilize approximately 50% of the water for flushing toilets (Griggs, J.C., Shouler, M.C.; Hall 1997 ). RWH systems for flushing toilets has high water savings efficiency, varying between 0.6 and 100% (depending on rainfall) (Ward et al. 2012 ; Yan et al. 2018 ). Research results proof that commercial buildings can meet water demand with rainwater. The literature discusses using RWH in educational buildings, where the highest potential for potable water savings was 53.2% (Teston et al. 2022 ), and in hospitals, where 20–30% water savings are estimated, but these few studies were conducted in a semi-arid region (Fulton 2018 ). Another article discusses the RWH system designed for a sewage treatment plant near Mirandela (Portugal) to wash vehicles, equipment, clean concrete and asphalt surfaces, and water greenery (Sanches Fernandes et al. 2015 ). Similar research was undertaken in the South of Portugal, where a substantial potential for the feasibility of RW systems in retail stores has been proven (Ferreira et al. 2023 ).

Airports may require as much water as medium and big towns (equal to a city of 30,000–34,000 people). Nearly 65% of airport water demand does not require tap water quality: air cooling, irrigation, aircraft and hard surface washing, fire protection, and toilet flushing. The rainwater replacement rates depend on the purpose of usage (Blokker et al. 2011 ): terminals and offices had the highest factor of 0.7 due to toilet flushing’s large contribution of water use; hangars and cargo buildings amounts to 0.5, and hotels to 0.1 (the lowest value) due to utilizing water for hygiene and cooking. Airports may collect more rainwater than households due to their huge roofs (Jaiyeola 2017 ). Among European airports with RWH systems, following can be listed: Frankfurt International, Orly and Charles de Gaulle, Brussels International, Heathrow, Zurich. Only a few studies have examined RWH’s potential at airports. RWH system was considered for Manchester Airport, for non-potable uses including road sweepers and fire training (as of 2007) (Carvalho et al. 2013 ). Rainwater might replace 58% of Schiphol airport’s non-potable water demand while being stored in five empty jet fuel silos (Kuller et al. 2017 ), but the long payback period (30-year) makes it uneconomical.

Rainwater quality criteria vary by use. If consumed, it must fulfill drinking water standards. WHO, EPA, and EU have issued such guidelines. WHO established drinking water quality standards (WHO 2022 ) and regulates physicochemical and microbiological factors to ensure that water is safe to drink. These inspired other nations to pass WHO-based laws. However, EPA prepares reports on water contaminants. To preserve water resources from agricultural pollution, the EU has passed significant laws. The Drinking Water Directive (DWD) of Council Directive 98/83/EC (and its modification EU 2015/1787) was the basis for state-level regulation in Europe. When water distribution systems serve more than 50 people or produce more than 10 m 3 /day, water quality analysis is required. However, the regulation does not apply to families and small water treatment plants. The option of creating water from different sources is also ignored. The Drinking Water Directive warns consumers of the dangers of contaminated water and ensures clean drinking water (Morales-Figueroa et al. 2023 ). Regulation of the Minister of Health of December 7, 2017, on the quality of water meant for human consumption sets Polish quality standards. The document specifies physicochemical and microbiological parameters, and also sampling technique and frequency. The document controls ion concentration, pH, conductivity, color, and turbidity. For microbiological parameters, regulate  E. coli , coliform bacteria, Pseudomonas aeruginosa , and  Legionella .

The WHO Joint Monitoring Program calls rainfall an “improved” water source and stresses the need to prevent fecal bacteria contamination. The program covers small and large drinking water sources. However, the law should also cover other drinking water sources. Water quality and safety must be updated. Proposal EC COM 753/2017 on the quality of water intended for human consumption, EC Best Environmental Management Practice in the Tourism Sector, Harvesting Rainwater for Domestic Uses: An Information Guide (Environment Agency), European Commission, 83/1998 EC DWD also cover rainwater use and drinking water quality.

3.4 Rainwater Quality

3.4.1 factors influencing the quality of rainwater and sources of pollution.

Rainwater reactivity is neutral, its hardness is minimal, and disinfection byproducts are absent compared to groundwater or surface water. However, it absorbs contamination upon contact with the ground. The quality of collected water is influenced by the following factors (Abbasi-Garravand and Mulligan 2014 ):

characteristics of atmospheric phenomena (intensity, duration, wind speed),

meteorological factors (seasons, duration of no-rainfall period, weather characteristics),

pollutants concentration in the atmosphere,

roof material, location, geometry, substances present on the surface (polarity, solubility, Henry’s constant), and maintenance works.

Many organic and inorganic substances in the air react with water. In rural areas, rainwater mainly contains dissolved gasses, while in highly urbanized areas anthropogenic influences are visible. Rainfall intensity and duration greatly affect rainfall quality (Willey et al. 2011 ; Ortega Sandoval et al. 2019 ). Wet deposition washes off 90% of atmospheric microbes, heavy metals, and organic compounds during rainfall. Water that had not touched the surface had little metal content – mainly calcium, potassium, and sodium, less often copper, zinc, iron, sulfates, and phenols. Their presence is mostly caused by transport and fuel combustion pollutants (Hofman-Caris et al. 2019 ; Jose and Heidy 2022 ).

Research (Zdeb et al. 2020 ) confirms the influence of the roof material on pollutants found in collected rainwater revealing differences quality of water collected from roof surfaces and collected directly from rainfall. Roofs made of copper, zinc, or covered with paints with metal admixtures may be a source of heavy metals and it is not recommended to collect water from their surfaces. Steel surfaces absorb less atmospheric particles than asphalt surfaces, allowing for high-quality rainwater collection. Wooden shingles also encourage lichens and mosses, which raise total organic carbon (TOC), nitrates, and sulfates. The roof surface roughness influences the water turbidity and concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus compounds. The sources of organic compounds may be bird droppings, plant pollen, spores of fungi and bacteria, or bryophytes and lichens growing on the roof. To limit the secondary development of microorganisms, rainwater parameters should meet the stability criteria: the concentration of biodegradable organic carbon below 0.25 mgC/L, the sum of inorganic nitrogen concentrations below 0.2 mg/L, and phosphates below 0.03 mg/L. The collected water is microbiologically clean when the roof is galvanized steel and the worst quality is for epoxy and concrete roof surfaces. The season affects microbiological quality: rainwater had the best quality in fall, and the poorest in summer (Raimondi et al. 2023 ). Investigations of the dependence of the rainwater quality on different collection surfaces (roof covered with felt, “blue roof” covered with felt and gravel fraction, and parking) is presented also in (Mazurkiewicz et al. 2022 ).

Rainwater harvested from roads may contain heavy metals released from tires or brakes and organic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons generated during incomplete combustion processes. The type of storage tank used can also affect the properties of the water – plastic tanks may give rainwater slightly acidic properties and concrete tanks – alkaline. There is a risk of bacterial, viral, and protozoan contamination from the excrement of animals that enter to the tank. Therefore, it is recommended to test for bacteria, enterococci, and E. coli (Gromaire et al. 2002 ; Helmreich and Horn 2009 ). Typical rainwater components and their source can be classified as (Mosley 2005 ):

dust and ash – surrounding dirt and vegetation, volcanic activity;

pathogenic bacteria – bird and other animal droppings on the roof and attached to dust;

heavy metals – dust, particularly in urban and industrialized areas, roof materials;

other inorganic contaminants – seaspray, industrial discharges to air, tank/roof materials;

mosquito larvae – mosquitos laying eggs in guttering and/or tank.

3.4.2 Research Conducted on the Quality of Rainwater in Europe

Many research were undertaken across Europe regarding rainwater quality. Research (Keresztesi et al. 2019 ) presented data on the rainwater quality from 27 European countries in years 2000–2017. It was observed that in most cases the share of individual ions in the tested waters was in the following order: \({\text{S}\text{O}}_{4}^{2-}\) > Cl − > Na + > \({\text{N}\text{H}}_{4}^{+}\) > \({\text{N}\text{O}}_{3}^{-}\) > H + > Ca 2+ > Mg 2+ > K + > HCO 3 - . In all countries, the dominant ion was the sulfate anion with content varied from 40.60 mval/L (in Spain) to 48.38 mval/L (in Lithuania). In the case of cations, the Na + ion dominated. The pH value of rainwater was between 4.19 and 5.82. The pH of rainwater in an unpolluted atmosphere at equilibrium is 5.6, values below this level are considered acidic. In Central Europe, both the lowest and highest pH values (4.56 and 5.33, respectively) were recorded in Belarus. In Northern Europe, the precipitation was more acidic, with the lowest (4.47) and highest (5.15) pH values found in Estonia and Great Britain. The obtained pH values indicate a significant impact of anthropogenic activities, but also natural factors: sea aerosols, volcanic activity, biogenic materials, and dust on the ground as a result of the weathering process. Main research findings emphasize that in Europe particular ions in rainwater come from: the sea (Na + and Mg 2+ ), biomass combustion (K + ), soils and weathering processes of limestone and dolomites (Ca 2+ ), anthropogenic sources ( \({\text{S}\text{O}}_{4}^{2-}\) and NH 4 + ), and road transport ( \({\text{N}\text{O}}_{3}^{-}\) ).

It should be emphasized that the distribution of pollutants was relatively uniform, which is related to uniform laws and standards introduction regarding environmental protection. Uniform regulations enable comparison of the values obtained in tests with European standards for drinking water quality. According to many works related to rainwater quality research, it was decided to describe in detail only few of them, and the broader rainwater characteristics from research are attached in Online Resource 2.

Rainfall quality studies conducted in industrial areas (nickel, cobalt, and copper production and apatite mining) in the Arctic region of Northern Europe (Reimann et al. 1997 ) showed the presence of 38 heavy metals in collected rainwater, with clearly increased concentrations of calcium, chlorine, sodium, copper, cobalt, nickel, molybdenum, iron, magnesium, and strontium. Rainwater has low pH of 3.7–6.5 and an electrical conductivity of 0.4–9 mS/m. Exceedances were found for contaminants related to the Barents Sea proximity: Cl - and Na + .

Rainwater quality in France was tested in the period 1995–2007 (Pascaud et al. 2016 ). Analysis of the ion content showed seasonal variability – 21 mval/L in winter and 37 mval/L in summer, which is related to the intensification of photocatalytic reactions in the summer season. The usage of large amounts of contaminated coal resulted in an increase of \({\text{S}\text{O}}_{4}^{2-}\) content in winter compared to the summer season. Over the years 1995–2007, the average sulfates concentration in rainwater was reduced by 30%, the nitrates concentration remained constant (reduction only in some areas), and ammonium concentration had a decreasing trend. The reduction of sulfates, nitrates, and ammonium is probably related to the application of legal regulations on the emission of these compounds into the atmosphere. The ammonium ion content reached the highest value (42–46 mval/L) in seasons with higher temperatures, probably due to the release of ammonia into the atmosphere from fertilizers.

The occurrence of bacteria in rainwater is a matter of concern because of people’s exposure to diseases and is increasingly discussed in research, also in France (Vialle et al. 2011 , 2012 ). The amount of psychrophilic bacteria (22 °C) was 10 to 6.32·10 5 organisms/ml, higher than mesophilic bacteria (36 °C).  E.coli was found in 79% of samples, and enterococci sometimes exceeded 10,000 colony forming units (CFU)/100 ml.  Aeromonas  bacteria (43%),  Pseudomonas   aeruginosa (41%), and  Legionella pneumophila  (700 CFU/L) were also found in the water. Similar results were obtained in other work (Fewtrell and Kay 2007 ).

Several studies on rainwater quality have been carried out also in Poland. The statistically significant downward trend in the pollutant load from precipitation was observed (IMGW-PIB 2023 ). Measurements for 2022 revealed a total surface load of 31.97 kg/ha/yr, lower by approximately 33% than the average value for the period 1999–2021. Compared to 1999, the country’s area load was lower by over 50% (Fig.  1 ).

Average annual deposition and annual rainfall in years 1999–2022 (IMGW-PIB 2023 )

Research was conducted also in protected areas (National Parks). In the Tatra Mountains (Małecki et al. 2022 ) pH increased from 5.22 to 5.95 in years 2002–2019 and was higher than for years 1993–1994, when pH reached 4.39. Electrical conductivity fell from 15.2 to 10.4 µS/cm (comparing to 32.71 µS/cm in the 1990s). These trends confirm the air quality improvement during the period. Sulfates, nitrates, calcium, chloride, sodium, and ammonium nitrogen concentrations reduced with time. Magnesium and potassium levels rose. Research conducted in Roztocze National Park (Grabowski et al. 2023 ) revealed high turbidity (up to 6.7 NTU) and conductivity (up to 84.64 µS/cm). High concentrations of bacteria in the samples, reaching 70 CFU/100 ml for E. coli and 120 CFU/100 ml for enterococci were also obtained.

