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Urbanization: a problem for the rich and the poor?

• Md Abdul Kuddus 1 , 2 , 4 ,
• Elizabeth Tynan 3 &
• Emma McBryde 1 , 2  

Public Health Reviews volume  41 , Article number:  1 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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Urbanization has long been associated with human development and progress, but recent studies have shown that urban settings can also lead to significant inequalities and health problems. This paper is concerned with the adverse impact of urbanization on both developed and developing nations and both wealthy and poor populations within those nations, addressing issues associated with public health problems in urban areas. The discussion in this paper will be of interest to policy makers. The paper advocates policies that improve the socio-economic conditions of the urban poor and promote their better health. Further, this discussion encourages wealthy people and nations to become better informed about the challenges that may arise when urbanization occurs in their regions without the required social supports and infrastructure.

Urbanization refers to the mass movement of populations from rural to urban settings and the consequent physical changes to urban settings. In 2019, the United Nations estimated that more than half the world’s population (4.2 billion people) now live in urban area and by 2041, this figure will increase to 6 billion people [ 1 ].

Cities are known to play multifaceted functions in all societies. They are the heart of technological development and economic growth of many nations, while at the same time serving as a breeding ground for poverty, inequality, environmental hazards, and communicable diseases [ 2 ]. When large numbers of people congregate in cities, many problems result, particularly for the poor. For example, many rural migrants who settle in an urban slum area bring their families and their domesticated animals—both pets and livestock—with them. This influx of humans and animals leads to vulnerability of all migrants to circulating communicable diseases and the potential to establish an urban transmission cycle. Further, most urban poor live in slums that are unregulated, have congested conditions, are overcrowded, are positioned near open sewers, and restricted to geographically dangerous areas such as hillsides, riverbanks, and water basins subject to landslides, flooding, or industrial hazards. All of these factors lead to the spread of communicable and non-communicable diseases, pollution, poor nutrition, road traffic, and so on [ 3 , 4 , 5 ]. The problems faced by the poor spill over to other city dwellers. As the trend to urbanization continues, this spillover effect increases and takes on a global dimension as more and more of the world’s populations are affected [ 3 ].

Some of the major health problems resulting from urbanization include poor nutrition, pollution-related health conditions and communicable diseases, poor sanitation and housing conditions, and related health conditions. These have direct impacts on individual quality of life, while straining public health systems and resources [ 6 ].

Urbanization has a major negative impact on the nutritional health of poor populations. Because they have limited financial resources and the cost of food is higher in cities, the urban poor lack nutritious diets and this leads to illness, which contributes to loss of appetite and poor absorption of nutrients among those affected. Furthermore, environmental contamination also contributes to undernutrition; street food is often prepared in unhygienic conditions, leading to outbreaks of food-borne illnesses (e.g., botulism, salmonellosis, and shigellosis) [ 6 ]. Urban dwellers also suffer from overnutrition and obesity, a growing global public health problem. Obesity and other lifestyle conditions contribute to chronic diseases (such as cancers, diabetes, and heart diseases). Although obesity is most common among the wealthy, international agencies have noted the emergence of increased weight among the middle class and poor in recent years [ 7 ].

Populations in poor nations that suffer from protein-energy malnutrition [ 8 ] have increased susceptibility to infection [ 9 ] through the impact of micronutrient deficiency on immune system development and function [ 10 ]. Around 168 million children under 5 are estimated to be malnourished and 76% of these children live in Asia [ 11 ]. At the same time, the World Health Organization is concerned that there is an emerging pandemic of obesity in poor countries that leads to non-communicable diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer, hypertension, and stroke [ 12 ].

Obesity is caused by increased caloric intake and decreased physical activity [ 13 ], something historically associated with wealth. However, people in urbanized areas of developing countries are also now vulnerable to obesity due to lack of physical space, continually sitting in workplaces, and excessive energy intake and low energy expenditure. In these areas, infrastructure is often lacking, including sufficient space for recreational activities. Further, in developing countries, as in developed countries, large employers frequently place head offices in urban capitals and work is increasingly sedentary in nature [ 14 ]. Another culprit associated with the risk of developing obesity is the change in food intake that has led to the so-called nutrition transition (increased the consumption of animal-source foods, sugar, fats and oils, refined grains, and processed foods) in urban areas. For instance, in China, dietary patterns have changed concomitantly with urbanization in the past 30 years, leading to increased obesity [ 15 ]. In 2003, the World Health Organization estimated that more than 300 million adults were affected, the majority in developed and highly urbanized countries [ 16 ]. Since then, the prevalence of obesity has increased. For example, in Australia, around 28% of adults were obese in 2014–2015 [ 17 ].

