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Gender, age, and body, race and ethnicity, social class and social status, religion and cultural identity, breaking new ground in diversity, equity, and inclusion in consumer research, gender, age, and the body: gaps and research questions, race and ethnicity: gaps and research questions, social class and social status: gaps and research questions, religion and cultural identity: gaps and research questions, asking pressing questions at intersections and beyond, articles in curation.

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Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) in the Journal of Consumer Research : A Curation and Research Agenda

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Zeynep Arsel, David Crockett, Maura L Scott, Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) in the Journal of Consumer Research : A Curation and Research Agenda, Journal of Consumer Research , Volume 48, Issue 5, February 2022, Pages 920–933, https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucab057

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Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) has become ubiquitous in public and academic discourse. This is despite ongoing contests over definitions and the lack of a clear consensus about the relative importance (and even the appropriate order) of each component. For our purposes, diversity refers broadly to real or perceived physical or socio-cultural differences attributed to people and the representation of these differences in research, market spaces, and organizations. Equity refers to fairness in the treatment of people in terms of both opportunity and outcome. Inclusion refers to creating a culture that fosters belonging and incorporation of diverse groups and is usually operationalized as opposition to exclusion or marginalization. Taken together, DEI is typically accompanied by an axiological orientation toward procedural and distributive justice in organizations and institutions.

In this curation, we highlight representative research published in the Journal of Consumer Research that directly and indirectly explores DEI issues primarily along the following axes of difference illustrated in figure 1 : gender, age, and body; race and ethnicity; social class and social status; and religion and cultural identity. These, in many respects, define the visible contours of everyday life. They are at least representative and may not be exhaustive. In the figure, we depict them as distinct but connected “stations” where subjectivities and structures collide and cluster intersectionally, rather than as flat positions of longitude and latitude situated in Euclidian space. We also illustrate two overlapping lenses that focus attention on specific features of DEI’s ontology. Each promotes a situated perspective on the axes, with the “Marketplace structure, stigma, and consumer vulnerability” lens calibrated to structural issues associated with disparity and fairness in the marketplace. The “Consumer identity and agency, mobilization, and autonomy” lens is calibrated to agentic issues associated with identity and practice in everyday life. Although each lens promotes a situated perspective, what they bring into view is neither predetermined nor fixed. Either can bring into view a marketplace premised on equality that promotes well-being or one premised on inequality that promotes oppression.

DIVERSITY, EQUITY, AND INCLUSION IN CONSUMER RESEARCH

A research curation necessarily involves imposing order on a disciplinary literature. But we begin by underlining our intent not to single out the small handful of articles we include as exclusive markers of quality. Rather, among the many that have contributed to a rich conversation in the journal, we highlight a representative set that exemplifies and draws the reader’s attention to certain features of each axis in figure 1 . Given limited space, we provide a more comprehensive listing of representative work in the journal that touches on DEI issues in table 1 . In addition, the reader will note that many articles we highlight are situated along multiple axes simultaneously, even when our discussion focuses on only one. We trust that upon reading this curation, the potential and generativity of existing DEI-oriented consumer research in the journal will be evident, as will be the need for consumer researchers to continue breaking new ground. Given its importance and seemingly natural connection to consumption and market systems, more research that cuts across numerous intersecting axes of difference and intentionally brings DEI implications to the fore is welcome and needed.

EXAMPLES OF DIVERSITY, EQUITY, AND INCLUSION (DEI) RESEARCH IN THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH

NOTE.— This table provides a representative listing of a selection of JCR articles since 1983, exhibiting some connections to the Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Axes discussed in this article. This is not intended to be a complete or systematic review of JCR or the consumer behavior literature.

We begin by highlighting Scaraboto and Fischer's (2013) work on Fatshionistas, which takes an inclusive axiological position in understanding the relationship between gender, body size, and consumption. Instead of problematizing women with heavier bodies as lesser consumers whose bodies need to be remedied by weight loss or dietary changes to participate in the market, the authors start with the premise that the market provides inadequate offerings for underserved consumers. They demonstrate how the stigmatization of body weight—exacerbated by beauty norms, fashion systems, and medicalized discourses that exclusively pathologize high body mass—contributes to the underserving of larger-sized women in fashion markets.

The Fatshionistas’ market-changing project is notable because underserved consumers routinely choose not to pursue further market inclusion, due in part to internalized stigma and attenuated access to empowering cultural resources or strategies. But rather than accept inadequate market offerings and limit themselves to the “plus-size” niche, the participants in this study utilize their cultural and social capital to mobilize a collective identity and appropriate logics from adjacent fields such as the Fat Acceptance Movement to transform mainstream market offerings into something they could accept. Of course, such a remedy will not be available to every underserved consumer who is potentially stigmatized on any number of bases. The Fatshionistas seek to transform markets based on relative social advantages that exist in contradistinction to their stigmatized bodies.

Barnhart and Peñaloza (2013) explore age as a relatively neglected identity that is often invisible in research and practice, despite increasingly older populations around the world. They show that consumption is never a solitary pursuit for people with diminished physical capabilities (due to aging, disability, or both). They investigate the role of what is often an ensemble of family members, service providers, and friends in providing support to aging adults as they lose independence. The ensemble shapes and co-produces aged consumer identities and inscribes and affirms consumption meanings. The authors show how this co-production of aged identity is fraught with contest and negotiation, based on tensions between aging consumers and their care ensemble, as well as misalignments between old age as a subject position and aging as an identity project shaped by dominant cultural discourses and understandings about “getting old.” They show that despite a cultural shift toward seeing aging more positively, the marketplace still largely constructs it as a stigmatized identity. They also highlight the ways that care can appear to enable aged consumers while actually repressing or discouraging them and stripping them of agency. They discuss ways co-consumers (and co-producers) of care ensembles can generate supportive, dignified, and positive meanings while providing assistance. In understanding the practices of consumers who may frequently need interpersonal or market-based assistance, one should include and acknowledge joint consumption and intersubjective production of consumer identities.

In sum, this research finds that consumers’ gender, body type, or age may be treated as stigmatizing attributes that influence their marketplace experiences. Women in particular face unique and often magnified challenges based on body type norms. Furthermore, personal characteristics like disability or elderly status can diminish an individual’s transformative capacity by rendering them not merely less apt to be respected but also dependent on others’ resources to participate in the marketplace.

A prominent perspective on race and ethnicity in DEI-oriented consumer research examines it through the lens of disadvantage or vulnerability. In that vein, Bone, Christensen, and Williams (2014) identify marketplace restrictions experienced by Black and Hispanic consumers seeking financial services. The authors lay bare the “systemic, chronic, and uncontrollable” restrictions on options these consumers confront based on service providers’ race and ethnic bias and the corresponding downstream impact on well-being and judgments about the marketplace. They employ a multi-method approach to uncovering insights into the experiences of Black and Hispanic consumers, who are not widely represented in consumer behavior research. This includes an innovative “mystery shopper” field study approach, where a multi-racial and multi-ethnic group of study confederates visit banks as loan seekers. They find that non-White (vs. White) loan seekers are treated more poorly by loan officers in objective terms. They were asked to provide more documentation and offered less information in response to their queries, acts of discretion with direct implications for the potential outcomes of the loan application process. They reveal the psychological impact of such restrictions on consumers through a series of depth interviews, in which non-White (vs. White) consumers correctly perceive a subordinated position that limits their ability to pursue self-directed goals and whatever freedoms the market might provide. They conduct an experiment to identify the underlying psychological mechanisms of this perception, namely diminished self-esteem and autonomy. That is, when Black and Hispanic consumers experience racial and ethnic discrimination in financial services, they liken the loan seeking experience to a hopeless battle. As decades of research have demonstrated, this harms their financial prospects and well-being. We note that discrimination in financial services also has the potential to harm the bank’s brand.

Cultural identity is another perspective on DEI in consumer research. Using that lens, Rodas, John, and Torelli (2021) examine the perception of bicultural consumers, who internalize two cultural identities (e.g., Hispanic-American, Asian-American). The authors propose that bicultural (vs. monocultural) consumers will find “paradox brands,” which reflect contradictory meanings (e.g., a brand personality that is both rugged and sophisticated), relatively more appealing. In a series of experiments, including a field study of Latino and White participants in their respective community markets, they find that bicultural consumers tend to favor paradox brands. This preference for paradox brands is driven by cognitive flexibility. That is, bicultural consumers can be more or less cognitively flexible (with more or less integration among their multiple identities). As cognitive flexibility and cultural identity integration increase for bicultural consumers, so does their preference for paradox brands. For monocultural consumers (e.g., non-Hispanic White), priming cognitive flexibility also increases their favorability toward paradox brands. The underlying process provides important insights into how the lived experiences of bicultural consumers shape their perceptions of marketplace offerings. That is, bicultural consumers, based on internalizing multiple (sometimes contradictory) cultural identities, value and appreciate brands with multiple identities.