Pavolova et al. (Pavolová et al. 2019 ) tested rainwater quality in Slovakia. The pH ranged between 6.5 and 8.4. The dissolved substance content did not exceed 118 mg/L. Rainwater had low calcium and magnesium levels. No metals (Ni, Zn, Hg, Fe, Al, Pb, and Cr) were found.

Rainwater quality was tested in significant mining and industry areas (mainly steel and machinery) in south-eastern Romania (Keresztesi et al. 2020 ). The average pH values ranged from 6.18 to 7.06 showing the acidic nature of rainwater. It was shown that lower-intensity rainfall usually carried a higher pollutant load. In two of the three areas, the ion content in rainwater showed a similar order: Ca 2+ > \({\text{S}\text{O}}_{4}^{2-}\) > Mg 2+ > Cl - > \({\text{N}\text{H}}_{4}^{+}\) > \({\text{H}\text{C}\text{O}}_{3}^{-}\) > K + > Na + > \({ \text{N}\text{O}}_{3}^{-}\) > \({\text{N}\text{O}}_{2}^{-}\) > H + , with the dominant cations were Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ , the large share of which may have resulted from the mining processes of calcite and dolomite rocks (CaCO 3 and MgCO 3 ). The largest share of over 43% in the total sum of all collected anions had SO 4 2- . In the last studied area, the concentration of ions in rainwater was in a different order in terms of their concentration: Cl - > Ca 2+ > \({\text{N}\text{H}}_{4}^{+}\) > Mg 2+ > \({\text{S}\text{O}}_{4}^{2-}\) > Na + > \({\text{H}\text{C}\text{O}}_{3}^{-}\) > \({\text{N}\text{O}}_{3}^{-}\) > K + > H + > \({\text{N}\text{O}}_{2}^{-}\) . The dominant cations were Ca 2+ , \({\text{N}\text{H}}_{4}^{+}\) , Mg 2 +, which accounted for almost 84% of the total sum of cations, while the dominant anion was Cl - , constituting over 58% of their mass. The highest heavy metals concentrations were detected for Pb and Cd, and significantly lower for Ni and As. Another research on rainwater quality can be found in (Arsene et al. 2007 ).

Research conducted on the Black Sea coast (Alagha and Tuncel 2003 ) showed low pH values of rainwater, corresponding with high concentrations of \({\text{S}\text{O}}_{4}^{2-}\) and NO 3 - , indicating its acidic nature. Most precipitation events with a pH value below 5 occurred in winter due to burning fuels and coal. A high share of Cl - and Na + ions was demonstrated, indicating a large share of marine waters in precipitation.

Orlovic-Leko et al. (Orlović-Leko et al. 2020 ) analyzed the quality of rainwater in Croatia. The concentration of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) reached 0.69–4.86 mg C/L, whose origin was mainly related to road transport and the operation of thermal power plants using various types of fuels. These contents are comparable to the results obtained during studies in 1998–1999 (0.78–4.39 mg C/L) and 2003–2007 (0.67–4.03 mg C/L) (Leko et al. 2004). The highest values of heavy metals occurred for Al and Fe, 569.4 and 405.8 µg/m 2 d, respectively, as well as for Cr, Zn, Ba, and Mn (20–40 µg/m 2 d). The lowest fluxes (< 0.4 µg/m 2 d) were found for Se, Cd, Co, and Mo. The combination of Zn and Co with typical geological markers (Al, Fe, Sr, Ti) suggested that they entered rainwater along with dust lifted from road surfaces. Mo and As were most correlated with Cu, indicating generation during fuel combustion.

Research results on rainwater quality in Greece (Sazakli et al. 2007 ) indicated the pH above neutral ranging of 7.63–8.80 and low conductivity < 220 µS/cm. The concentrations of sodium ranged from 2 to 11 mg/dm 3 and from 3 to 16 mg/dm 3 for chlorine ions. The tests showed high concentrations of CaCO 3 (from 24 to 74 mg/dm 3 ). Seasonal variability of ion content and conductivity was demonstrated, higher in winter compared to other periods. Microbiological quality tests detected coliform bacteria in over 80% of samples, with E. coli bacteria detected in 40.9% and enterococci in 28.8% of the samples.

In Aveiro (Portugal) research conducted in 2009 were compared to results obtained in 1986–1989 (Santos et al. 2011 ). The significant predominance of chloride ions is related to the close location of the Atlantic Ocean, with a comparable level over the years. The concentrations of ammonium ion and nitrates in winter were lower compared to other ions. Over the past 20 years, an increase in the content of nitrogen compounds has been observed, which is related to the development of transport and industry, and a decreasing trend in the sulfur ion content, which may be the result of a decrease in the sulfur content in diesel fuels.

Quality of rainwater depending on the collection surface was conducted in Barcelona (Spain) (Farreny et al. 2011 ; Angrill et al. 2017 ). The main findings are as follows:

the worst quality was observed for asphalt promenades and parking lots (the highest values of chemical oxygen demand (COD), \({\text{N}\text{O}}_{3}^{-}\) , \({\text{H}\text{C}\text{O}}_{3}^{-}\) , \({\text{P}\text{O}}_{4}^{3-}\) and \({\text{S}\text{O}}_{4}^{2-});\)

for concrete surfaces high concentrations of chlorine and iron were found (related to the use of salt in winter and the corrosion of metal parts);

a higher concentration of organic matter and lower concentration of ammonia was detected in rainwater from ground level than from roofs;

the microbiological rainwater quality did not differ between surfaces and is comparable to the quality of surface- and groundwater;

rainwater had similar total suspended solids for different materials (only metal roofs with slightly lower values);

the highest TOC values were found for a gravel roof (up to 53.6 mgC/L), and the lowest values (< 10 mgC/L) for sheet metal and polycarbonate;

clay and gravel roof samples demonstrated higher conductivity than metal and polycarbonate roof samples, ranging from 15.4 to 456 µS/cm;

the highest or significantly higher concentrations of ions ( \({\text{S}\text{O}}_{4}^{2-}\) , NO 2 - , NO 3 - , \({\text{N}\text{H}}_{4}^{+}\) , PO 4 3- , Cl -, and total carbonates), in almost all cases were found for water collected from a gravel roof, apart from NH 4 + , for which a gravel roof showed the lowest concentration and sheet metal and polycarbonate – the highest.

Experiments on the composition of rainwater were also carried out in Turkey (Guzel 2021 ). The pH of the samples ranged from 5.81 to 7.27. The electrical conductivity varied between 22.1 and 126.2 uS/cm. The content of ionic substances was arranged as follows: Ca 2+ > Na + > \({\text{S}\text{O}}_{4}^{2-}\) > Cl - > Mg 2+ > NO 3 - > \({\text{N}\text{H}}_{4}^{+}\) > K + > PO 4 3- > NO 2 - > F - . The sampling site was located close to the coast and forests, but also to an industrial area, so the contaminants’ origin were both natural and anthropogenic sources. The average content of ions was as follows: calcium 470.6 mg/L, sodium 133.8 mg/L, sulfates 116.2 mg/L, chlorides 94.0 mg/L, magnesium 82.8 mg/L, nitrate 57.9 mg/L, ammonium 39.2 mg/L, potassium 20.9 mg/L. Phosphates, nitrites, and fluorides had the lowest content (17.7, 14.3, and 1.6 mg/L, respectively). Among the trace substances present were: Al (34.52 µg/L) > Fe (26.03 µg/L) > Ba (20.67 µg/L) > Mn (18.06 µg/L) > B (16.39 µg/L) > Sr (16.27 µg/L) L) > Cu (10.42 µg/L). The concentration of these substances was higher in the spring (dry) season than in the winter (wet) season, and was the result of industrial activity and road works. The average TOC content was 1.38 mg/L.

3.5 Rainwater Treatment Technologies

3.5.1 rainwater treatment processes.

The presence of pollutants in rainwater requires its purification before use. Rainwater treatment uses physicochemical techniques to remove colloids, suspended particles, and microbes. Natural materials like adsorbents and microorganisms are also used to remove heavy metals, organic matter, and nutrients. Solar radiation-based oxidation kills microbes. These methods are generally used with more common processes. Table  1 summarizes the currently used rainwater treatment processes.

Filtration removes certain dissolved solids and solid particles from water, lowering water turbidity, color, and microbes. Mineral and organic particles like activated carbon (AC), crumbled bricks, and coconut fibers can filter even dissolved pollutants. Zeolites’ porous structure and slow sand filters allow for physical and chemical pollutants removal (Muktiningsih and Putri 2021 ). Slow filters consist of a layer of sand and gravel and remove heavy metals, protozoa, and germs from rainwater, but odors poorly. Filtration by granulated AC bases on adsorption and removes color, turbidity, and organic matter at a low cost and without toxicity. It does not remove germs and viruses from rainwater, therefore UV radiation is needed when rainwater is intended for drinking purposes (Silva Vieira et al. 2013 ).

Membrane processes are also used for rainwater treatment (Raimondi et al. 2023 ):

microfiltration (MF) – mostly used; removes only big organic compounds and pathogens; demands low transmembrane pressure;

ultrafiltration (UF) – removes colloids, suspended contaminants, and microorganisms; low separation efficiency of oily substances and heavy metals and fouling are main drawbacks;

nanofiltration (NF) – removes 99% organic matter and sulfates;

reverse osmosis (RO) – removes 99.9% of pathogens, dissolved and colloidal contaminants; the installation requires frequent cleaning; fouling reduces filtration effectiveness, raises operating pressure, and shortens membrane life;

forward osmosis (FO) – mentioned in literature, but rarely used.

Biological approaches are paired with physical or chemical procedures. No need to dose extra chemicals, reduced energy usage, and easy process execution are the main advantages. Bacteriophages like Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus can help lower the quantity of gram-positive bacteria by feeding on them, and reducing fouling (Kim et al. 2007 ) (Reyneke et al. 2020 ). Eventually, certain microbes develop bacteriophage resistance, reducing purification efficacy. Biofiltration involves filtering water through a biological bed. The bed’s biofilm removes bacteria from the water and works well as a preliminary therapy. Bioretention uses additive-modified highly permeable sand and local soils. It removes suspended particles, lipids, and heavy metals. These methods do not remove COD, phosphate, nitrogen, or microorganisms. Biofilters can remove 98% of ammonium nitrogen, but high rainfall intensity reduces its removal efficiency. Biosorption materials like agricultural and food waste can also be used for water filtration. They are inexpensive, non-toxic, and readily available (Morales-Figueroa et al. 2023 ).

3.5.2 Research on Rainwater Purification Processes

The potential of a rainwater treatment system including filtration and disinfection was estimated in (Adler et al. 2011 ). Rainwater went through the sedimentation tank, the filtration chamber, the silver ion-generating unit, and finally – a combined filter with AC and a Kinetic Degradation Fluxion bed. The bacteria reduction amounted to 62.5–99.9%. The settling tank lowered COD by 77%. Filtration reduced COD remaining after prior procedures by 44%.

Traditional sedimentation in a tank is the best way to treat rainwater (Herrmann and Schmida 2000 ). The filter in the pump pressure pipeline was considered unnecessary and only a 0.5–1.0 mm sieve in the pipe in front of the pump was advised. Due to the formation of carcinogenic and toxic disinfection by-products, chlorination was not used. Another research presents the production of demineralized water from rainwater (Oosterom et al. 2000 ) with the use of MF, UF, and RO/ion exchange. A benefit of rainwater is its minimal dissolved solids, which greatly decreases scaling and fouling.

In a paper (Shaheed et al. 2017 ), a 4-chamber was proposed as an inexpensive rainwater purifying system (Fig.  2 ). Raw water entered the inlet chamber A, then went to the tank with adsorption process with activated carbon (B), and after that in chamber C filtration through sand bed was used. The purified water flowed to chamber (D). The pH of raw rainwater was 6.26–7.31, and after treatment, it increased to 6.53–7.81 (after B) and 6.55–7.55 (after C). Dissolved oxygen concentration in raw water amounted to 8.33–8.79 mg O 2 /L and after adsorption of dissolved oxygen by AC, its content in purified water decreased to 7.37–8.32 mg O 2 /L. The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD 5 ) of the collected water was low and reached 1.54–2.58 mg BZT 5 /L. After treatment the decrease to 0.82–1.23 mg BZT 5 /L of BOD5 content was observed. The concentration of suspended solids did not exceed 10.66 mg/L, and it decreased by about 67–100% after treatment. The E. coli ranged from 2 to 14 CFU/ml. The combination of adsorption and filtration through a sand bed enabled 100% elimination of E. coli bacteria from the treated rainwater.