Pollution is another major contributor to poor health in urban environments. For instance, the World Health Organization estimated that 6.5 million people died (11.6% of all global deaths) as a consequence of indoor and outdoor air pollution and nearly 90% of air-pollution-related deaths occurred in low- and middle-income countries [ 18 ]. Poor nutrition and pollution both contribute to a third major challenge for urban populations: communicable diseases. The poor live in congested conditions, near open sewers and stagnant water, and are therefore constantly exposed to unhealthy waste [ 6 ]. Inadequate sanitation can lead to the transmission of helminths and other intestinal parasites. Pollution (e.g., from CO 2 emission) from congested urban areas contributes to localized and global climate change and direct health problems, such as respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer for both the rich and the poor.

In addition to human-to-human transmission, animals and insects serve as efficient vectors for diseases within urban settings and do not discriminate between the rich and poor. The prevalence and impact of communicable diseases in urban settings, such as tuberculosis (TB), malaria, cholera, dengue, and others, is well established and of global concern.

National and international researchers and policy makers have explored various strategies to address such problems, yet the problems remain. For example, research on solutions for megacities has been ongoing since the early 1990s [ 19 , 20 ]. These studies have concluded that pollution, unreliable electricity, and non-functioning infrastructure are priority initiatives; nevertheless, air pollution, quality of water in cities, congestion, disaster management issues, and infrastructure are not being systematically addressed [ 19 , 20 ].

The impact of inner city transportation on health, such as road traffic, is emerging as a serious problem. Statistics show that a minimum of 10 people die every day on the railways in the city of Mumbai, India [ 21 ]. Vietnam is another example of a country that has seen a remarkable increase in road traffic accidents [ 22 ]. Improvements to the country’s infrastructure have not been able to meet the increasing growth of vehicular and human traffic on the street. Vietnam reportedly has a population of 95 million and more than 18 million motorbikes on its roads. A deliberate policy is needed to reduce accidents [ 21 ].

Although urbanization has become an irreversible phenomenon, some have argued that to resolve the problems of the city, we must tackle the root causes of the problem, such as improving the socio-economic situation of the urban poor.

Until the conditions in rural areas improve, populations will continue to migrate to urban settings. Given the challenges that rural development poses, the root causes are unlikely to be addressed in the near future. Therefore, governments and development agencies should concentrate on adapting to the challenges of urbanization, while seeking to reduce unplanned urbanization.

Some examples of policies and practices that should be considered include (i) policies that consider whole-of-life journeys, incorporating accessible employment, community participation, mobility/migration and social transition, to break generational poverty cycles; (ii) policies addressing urban environmental issues, such as planned urban space and taxes on the use of vehicles to reduce use or to encourage vehicles that use less fuel as well as encourage bicycle use, walking, and other forms of human transportation; (iii) greater cooperative planning between rural and urban regions to improve food security (e.g., subsidies for farmers providing locally produced, unprocessed and low cost food to urban centers); (iv) social protection and universal health coverage to reduce wealth disparity among urban dwellers; including introduction of programs and services for health, for example by establishing primary healthcare clinics accessible and affordable for all including those living in urban slums [ 23 ].

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the editor for his/her thoughtful comments and efforts towards improving the manuscript.

This work was conducted as a part of a PhD programme of the first authors and funded by the College of Medicine and Dentistry at the James Cook University, Australia (JCU-QLD-933347).

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MAK planned the study, analyzed, and prepared the manuscript. ET and EM helped in the preparation of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Kuddus, M.A., Tynan, E. & McBryde, E. Urbanization: a problem for the rich and the poor?. Public Health Rev 41 , 1 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40985-019-0116-0

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s40985-019-0116-0

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Urbanization: Concept, Mechanism, and Global Implications

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• Yuji Murayama 7 &
• Ronald C. Estoque 8  

Part of the book series: Advances in Geological Science ((AGS))

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Urbanization has two types of impacts: positive and negative. On the one hand, urbanization brings positive impacts to society as it helps improve the social and economic aspects of people’s lives. On the other hand, urbanization brings negative social and ecological impacts, both locally and globally. This chapter discusses the concept of urbanization in the context of human geoscience, including its history, mechanism, and trend in the modern world. It presents an overview of the negative ecological and social impacts associated with urbanization, such as urban heat island, air pollution, flooding, health, urban poverty, crimes and violence, and traffic congestion. This chapter also discusses the inclusion of urbanization to the global sustainable development agenda, as well as the importance of geospatial technologies, such as geographic information systems (GIS) and remote sensing, for urban monitoring towards sustainable urban development.