Social class position is in part created and maintained by consumption practices that vary across groups and cluster within groups based on similar assumptions about how consumption generates value. Consumer research on social class and status has largely operated as part of two distinct but overlapping traditions. One focuses on the generation, maintenance, and expression of social class boundaries in consumption, typically operationalized as status. The other focuses on the social psychological and behavioral implications of social class groupings, typically operationalized as clusters of similar perceptions and attitudes. Both traditions incorporate direct (e.g., income and wealth) and indirect (e.g., postal codes, education level, and occupational status) measures of social rank.

Saatcioglu and Ozanne (2013) explore the generation and maintenance of social class boundaries in everyday life through the habitus, a set of mostly embodied dispositions that functions similarly to a milieu. They uncover five status groups localized among residents of a mobile-home park organized around a distinct set of largely embodied moral dispositions (i.e., Nesters, Homesteaders, and Community Builders; Reluctant Emigrants and Outcasts). These dispositions adopted by park residents, taken together, constitute the habitus, which helps create and reinforce moral identity in the park and in the community immediately outside it. The mobile-home park, perhaps the quintessential residential marker of working-class poverty in the United States, is widely stigmatized as low status. Each moral disposition serves as field-dependent capital at the park, marking distinctions between those who are otherwise stigmatized. Unlike others, field-dependent capital is not convertible to economic, social, or other types of capital when transferred to other settings. Instead, its purpose is to help people navigate social life in a specific setting. Its value to the bearer is, in this instance, confined to the park. And it shapes and is shaped by residents’ mostly home-focused consumption practices. They construct and affirm moral identities by engaging in social comparisons of field-dependent capital with neighbors in the park and the surrounding community. The authors remind us that the relationship between consumption and social class (or status group) is not deterministic. Rather, consumption and social class are mutually constituting.

The literature does, of course, at times, demonstrate regularities in consumption behavior by social class group. For instance, Yan, Keh, and Chen (2021) demonstrate that demand for utilitarian “green” products (e.g., energy efficient light bulbs) is highest among the middle class. They reveal an underlying connection between social class and demand driven by a tension between need for differentiation and need for assimilation. Notably, that tension only emerges when neither need is dominant, and this occurs most prevalently among the middle class. By contrast, a single need tends to dominate among the so-called upper and lower classes. Consumers classified as upper class, whose need for differentiation is dominant, find green consumption too assimilating. Consumers classified as lower class, whose need for assimilation is dominant, find it too differentiating. A dominant need attenuates demand for green products. It is only among members of the middle class, where no single need is dominant, that a legitimate tension emerges that generates a dual motivation to satisfy both needs that green consumption satisfies.

Consumer researchers have long studied the nexus of consumption, markets, and religion. We highlight Appau, Ozanne, and Klein’s (2020) study of Ghanaian converts to Pentecostalism, as an exemplar of research situated at that nexus. The Ghanaian context is especially well-suited to generate insights into this phenomenon because it is both a highly marketized and an exceptionally competitive religious consumptionscape. It also operates with very different notions of personhood than the fully-agentic, utility-maximizing consumer who is largely taken for granted in marketing and consumer research set in North America and Western Europe. In many places outside those settings, personhood is conceptualized in dividual rather than individual terms. The dividual is a microcosm of social relationships, a site where they all meet. The authors use the dividual to explain the permanence among Ghanaian Pentecostal converts of what is generally thought to be a transitional phase—from secular to “born again” life. They conceptually unpack the paradoxical notion of “permanent liminality” among converts, which they experience as a state of being an unfinished dividual, caught between a desired and an undesired in/dividuality.

Although it is obvious to the point of trite to state that the Journal of Consumer Research needs additional research on DEI, it is not our intent in this curation to frame this entirely as a problem to be solved. Rather, it is to show, by dimensionalizing and highlighting well-regarded, recently published JCR , that DEI-oriented consumer research has taken institutional root at the journal and to point to opportunities to continue its cultivation. In table 2 , we present opportunities at each axis in the form of potential gaps in current knowledge, which shapes a collection of corresponding sample research questions that might guide future work. We note straightaway that some important consumption domains remain all but entirely absent in the journal. For example, more research is needed on human sexuality, and there is opportunity for more work on disability and diminished physical capacity. We need to know much more about a diverse range of consumption-oriented identity projects as people navigate the marketplace. In addition, consumer research needs deeper exploration of subject positions at various intersections, some of which exacerbate marketplace challenges and some of which consolidate privilege (see Güliz Ger’s curation on intersectionality published in 2018). Nevertheless, we remain excited about the potential for emergent DEI research to transform the field. To generate discussion, ideas, and future research streams, we propose a selection of key topics at each axis where additional research could address significant gaps in current knowledge about consumers and consumption and point readers to a more extensive treatment in table 2 .

EXAMPLES OF POTENTIAL FUTURE RESEARCH QUESTIONS RELATING TO CONSUMER RESEARCH AND DEI

In this historical moment, everyone is grappling with the profound challenges to the discourses on gender expression and the body that has emerged in socio-cultural life. Contested alterations to taken for granted aspects of gender and the body are intensely multi-polar, far too complex and liquid for traditional dyadic notions of the masculine and feminine. They are as subversive as non-gendered pronouns and as radical as gender reassignment. Consumers’ aging journey is fluid in other ways, and they navigate changes to health, financial and social status, and balancing their corresponding needs (e.g., reduced stigma, increased dignity, using technological resources to support these needs and continue to make meaningful contributions to society). The implications of these challenges for consumers and consumption, for marketers, for policy makers, and every other possible market systems stakeholder are widely acknowledged to be profound but are at present scarcely theorized. Research questions that would explore these implications should not be hard to craft, but we would point to classic research questions around role portrayal and representation in media and popular culture as being of immediate importance.

As many scholars have noted, products and brands commonly draw signifying power from the socio-cultural world that can help draw attention and gain mindshare. They embed themselves in various consumer collectives (e.g., brand communities, subcultures of consumption, tribes) in ways that can grant them an aura of authenticity. At moments, consumers and other actors oppose and resist their extraction of socio-cultural value through what they justly describe as cultural appropriation. It is not uncommon, however, for accusations of appropriation to operate as a derogatory term rather than a concept with analytical power. We believe that important theoretical and conceptual work remains to be done on cultural appropriation as a phenomenon. What does it mean? What are its boundaries? More importantly, through what processes and practices does it occur?

Marketplace inclusion has long stood as a taken for granted objective for vulnerable and so-called bottom-of-the-pyramid consumers. Since the consumer disadvantage studies of the 1970s and 1980s, increased marketplace literacy in various forms (economic, financial, technological, and literal) has been widely touted as the foundation upon which any other interventions intended to remediate vulnerability and disadvantage must build. Our intent is certainly not to disparage any such efforts. Rather, it is to add that prevailing levels of social class inequality in many parts of the world simply demand more focused attention on the inequality-generating actions of businesses and elites. Where that has traditionally been the province of scholars interested in what happens on the factory floor, the marketplace has long been an independent site of inequality production. In the neoliberal era, defined in no small part by financial sector dominance over the state, consumers are commonly made vulnerable or disadvantaged by structural features of their communities and the predatory actions of marketers rather than by their limited stores of knowledge. We believe research that explores the inequality-generating and reducing practices of marketers and public policy makers remains as relevant today as ever.

During the COVID-19 global pandemic, some evidence from the United States suggests that the lines separating religious theology and nationalism are blurred. Their intersection and interaction typically reduce the inclusion of the vulnerable and underrepresented. For instance, religious extremism is associated with negative attitudes toward equity in healthcare and education. Ideological resistance to equity and inclusion raises more general questions about the connection between ideology, religious identity, nationalism, and consumption. Namely, what is the relationship between contemporary nationalistic and religious extremist movements and self—or cultural—expression via consumption? That is, what role does consumption play for movement organizations and adherents, respectively, as a problem whose resolution mobilizes resources and action versus a means of submission or subversion?