Rainwater treatment installation scheme (A – influent, B – adsorption chamber, C – filtration, D – clean water tank) (based on (Shaheed et al. 2017 )

A filtration system for highly polluted rainwater was also proposed (Aljerf 2018 ). Two uniform layers of recycled broken glass and crushed foam glass make up the device, having ecological benefits. This filtration device enhances cleansed water’s physical properties (reducing color, turbidity, and COD) and enriches it with microelements (K+, Na+, and Mg2 + ions). Copper, lead, and nickel were likewise below detection levels in treated water.

One airport has a rainwater treatment system (Moreira Neto et al. 2012 ). Water is collected from a 15 × 20 m galvanized roof. Two parallel slow sand filters, a chlorinator, and a 1000-L clean water tank comprise the system.

A rainwater purifying pilot station was tested in work (Pineda et al. 2022 ). Rainwater was collected for 90 days in the tank, from which was directed to filters. Crushed gravel was the first filter. Ceramic balls accompanied the following filter. Two process versions were tested: (1) After ceramic ball filtration, water went through a quartz sand filter; (2) Natural zeolite was used as the next stage of purification. Treatment ended with UV disinfection. In treated water, dissolved solids did not exceed 1000 mg/L. Quartz sand removed 79% of iron, and zeolite 87%. Zeolite removed up to 82% manganese, and quartz sand up to 73%. After 15 days, iron and manganese removal effectiveness dropped to 68% and 50%, respectively. E. coli was 100% eliminated in both cases and increasing operation time reduced microorganism removal.

4 Discussion and Conclusions

RWH systems have grown in popularity and promise water shortage solutions. There are drawbacks and restrictions to implementing this approach. One of the biggest problems is that rainfall is unpredictable and erratic due to seasons. Rainfall can severely affect RWH system performance, e.g. Porto Alegre and Manaus have the most RWH potential in Brazil due to well-distributed and high yearly rainfall (Perius et al. 2021 ). RWH system performance in the Asian tropical monsoon region is altered by a wide range of additional rainwater (Vuong et al. 2016 ). Pakistani research (Ali et al. 2021 ) proved that RWH efficacy depends on local rainfall and system features, e.g. tank size. European research found that tap water savings when replacing it with rainwater vary by geography, rainfall pattern, people’s habits, and roof surface. RWH systems in Sant Cugat del Valles, Spain, may save 16% of water for residential usage (Domènech and Saurí 2011 ). 30–60% savings may be obtained for tanks from 4 to 6 m 3 (Herrmann and Schmida 2000 ). Recent studies have increasingly examined how climate change affects RWH performance. Studies reveal that greater rainfall may boost water-saving potential but reduce stormwater capture efficiency (Zhang et al. 2019 ). Climate change in Australia will lower RWH water savings, reliability, and security, especially in the dry season (Haque et al. 2016 ). According to another study, climate change does not significantly affect RWH, still being a solution to improve water security (Musayev et al. 2018 ). Research demonstrates the requirement for location-specific and adaptable design of RWH systems with climate change.

Many countries have implemented RWH systems, with Germany being one of the leaders in rainwater collection, next to Japan and Australia. Figure  3 shows European countries where rainwater quality research was conducted and RWH was significantly implemented.

Map of the study area indicating European countries with research on rainwater quality and a significant degree of RWH implementation

Climate change adaptation in the Netherlands led to political goals for urban water retention. Great Britain has rainwater collection initiatives but no RWH system laws. RWH is underdeveloped in other European nations, but become more popular in Austria, Denmark, and Switzerland. Today, the RWH initiative prioritizes water savings over hydrological, economic, and social benefits. Future studies could examine the RWH system’s interaction with urban stormwater infrastructure. A new strategy should address how to market RWH on a broader scale in different nations with diverse climates. Additional effort is needed for pilot-scale installations. Precise technology selection and maintenance are crucial for correct system operation. Today, the payback period is too long for a good return on investment. Large-scale RWH growth requires sustainable institutional and socio-political support to boost incentive tools, awareness, and societal acceptance. 54% of respondents in 12 countries were not concerned about replacing tap water with rainwater. Countries with low water resources are more open to alternative solutions (Stec 2023 ).

RainWater Harvesting systems should be assessed for energy savings. RWH minimizes tap water use, leading to a decrease in water intake from traditional sources (surface and groundwater) and in the costs of raw water purification. Water supply systems typically consume kilowatt hours to create one cubic meter of water (Scott et al. 2011 ). Water delivery systems consume 1.71 kWh/m 3 in Germany, 0.68 in Canada, 0.29 in China, and 0.3 in India (Wakeel et al. 2016 ). Because RWH systems may require a pump, calculating their environmental sustainability and energy savings is complicated (Vieira and Ghisi 2016 ). Life cycle assessment on specific RWH elements is needed to compare the conventional public water supply and the RWH systems (de Sá Silva et al. 2022 ). RWH systems reduce energy use and greenhouse gas emissions, mitigating climate change. Estimated reductions in greenhouse gas emissions after the introduction of RWH systems according to research are:

South Korea – from 0.43 to 0.16 kgCO 2 -eq/m 3 (Chang et al. 2017 );

Virginia, USA – from 0.85 to 0.41 kgCO 2 -eq/m 3 (Ghimire et al. 2014 );

Spain – from 1.38 to 0.27 kgCO 2 -eq/m 3 (Morales-Pinzón et al. 2014 ).

RWH utilization is still limited by cost. The importance of proper maintenance should also be emphasized. These systems should be checked for possible blockages or leaks, and the condition of tank screens and gutter meshes. An above-ground rainwater tank may be damaged by frost. Draining the tank for winter or isolating it may help. Another problem is algae growth from unrestricted sunlight exposure from inadequate sealing.

To summarize the literature review, it should be emphasized that RWH is a solution that brings both financial and environmental benefits. The progressive climate change led to a necessity of finding alternative water sources, and collecting rainwater is a great solution to meet the water demand and decrease surface runoff of excess rainwater, protecting stormwater drainage systems from overloads and mitigating urban flood risk. RWH systems are not only present in households, nowadays more often appear in public utility facilities, such as office buildings, schools, and even airports, where they can function with great efficiency despite higher water demand. Harvested rainwater can be used for various purposes, but the main drawback is the rainwater quality. Rainwater commonly contains metals, sulfates, nitrate compounds, organic matter, and also microorganisms. Meteorological conditions, air pollution, and collection surface affect its quality. Therefore, the implementation of adequate treatment technologies is necessary. Various purification methods are used, including conventional (surface and underground water purification) and unconventional methods like membrane processes, biological methods, oxidation, and electrocoagulation. For human consumption, rainwater needs to be of the same quality as tap water, which is hard to maintain in households. Therefore, rainwater is used mainly for non-potable uses like washing, cleaning, laundry, watering, and toilet flushing. The future use of rainwater depends on its quality. Based on the above, sufficient rainwater quality legislation is needed to reduce health hazards.

Abbasi-Garravand E, Mulligan CN (2014) Using micellar enhanced ultrafiltration and reduction techniques for removal of cr(VI) and cr(III) from water. Sep Purif Technol 132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2014.06.010

Adler I, Hudson-Edwards KA, Campos LC (2011) Converting rain into drinking water: quality issues and technological advances. Water Sci Technol Water Supply 11. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2011.117

AFNOR (2011) Systèmes de récupération de l’eau de pluiepour son utilisation à l’intérieur et à l’extérieur desbâtiments. France

Akuffobea-Essilfie M, Williams PA, Asare R et al (2020) Promoting rainwater harvesting for improving water security: analysis of drivers and barriers in Ghana. Afr J Sci Technol Innov Dev 12:443–451. https://doi.org/10.1080/20421338.2019.1586113

Article   Google Scholar  

Alagha O, Tuncel G (2003) Evaluation of air quality over the Black Sea: major ionic composition of rainwater. Water Air Soil Pollut Focus 3

Albarracín M, Ramón G, González J et al (2021) The Ecohydrological Approach in Water Sowing and Harvesting systems: the case of the Paltas Catacocha Ecohydrology demonstration site, Ecuador. Ecohydrol Hydrobiol 21:454–466. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecohyd.2021.07.007

Ali S, Zhang S, Chandio FA (2021) Impacts of rainfall change on stormwater control and water saving performance of rainwater harvesting systems. J Environ Manage 280:111850. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111850

Aljerf L (2018) Advanced highly polluted rainwater treatment process. J Urban Environ Eng 12. https://doi.org/10.4090/juee.2018.v12n1.050058

Angelakis AN (2016) Evolution of rainwater harvesting and use in Crete, Hellas, through the millennia. Water Sci Technol Water Supply. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2016.084

Angrill S, Petit-Boix A, Morales-Pinzón T et al (2017) Urban rainwater runoff quantity and quality – a potential endogenous resource in cities? J Environ Manage 189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.12.027

Antunes LN, Ghisi E, Severis RM (2020) Environmental assessment of a permeable pavement system used to harvest stormwater for non-potable water uses in a building. Sci Total Environ 746:141087. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141087

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Arsene C, Olariu RI, Mihalopoulos N (2007) Chemical composition of rainwater in the northeastern Romania, Iasi region (2003–2006). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.08.046 . Atmos Environ 41:

Banda K, Mulema M, Chomba I et al (2023) Investigating groundwater and surface water interactions using remote sensing, hydrochemistry, and stable isotopes in the Barotse Floodplain, Zambia. Geol Ecol Landscapes 00:1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/24749508.2023.2202450

Banerjee D, Ganguly S (2023) A review on the research advances in Groundwater–Surface Water Interaction with an overview of the Phenomenon. Water (Switzerland) 15. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15081552

Bieroza MZ, Bol R, Glendell M (2021) What is the deal with the Green Deal: will the new strategy help to improve European freshwater quality beyond the Water Framework Directive? Sci Total Environ 791:148080. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148080

Blokker EJM, Pieterse-Quirijns EJ, Vreeburg JHG, van Dijk JC (2011) Simulating Nonresidential Water demand with a stochastic end-use model. J Water Resour Plan Manag 137:511–520. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)wr.1943-5452.0000146

British Standards Institute (2013a) Rainwater harvesting systems – Code of practice. UK

British Standards Institute (2013b) Code of Practice for the Selection of Water Reuse Systems. UK

Bwambale E, Abagale FK, Anornu GK (2022) Smart irrigation monitoring and control strategies for improving water use efficiency in precision agriculture: a review. Agric Water Manag 260:107324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2021.107324

Campisano A, Gnecco I, Modica C, Palla A (2013) Designing domestic rainwater harvesting systems under different climatic regimes in Italy. Water Sci Technol 67:2511–2518. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2013.143

Campisano A, Butler D, Ward S et al (2017) Urban rainwater harvesting systems: Research, implementation and future perspectives. Water Res 115:195–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2017.02.056

Carollo M, Butera I, Revelli R (2023) Rainwater harvesting potential: the Turin case for an analysis at the urban scale. 5194

Carvalho IDC, Calijuri ML, Assemany PP et al (2013) Sustainable airport environments: a review of water conservation practices in airports. Resour Conserv Recycl 74:27–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.02.016

Castillo-Rodríguez JT, Andrés-Doménech I, Martín M et al (2021) Quantifying the impact on Stormwater Management of an innovative ceramic permeable pavement solution. Water Resour Manag 35:1251–1271. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-021-02778-7

Chang J, Lee W, Yoon S (2017) Energy consumptions and associated greenhouse gas emissions in operation phases of urban water reuse systems in Korea. J Clean Prod 141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.09.131

Che-Ani AI, Shaari N, Sairi A et al (2009) Rainwater harvesting as an alternative water supply in the future. Eur J Sci Res

Cristiano E, Farris S, Deidda R, Viola F (2021) Comparison of blue-green solutions for urban flood mitigation: a multi-city large-scale analysis. PLoS ONE 16:1–15. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0246429

Dallman S, Chaudhry AM, Muleta MK, Lee J (2021) Is Rainwater Harvesting Worthwhile? A benefit–cost analysis. J Water Resour Plan Manag 147:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)wr.1943-5452.0001361