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Yuji Murayama

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Ronald C. Estoque

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Correspondence to Yuji Murayama .

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Earthquake Research Institute, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan

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Murayama, Y., Estoque, R.C. (2020). Urbanization: Concept, Mechanism, and Global Implications. In: Himiyama, Y., Satake, K., Oki, T. (eds) Human Geoscience. Advances in Geological Science. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9224-6_19

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Theses on Urbanization

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Theses on Urbanization

Date published:.

The urban has become a keyword of early twenty-first-century economic, political, and cultural discourse. But as its resonance has intensified in social science and in the public sphere, the conceptual and cartographic specificity of the urban has been severely blunted. Is there any future for a distinct field of urban theory in a world in which urbanization has been generalized onto a planetary scale? This article reflects on this state of affairs and outlines a series of theses intended to reinvigorate the theoretical framework of urban studies in relation to emergent forms of urbanization. Several conceptual distinctions - between categories of practice and categories of analysis, nominal essences and constitutive essences, and concentrated and extended urbanization—are proposed to inform possible future mappings of the planetary urban condition.

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Home > School, College, or Department > CUPA > USP > Dissertations and Theses

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Home / Expansions and Inequalities, 1820-1869 / Industry and Immigration / Urbanization

Urbanization

An illustration of life in one of the United States most notorious slums.

The Five Points

The Five Points , ca. 1827. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Bequest of Mrs. Screven Lorillard (Alice Whitney), from the collection of Mrs. J. Insley Blair, 2016.

The Industrial Revolution led to the rapid movement of people from rural to urban areas. This movement coincided with a big increase in the number of immigrants arriving from other countries. As a result, the populations of U.S. cities exploded. For example, between 1820 and 1860, the population of New York City quadrupled from 200,000 to 800,000. 

The new arrivals came in search of jobs. But they also needed places to live. During the rush to expand cities, no one oversaw the development of new neighborhoods and buildings. Desperate workers simply lived wherever there was a space they could afford, and greedy landlords built cheap structures to house them. As a result, neighborhoods were largely segregated by race and social class. Wealthy white and middle-class people moved to the outskirts of their cities. The homes were more expensive, but the air was cleaner, and there was enough space for each family to have their own home. The working class and poor, made up of predominately immigrants and people of color, occupied the less desirable center of the city. In these areas, entire extended families might live together in a single room, and the air was polluted by the exhaust from nearby factories. But rent was cheap, and the tenants lived close enough to their jobs that they could walk to work every day.

About the Document

This painting captures a street scene in the infamous Five Points neighborhood in New York City, which was at one point known as the worst slum in America. But it was also one of the first integrated neighborhoods in the U.S., with free Blacks and European immigrants living side by side. There was always racial tension, which sometimes resulted in violence, but all the inhabitants of Five Points were united in their quest to make a life for themselves in the rapidly changing world of the Industrial Revolution. 

This painting includes many clues about the lives of women who inhabited Five Points. In the lower left corner, a white woman is trying to clean while a young child slides in muck nearby. Women of all social classes were expected to keep their homes and children clean and well cared for, but for lower-class women living in slums, the work was much harder. In the lower right corner, a Black woman is fighting a Black man in front of a crowd of amused onlookers. Women of the lower classes frequently had to defend themselves physically but were also ridiculed for this unladylike behavior. The mob at the center indicates another common way lower-class women exerted their power. Rioting women could exact justice and send a message about their wants and needs. 

This painting also contains many different examples of women engaged in sex work. Sex work was one of the more accessible ways for poor women to make money without having to leave their homes. As the painting indicates, rich men from other parts of the city would spend evenings “slumming” in Five Points for this reason. Sex workers were judged harshly by moral leaders in the city and were frequently the target of wealthy women reformers. 

• Industrial Revolution: The era of American history marked by the rise of factories and mechanical inventions that transformed daily life.
• slum: A densely populated urban area that is marked by poverty.

Discussion Questions

• Based on this image, who lived, worked, and visited the Five Points neighborhood? How can you tell?
• What would you hear, smell, and feel if you were inside this scene? What does this painting reveal about lives of women in poor and working-class neighborhoods in the mid- 1800s ?
• What does this painting reveal about the effects of rapid urbanization during the Industrial Revolution?