Lastly, we ask scholars to tackle big picture questions that rest on the intersections of the four themes above and deal with macro issues and society as a whole. We note that the fluidity across all these axes must be addressed in future research. As more discussions about DEI takes place in academia, policy spaces, and boardrooms, how can scholarly work develop frameworks and tools to help society be more inclusive? How can media representations of diversity translate into inclusion and equity, and combat harmful stigmas around skin color, body size, and aging? How can we transform beauty and fashion industries? How can we provide dignified and accessible essential services to all members of society without predatory design?

We end the curation on an emancipatory note. We hope that researchers and practitioners will be mindful of our contributions to marketplace exclusion and stigma in practice. Too often we problematize identities that fall outside societal norms and offer consumption-oriented remedies that purport to “solve” already marginalized identities. These can push consumers toward risky (or harmful) products such as weight loss remedies, skin lightening and “age defying” creams, conversion therapy, plastic surgery. We can strive to conceptualize and construct a marketplace that is a celebratory and empowering space. This requires a more egalitarian and pluralist approach to understanding and serving consumers who are ascribed minority status, more participatory forms of research and data collection, and ensuring that amongst researchers and practitioners we also strive for representation, equity, and inclusion.

Zeynep Arsel ( [email protected] ) is a Concordia University Research Chair in Consumption, Markets, and Society at Concordia University, 1455 De Maisonneuve Blvd. West, Montreal, QC H3G 1M8, Canada.

David Crockett ( [email protected] ) is a Professor of Marketing and a Moore Research Fellow at the Moore School of Business, University of South Carolina, 1014 Greene St., Columbia, SC 29209, USA.

Maura L. Scott ( [email protected] ) is the Persis E. Rockwood Professor of Marketing at the Florida State University, 821 Academic Way, Tallahassee, FL 32305, USA. The authors greatly appreciate the help, guidance, and involvement of June Cotte and the support of the entire JCR Editorial Team. Author names are listed alphabetically, and all authors contributed to this curation equally. The authors thank the journal’s editors Bernd Schmitt, June Cotte, Markus Giesler, Andrew Stephen, and Stacy Wood for granting the opportunity to write this curation.

This curation was invited by editors Bernd Schmitt, June Cotte, Markus Giesler, Andrew Stephen, and Stacy Wood.

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Frustrated Fatshionistas: An Institutional Theory Perspective on Consumer Quests for Greater Choice in Mainstream Markets

Daiane Scaraboto and Eileen Fischer

DOI: 10.1086/668298

Volume 39, Issue 6, April 2013

Why and how do marginalized consumers mobilize to seek greater inclusion in and more choice from mainstream markets? We develop answers to these questions drawing on institutional theory and a qualitative investigation of Fatshionistas, plus-sized consumers who want more options from mainstream fashion marketers. Three triggers for mobilization are posited: development of a collective identity, identification of inspiring institutional entrepreneurs, and access to mobilizing institutional logics from adjacent fields. Several change strategies that reinforce institutional logics while unsettling specific institutionalized practices are identified. Our discussion highlights diverse market change dynamics that are likely when consumers are more versus less legitimate in the eyes of mainstream marketers and in instances where the changes consumers seek are more versus less consistent with prevailing institutions and logics.

Who Are You Calling Old? Negotiating Old Age Identity in the Elderly Consumption Ensemble

Michelle Barnhart and Lisa Peñaloza

DOI: 10.1086/668536

As the elderly population increases, more family, friends, and paid service providers assist them with consumption activities in a group that the authors conceptualize as the elderly consumption ensemble (ECE). Interviews with members of eight ECEs demonstrate consumption in advanced age as a group phenomenon rather than an individual one, provide an account of how the practices and discourses of the ECE's division of consumption serve as a means of knowing someone is old and positioning him/her as an old subject, and detail strategies through which older consumers negotiate their age identity when it conflicts with this positioning. This research (1) illuminates ways in which consumer agency in identity construction is constrained in interpersonal interactions, (2) demonstrates old identity as implicated in consumption in relation to and distinction from physiological ability and old subject position, and (3) updates the final stages of the Family Life Cycle model.

Rejected, Shackled, and Alone: The Impact of Systemic Restricted Choice on Minority Consumers' Construction of Self

Sterling A. Bone, Glenn L. Christensen, and Jerome D. Williams

DOI: 10.1086/676689

Volume 41, Issue 2, August 2014

This research investigates the experience of systemic restricted choice and its impact on self-concept among racial and ethnic minority consumers seeking financing. Choosing loans is an involved consumer choice journey, and encountering systemic, chronic, and uncontrollable restrictions on choice at any level of the goal/choice hierarchy limits and even prohibits minorities' ability to make desired choices. Across a multimethod investigation, these three studies demonstrate that minorities experiencing systemic restricted choice endure deleterious impacts to self-concept, including framing the self as fettered, alone, discriminated, and subservient, as well as marked reductions in self-esteem, self-autonomy, and self-efficacy. Minority consumers also frame themselves as striving in a world of limited resources and fighting uphill, often losing battles. Juxtaposing the experiences of racial/ethnic minorities against the choice journeys of educationally and economically similar white consumers puts those minority experiences in sharp relief. The theoretical and transformative consumer research implications of these findings are discussed.

Building Brands for the Emerging Bicultural Market: The Appeal of Paradox Brands

Maria A Rodas, Deborah Roedder John, and Carlos J. Torelli

DOI: 10.1093/jcr/ucab037

Volume 48, Issue 4, December 2021

Bicultural consumers now represent a third of the US population and are the fastest growing demographic group in the United States. This shift in consumer markets presents a challenge for marketers as they try to design brand strategies to serve this important group. In this article, the authors show that certain types of brands, specifically paradox brands that incorporate contradictory brand meanings, are particularly appealing to bicultural consumers. Results from seven studies reveal that bicultural consumers evaluate paradox brands more favorably and choose paradox brands more than traditional brands without contradictions. Furthermore, bicultural consumers exhibit more favorable evaluations and greater choice of paradox brands than do monocultural consumers. These cultural differences are attributable to greater cognitive flexibility found among biculturals, particularly those who adopt an acculturation strategy of integrating their different cultural identities. Greater cognitive flexibility, in turn, prompts stronger engagement with a paradox brand, which contributes to more favorable brand evaluations and choice. Contributions of this research for understanding bicultural consumers, marketing to bicultural consumers, and directions for future research are discussed.

Moral Habitus and Status Negotiation in a Marginalized Working-Class Neighborhood

Bige Saatcioglu and Julie L. Ozanne

DOI: 10.1086/671794

Volume 40, Issue 4, December 2013

Examinations of the moral and ethical dimensions in identity construction are scant in consumer research. This ethnography of a trailer-park neighborhood investigates how different moral dispositions shape low-income, working-class residents' consumption practices and status negotiations. Drawing from Bourdieu's conceptualization of habitus and cultural capital, the authors extend this theory by foregrounding the moral aspects of habitus and demonstrate how morally oriented worldviews are enacted through consumption practices and social evaluations within everyday communities. The study reveals five moral identities that shape the residents' social construction of status within the microcultural context of a trailer park. These findings point to the multiplicity and richness of social-class-based dispositions as well as the importance of studying micro-level contexts to better understand macrodynamics.

Assimilating and Differentiating: The Curvilinear Effect of Social Class on Green Consumption

Li Yan, Hean Tat Keh, and Jiemiao Chen

DOI: 10.1093/jcr/ucaa041

Volume 47, Issue 6, April 2021

Building on optimal distinctiveness theory, this research examines the effects of social class on green consumption. Across six studies, we find a curvilinear effect of social class on green consumption, with the middle class having greater propensity for green consumption compared to the lower and upper classes. This effect can be explained by tension between need for assimilation (NFA) and need for differentiation (NFD) that varies among the three social classes in establishing their optimally distinctive identities. The lower class has a dominant NFA, the upper class has a dominant NFD, and the middle class has dual motivation for assimilation and differentiation. Concomitantly, green consumption has the dual function of assimilation and differentiation. The middle class perceives green consumption as simultaneously assimilating and differentiating, which satisfies their dual motivation and enhances their propensity for green consumption. By contrast, the lower class perceives the differentiation function of green consumption as contradicting their dominant NFA, and the upper class perceives the assimilation function as contradicting their dominant NFD, which lower both their propensities for green consumption. Furthermore, these effects are moderated by consumers’ power distance belief. These novel findings have significant theoretical and practical implications on building a more sustainable society.