De Gouvello B, Gerolin A, Le Nouveau N (2014) Rainwater harvesting in urban areas: how can foreign experiences enhance the French approach? Water Sci Technol Water Supply 14:569–576. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2014.029

de Graaf R, der Brugge R (2010) Transforming water infrastructure by linking water management and urban renewal in Rotterdam. Technol Forecast Soc Change 77:1282–1291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2010.03.011

De Kwaadsteniet M, Dobrowsky PH, Van Deventer A et al (2013) Domestic rainwater harvesting: Microbial and chemical water quality and point-of-use treatment systems. Water Air Soil Pollut 224. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-013-1629-7

de Sá Silva ACR, Bimbato AM, Balestieri JAP, Vilanova MRN (2022) Exploring environmental, economic and social aspects of rainwater harvesting systems: a review. Sustain Cities Soc 76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2021.103475

DEFRA (2008) Future Water. Department for Environment. Food and Rural Affairs, London, UK

Google Scholar  

Dezsi Ş, Mîndrescu M, Petrea D et al (2018) High-resolution projections of evapotranspiration and water availability for Europe under climate change. Int J Climatol 38:3832–3841. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.5537

DIN (1989) DIN 1989 part 1–3. Regulation of requirements for rainwater harvesting systems

Domènech L, Saurí D (2011) A comparative appraisal of the use of rainwater harvesting in single and multi-family buildings of the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona (Spain): social experience, drinking water savings and economic costs. J Clean Prod. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2010.11.010

Duque C, Nilsson B, Engesgaard P (2023) Groundwater–surface water interaction in Denmark. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Water 10:1–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1664

DWA (2016) Leitlinien der integralen Entwässerungsplanung. Hennef

EEA (2017) Water use in Europe by economic sector. https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/daviz/annual-and-seasonal-water-abstraction-7#tab-dashboard-02

Ertop H, Kocięcka J, Atilgan A et al (2023) The importance of Rainwater Harvesting and its usage possibilities: Antalya Example (Turkey). Water (Switzerland) 15:1–20. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15122194

Faragò M, Brudler S, Godskesen B, Rygaard M (2019) An eco-efficiency evaluation of community-scale rainwater and stormwater harvesting in Aarhus, Denmark. J Clean Prod 219:601–612. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.01.265

Farreny R, Morales-Pinzón T, Guisasola A et al (2011) Roof selection for rainwater harvesting: quantity and quality assessments in Spain. Water Res 45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2011.03.036

Ferreira A, Sousa V, Pinheiro M et al (2023) Potential of rainwater harvesting in the retail sector: a case study in Portugal. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30:42427–42442. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-25137-y

Fewkes A (2012) A review of rainwater harvesting in the UK. Struct Surv 30:174–194. https://doi.org/10.1108/02630801211228761

Fewtrell L, Kay D (2007) Microbial quality of rainwater supplies in developed countries: a review. Urban Water J 4. https://doi.org/10.1080/15730620701526097

Fletcher TD, Shuster W, Hunt WF et al (2015) SUDS, LID, BMPs, WSUD and more – the evolution and application of terminology surrounding urban drainage. Urban Water J. https://doi.org/10.1080/1573062X.2014.916314

Forzieri G, Feyen L, Russo S et al (2016) Multi-hazard assessment in Europe under climate change. Clim Change 137:105–119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-016-1661-x

Fulton LV (2018) A simulation of rainwater harvesting design and demand-side controls for large hospitals. Sustain 10. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10051659

Gao Y, Lu J, Leung LR (2016) Uncertainties in projecting future changes in atmospheric rivers and their impacts on heavy precipitation over Europe. J Clim 29:6711–6726. https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-16-0088.1

García Soler N, Moss T, Papasozomenou O (2018) Rain and the city: pathways to mainstreaming rainwater harvesting in Berlin. Geoforum 89:96–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2018.01.010

Ghimire SR, Johnston JM, Ingwersen WW, Hawkins TR (2014) Life cycle assessment of domestic and agricultural rainwater harvesting systems. Environ Sci Technol 48. https://doi.org/10.1021/es500189f

Ghodsi SH, Zhu Z, Gheith H et al (2021) Modeling the effectiveness of rain barrels, cisterns, and Downspout disconnections for reducing combined sewer overflows in a City-Scale Watershed. Water Resour Manag 35:2895–2908. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-021-02875-7

Gimenez-Maranges M, Breuste J, Hof A (2020) Sustainable Drainage systems for transitioning to sustainable urban flood management in the European Union: a review. J Clean Prod 255:120191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120191

Grabowski T, Jóźwiakowski K, Bochniak A et al (2023) Assessment of Rainwater Quality regarding its use in the Roztocze National Park (Poland)—Case study. Appl Sci 13. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13106110

Griggs JC, Shouler MC, Hall J (1997) Water conservation and the built environment. In: Roaf S (ed) Architectural Digest for the 21st Century. Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK, pp 3–14

Gromaire MC, Chebbo G, Constant A (2002) Impact of zinc roofing on urban runoff pollutant loads: the case of Paris. Water Sci Technol 45:113–122. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2002.0123

Guzel B (2021) Monitoring of the chemical composition of rainwater in a semi-urban area in the northern west of Turkey. Gazi Univ J Sci 34. https://doi.org/10.35378/gujs.727114

Gwoździej-Mazur J, Jadwiszczak P, Kaźmierczak B et al (2022) The impact of climate change on rainwater harvesting in households in Poland. Appl Water Sci 12:1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-021-01491-5

Hamilton K, Reyneke B, Waso M et al (2019) A global review of the microbiological quality and potential health risks associated with roof-harvested rainwater tanks. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-019-0030-5 . npj Clean Water 2:

Haque MM, Rahman A, Samali B (2016) Evaluation of climate change impacts on rainwater harvesting. J Clean Prod 137:60–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.07.038

Hassan WH, Nile BK, Al-Masody BA (2017) Climate change effect on storm drainage networks by storm water management model. Environ Eng Res 22:393–400. https://doi.org/10.4491/eer.2017.036

Hassell C (2005) Rainwater Harvesting in the Uk – a Solution To Increasing Water Shortages ? 12th Int Conf Rainwater Catchment Syst 1–6

Helmreich B, Horn H (2009) Opportunities in rainwater harvesting. Desalination 248:118–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2008.05.046

Herrmann T, Schmida U (2000) Rainwater utilisation in Germany: efficiency, dimensioning, hydraulic and environmental aspects. Urban Water. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1462-0758(00)00024-8

Hoffmann P, Spekat A (2021) Identification of possible dynamical drivers for long-term changes in temperature and rainfall patterns over Europe. Theor Appl Climatol 143:177–191. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-020-03373-3

Hofman-Caris R, Bertelkamp C, de Waal L et al (2019) Rainwater harvesting for drinkingwater production: a sustainable and cost-effective solution in the Netherlands? Water (Switzerland) 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11030511

Hume IV, Summers DM, Cavagnaro TR (2022) Lawn with a side salad: Rainwater harvesting for self-sufficiency through urban agriculture. Sustain Cities Soc 87:104249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2022.104249

Hussain SN, Zwain HM, Nile BK (2022) Modeling the effects of land-use and climate change on the performance of stormwater sewer system using SWMM simulation: case study. J Water Clim Chang 13. https://doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2021.180

IMGW-PIB (2023) Monitoring chemizmu opadów atmosferycznych i ocena depozycji zanieczyszczeń do podłoża w 2023 roku. Raport roczny z badań monitoringowych w 2022 roku. Warsaw

Jaiyeola AT (2017) The management and treatment of airport rainwater in a water-scarce environment. Int J Environ Sci Technol 14:421–434. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-016-1122-0

Jegnie A, Fogarty J, Iftekhar S (2023) Urban Residential Water demand and Household size: a robust Meta-regression Analysis*. Econ Rec 99:436–453. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-4932.12751

Jiang Zyun, Li Xyan, Ma Y jun (2013) Water and Energy Conservation of Rainwater Harvesting System in the Loess Plateau of China. J Integr Agric 12:1389–1395. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2095-3119(13)60553-5

Jin Y, Lee S, Kang T et al (2023) Capacity optimization of Rainwater Harvesting systems based on a cost–benefit analysis: a Financial Support Program Review and Parametric Sensitivity Analysis. Water (Switzerland) 15. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15010186

Jose V, Heidy G (2022) Rainwater harvesting system as a strategy for adaptation on climate change: A review. In: IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science

Juiani SF, Chang CK, Leo CP et al (2023) Rainwater Harvesting System (RWHS) for buildings: a mini review on guidelines and potential as alternative water supply in Malaysia. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci 1238. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1238/1/012001

Kapli FWA, Azis FA, Suhaimi H et al (2023) Feasibility studies of Rainwater Harvesting System for Ablution purposes. Water (Switzerland) 15. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15091686

Kaur R, Gupta K (2022) Blue-Green infrastructure (BGI) network in urban areas for sustainable storm water management: a geospatial approach. City Environ Interact 16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cacint.2022.100087

Keresztesi Á, Birsan MV, Nita IA et al (2019) Assessing the neutralisation, wet deposition and source contributions of the precipitation chemistry over Europe during 2000–2017. Environ Sci Eur 31:1–15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-019-0234-9

Keresztesi Á, Nita IA, Birsan MV et al (2020) The risk of cross-border pollution and the influence of regional climate on the rainwater chemistry in the Southern carpathians, Romania. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-07478-9

Khan AS (2023) A comparative analysis of Rainwater Harvesting System and Conventional sources of Water. Water Resour Manag 37:2083–2106. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-023-03479-z

Kim S, Jensen JN, Aga DS, Weber AS (2007) Tetracycline as a selector for resistant bacteria in activated sludge. Chemosphere 66:1643–1651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2006.07.066

Kleidorfer M, Mikovits C, Jasper-Tönnies A et al (2014) Impact of a changing environment on drainage system performance. Procedia Eng 70:943–950. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2014.02.105

Knoll et al (2021) Spatial and Settlement Development Adapted to Climate Change in Strasshof an der Nordbahn (Lower Austria). In: Mobility, Knowledge and Innovation Hubs in Urban and Regional Development. Proceedings of REAL CORP 2022, 27th International Conference on Urban Development, Regional Planning and Information Society. pp 679–687

Kuller M, Dolman NJ, Vreeburg JHG, Spiller M (2017) Scenario analysis of rainwater harvesting and use on a large scale–assessment of runoff, storage and economic performance for the case study Amsterdam Airport Schiphol. Urban Water J 14:237–246. https://doi.org/10.1080/1573062X.2015.1086007

Kumar S, Agarwal A, Ganapathy A et al (2022) Impact of climate change on stormwater drainage in urban areas. Stoch Environ Res Risk Assess 36:77–96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00477-021-02105-x

Lakshminarayana (2020) Rainwater Purification. Trends Biosci 10:541–548

Li M, Yao Y, Simmonds I et al (2020) Collaborative impact of the nao and atmospheric blocking on European heatwaves, with a focus on the hot summer of 2018. Environ Res Lett 15. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aba6ad

Lieste W, Nijs, et al (2007) Beoordeling Van De Grondwatertoestand op basis Van De Kaderrichtlijn Water. Water 1–102

Liu L, Fryd O, Zhang S (2019) Blue-green infrastructure for sustainable urban stormwater management-lessons from six municipality-led pilot projects in Beijing and Copenhagen. Water (Switzerland) 11:1–16. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11102024

Liu X, Ren Z, Ngo HH et al (2021) Membrane technology for rainwater treatment and reuse: a mini review. Water Cycle 2

Liuzzo L, Notaro V, Freni G (2016) A reliability analysis of a rainfall harvesting system in Southern Italy. Water (Switzerland) 8:1–20. https://doi.org/10.3390/w8010018

Lopes VAR, Marques GF, Dornelles F, Medellin-Azuara J (2017) Performance of rainwater harvesting systems under scenarios of non-potable water demand and roof area typologies using a stochastic approach. J Clean Prod 148:304–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.01.132

Ludwig P, Schaffernicht EJ, Shao Y, Pinto JG (1955) Journal of geophysical research. Nature 175:238. https://doi.org/10.1038/175238c0

Małecki JJ, Matyjasik M, Krogulec E, Porowska D (2022) Long-term trends and factors influencing rainwater chemistry in the Tatra Mountains, Poland. Geol Geophys Environ 48. https://doi.org/10.7494/geol.2022.48.1.19