Suggested Activities

• APUSH Connection: 4.6 Market Revolution: Society and Culture
• Use this painting to illustrate any discussion of the rapid urbanization that accompanied the Industrial Revolution. 
• Ask students to make an annotated guide for this painting. They should number the figures and groups in the scene, and then write short descriptions of what the group represents in the history of urbanization and the Industrial Revolution.
• To learn about the jobs that led some women to more urban areas, see Irish Domestics and Waged Industrial Work .
• Life in slums like Five Points sparked the beginning of the progressive movement. To learn more, see Life Story: Jane Addams .

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Graduate College

Advocating and advising at hawkeye caucus.

Hawkeye Caucus is a unique day where graduate students from the University of Iowa head to the state capitol to meet with legislators and discuss the impact of their research on the people of Iowa. This year, alongside Associate Provost for Graduate and Professional Education and Dean of the Graduate College, Dr. Amanda Thein, students from the School of Planning and Public Affairs, Computer Science, and the Interdisciplinary Neuroscience Program presented research related to public safety, consumer data protection, urban and regional planning, housing and community development, and public health. 

“Hawkeye Caucus is a great opportunity for graduate students to talk to our state legislators and share the ways that the complex research that they conduct has real world impact for people living in Iowa communities,” Dean Thein says.

Armando Bryson is a second-year graduate student in the Public Affairs program. This was his first year attending Hawkeye Caucus.

“ It is extremely important for students to share their research with members of Congress,” Bryson says. “These legislators have a special love for students who are placing civic engagement at the core of their education. ”

Affecting and advising policy

Ben Kreitlow is a sixth-year MD/PhD student in the Medical Scientist Training Program, earning his PhD in neuroscience. One point of interest for Kreitlow is communicating the scientific intricacies of his research to policymakers who might not be familiar with the medical field.

Kreitlow was able to speak with several representatives, including two alumni of the UI Carver College of Medicine. “Getting to talk to representatives with a medical background as well as representatives who are less familiar with the science was very rewarding,” Kreitlow remarks.

Specifically, Kreitlow’s research focuses on Sudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy (SUDEP). “Over 30,000 people in Iowa live with epilepsy,” Kreitlow explains. “Hopefully my work can help prevent epilepsy deaths so that people living with the diagnosis and their families can feel more comfortable.”

Alongside advocating for research which improves human health and prevents disease, students spoke to the importance of safeguarding one’s data. Maaz Musa is a doctoral student in computer science whose research focuses on consumer data protection.

“My research surrounds developing frameworks and tools that can facilitate lawmakers in auditing compliance of entities that consume user data,” Musa explains. 

Musa’s research is integral in advising legislators on the Iowa Consumer Data Protection Act (ICDPA) that will become effective in 2025. One senator expressed particular interest in Musa’s research. 

“One legislator I spoke with was on the same page as me regarding the privacy issue,” Musa says. “They were really interested in knowing what we do in the lab and how our work can act as an advisory to the Iowa data privacy law that's coming soon.”

While Kreitlow and Musa’s research has clear local impact, their work makes a global difference as well. “My research impacts everyone because it affects the privacy of all the users and how they can protect their data,” Musa says. 

Into Iowa communities

Connecting with legislators is a pivotal skill for students in the School of Planning and Public Affairs (SPPA) as they conduct research in various cities across Iowa. Kaylynn Sieverding is a second-year graduate student in SPPA whose research focuses on urban and regional planning and housing and community development. 

“My work attempts to bridge the gap for individuals and families burdened by housing costs by identifying strategies feasible for Dubuque,” Sieverding says.

Similarly, Bryson’s research is based in the city of Bondurant. “ My current research focuses on public safety, examining alternative policy solutions for cities interested in establishing their own dedicated police force,” Bryson explains.

Sieverding and Bryson’s advocacy and community development projects highlight the tangible effects of student research. 

“The research that students at Iowa conduct not only has implications for national and international issues,” Dean Thein says, “but it also has impact on our communities and the way people live every day.”

“Per my discussion with state members of Congress at Hawkeye Caucus, legislators find it extremely refreshing to talk to students who are utilizing their education to make a true difference in the world,” Bryson says.

Hawkeye Caucus continues to be an important day for graduate students to demonstrate that the research done at the University of Iowa has current and lasting impact.