Understanding Difficult Consumer Transitions: The In/Dividual Consumer in Permanent Liminality

Samuelson Appau, Julie L. Ozanne, and Jill G. Klein

DOI: 10.1093/jcr/ucaa010

Volume 47, Issue 2, August 2020

Some life transitions are difficult and prolonged, such as becoming an independent adult, forming a family, or adopting healthy consumption habits. Permanent liminality describes transitions that can span years and even a lifetime with no anticipated end. To understand how consumers are caught in permanent liminality, we examine how Pentecostal converts consume religious services in their difficult transition from the secular “world” to Pentecostalism. We draw on the concept of in/dividual personhood to explain how the Pentecostal dividual is coconstituted in an endless movement between the undesired “worldly” in/dividual and the contiguous incorporation into the desired Pentecostal in/dividual and structure. Pentecostals’ permanent liminality thus involves ongoing cycles of separation and incorporation within zones of indeterminacy, in which neither separation nor incorporation is ever completed. This theoretical framework explains the unfinished transition of Pentecostal converts as contested dividuals. We extend this theoretical explanation for future research on liquid modernity and consumers caught in permanent liminality.

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• Published: 04 July 2022

Improving equity, diversity, and inclusion in academia

• Omar Dewidar   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6420-887X 1 ,
• Nour Elmestekawy 1 , 2 &
• Vivian Welch 1 , 3  

Research Integrity and Peer Review volume  7 , Article number:  4 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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There are growing bodies of evidence demonstrating the benefits of equity, diversity, and inclusion (EDI) on academic and organizational excellence. In turn, some editors have stated their desire to improve the EDI of their journals and of the wider scientific community. The Royal Society of Chemistry established a minimum set of requirements aimed at improving EDI in scholarly publishing. Additionally, several resources were reported to have the potential to improve EDI, but their effectiveness and feasibility are yet to be determined. In this commentary we suggest six approaches, based on the Royal Society of Chemistry set of requirements, that journals could implement to improve EDI. They are: (1) adopt a journal EDI statement with clear, actionable steps to achieve it; (2) promote the use of inclusive and bias-free language; (3) appoint a journal’s EDI director or lead; (4) establish a EDI mentoring approach; (5) monitor adherence to EDI principles; and (6) publish reports on EDI actions and achievements. We also provide examples of journals that have implemented some of these strategies, and discuss the roles of peer reviewers, authors, researchers, academic institutes, and funders in improving EDI.

Peer Review reports

Editors, reviewers, researchers, funders, and academic institutions collectively act as gatekeepers of our disciplines. Their unique positions enable ethical publication practices and the setting of rigorous research standards. Frequently, these stakeholders are tasked with making critical judgements that can help progress our fields. In some cases, these judgements may be unintentionally biased and possibly fueled by the spread of misinformation.

The academic publication process is built on objectivity [ 1 ], gender and socio-cultural neutrality [ 2 ], and respect for human and animal rights. Hence, equity, diversity, and inclusion (EDI) are essential in publication processes, among other academic spaces. However for the purpose of this According to the Editors Association of Canada [ 3 ], equity refers to recognizing the existence of “identity-based advantages and barriers” as well as “working to correct and address this imbalance.” They also define diversity as “increasing the presence of people of diverse identities” in the editorial process and inclusion as “creating an environment where all those with diverse identities are welcomed and valued”.

Given the ‘publish or perish’ nature of academia, the role of Journals and editors in propagating the cycle of injustice in this space is amplified [ 4 ]. There is evidence for a higher rejection rate of papers from traditionally under-represented groups [ 4 , 5 ]. These decisions can heavily impact such individuals, resulting in poorer career progression due to fewer publications and a lower chance of promotional opportunities. The obstruction of career progression contributes to the lack of representation of certain groups in positions of power and leadership: particularly women, individuals living in low-middle income countries and racialized people [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ]. For example, in oncology research, Caucasian men hold over 70% of editorial leadership positions [ 6 ]. Similar findings were shown in a survey of editors of the Association of College & Research Libraries [ 7 ], and Wiley publishing [ 13 ]. Furthermore, in communication journals, editorial board members from the United States are more than all other world regions pooled together [ 14 ]. It has been hypothesized that overrepresented groups may have implicit biases that stem from historical institutionalized discrimination against individuals from under-represented groups [ 15 , 16 ]. However, the evidence is conflicting. Witteman and colleagues [ 17 ] demonstrated that when controlling for age and domain of research, a gender bias exists in peer review processes that are judging the calibre of the investigator: there is a 4% lower success rate for women. Yet, a more recent large analysis of 145 journals found that the bias is non-existent [ 18 ]. In fact, women led, and co-authored articles were favoured by referees and editors [ 18 ]. Nonetheless, some studies have demonstrated that implicit bias training may lead to modifying behavior [ 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 ]. Thus, EDI training and other resources, such as unconscious bias [ 23 , 24 ] and indigenous cultural competency training [ 25 , 26 ], should be easily accessible and completed by the editorial teams and authors alike.

Realizing that biases exist in scholarly publishing, The Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC) established a joint commitment to action on EDI in scholarly publishing. In collaboration with signed partners, they formulated the following six minimum standards for inclusion and diversity in academic publishing: (1) integrate inclusion and diversity in the publishing activities and strategic planning; (2) work on understanding the demographic diversity of individuals at all levels of their publishing process; (3) acknowledge and address the barriers experienced by those who are under-represented among them; (4) define and clearly communicate diversity and inclusion responsibilities at all levels of the publishing process; (5) revise the appointment process for editors and editorial boards as needed, to widen the scope of the captured talent; (6) publicly report diversity and inclusion progress at least once a year [ 27 ]. To date, 52 publishing organizations have committed to this initiative [ 27 ].

It may be argued that editors should not be obliged to ensure that their reviewer pool is geographically distributed, and that their only concern should be recruiting reviewers who are experts of the manuscript content under consideration. However, the lack of diversity in the peer reviewer can make finding reviewers harder [ 28 ]. In addition, there are many benefits to promoting diversity in the publishing processes for the scientific community. Ensuring the representation of individuals from underrepresented populations could facilitate meaningful career growth for these individuals and increase the depth of the content published in the journal. An environment of innovation and creativity could be fostered through the presence of a greater variety of problem-solving approaches [ 4 , 29 ]. Better performance, predictions, and overall results could emerge as problem-solving improves in the presence of a diverse team [ 30 ]. It was found that a significant increase in the citation of articles occurred when the authors who wrote them were of different ethnicities and nationalities [ 30 ]. Additionally, there was an association between the 5-year citation count of published papers and the diversity of people who authored them — ethnic diversity in particular [ 31 ]. For example, when a mandate was instituted in Japan by the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University to ensure 50% of all researchers were from other than Japan, the institute saw an increase in academic ranking based on their research output [ 32 ].

Although commitments are in place to improve EDI in journals and publishing [ 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 ], the effectiveness of these approaches are yet to be determined. We also acknowledge that editor of this journal shared concerns for practical approaches to improving EDI in peer review and journal practices [ 38 ]. In this commentary, we provide practical approaches for editors and journal publishers to improve EDI in academic journals based on the six minimum standards set by the RSC. In Table 1 we also provide examples of journals that implemented some of these strategies. Finally, EDI issues in academia are tightly intertwined with systemic oppression that is integrated in policies and regulations of academic progression. Thus, both a bottom-up and top-down approach are needed to induce change. Subsequently, we reflect on the role of reviewers, researchers, academic institutions, and funding agencies in shaping the academic ecosystem. Figure 1 presents how these stakeholders contribute to fostering a more equitable, diverse, and inclusive academic community.

Key model for improving equity, diversity, and inclusion (EDI) of journals. This figure was generated by the authors using Canva ( https://www.canva.com/ )

The role of journals

Given that the impact of journal policies on compliance to mandates has been demonstrated in several areas, such as clinical trial registration and reporting guidelines [ 45 , 46 , 47 ], editors and publishers should articulate a framework that influences the incorporation of EDI. We propose below six approaches that align with the six RSC recommendations for improving EDI in academic publishing.