Malinowski PA, Stillwell AS, Wu JS, Schwarz PM (2015) Energy-Water Nexus: Potential Energy Savings and Implications for Sustainable Integrated Water Management in Urban Areas from Rainwater Harvesting and Gray-Water Reuse. J Water Resour Plan Manag 141:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)wr.1943-5452.0000528

Marlow DR, Moglia M, Cook S, Beale DJ (2013) Towards sustainable urban water management: a critical reassessment. Water Res 47:7150–7161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2013.07.046

Mazurkiewicz K, Jeż-Walkowiak J, Michałkiewicz M (2022) Physicochemical and microbiological quality of rainwater harvested in underground retention tanks. Sci Total Environ 814. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152701

Ministry of Housing (2009) The code for sustainable homes. Case studies, March

Mohammed Ta, Noor MJ, Ghazali AH (2003) Study on potential uses of Rainwater Harvesting in Urban Areas. Dep Civ Eng Fac Eng Univ Putra Malaysia

Morales Rojas E, Díaz Ortiz EA, Medina Tafur CA et al (2021) A Rainwater Harvesting and Treatment System for domestic use and human consumption in native communities in Amazonas (NW Peru): Technical and Economic Validation. Scientifica (Cairo) 2021. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/4136379

Morales-Figueroa C, Castillo-Suárez LA, Linares-Hernández I et al (2023) Treatment processes and analysis of rainwater quality for human use and consumption regulations, treatment systems and quality of rainwater. Int J Environ Sci Technol 20:9369–9392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-023-04802-2

Morales-Pinzón T, Lurueña R, Gabarrell X et al (2014) Financial and environmental modelling of water hardness - implications for utilising harvested rainwater in washing machines. Sci Total Environ 470–471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.10.101 . :

Moreira Neto RF, Carvalho IDC, Calijuri ML, Santiago ADF (2012) Rainwater use in airports: a case study in Brazil. Resour Conserv Recycl 68:36–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2012.08.005

Morote AF, Hernández M, Eslamian S (2020) Rainwater harvesting in urban areas of developed countries. The state of the art (1980–2017). Int J Hydrol Sci Technol 10:448–470. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJHST.2020.109952

Mosley L (2005) Water quality of rainwater harvesting systems. SOPAC Misc Rep 579

Muktiningsih SD, Putri DMARMS (2021) Study of the potential use of rainwater as clean water with simple media gravity filters: A review. In: IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science

Musayev S, Burgess E, Mellor J (2018) A global performance assessment of rainwater harvesting under climate change. Resour Conserv Recycl 132:62–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.01.023

Musz-Pomorska A, Widomski MK, Gołebiowska J (2020) Financial sustainability of selected rain water harvesting systems for single-family house under conditions of Eastern Poland. Sustain 12:4853. https://doi.org/10.3390/SU12124853

Nandi S, Gonela V (2022) Rainwater harvesting for domestic use: a systematic review and outlook from the utility policy and management perspectives. Util Policy 77:101383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jup.2022.101383

Nolde E (2007) Possibilities of rainwater utilisation in densely populated areas including precipitation runoffs from traffic surfaces. Desalination 215:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2006.10.033

Oosterom HA, Koenhen DM, Bos M (2000) Production of demineralized water out of rainwater: environmentally saving, energy efficient and cost effective. Desalination 131:345–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0011-9164(00)90033-X

Orlović-Leko P, Vidović K, Ciglenečki I et al (2020) Physico-chemical characterization of an urban rainwater (Zagreb, Croatia). Atmos (Basel) 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11020144

Ortega Sandoval AD, Barbosa Brião V, Cartana Fernandes VM et al (2019) Stormwater management by microfiltration and ultrafiltration treatment. J Water Process Eng 30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2017.07.018

Osayemwenre G, Osibote OA (2021) A review of health hazards associated with rainwater harvested from green, conventional and photovoltaic rooftops. Int J Environ Sci Dev 12:289–303. https://doi.org/10.18178/IJESD.2021.12.10.1353

Paciarotti C, Ciarapica FE, Giacchetta G Analysis of rainwater collection systems: an overview of the Italian situation. In: Proceedings of the Rainwater and Urban Design Conference. Sydney, Australia

Palla A, Gnecco I (2022) On the effectiveness of Domestic Rainwater Harvesting Systems to support Urban Flood Resilience. Water Resour Manag 36:5897–5914. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-022-03327-6

Palla A, Gnecco I, La Barbera P (2017) The impact of domestic rainwater harvesting systems in storm water runoff mitigation at the urban block scale. J Environ Manage. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.01.025

Parding KM, Liepert BG, Hinkelman LM et al (2016) Influence of synoptic weather patterns on solar irradiance variability in northern Europe. J Clim 29:4229–4250. https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0476.1

Pascaud A, Sauvage S, Coddeville P et al (2016) Contrasted spatial and long-term trends in precipitation chemistry and deposition fluxes at rural stations in France. Atmos Environ 146:28–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.05.019

Pavolová H, Bakalár T, Kudelas D, Puškárová P (2019) Environmental and economic assessment of rainwater application in households. J Clean Prod 209:1119–1125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.10.308

Perius CF, Tassi R, Lamberti LA et al (2021) Influence of rainfall and design criteria on performance of rainwater harvesting systems placed in different Brazilian climatological conditions. Rev Bras Recur Hidricos 26:1–16. https://doi.org/10.1590/2318-0331.262120210067

Pineda E, Guaya D, Rivera G et al (2022) Rainwater treatment: an approach for drinking water provision to indigenous people in Ecuadorian Amazon. Int J Environ Sci Technol 19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-021-03741-0

Porse EC (2013) Stormwater governance and future cities. Water (Switzerland) 5:29–52. https://doi.org/10.3390/w5010029

Raimondi A, Quinn R, Abhijith GR et al (2023) Rainwater Harvesting and Treatment: state of the art and perspectives. Water (Switzerland) 15

Rak JR, Wartalska K, Kaźmierczak B (2021) Weather risk assessment for collective water supply and sewerage systems. Water (Switzerland) 13. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13141970

Reimann C, De Caritat P, Halleraker JH et al (1997) Rainwater composition in eight arctic catchments in northern Europe (Finland, Norway and Russia). https://doi.org/10.1016/1352-2310(96)00197-5 . Atmos Environ 31:

Reyneke B, Waso M, Khan S, Khan W (2020) Rainwater treatment technologies: Research needs, recent advances and effective monitoring strategies. Curr Opin Environ Sci Heal 16

Salehi-Lisar SY, Bakhshayeshan-Agdam H (2016) Drought stress in plants: causes, consequences, and tolerance. Drought stress tolerance in plants, vol 1. Physiology and Biochemistry

Sample DJ, Liu J (2014) Optimizing rainwater harvesting systems for the dual purposes of water supply and runoff capture. J Clean Prod. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.03.075

Sanches Fernandes LF, Terêncio DPS, Pacheco FAL (2015) Rainwater harvesting systems for low demanding applications. Sci Total Environ 529:91–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.05.061

Santos PSM, Otero M, Santos EBH, Duarte AC (2011) Chemical composition of rainwater at a coastal town on the southwest of Europe: what changes in 20 years? Sci Total Environ 409:3548–3553. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.05.031

Santos C, Imteaz MA, Ghisi E, Matos C (2020) The effect of climate change on domestic Rainwater Harvesting. Sci Total Environ 729:138967. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138967

Sazakli E, Alexopoulos A, Leotsinidis M (2007) Rainwater harvesting, quality assessment and utilization in Kefalonia Island, Greece. Water Res 41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2007.01.037

Schets FM, Italiaander R, Van Den Berg HHJL, De Roda Husman AM (2010) Rainwater harvesting: quality assessment and utilization in the Netherlands. J Water Health. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2009.037

Schuetze T (2013) Rainwater harvesting and management - policy and regulations in Germany. Water Sci Technol Water Supply. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2013.035

Scott CA, Pierce SA, Pasqualetti MJ et al (2011) Policy and institutional dimensions of the water-energy nexus. Energy Policy 39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2011.08.013

Senent-Aparicio J, Pérez-Sánchez J, Carrillo-García J, Soto J (2017) Using SWAT and fuzzy TOPSIS to assess the impact of climate change in the headwaters of the Segura River Basin (SE Spain). Water (Switzerland) 9. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9020149

Shaheed R, Wan Mohtar WHM, El-Shafie A (2017) Ensuring water security by utilizing roof-harvested rainwater and lake water treated with a low-cost integrated adsorption-filtration system. Water Sci Eng 10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wse.2017.05.002

Shanmugavel N, Rajendran R (2022) Adoption of Rainwater Harvesting: a dual-factor Approach by integrating theory of Planned Behaviour and Norm Activation Model. Water Resour Manag 36:2827–2845. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-022-03179-0

Silva CM, Sousa V, Carvalho NV (2015) Evaluation of rainwater harvesting in Portugal: application to single-family residences. Resour Conserv Recycl 94:21–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2014.11.004

Silva Vieira A, Weeber M, Ghisi E (2013) Self-cleaning filtration: a novel concept for rainwater harvesting systems. Resour Conserv Recycl 78:67–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.06.008

Singh A, Sarma AK, Hack J (2020) Cost-effective optimization of Nature-based solutions for reducing Urban floods considering Limited Space availability. Environ Process 7:297–319. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40710-019-00420-8

Sklenárová (2011) Decentralised Wastewater Treatment (I). A Comparison of Systems. In: Desar Concept./Water, Sewer System. Prague

Stec A (2023) Rainwater and Greywater as Alternative Water resources: public perception and acceptability. Case Study in twelve countries in the World. Water Resour Manag 37:5037–5059. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-023-03594-x

Stephan A, Stephan L (2017) Life cycle water, energy and cost analysis of multiple water harvesting and management measures for apartment buildings in a Mediterranean climate. Sustain Cities Soc 32:584–603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2017.05.004

Summerville N, Sultana R (2019) Rainwater harvesting potential in a semiarid Southern California city. AWWA Water Sci 1:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1002/aws2.1123

Teston A, Piccinini Scolaro T, Kuntz Maykot J, Ghisi E (2022) Comprehensive Environmental Assessment of Rainwater Harvesting Systems: a Literature Review. Water (Switzerland) 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14172716

Todeschini S, Papiri S, Ciaponi C (2014) Stormwater quality control for sustainable urban drainage systems. Int J Sustain Dev Plan 9:196–210. https://doi.org/10.2495/SDP-V9-N2-196-210

UNI (2012) Norme tecniche per la progettazione, installazione e manutenzione degli impianti per la raccolta e utilizzo dell’acqua piovana per usi diversi dal consumo umano. Italy

Vargas-Parra MV, Villalba G, Gabarrell X (2013) Applying exergy analysis to rainwater harvesting systems to assess resource efficiency. Resour Conserv Recycl 72:50–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2012.12.008

Vialle C, Sablayrolles C, Lovera M et al (2011) Monitoring of water quality from roof runoff: interpretation using multivariate analysis. Water Res 45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2011.04.029

Vialle C, Sablayrolles C, Lovera M et al (2012) Water Quality monitoring and hydraulic evaluation of a Household roof runoff harvesting system in France. Water Resour Manag 26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-012-0012-6

Vialle C, Busset G, Tanfin L et al (2015) Environmental analysis of a domestic rainwater harvesting system: a case study in France. Resour Conserv Recycl 102:178–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.07.024

Vieira AS, Ghisi E (2016) Water-energy nexus in low-income houses in Brazil: the influence of integrated on-site water and sewage management strategies on the energy consumption of water and sewerage services. J Clean Prod 133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.05.104

Viola F, Deidda R, Urru S, Cristiano E (2023) Rainwater harvesting as climate change adaptation strategy for durum wheat production in Sardinia. 5194

Vuong NM, Ichikawa Y, Ishidaira H (2016) Performance assessment of rainwater harvesting considering rainfall variations in Asian tropical monsoon climates. Hydrol Res Lett 10:27–33. https://doi.org/10.3178/hrl.10.27

Wakeel M, Chen B, Hayat T et al (2016) Energy consumption for water use cycles in different countries: a review. Appl Energy 178

Wanjiru E, Xia X (2018) Sustainable energy-water management for residential houses with optimal integrated grey and rain water recycling. J Clean Prod 170:1151–1166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.09.212

Ward S, Memon FA, Butler D (2012) Performance of a large building rainwater harvesting system. Water Res 46:5127–5134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2012.06.043