Adopt a journal diversity statement with clear, actionable steps to achieve it

Increasing diversity and inclusion in scientific publishing enhances excellence and innovation. Adopting a journal diversity statement, with clear, actionable steps to achieve it, is a practical first step for defining the problem and establishing accountability [ 37 ]. Explicitly defining the problem helps ensure that everyone shares the same understanding of it. Moreover, this process engages senior leadership to support EDI principles, making it clear to authors, reviewers, and editors that change is a priority. Several reports show that these recognition schemes provide an impetus for action on EDI which translates to more inclusive environments [ 48 ]. More than 47 publishing organizations have adopted recognition schemes [ 49 ]. Wiley publishing has developed guidance for assisting editors in developing an EDI statement [ 50 ]. The process involves the following three steps: (1) assessing the journal and research community’s needs, (2) identifying action priorities for the journal (I.e., changes in recruitment process, improving the diversity of invited reviewers), and (3) developing an active statement that acknowledges that this process is an ongoing one that will require revisiting on a regular basis to answer unknown questions.

Promote the use of inclusive and bias-free language

Avoiding the perpetuation of prejudicial beliefs or demeaning attitudes in publishing activities may improve the recruitment of populations experiencing disadvantages. In turn, the journal should promote the use of inclusive and bias-free language in all correspondence and the journal website content [ 51 ]. With changes in language over time, editors should address individuals and or communities as they prefer to describe themselves, their experiences, and practices. For example, a notable addition to the 7 th edition of the America Psychological Association is the recommendation to use the singular “they” to refer to individuals when the identified pronouns are unknown or hypothetical person is irrelevant within the context [ 37 ]. The University of Nottingham reported improvements in the recruitment of female researchers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) when the language of advertised fellowships was checked for gender inclusivity among schemes [ 48 , 52 , 53 ].

Appoint a journal’s equity, diversity and inclusion director or lead

When leaders use the power associated with their positions to advocate for EDI this may help support others to eradicate prejudice and discrimination. Editors in chief should prefer to include scholars with underrepresented backgrounds and EDI expertise to lead in EDI advocacy roles. They could, albeit less preferable, nominate one of their associate editors who has an underrepresented background or recruit an individual with expertise on EDI who does not have an underrepresented background. It would be wise to create a consultation committee for the EDI lead composed of underrepresented academics, EDI leaders, and members of the public with unique, lived experiences. The perspectives of underrepresented individuals could be crucial for the team’s success as it would help produce more culturally competent and practical solutions. The responsibilities of the lead could include reviewing journal processes while working with the Editors in chief, raising awareness of unconscious bias among the editorial teams and implementing initiatives that could improve EDI. The lead should also be responsible for developing strategies that would diversify the editorial teams, peer reviewers and authorship as well as monitor the journal’s progress in achieving EDI. The individual or team leading this appointment should review the journal’s recruitment sources and how the journal linguistically composes invitations to join the editorial teams. Of note, experience in the field of EDI and understanding of EDI principles alone are insufficient to achieve these goals. Leaders aiming to take on this role should be creative in developing strategies that align with the journal’s aims and resources.

Establish a mentoring approach

There is plenty of evidence showing that members of certain populations are underrepresented in editorial roles. This impedes their ability to receive adequate experience to take on leadership positions. The process of finding editorial board members in all disciplines is challenging as is therefore recruiting editors with diverse backgrounds, gender identities, ethnicities and geographical locations would likely prove to be more challenging. However, a diverse and representative team may be more likely to display increased cultural competency based on their more diverse set of lived experiences. Efforts to recruit a representative team should be in place, and deficiencies in diversity should be explicitly acknowledged as a work in progress. Furthermore, all editorial positions should be time limited as any permanent position of power is prone to propagating disparities.

Journals can post open calls for reviewer positions rather than solely depending on personal networks to improve the diversity of their reviewer pool. These advertisements should be checked for inclusivity of their wording as well as the locations of their posting. It should be noted that the use of algorithms or artificial intelligence (AI) to identify reviewers, reinforces negative cycle of bias against researchers in low-middle income countries and marginalized populations [ 54 ]. Therefore, if AI is used, editors should monitor for potential biases, assess, and mitigate them. In addition, journal editors may encourage authors to recommend reviewers from under-represented backgrounds. Populations carrying the greatest burden of health inequities need a stronger voice in the planning and implementation of their health care and the systems meant to support it, yet for the most part, remain excluded from decision-making processes [ 55 , 56 ]. Therefore, when inviting reviewers, it may be beneficial to invite reviewers familiar with the article’s content. Knowledge of the author’s name, institution, professional status, or geographical location may result in unconscious bias and abstract the objectivity of the peer review process. To help minimize unconscious bias, journal editors should consider a double anonymized peer review policy where the peer reviewers are not aware of the manuscript's authors and vice versa [ 37 ].

When candidates for journal positions lack experience, establishing a mentoring approach may be a pragmatic approach to preparing them for the role in the future. Senior members of the editorial teams could team up with more junior members and tailor the mentoring according to their needs. Since mentors are highly likely to come from non-underrepresented groups, mentors should receive unconscious bias training or other EDI training as necessary (i.e microaggressions, anti-racism) before engaging in mentorship activities. Given that most editorial positions are voluntary, mentoring activities need to be encouraged and acknowledged to support their work. Mentors could be rewarded by compensating them for their time or establishing internal awards for mentor excellence that may help in promotions and tenures. The uptake of these strategies by several journals may help establish a community of mentors that could be drawn on for mentorship activities. Undergoing training in research integrity may help prepare them for their roles by engaging with their mentees meaningfully and creating a supportive environment. VIRT2UE Train the trainee program is intended for individuals interested in becoming trainers in research integrity. The program focuses on developing behaviours of high moral standards related to the European Code of Conduct for Research Integrity and applying them to specific cases and dilemmas.

Monitor adherence to equity, diversity and inclusion principles

To identify gaps in diversity, meaningful and accurate data collection on the composition of editors, peer reviewers and authors is required. Journal editors need to systematically collect demographic data to accurately assess journal progress and tailor their goals accordingly. A standard list of questions should be presented to the research community where they can voluntarily provide self-identification data such as career stage, gender, race & ethnicity, and geographical location of the journal community [ 57 ]. As a first step, journals can use the eight identification categories proposed in the questionnaire distributed by the Employment Equity Act and adjust as appropriate. Alternatively, journals may employ external services, such as TOP factor [ 58 ], to monitor journal metrics in implementing EDI principles. Empirical approaches are also needed to determine the effectiveness of the approaches used to improve EDI in academic settings. The UK Research and Innovation summarized interventions, frameworks and outcomes measured to quantitatively monitor changes in EDI interventions. They note the lack of experimental approaches to assess EDI interventions and small sample sizes. Thus, researchers should investigate rigorous approaches to investigate the effectiveness of EDI interventions.

Publish reports on equity, diversity and inclusion

To hold journals accountable for their progress, journals and publishers should make their data on diversity available to the public. Therefore, journals should ensure that they acquire informed consent from participants when collecting their self-identifiable. Their data should be treated with the utmost sensitivity and stored with great care. Although we are not aware of the most appropriate approach to store data, there are ten established rules for storing digital data that journals may apply to safeguard sensitive information [ 59 ]. Journals should only present the data in an aggregated form to ensure the confidentiality of participants.

The role of peer reviewers

Reviewers and journal editors must consider that the author’s first language might not be English. Thus, they must be understanding and try to base their decision on the quality of research rather than the language. If significant language corrections are needed, we suggest directing them to a language service such as SAGE Author Services or Language Editor Services by ElSEVIER and subsequently invite them to resubmit once their manuscript is reviewed. Adjustment may be needed for authors with disabilities or neurodiverse conditions, and peer reviewers should support them accordingly. They may offer them additional feedback, extra time for revisions or arrange a call to discuss feedback.

The role of researchers

The impact of marginalization on the health of marginalized groups is well established [ 60 ]. However, their perspectives are yet to be adequately reflected in evidence bases [ 55 ]. The absence of regularly collected data on outcomes and experiences of under-represented populations limits the relevance of available primary evidence informing evidence-based practice. Populations experiencing inequities need a stronger voice in the planning and the implementation of health care services as well as the systems designed to support them. For this reason, they should be involved in decision-making processes [ 55 , 56 ]. Greater involvement of stakeholders in evidence syntheses can support greater inclusion of social and organizational factors that may influence interventions and review findings [ 61 ]. Furthermore, Incorporating EDI in research ensures that pre-conceived beliefs and eco-chamber societies are likely avoided, minimizing confirmation bias and increasing the credibility of research findings [ 62 ]. An example of this is The New England Journal of Medicine which requires authors to provide the representativeness of the study group in a table as a Supplementary Appendix [ 63 ]. They also require authors to appropriately report on the representativeness of the patients included in the study and assess the generalizability of the research findings to populations at risk of experiencing inequities.

Reporting guidelines may improve the reporting of research and should be used by researchers [ 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 ]. Although guidelines such as the SAGER guidelines have recommended sex-specific analyses to obtain more equitable evidence [ 68 ], and several funders have mandated their analyses, such mandates may be insufficient to change reporting practices [ 69 ]. Researchers must demonstrate their commitment to improving equity in research by adhering to equity reporting guidelines such as the extensions of the CONSORT (Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials) [ 70 ] and PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) [ 71 ] more work is needed to assess their impact on reporting.

The role of universities and academic institutions

Students from under-represented groups face several barriers to success when engaging with academia’s traditional measures and systems of evaluation [ 4 , 30 , 72 , 73 ]. A study conducted by Heller and colleagues found that as the GPA score requirements increased in medical schools, in the United States from 2005 to 2009, the diversity of the classes decreased [ 74 ]. This suggests that evaluations heavily based on academic metrics often come at the expense of EDI. Thus, establishing a different definition of student academic excellence may help improve EDI in academic institutions.

Several approaches have succeeded in improving diversity among trainees and early-career researchers [ 75 , 76 ]. However, differential recruitment, retention, and promotion rates across several factors such as age, sex and race are yet to be improved [ 77 , 78 , 79 , 80 ]. This may be partly due to the narrow focus on citation metrics and publications for the evaluation of these processes [ 30 , 81 , 82 ]. Institutions should award strong mentorship that involve the support of marginalized groups and include tenure or promotion assessments in recruitment. These awards include the National Science Foundation’s Presidential Award for Excellence for Science Math and Engineering Mentoring (PAESMEM), the Australian Museum Eureka Award, and the Nature Research Awards for Mentoring in Science. Expanding the measures of success to include non-academic metrics would enhance the selection of diverse candidates and set the stage for a diverse, new generation of researchers.

Furthermore, academic course coordinators should consider teaching the curriculum from an EDI perspective by diversifying the reading material of courses as well as the research used to compose the learning material [ 4 ]. Emphasizing diversity in the educational curriculum fosters the inclusion of diverse students, staff, and relevant topics and better engages underrepresented groups through a curriculum that reflects their lived experiences.

The role of funding agencies

Several funding agencies, such as NIH [ 83 ] and CIHR [ 84 ] have acknowledged the importance of equity research. This is integral for improving academia as research funding is indispensable in an academic’s career. Including diversity factors as a scorable criterion may improve research since several studies have shown that diverse teams produce more innovative, creative, and impactful science [ 81 , 85 , 86 ]. Funding agencies could also create grants dedicated to underrepresented scholars to allow more opportunities for them and potentially eliminate the funding disparity in research. Examples include the Mental Health Dissertation Research Grant to Increase Diversity funded by the National Institute of Health [ 87 ] and the Louis Stokes Alliances for Minority Participation (LSAMP) funded by the National Science Foundation [ 88 ]. Funding agencies could also consider instituting a minimum number of scholars from underrepresented populations as reviewers on funding panels [ 81 ]. We acknowledge that this may introduce a “diversity tax” where a burden may be placed on marginalized scholars. However, it is essential to note that the “diversity tax” becomes problematic when the positions and work done are not career enhancing. There needs to be more work on incentivising leadership positions for representatives of marginalized populations in terms of academic value and career progression.

Conclusions

Journal editors cannot change the culture of academic societies alone since they are constrained by a broader system. Therefore, we advocate for consolidated action for improving EDI by using a systems approach that involves journal publishers, researchers, academic institutions, and funders. We acknowledge the lack of studies that show the effectiveness of interventions aimed at improving EDI. However, we believe that journals adhering to the minimum standards set by RSC and following the guidance suggested in this paper may help journals obtain data that can help monitor their EDI progress. In writing this commentary, we reviewed it for inclusivity and bias-free language. We urge journal editors to develop evaluation plans to measure the effects of EDI interventions in improving the editorial culture using innovative methodological approaches.

Availability of data and materials

No data was reported in this article.

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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Dr Mario Malički, the editor in chief for guiding this commentary with his critical review and thought provoking questions. We would like to thank the research community for supporting the integration of equity, diversity, and inclusion principles in editorial and peer review processes.

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Omar Dewidar and Vivian Welch conceived this article. Omar Dewidar drafted the first draft. Nour Elmestekawy and Vivian Welch revised the article. All authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript.

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Dewidar, O., Elmestekawy, N. & Welch, V. Improving equity, diversity, and inclusion in academia. Res Integr Peer Rev 7 , 4 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41073-022-00123-z

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Addressing equity, diversity and inclusion in academic publishing: key initiatives from JMTE

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This paper addresses the pressing issues of equity, diversity and inclusion in academic publishing, with a focus on mathematics education research. It highlights systemic biases and barriers that marginalise under-represented voices in the academic discourse. Through an analysis of the Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education’s (JMTE) publication patterns, it reveals a significant geographical imbalance and a disparity between the Global North and the Global South, prompting critical reflection on whose voices are prioritised. The paper outlines key initiatives undertaken by JMTE, such as forming an Equity, Diversity and Inclusion Committee, broadening the aims and scope of the journal, developing inclusive reviewing guidelines, and fostering diversity among editors, reviewers and authors. These efforts aim to promote a more equitable, diverse, and inclusive field of mathematics education research by encouraging contributions from under-represented regions and communities and by addressing language barriers and institutional support issues.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Equity, diversity and inclusion have moved beyond their peripheral status in mathematics education research and are now recognised as important and indispensable considerations (for a recent review, see Vithal et al., 2024 ). These core principles have also gained prominence in academic publishing, where acknowledging systemic biases and barriers has become a focal point of discussion (Liu, 2016 ; Mesa & Wagner, 2019 ; Wagner, 2021 ). A number of academic journals and publishing houses have taken proactive steps to embrace diversity, promote inclusivity, and break down barriers to equity in academic publishing—working to ensure that marginalised and under-represented voices take their rightful place in the academic arena.

One notable initiative to address bias and barriers in publishing involves a collaborative effort by editors of mathematics education journals. In June 2021, these editors jointly published an online statement ( https://www.mathematicseducationjournals.com ) as a call to action for reviewers and (associate) editors. This statement urges us to be aware of both conscious and unconscious biases that may influence our reviews. Biases in reviewing and editing practices not only disadvantage the people and contexts they directly affect, but also limit the breadth and quality of research in the field, which in turn disadvantages us all (Initiative to Develop Anti-Racist Editorial Practices in Mathematics Education, 2021 ). Footnote 1

Equity, diversity and inclusion in academic publishing

The Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education (JMTE) has identified a geographical imbalance in the origins of its published articles (see Table  1 ). Notably, 58% (180 of 310) of articles published between 2018 and 2022 came from the United States.

Table 2 shows a significant disparity between the Global North and the Global South in terms of publications. Notably, the Global North has published the vast majority of papers, accounting for around 94% (290 of 310) of the total number of papers published in JMTE between 2018 and 2022. The Global South contributes about 5% (14 of 310) of the total. This disparity remains even when excluding the contributions from the United States: with the Global North at approximately 85% (110 of 130 papers) and the Global South at around 11% (14 of 130 papers).

It is essential to contextualise the use of the terms ‘Global North’ and ‘Global South’. These terms highlight geopolitical and socio-economic disparities rooted in colonialism and power dynamics. As described by Dados and Connell ( 2012 ), the ‘Global South’ is not just a metaphor for underdevelopment, but a reflection of a “history of colonialism, neo-imperialism, and differential economic and social transformation that perpetuates large inequalities in living standards, life expectancy, and access to resources” (p. 13). This classification, largely based on Wikimedia’s regional country list ( https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_regional_classification ), places countries from Africa, Central and South America, and parts of Asia and Australasia in the Global South, and regions such as Europe, North America, and other parts of Asia and Australasia in the Global North. However, this dichotomy is far from being unproblematic. Certain characteristics or features traditionally ascribed to the Global South can also be found in countries typically categorised as the Global North, and vice versa. Hence, our use of these terms is not meant to enforce an oversimplified binary categorisation but to highlight stark global contrasts and to critically analyse the intricacies and imbalances in our data.