WHO (2022) Guidelines for Drinking–water Quality

Willey JD, Glinski DA, Southwell M et al (2011) Decadal variations of rainwater formic and acetic acid concentrations in Wilmington, NC, USA. Atmos Environ 45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2010.10.047

Xie H, Randall M, dos Santos SM (2023) Optimization of roof Coverage and Tank size for Integrated Green roof Rainwater Harvesting Systems-a case study. Water Resour Manag 37:4663–4678. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-023-03568-z

Yan X, Ward S, Butler D, Daly B (2018) Performance assessment and life cycle analysis of potable water production from harvested rainwater by a decentralized system. J Clean Prod 172:2167–2173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.11.198

Yannopoulos S, Antoniou G, Kaiafa-Saropoulou M, Angelakis AN (2017) Historical development of rainwater harvesting and use in Hellas: a preliminary review. Water Sci Technol Water Supply 17:1022–1034. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2016.200

Yannopoulos S, Giannopoulou I, Kaiafa-Saropoulou M (2019) Investigation of the current situation and prospects for the development of rainwater harvesting as a tool to confront water scarcity worldwide. Water (Switzerland) 11:1–16. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11102168

Zdeb M, Zamorska J, Papciak D, Słyś D (2020) The quality of rainwater collected from roofs and the possibility of its economic use. Resources 9. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources9020012

Zhang S, Zhang J, Yue T, Jing X (2019) Impacts of climate change on urban rainwater harvesting systems. Sci Total Environ 665:262–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.135

Download references

The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Water Supply and Sewerage Systems, Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wroclaw, 50-370, Poland

Katarzyna Wartalska, Maciej Bełcik, Marcin Wdowikowski, Agnieszka Kolanek & Bartosz Kaźmierczak

Department of Environmental Protection Engineering, Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wroclaw, 50-370, Poland

Martyna Grzegorzek

Department of Air Conditioning Heating, Gas Engineering and Air Protection, Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wroclaw, 50-370, Poland

Elżbieta Niemierka & Piotr Jadwiszczak

Air Quality Monitoring Department, Institute of Meteorology and Water Management National Research Institute, Warszawa, 01-673, Poland

Agnieszka Kolanek

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

Conceptualization: K.W., M.G.; investigation: K.W., M.G., M.B., M.W., A.K., E.N.; methodology: K.W., M.G., M.B.; supervivion: K.W., P.J., B.K.; visualization: M.W., B.K.; writing – original draft preparation: K.W., M.G., M.B., M.W., A.K., E.N.; writing – review & editing: K.W., M.G., M.B., M.W., A.K., P.J. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Katarzyna Wartalska .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Wartalska, K., Grzegorzek, M., Bełcik, M. et al. The Potential of RainWater Harvesting Systems in Europe – Current State of Art and Future Perspectives. Water Resour Manage (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-024-03882-0

Download citation

Received : 23 January 2024

Accepted : 11 May 2024

Published : 16 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-024-03882-0

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Climate change
• Rainwater harvesting
• Rainwater quality
• Rainwater treatment
• Rainwater usage
• Water demand
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

Presentations

The presentations are typically done with illustrative photos and graphics, though Brad is also a practiced live storyteller sans slides. You can pick from the following or a custom presentation can be developed for the unique potential and needs of your event.

Fees for presentations Virtual presentation: already prepared $500; custom $1,000 In-Arizona presentation and/or workshop: $1,000-$2,000 / plus travel, and ability for me to sell my books at event Out-of-state presentation and/or workshop: $3,000 / plus travel and lodging, and ability to sell my books at event

Please note that the sharing of the fees above begins the conversation with Brad. If you cannot swing the fee, feel free to offer a different amount. Many things are considered when looking at an event, such as its potential impact, research Brad could carry out at the event or in the event’s locale, etc.

Integrated Local Harvests: Simple and Effective Ways to Enhance the Natural Abundance of Your Home, Community, and the Larger World

This dynamic presentation shares patterns and strategies to harvest, integrate, and enliven free local resources—such as rain-, grey-, and stormwaters; sun, wind, and shade; along with soil fertility, wild foods, and community fun—in a way that generates far more potential than the sum of their parts. Scarcity is re-visioned into abundance simply through creative cycling and utilization of what is already at hand. Costly and consuming habits and infrastructure, disconnected from their surroundings, are reoriented and reconnected to maximize enriching opportunities.

You’ll see many examples of such transformation, including how once-dying wetlands and creek flows are being regenerated with simple hand-built structures made of on-site materials; how ancient sun- and shade-harvesting sites are informing passively heated, cooled, and powered modern homes and retrofits; and how once-blighted, overheated neighborhood streets are being rejuvenated into thriving greenbelts of water, people, wildlife, art, food, and celebration by planting once-drained stormwater, seed, and yard prunings.

This talk is both an invitation for you to engage and partner with your natural surroundings and community, and a treasure map showing you the way—by planting the rain, dancing with the sun, growing fertile shade, and more—to live as one of your community’s inspirational sparks! (Duration: 1.5 hours plus Q&A)

Re-hydrating and Re-enlivening Our Communities with Rain-watered Neighborhood Food Forestry This presentation is about neighborhood forestry efforts empowering citizens, and contractors, to effectively plant the rain and native food-bearing vegetation to grow vibrant and resilient abundance where they live, work, and play. Then train them up and support them with the education, guidance, collaborations, and policy that enable them to better steward the plantings for decades to come. Dramatic results include cooler neighborhoods, healthier eating, a revitalization of indigenous cuisine, deeper connections with people and place, reduced flooding, skill building, greater soil fertility, and more beauty and joy. The strategies and practices are accessible to all and most are free or cost no more than the price of a shovel.

General Water-Harvesting Presentation: Turning Drains Into Sponges and Water Scarcity Into Water Abundance

This inspiring presentation shares eight universal principles of water harvesting along with simple strategies that turn water scarcity into water abundance, and floods into opportunity. They empower you to create integrated water-sustainable landscape plans at home and throughout your community. Rainwater harvesting is the process of capturing rain and making the most of it as close as possible to where it falls. Greywater harvesting is the process of directing water from household sink, bathtub, shower, and washing-machine drains into the soils of the landscape where the water is naturally filtered and reused to generate more on-site resources. The two work hand in hand, and can reduce our water consumption by 30 to 50%! You’ll see examples enhancing local food security, passively cooling cities in summer, reducing costs of living and energy consumption, controlling erosion, averting flooding, reviving dead waterways, minimizing water pollution, building community, creating celebration, and more. (Duration: 1 hour plus Q&A)

Water-Harvesting Earthworks Presentation: Planting the Rain: Principles, Practices, and Tips for Water-Harvesting Earthworks and Raingardens

Plant the rain before you plant your trees to boost production, reduce flooding, conserve water, and create sustainable oases around your homes and community infrastructure. Raingardens and other small-scale earthworks quickly infiltrate rainfall into the soil where less is lost to evaporation, while reducing erosion. Living ‘pumps’ of vegetation then enable us the access that water. Come learn simple principles and tips to leverage greater success as you implement these simple and effective passive systems. This presentation builds on Brad’s basic water-harvesting talk, while offering more specifics and case studies. Working examples and case studies will be highlighted. (Duration: 1 hour plus Q&A)

Greywater-Harvesting Presentation:

Learn how to create simple, low-maintenance, legal, and effective household greywater-harvesting systems that use gravity to direct greywater directly into the landscape (no stinky tanks) where it passively irrigates multi-use landscape plantings. This can greatly lower water and power consumption, and related utility bills, while enhancing and beautifying your yard. We will discuss the creation of greywater systems, greywater-harvesting guidelines, materials and suppliers, greywater-appropriate soaps and detergents, marrying greywater- and rainwater-harvesting earthworks, and how to maximize your greywater-irrigated landscape’s potential with passive solar design, food production, and oasis design. A slide show of various systems and site will give you a clear, virtual tour of possibilities. Tax rebates for rainwater- and greywater-harvesting systems will also be shared. Note: Greywater harvesting is not yet legal in all states. If needed, this talk can be given with examples of what has been legalized in other states. (Duration: Minimum 1 hour (plus Q&A). Maximum 2 hours (with Q&A))

Regenerative Rights-of-Way: Local Harvests and Enhancements in Our Community Commons

In the urban environment, streetscapes are our public land, our commons. They are abundant—one-third of a typical city’s footprint is pavement for motor vehicles. These streetscapes are usually designed as drains, rapidly ridding a community of such perceived “problems” as rainwater, stormwater, organic matter, fertility, and obstructions to traffic flow. This design often leads to ever-increasing costs for importation of water, flood control, pollution control, heat-island abatement, climate-change mitigation, and health problems.

But a simple shift in perception and design can enable us to see and utilize rainwater, stormwater, organic matter, fertility, and even some obstructions to traffic flow as free, local resources, which can be passively harvested to enhance local water supplies, control flooding, filter pollutants, grow cool-islands, mitigate the effects of climate change, and improve health—while generating more resources and more life .

The key is to see and enhance the free abundance that we already have in a way that transforms more of our built systems into living systems that can regenerate themselves and our communities.

Numerous successful examples will be featured. (Duration: 30–60 minutes plus Q&A)

Harvesting Water and More To Turn “Wastes” into Resources: The Story of Rain Beer, Urban Drool Harvesting, Managing Mega-Cities Like Forests, and more

This dynamic talk looks into how we tend to mismanage but could properly manage our most precious resource: water. Many examples and case studies are given that illustrate how we can sustainably enhance our water, energy, and food resources at home, within our communities, and beyond.  In addition, Brad will also cover water-harvesting from dirt roads, Portland’s Sustainable Stormwater Program, green burials, an urban farm irrigated solely by rain and stormwater, and more. Monetary savings associated with each example are dramatic, and these practices simultaneously enhance local resources and quality of life. Best of all, you can do the same. Includes audio where possible. (Duration: 1 hour plus Q&A)

Water Harvesting for Food Production:

Food is virtual water—originating from the source of irrigation. Local, sustainable food is all the rage, but we can take it further by growing that food with local, sustainable water. This talk covers the growing of food using rainwater, stormwater, and greywater for irrigation. Case studies include rain-fed greenhouses, dryfarming, backyard market gardens, granada greywater groves, and climate-appropriate traditional and appropriate plantings. (Duration: 1 hour plus Q&A)

Beneficial Ruins and Water Webs: A Vernacular Design Challenge to Increase the Resilience of Dryland Ecologies and Human Communities

This talk explores the idea of a beneficial ruin — a creation that improves the conditions of the ecological and human communities where it resides, even when abandoned. A beneficial ruin must be in relationship with its place and its people. Typically it acts as a web, passively harvesting and enhancing natural flows, so that at its best it generates other resources, even while regenerating itself. Examples of such ruins from the drylands of the southwest U.S. and the Middle East will be shared, with an emphasis on those that improve water, soil, food, and community. And you will be challenged to create and/or enhance such ruins or seeds of resilience in your place. (Duration: 1 hour plus Q&A)

Water-Harvesting Principles & the Story of an African Rain Farmer: Design Guidelines for Regenerative Water and Fertility Management

“You must plant the rain before you plant a seed or tree!” proclaimed rain farmer Mr. Zephaniah Phiri Maseko of Zimbabwe. By doing just that, he and his family turned a wasteland into an oasis, raised groundwater and well levels even in dry years, reduced flooding in wet years, and enhanced the fertility of the soils. This inspiring story will be shared along with the strategies used, and more importantly, the guiding principles that informed the choice, placement, and implementation of these strategies into a more integrated and productive system.

These principles work in any climate experiencing a dry season or drought, and they help us see and act more holistically by asking us questions that direct our attention to important aspects of water & fertility systems we might otherwise overlook.