This publication imbalance between the Global North and the Global South is not unique to JMTE (see Liu, 2016 ). Other mathematics education journals, such as Educational Studies in Mathematics , demonstrate a similar trend (see Mesa & Wagner, 2019 ). Such disparities prompt critical reflection on which research is gaining prominence and whose voices and perspectives are being prioritised.

While representation in published works is highly unequal, Fig.  1 further nuances our understanding by examining the demographics of the readership of JMTE. It allows us to juxtapose the inequalities in publication with the geographical distribution of the journal’s readership, suggesting potential imbalances in the impact and dissemination of research knowledge. Figure  1 shows that the Global North accounts for about half of the journal’s readership, with Australia contributing 7% of the 30% from the Asia–Pacific region. JMTE aims at publishing research that is of interest to the global readership, but this ‘global’ may only account for the ‘Global North’.

Visits of JMTE articles by region in 2022. (With permission from Springer, we have the opportunity to disclose this figure, initially exclusive to the Editorial Board members of JMTE. The figure uses the term ‘Latin America’, a characterisation that we find problematic. This term tends to generalise a diverse range of cultures and identities, overshadowing the unique perspectives and identities of the numerous indigenous communities in Central and South America. Many indigenous people do not identify with the label ‘Latin’, as it implies a shared, primarily European, heritage and culture that do not resonate with their diverse experiences and ancestral backgrounds. We believe it is crucial to recognise the individuality and uniqueness of each culture and community in this region and to use a less problematic terminology, such as ‘Central and South America’, when referring to these diverse countries. Note that Mexico is included here as part of Latin America rather than North America)

Considering the evidence presented in Table  2 and Fig.  1 , it becomes clear that the publication imbalance cannot be attributed to a lack of interest from the Global South. Instead, it seems that the Global South is considerably exposed to research from the Global North, while the opposite is not true. This raises questions about imbalances in the dissemination of knowledge, reminiscent of colonial dynamics. Recognising this trend provides an opportunity for the journal to develop this readership and actively encourage the submission and publication of work from diverse geographical locations. This theme will be explored further in this commentary paper.

The skewed representation in our journals exacerbates an emphasis on the research concerns and priorities of the Global North, and the United States in particular, including which problems warrant attention and which theories and methodologies are most appropriate to address these problems. In addition, reviewers tend to come from countries that are well represented, so that research from other countries is mediated through their concerns.

Mesa and Wagner ( 2019 ) noted:

As a whole, this emphasis supports the thesis that published research amplifies and privileges the concerns of scholars in the well-represented countries. Insofar as the journal aims to represent the scholarship in the field, this disproportional representation may suggest that what is being published is a non-representative picture of what are the concerns of all scholars in mathematics education. (p. 308)

One possible explanation for this disproportionate representation may be the predominance of mathematics education research published in English (Andrade-Molina et al., 2020 ). This bias disproportionately disadvantages authors from non-English speaking countries and creates barriers to entry for scholars whose first language is not English (Meaney, 2013 ). As a result, there is a growing impetus to support these authors and enable them to contribute to the international discourse through English-language mathematics education journals (Geiger et al., 2022 ).

Our research (Darragh et al., forthcoming) highlights challenges faced by the mathematics education community in publishing in journals such as JMTE. These challenges include reviewer/editor bias or misunderstanding, language and contextual differences, lack of institutional support and access to resources, and particularly in this case, access to JMTE itself. However, these are not the only obstacles; many other interrelated challenges exist that need to be addressed and overcome.

Publishing often involves communication across different languages, but also across diverse research cultures. The field of mathematics education research is culturally diverse across the world and even within regions and countries. Some of these research cultures might be changing or declining due to the struggles faced by authors and institutions in the Global South with open-access funding and publishing modalities.

Response from JMTE

In order to promote equity, diversity and inclusion in the publishing process of JMTE, several initiatives are being implemented, which we will briefly highlight in this commentary paper. In doing so, JMTE aims to create a platform that embraces diverse voices and experiences, contributing to a more equitable, diverse and inclusive field of mathematics education research.

Forming an Equity, Diversity and Inclusion Committee

JMTE established an Equity, Diversity and Inclusion Committee in 2022. Footnote 2 This Committee, consisting of volunteers from the Editorial Board, meets regularly online to discuss actions for the promotion of equity, diversity and inclusion in the research published in JMTE. Recognising the importance of global perspectives, the Committee is composed of scholars from diverse regions, including Africa, Asia–Pacific, Europe, North America, and South Asia, with experience as authors publishing in mathematics education research journals and with past and current reviewing and editorial experience.

The Committee has identified three key priorities to guide its efforts:

To increase the representation of under-represented geographical regions/countries in research published in JMTE;

To increase representation from under-represented communities in well-represented regions/countries in research published in JMTE;

To increase the publication of marginalised research, from wherever it is published, where the marginalisation may be in relation to the research problems, theories and/or methodologies in the research.

The Committee recognises that efforts to increase representation require careful attention to ethical considerations that ensure respectful practices when engaging with diverse communities. It is crucial to develop our skills in actively listening to each other in relation to how people from diverse communities formulate research challenges and approaches , and experience the publishing process (Meaney et al., 2022 ).

Key initiatives of the Equity, Diversity and Inclusion Committee

Broadening the aims and scope of jmte.

We are actively integrating the principles of equity, diversity and inclusion into the scope of the journal, with a focus on recognising, representing and valuing the diversity of lived experiences and backgrounds. We have been more specific and explicit about the influence of social and institutional contexts on research in mathematics teacher education:

The Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education (JMTE) is an international journal dedicated to advancing global research on the education and professional development of mathematics teachers, as well as on the broader context of mathematics teaching. Its international focus emphasises the importance of cultural, social and institutional contexts in shaping the learning of mathematics teachers and, by extension, the mathematics learning of their students. This emphasis acknowledges that these diverse contexts also influence researchers and their research into mathematics teacher education. JMTE focuses on the continuum of professional development of mathematics teachers and mathematics teacher educators. The journal welcomes critical analyses of particular programs, development initiatives, assessment methods and policy matters related to mathematics teaching in a variety of settings. It encourages submissions that use a wide range of research paradigms, particularly those that extend beyond the traditionally dominant approaches in the field. All contributions to JMTE should address issues and questions of international significance and concern. It is essential that papers submitted to JMTE are accessible and understandable to an international audience, ensuring relevance and engagement across diverse cultural and educational landscapes.

Developing reviewing guidelines for JMTE

Building on the editors’ statement discussed above, we have developed a set of guidelines for the editorial team and reviewers regarding language, the selection of reviewers from different parts of the world and different perspectives, and mechanisms to avoid bias in the review process. This reflects an intersectional approach where each member of the publishing process has a key role to play in creating equity, diversity and inclusion in academic publishing—and in addressing the effects of compounding discrimination. The guidelines are available on the JMTE website: https://www.springer.com/journal/10857/updates/25931948

Systematic data collection to identify needs, inform initiatives and align goals

To better understand the needs of our community and inform our initiatives and actions, the Committee has implemented a systematic approach to data collection and analysis. This enables the identification of potential barriers to publication and the development of targeted strategies to address them, promoting a more equitable, diverse and inclusive publishing landscape.

We created a questionnaire and sent it out through our networks in the mathematics education community (see Darragh et al., forthcoming). We received 416 responses from academics in 72 different countries. Only 74 had previously published in JMTE, while 132 had submitted but been rejected and 229 expressed an interest in publishing in JMTE in the future. This suggests that we may have reached some of the under-represented groups in our community. The responses to the open question ‘What challenges or barriers do you face in getting your work published?’ allow us to explore in some depth the issues faced within our wider community, so that we can tailor our future efforts. For example, some responses gave us specific comments about the publishing process:

I’ve learned a lot working with colleagues from ‘developed’ countries. It’s been a school for me writing with them. I also think that journals should offer language support for those whose first language is not English. Some journals offer this service, but you have to pay for it. Another thing that could help is having a more diverse pool of editorial board members who can ‘see’ the articles and their quality beyond issues of language. Unprejudiced editorial members who are also knowledgeable and sensible about the epistemic positions of researchers from non-dominant groups. (Associate Professor, Chile)

In addition, our questionnaire specifically asked for feedback on the review process from those who have submitted to JMTE or would like to do so. These responses also give us direction on how to improve the process. There were many responses commenting on the time taken for review and editorial decisions:

It takes very long to receive feedback after an article has been submitted. (Post Doctoral Fellow, Malawi)

Another large category of responses related to the quality of review and editors’ comments:

I have had mixed experiences submitting to JMTE, with one editor who my co-authors and I did not feel really engage with our manuscript or with the reviews we received and another editor who made much more effort to understand what we were trying to accomplish and to synthesize/referee the reviews. (Lecturer/Assistant Professor, United States) JMTE should seek reviewers, who are sensitive to other cultures and knowledgeable in the area. (Associate Professor, United Arabian Emirates) The usual result is critical criticism aimed to discourage publishing – it is like how do you dare publish with us. (Associate Professor, South Africa)

Finally, we noted comments about whether or not the content fit with the aims and scope of the journal, the need for mentoring or peer support, financial issues, and some details about the submission and review process. We were heartened to see so many comments pointing us in the direction of actions the Committee has already begun to take.