We will discuss how these principles were created, and how you, too, can use them or create your own—even in other contexts—such as the harvest and enhancement of other free, on-site resources such as sun and shade. (Duration: 1 hour plus Q&A)

Mr Phiri, the African Water Farmer:

Description to come. Includes simple live demo. Intended audience: elementary-school students. (Duration: 45 minutes – 1 hour plus Q&A)

Water Wanderings and More in the Middle East:

Brad shares inspiring stories and images gleaned during his U.S. State Department-sponsored trip to Jordan and Saudi Arabia in 2009 and a return in 2010 to teach permaculture in Palestine and conduct research in Syria and Israel. Topics include: sustainable groundwater extraction with ancient gravity-fed qanats; the forgotten and refound cisterns of old Jeddah; revived Nabatean runoff farms producing almonds, carob, olives, pomegranates, grapes, figs, and more on just 4 inches (50 mm) of rain per year; Rainwater Tea; Revolving Community Loan Funds; Water Wise Women of Jordan; Tank Culture in a Water Truck Culture, the spiral cisterns of the Bell Caves, salvaged plastic bottle irrigation, and kunafa. (Duration: 1 hour plus Q&A)

Water Harvesting in Urban Environments:

Overpaved, drain-like urban environments eject precious local resources such as rainwater, creating the ‘need’ to import water from afar. This creates liabilities such as flooding, water shortages, pollution, and hotter temperatures paired with higher energy consumption. But we can create sponge-like urban environments that harvest resources such as rainwater, stormwater, greywater, and condensate as close to their sources as possible. In so doing, we turn would-be liabilities into assets such as street orchards that control flooding and produce food; more resilient and more numerous water resources; living filters of soil, water, and air; and temperature-reducing, energy-conserving and -producing oases of life. Examples, from small- to large-scale, from ancient to contemporary, from the Middle East and around the world, will be presented. (Duration: 1 hour plus Q&A)

Playing, Planting, and Partnering with Our Home’s Distinctive Genius Loci, or “Spirit of Place”

How can we each tap our unique essence and blend it with the distinct spirit of the place where we live in a way that lifts the vitality, health, and potential of all lives here? Through evolving stories of inspiration, water harvesting, wild food abundance, and local fountains of creativity, Brad will pose and seek to answer such questions with you.

Integrated Sun- & Shade-Harvesting for Buildings, Neighborhoods, Gardens, and Landscapes

This presentation demonstrates many simple, inexpensive, and highly effective strategies for the passive/free harvest of winter sun and summer shade to maximize comfort, generate energy, reduce water and power consumption, save money, and create more productive gardens and orchards. Topics/methods covered include:

• Why we have seasonally changing sun paths
• Sun-path dance—a fun way to wake up, as well as understand and teach the sun’s seasonally changing path
• Ideal orientation of buildings, trees, gardens, and food forests to the sun, with examples from the present and ancient past
• How to integrate the harvests of sun, shade, wind, and free on-site waters
• How to further enhance a building’s thermal performance with ideally sized roof overhangs/window awnings for equator-/winter-sun-facing windows in order to maximize summer cooling AND winter heating
• Winter-solstice shadow ratio—a quick and simple way to determine the longest noontime shadow an object will cast, and how to design around that extreme
• Solar rights
• Water-Energy-Carbon Nexus and how integrated design reduces the consumption of water and energy, while minimizing carbon emissions
• Integrated retrofits of existing buildings, and
• Solar cooking

(Duration: 45 minutes – 1 hour plus Q&A)

Desert Harvesters, Neighborhood Foresters, and Native Foods: Put ‘em in your mouth, your yard, your street, and your neighborhood

Check out this celebratory presentation on the history of Desert Harvesters, Dunbar Spring Neighborhood Foresters, and other dynamo local-food efforts that have enriched the Tucson community, ecosystem, and palates – and how you can likewise enrich the community where you live.

Learn about grinding mesquite (and carob) pods with a hammermill or a Suzuki 4 x 4; irrigating food-producing street trees with the street; planting and picking the best tree-beans; throwing pie, mulch, and pancakes parties; creating a thoroughly delicious community-tasted cookbook; regenerating ecosystems in your pantry and landscape, and growing friendships and neighborhood networks while you’re at it!

Primary goals of Desert Harvesters and Neighborhood Foresters , grassroots efforts based in Tucson, are to promote and enhance the awareness and use of locally native food sources, which can thrive on harvested natural rainfall and runoff without additional irrigation contributing to unsustainable groundwater depletion. We’re learning that by fostering a reciprocal relationship between native plants and local people we can enhance local food security, reconnect people with the ecosystem, and build a more dynamic and sustainable community. (Duration: 1 hour plus Q&A)

O n-site needs for a typical presentation

RAIN WATER HARVESTING SYSTEM

Aug 08, 2014

5.16k likes | 13.46k Views

Project based Learning. RAIN WATER HARVESTING SYSTEM. by. Rajashri Dinkar Dahibhat &amp; Priyanka Sampat Datir. Guide. Prof. Rajashri Bam. WELCOME . RAIN WATER HARVESTING SYSTEM. INTRODUCTION.

Share Presentation

• rainwater harvesting
• basic drinking water requirement
• storage tank
• dry season demand
• collected roof water

Presentation Transcript

Project based Learning RAIN WATER HARVESTING SYSTEM by Rajashri Dinkar Dahibhat & Priyanka Sampat Datir Guide Prof. Rajashri Bam

INTRODUCTION • Rainwater harvesting is a technology used for collecting and storing rainwater from rooftops, the land surface or rock catchments using simple techniques such as jars and pots as well as more complex techniques such as underground check dams.

NEED OF RAIN WATER HARVESTING SYSTEM • This is perhaps one of the most frequently asked question, as to why one should harvest rainwater. • There are many reasons but following are some of the • important ones. • To arrest ground water decline and augment ground • To beneficiate water quality in aquifers. • To conserve surface water runoff during monsoon. • To reduce soil erosion • To inculcate a culture of water conservation

Design • Selected surface Area • Collection System • Storage system

Design of storage tanks The volume of the storage tank can be determined by the following factors: • Number of persons in the household: The greater the number of persons, the greater the storage capacity required to achieve the same efficiency of fewer people under the same roof area. • Per capita water requirement: This varies from household to household based on habits and also from season to season. Consumption rate has an impact on the storage systems design as well as the duration to which stored rainwater can last. • Average annual rainfall • Period of water scarcity: Apart from the total rainfall, the pattern of rainfall -whether evenly distributed through the year or concentrated in certain periods will determine the storage requirement. The more distributed the pattern, the lesser the size. • Type and size of the catchment:Type of roofing material determines the selection of the runoff coefficient for designs. Size could be assessed by measuring the area covered by the catchment i.e., the length and horizontal width. Larger the catchment, larger the size of the required cistern (tank).

Dry season demand versus supply approach For determining the volume of storage: • Matching the capacity of the tank to the area of the roof • Matching the capacity of the tank to the quantity of water required by its users • Choosing a tank size that is appropriate in terms of costs, resources and construction methods. • In practice the costs, resources and the construction methods tend to limit the tanks to smaller capacities than would otherwise be justified by roof areas or likely needs of consumers. For this reason elaborate calculations aimed at matching tank capacity to roof area is usually unnecessary. However a simplified calculation based on the following factors can give a rough idea of the potential for rainwater collection.

Illustration Suppose the system has to be designed for meeting drinking water requirement of a five-member family living in a building with a rooftop area of 100 sq. m. The average annual rainfall in the region is 600 mm (average annual rainfall in Delhi is 611 mm). Daily drinking water requirement per person (drinking and cooking) is 10 litres.

Design procedure: Following details are available:Area of the catchment (A) = 100 sq. m.Average annual rainfall (R) = 611 mm (0.61 m)Runoff coefficient (C) = 0.85 1. • Calculate the maximum amount of rainfall that can be harvested from the rooftop:Annual water harvesting potential = 100 x 0.6 x 0.85                                               = 51 cu. m. (51,000 litres) • Determine the tank capacity: • This is based on the dry period, i.e., the period between the two consecutive rainy seasons. • For example, with a monsoon extending over four months, the dry season is of 245 days.

3. Calculate drinking water requirement for the family for the dry season        = 245 x 5 x 10        = 12,250 litres As a safety factor, the tank should be built 20 per cent larger than required, i.e., 14,700 litres. This tank can meet the basic drinking water requirement of a 5-member family for the dry period. A typical size of a rectangular tank constructed in the basement will be about 4.0 m x 4.0 m x 1.0 m

Design of groundwater recharge structures • In places where the withdrawal of water is more than the rate of recharge an imbalance in the groundwater reserves is created. Recharging of aquifers are undertaken with the following objectives: • To maintain or augment natural groundwater as an economic resource • To conserve excess surface water underground • To combat progressive depletion of groundwater levels • To combat unfavorable salt balance and saline water intrusion •         = 4.25 cu. m. (4,250 litres) • In designing a recharge trench, the length of the trench is an important factor. Once the required capacity is calculated, length can be calculated by considering a fixed depth and width.

Design of an aquifer recharge system The proper design will include the following considerations:Selection of site: Recharge structures should be planned out after conducting proper hydro-geological investigations. Based on the analysis of this data (already existing or those collected during investigation) it should be possible to: 1) Define the sub-surface geology.   2)Determine the presence or absence of impermeable layers or lenses that can impede percolation  3) Define depths to water table and groundwater flow directions   4) Establish the maximum rate of recharge that could be achieved at the site.

Design of recharge structures and settlement tank For designing the optimum capacity of the tank, the following parameters need to be considered: • 1.) Size of the catchment • 2.) Intensity of rainfall • 3.) Rate of recharge, which depends on the geology of the site

The capacity of the tank • The capacity of the tank should be enough to retain the runoff occurring from conditions of peak rainfall intensity. The rate of recharge in comparison to runoff is a critical factor. However, since accurate recharge rates are not available without detailed geo-hydrological studies, the rates have to be assumed. The capacity of recharge tank is designed to retain runoff from at least 15 minutes rainfall of peak intensity. (For Delhi, peak hourly rainfall is 90 mm (based on 25 year frequency) and 15 minutes peak rainfall is 22.5 mm/hr, say, 25 mm, according to CGWB norms). • IllustrationFor an area of 100 sq. m.,volume of desilting tank required in Delhi = 100 x 0.025 x 0.85                                                             = 2.125 cu. m. (2,125 litres)

Design of a recharge trench The methodology of design of a recharge trench is similar to that for a settlement tank. The difference is that the water-holding capacity of a recharge trench is less than its gross volume because it is filled with porous material. A factor of loose density of the media (void ratio) has to be applied to the equation. The void ratio of the filler material varies with the kind of material used, but for commonly used materials like brickbats, pebbles and gravel, a void ratio of 0.5 may be assumed. Using the same method as used for designing a settlement tank: Assuming a void ratio of 0.5, the required capacity of a recharge tank         = (100 x 0.025 x 0.85)/0.5

Ways of harvesting  rainwater

Ways of harvesting  rainwater • Roof top rain water harvesting system • Surface runoff rain water harvesting system

Rainwater harvesting in Singapore The average annual rainfall of Singapore is 2400 milimeters. Inspite of 50% of the land area being used as a water catchment, almost 40-50 percent of its water requirement are imported.

Research and development work Research and development work had been done for • 1) Utilization of the roofs of high-rise buildings, • 2) Use of run-off from airports for non-potable uses, • 3) Integrated systems using the combined run-off from industrial complexes, aquaculture farms and educational institutions. Singapore has a rising demand for water and is on the lookout for alternative sources and innovative methods of harvesting water.

Rooftop water collection systems: 1. Changi Airport: • Changi Airport system collects and treats rainwater, which accounts for 28 to 33% of its total water used, resulting in savings of approximately S$ 390,000 per annum. The potential for using these rooftops as catchments are high. The system developed have been result of intensive research. A simple computer programmed was developed and monogram prepared relating the roof area, tank size and roof water available.

1 .Changi Airport:

2. High Rise Buildings: • In this system implemented in a 15 storey building, the collected roof water was diverted to two rainwater tanks and the water was used only for flushing. The water quality was acceptable in terms of color, turbidity and bacteriological content though the total solids and chloride levels were marginally higher. A simple dual mode system was incorporated in the collection tanks which were placed on the roof of the building. An economic appraisal established that there was an effective saving of 13.7% of the water. The cost of the rainwater was s$0.395 (us$0.25) per cubic meter (cum) as against the cost of potable water which was s$0.535 (us$ 0.33).

3. Urban Residential Area: • In an urban residential area of about 742 hectares having a total of 49,000 flats, rainwater harvesting was very effective. Using further modified computer programmed, it was possible to compute the volume of potable water to be pumped when there was no stored rainwater and also determine the frequency of such pumping.

4. Capturing Urban Runoff: • By 1986, the growing need for water led to the establishment of the lower Seletar-Bedok water scheme where almost nine per cent of the total land area was used. The most important feature of this scheme is that almost one-quarter of this catchment is in urban area having high rise buildings and industries and surface run-offs were subject to a wide verities of contaminants. Hence the control of the water pollution and relevant technologies were the main priorities of the scheme. The lower involved the damming of the Sungei Seletar estuary, which has a catchment area of 3200 ha, and forming of lower Seletar reservoir. The reservoirs are interconnected and raw water from Bedok reservoir is treated to potable levels before distribution. The rest of the catchment of 2,625 ha was primarily urban and both the runoffs are directed to Bedok reservoir.

Advantages • Rainwater harvesting technologies are simple to install and operate. • Local people can be easily trained to implement such technologies, and construction materials are also readily available. • It is convenient in the sense that it provides water at the point of consumption, and family members have full control of their own systems, which greatly reduces operation and maintenance problems. • Running costs, also, are almost negligible. • Water collected from roof catchments usually is of acceptable quality for domestic purposes.

It is collected using existing structures not specially constructed for the purpose. It has few negative environmental impacts compared to other water supply project technologies. Although regional or other local factors can modify the local climatic conditions, rainwater can be a continuous source of water supply for both the rural and poor. Depending upon household capacity and needs, both the water collection and storage capacity may be increased as needed within the available catchment area.  

Disadvantages • Disadvantages of rainwater harvesting technologies are mainly due to the limited supply and uncertainty of rainfall. • Adoption of this technology requires a *bottom up* approach rather than the more usual *top down* approach employed in other water resources development projects. • This may make rainwater harvesting less attractive to some governmental agencies tasked with providing water supplies in developing countries, but the mobilization of local government and NGO resources can serve the same basic role in the development of rainwater-based schemes as water resources development agencies in the larger, more traditional public water supply schemes.

Tips to ensure quality of harvested rain For high quality performance. Following aspects should be taken care of: • Just before the arrival of monsoon, the rooftop/catchmet area has to be cleaned properly. • The roof outlet on the terrace should be covered with a mesh to prevent entry of leafs or other solid waste into the system. • The filter materials have to be either replaced or washed properly before the monsoon. • The diversion valve has to be opened for the first 5 to 10 minutes of rain to dispose off the polluted first flush. • All polluted water should be taken away from the recharge structures. • The depth of bores (of recharge structures) shall be finalised depending on the actual site condition

Do's and Don'ts • Harvested rainwater is used for direct usage or for recharging aquifers so following precautionary measures should be taken while harvesting rainwater:-  • Roof or terraces uses for harvesting should be clean, free from dust, algal plants etc. • Roof should not be painted since most paints contain toxic substances and may peel off. • Do not store chemicals, rusting iron, manure or detergent on the roof. • Nesting of birds on the roof should be prevented. • Terraces should not be used for toilets either by human beings or by pets. • Provide gratings at mouth of each drainpipe on terraces to trap leaves debris and floating materials.

Do's and Don'ts • Provision of first rain separator should be made to flush off first rains. • Do not use polluted water to recharge ground water. • Ground water should only be recharged by rainwater. • Before recharging, suitable arrangements of filtering should be provided. • Filter media should be cleaned before every monsoon season. • During rainy season, the whole system (roof catchment's, pipes, screens, first flush, filters, tanks) should be checked before and after each rain and preferably cleaned after every dry period exceeding a month. • At the end of the dry season and just before the first shower of rain is anticipated, the storage tank should be scrubbed and flushed off all sediments and debris.

• More by User

Experience of Lanka Rain Water Harvesting Forum

Experience of Lanka Rain Water Harvesting Forum. Tanuja Ariyananda Lanka Rain Water Harvesting Forum. The Problem. Almost all the districts in Sri Lanka face the dual problem of. Drought -During dry months. Floods - During Monsoon.

523 views • 20 slides

Water Harvesting

Water Harvesting. Water harvesting measures. These are artificial recharge measures that capture rainfall and run-off and store it in the soil profile or add to the recharge. Water harvesting measures. There are many different types of water harvesting techniques – depending on:

636 views • 12 slides

WATER HARVESTING

WATER HARVESTING. THANK YOU.

653 views • 15 slides

Acid Rain &amp; D irect Harvesting

Acid Rain &amp; D irect Harvesting. Unit 7-3 Notes Mr. Hefti – Pulaski Biology. Acid Rain ► What is it?. Precipitation w/ lower than normal pH Low pH values (&lt; 7) are acidic. AR ► What causes it?. Sulfur and nitrogen compounds produced as a result of burning fossil fuels Coal

270 views • 15 slides

Rain Water Harvesting - Need of an hour…

Rain Water Harvesting - Need of an hour…. RWH - How Far It Can Solve The Problems Of Water Scarcity. Prepared by: Raju, Deepti and Ruchir Jeevantirth, Juna Koba, Gandhinagar-382009 [email protected]. Looming Danger.

1.86k views • 48 slides

Rain Water Conservation/Harvesting Plan for NCSSM

Rain Water Conservation/Harvesting Plan for NCSSM. Drought!. As of October 2 nd 2007, the North Carolina Drought Management Advisory council declared that Durham was one of the counties experiencing an “exceptional drought.” As of January 29 th , 2008, that status has not changed.

538 views • 7 slides

Rain Water Harvesting

Rain Water Harvesting . A traditional and green system to preserve the world water resources. Difficult access to safe water in Katmandou.

6.25k views • 28 slides

Effects of Rain Water Harvesting on the Hydrograph

Effects of Rain Water Harvesting on the Hydrograph. Tyler Jantzen May 3, 2007 CE 394K.2. Introduction. What is Rain Water Harvesting (RWH)? Collect rain water for consumptive use Increasing popularity Third world Arid climates “sustainable” building. Advantages

398 views • 17 slides

Fundamentals of Rain Water Harvesting

Fundamentals of Rain Water Harvesting. Vishal Bhanushali Eureka Forbes Institute of Environment May 06, 2009. Launched in 2000. Vision Living an unpolluted life is our children’s birthright. Air Pollution. Ground Water Pollution. What is the need for harvesting rain water ?.

1.08k views • 72 slides

Water harvesting - Liman

Water harvesting - Liman. I. Moshe. microcathment. CEAM. Tree shelters. CEAM. Olea europaea Wild olive 2004, 1 year semi-arid. 100. 80. 60. % Mortality in the first year. 40. Years of plantation. 1992-1994. 20. R² = 0.6727. 2003-2004. R² = 0.8098. 0. 20. 40. 60. 80. 100.

234 views • 9 slides

Implementing Rain Water Harvesting into Building Construction in VA

Implementing Rain Water Harvesting into Building Construction in VA. “ Moving Rain Water Harvesting to the Mainstream ”. Presented by: Guy Tomberlin, CBO Code Specialist III Fairfax County DPWES, Land Development Services (LDS). October 22, 2008. Objectives.

654 views • 32 slides

Save Water: Rain Water Harvesting [RWH] at Keerthi Royale [KR]

Save Water: Rain Water Harvesting [RWH] at Keerthi Royale [KR].

247 views • 1 slides

Chapter 3.2 Rain Water Harvesting

Chapter 3.2 Rain Water Harvesting. Yerebatan Sarayi—Istanbul, Turkey. A Short History. Rain water harvesting can be traced back over 3,000 years Beginning systems were very basic. Usually and excavated cistern which collected rain water.

498 views • 10 slides

Training of Trainers Site Specificity of Rain Water Harvesting

Training of Trainers Site Specificity of Rain Water Harvesting. Workshop Conducted By Eureka Forbes Institute of Environment For Maharashtra Centre for Entrepreneurship Development. Site Specificity based on surface available for Harvesting. Roof top rain water

364 views • 22 slides

Install Rain Water Harvesting Surrey Systems – Be Eco-Friendly Person

Rain water harvesting Surrey systems helps people to be eco-friendly and also to benefit from availability of water for use. It also helps in avoiding wastage of water.

258 views • 6 slides

For rain water harvesting Noida call OM Jyoti Pumps

You can use rain water for life. Don’t let rain water waste, preserve it in underground tanks with the help of OM Jyoti pumps a leading rain water harvesting contractor Noida delivers services at reasonable charges. We can use rain water for our routine works like washing clothes and dishes, watering plants, car wash etc. It’s a reliable method to save drinking water for next generation. As a submersible pump dealers Noida and water pump dealer Noida we are working in this field from more than 2 decades. We also provide water pump servicing Noida so contact us for best quotation.

270 views • 4 slides

Rain water harvesting

The annual rainfall of Iran is about 13% as compared to rainfall in India. Despite of it, due to employing Rainwater Harvesting techniques and better water management , the government of Iran has been able to match up the water demands of the citizens of Iran.The presentations gives an overview of tomography, technology, various rainwater harvesting structures employed in Iran.

410 views • 19 slides

Rain Water Harvesting tank suppliers

Wetcomb reputation for reliability has been built through our dedication to providing consistency of product, price and protection to all our clients.

90 views • 2 slides

Rain Water Harvesting to Grow Flowers and Plants in Gurgaon

Rain Water Harvesting to Grow Flowers and Plants in Gurgaon Summers Send Gifts Online in India If one has a mini garden in their backyard, this technique can be used for irrigation purpose, which will enhance the growth of blooming flower beds and green plants. So keep your flowers fresh and blooming with eco-friendly rainwater harvesting techniques! Share these techniques with all those who love plants and flowers, who love to garden them and want to keep them blooming. To such friends, you can send flowers to Gurgaon, Pune, Bangalore through online flower delivery website so that they can plant those flowers and plants in their garden. This could be a sweet gesture of gifting. To know more Visit Us Now! Blooms villa (www.bloomsvilla.com) https://sendgiftsonlineindia.wordpress.com/2018/09/11/rain-water-harvesting-to-grow-flowers-and-plants-in-gurgaon-summers/

107 views • 8 slides

Rain Water Harvesting Plant system and its basic utilities to know

Designing and testing industrial purpose water harvesting plants by Rain Harvesting Plant Manufacturer Company in Delhi NCR majorly focus on very keen points which will be result in a good way.

111 views • 6 slides

Smart Plant Growth on Hydroponics using Rain Water Harvesting

In present days soil possess lack of fertility that reduces the plant yield and its health by the frequent addition of chemical pesticides and lack of water. Hydroponics is the technique of growing any plant without implanting it in the soil. Hydroponics is used to save water and also to nourish the soil. This paper presents Automated Hydroponics systems that automatically deliver drip irrigation water in regular intervals from rain water harvesting tank. Organic nutrient solution is also conveyed to the plants in separate pipe. This System uses fewer amounts of water and fertilizers as compared to conventional system. An android app is used for monitoring plants via Internet. PIR sensors are used to detect intrusion of human beings animals. The hydroponic field could be implemented at rooftop or balcony also. Faheemah. J | Dr. John Dhanaseely. A "Smart Plant Growth on Hydroponics using Rain Water Harvesting" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-3 , April 2018, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd11488.pdf Paper URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electronics-and-communication-engineering/11488/smart-plant-growth-on-hydroponics-using-rain-water-harvesting/faheemah-j

82 views • 4 slides

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

RAIN WATER HARVESTING. RAIN WATER HARVESTING. Rain water harvesting is collection of rain water through Storage for direct use (2) Recharging of ground water. WATER CYCLE. A FEW FACTS. Only 3% of water is available for human use. Only 1% of water is in lakes and rivers.

4.97k views • 37 slides

Rain Water Harvesting PPT: Uses, Limitations and Advantages

Rain Water Harvesting PPT: Uses, Limitations and Advantages Free Download: Rain Water Harvesting is a process of collecting rain water and conserving it for future utilization. It involves processes of collecting, storing, conveying and purification of rainwater that falls off from the rooftops, open grounds, roads, parks, etc.

The main components of rain water harvesting are catchment that is used to collect and store the captured rainwater, flush used for flushing out the first spell of rain that is generally dirty, filter used for purification of the rain water, conveyance system used to transport the water for multi-utilization and tanks used for storage. Keeping in mind the upcoming crisis of water, rain water harvesting is an excellent way to conserve water and make the utmost use of it.

Table of Content

• Introduction
• Uses of Rain Water Harvesting
• Advantages of Rain Water Harvesting
• Limitations of Rain Water Harvesting
• Rain water System components and design considerations.
• Feasibility of Rain Water Harvesting
• Quality of Rain Water

Related Posts

Social media marketing ppt presentation seminar free, biomedical waste management ppt presentation free, monkey and the cap seller story ppt presentation free download, 1210 electrical engineering(eee) seminar topics 2024, 112 iot seminar topics-internet of thing presentation topics 2024.

330 Latest AI (Artificial Intelligence Seminar Topics) 2024

No comments yet, leave a reply cancel reply.

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. Learn how your comment data is processed .