Increasing the diversity and inclusion of the editorial board, reviewers, and authors

The Committee has initiated a strategic approach to promote diverse and inclusive representation of authors, reviewers and editorial board members. The Committee’s first action was to reach out to elected members and representatives of the International Commission on Mathematical Instruction (ICMI) from regions currently under-represented in the JMTE system and ask them to recommend potential contributors from their regions. As a second measure, the Committee conducted a search and review of proceedings from relevant international conferences. These actions have enabled the Committee to identify under-represented scholars who may be considered for future appointments to the Editorial Board and invited to serve as reviewers for JMTE. In addition, this approach helps to identify and encourage scholars from under-represented regions or research areas to submit papers to JMTE, thereby increasing the diversity of published research. Through these concerted efforts, the Committee aims to elevate JMTE as an international journal in mathematics education that not only embodies, but actively champions diverse perspectives, realities, and research cultures, while amplifying the voices of marginalised individuals, groups and communities within our field.

Invitation to contribute: We invite scholars from under-represented communities or regions to contribute to JMTE as authors. We encourage experienced scholars from under-represented communities or regions to express their interest in serving as reviewers for JMTE. Your unique perspectives will greatly enrich our collective insight and understanding of the lived experiences of scholars from regions and communities traditionally excluded from our field. If you are interested in serving as a reviewer, please email the Editor-in-Chief of JMTE with the subject line ‘Reviewing for JMTE’.

Supporting under-represented authors in the publication process through regional advisor mentoring

In an effort to reduce systemic barriers and intentionally cultivate accessible pathways to publication, the EDI committee has initiated a mentoring scheme to support emerging scholars from under-represented regions or communities who aim to publish their research in JMTE. In pursuit of this goal, the committee has actively sought experienced scholars from under-represented regions who are willing to act as regional advisors to less experienced scholars from their regions.

The mentorship scheme aims to reduce barriers to publication by providing one-to-one advice to authors from under-represented communities and regions. This expert advice can be sought at any stage—before, during and after manuscript submission—with the primary aim of improving the quality of authors’ work and supporting their success in the publication process.

Invitation to contribute: We invite experienced scholars from diverse communities and under-represented regions to make a meaningful difference by volunteering to serve as regional advisors for JMTE. We cordially invite those interested to express their intention by emailing either Thorsten Scheiner ([email protected]) or Janet Walkoe ([email protected]) with the subject line ‘Mentorship for JMTE’. Your contribution as a regional advisor will support the perspectives and voices of emerging researchers from under-represented regions.

Special issue on under-represented research

We are pleased to announce the upcoming Special Issue ‘Decentring research on mathematics teacher education, or deliberately situating the margins at the centre’, dedicated to showcasing under-represented research. JMTE announced this Special Issue in 2022 as an initiative aimed at amplifying marginalised voices and groups of people who are differently engaged in mathematics teaching and teacher education research, thereby promoting their important contributions to the field. By providing a platform for their work, we hope to inspire meaningful dialogue and encourage greater representation in academic discourse. All papers in this publication will be open access to ensure wider dissemination and accessibility.

The call for abstracts attracted twenty-eight proposals from forty-nine authors from different countries and regions, in both the Global North and the Global South. At the time of writing, eight of the ten invited papers are close to publication after two or three rounds of review, with a diverse range of authors from Africa, Asia–Pacific, Europe, North America, and South America. A range of groups that have been historically marginalised and disadvantaged in mathematics teacher education and teaching practice and research is well represented in the papers submitted, and this representation will hopefully be maintained in the set of papers that will ultimately be published. This forthcoming special issue will demonstrate that there is a rich diversity of high-quality studies and findings from mathematics teacher education research that consider, learn from, and develop with marginalised voices and groups. These studies and findings can inform and influence the current and future directions of our field.

Concluding remarks

We hope that the Committee’s initiatives will contribute to the collective effort to embrace more fully equity, diversity and inclusion in our field. In addition to our current initiatives, we foresee additional challenges that will require sustained action. One key challenge is to ensure that researchers from non-English speaking backgrounds are adequately represented, regardless of their geographical location. It is essential to ensure that every member of our diverse communities is represented, respected and valued. While the initiatives highlighted here may provide some inspiration for other journals in the field, they can only represent the beginning of our collective journey. We sincerely seek dialogue and insight from the wider community and encourage everyone to share their unique experiences, perspectives and expertise—to foster an ever-evolving approach to equity, diversity and inclusion in scholarly publishing. So far, this journey has been supported by the 416 respondents to our survey, by the groups of authors who have submitted their proposals for the forthcoming Special Issue, by all those who have mentored authors from under-represented regions or communities and those who have expressed an interest in doing so, and by the Associate Editors, the Editorial Board of JMTE, and Springer for their support of the Committee’s initiatives.

Communication, cooperation and collaboration are the cornerstones for ushering in a more equitable, diverse and inclusive field. We cordially invite you to join and contribute to the upcoming discussion group, ‘Promoting Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion in Publishing Mathematics Education Research’ (Brodie et al., 2024 ), at the 15th International Congress on Mathematical Education in Sydney, Australia, 7–14 July 2024. Let us come together and shape the present and future of publishing practices in mathematics education.

In order to build support for this position, a form has been made available alongside the statement for interested individuals to demonstrate their support and commitment to non-discriminatory reviewing practices. The form can be accessed via the following link: https://forms.gle/VfwWFGEPPS4gLg3t5 .

Here, the order of equity, diversity and inclusion (EDI) is preferred to other permutations such as diversity, equity and inclusion or inclusion, diversity and equity, because we believe that equity (a) precedes diversity and inclusion because it seeks to address the root causes of inequality and create equitable opportunities for under-represented and marginalised communities, and (b) is the foundation upon which diversity and inclusion can thrive. (It recognises and addresses systemic barriers and imbalances that exist in scholarly publishing.)

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Race in the workplace: The Black experience in the US private sector

This report explores Black workers in the private sector in three parts: first, their participation in the entire US private-sector economy; second, their representation, advancement, and experience in companies; and third, a path forward that includes the key challenges to address, actions companies can take, and additional actions for a wider set of stakeholders to accelerate progress on diversity, equity, and inclusion (DE&I).

The participation of Black workers in the US private-sector economy

Race in the workplace The Black experience in the US private sector

In the United States, Black workers account for 15 million, or 12 percent, of the 125 million US private-sector workers. 1 Total non-farm payroll employment in the private sector, Occupational Employment Statistics, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2019. The overall Black labor force, including the entire private sector, public sector, and the unemployed looking for work is 20.6 million. 2 Total Black labor force includes private sector and public sector, and farm, nonfarm, payroll, and nonpayroll employment. Current Population Survey, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2019. Our analysis of economic data, primarily drawn from the Bureau of Labor Statistics and the US Census Bureau from 2019, 3 Bureau of Labor Statistics’ Occupational Employment Statistics and Current Population Survey, 2019; US Census Bureau American Community Survey, 2019. as well as the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission from 2018, reinforces the immense complexity of the challenge facing many of the Black private-sector workers today.

About the authors

The concentration of the black labor force by geography, industry, and occupation creates challenges and mismatches.

Overall, our analysis found that Black workers are underrepresented in the highest-growth geographies and the highest-paying industries. Meanwhile, they are overrepresented in low-growth geographies and in frontline jobs, which tend to pay less. 4 This report uses the following terminology: Job is a position of employment. Job classification refers specifically to the nine-job classifications defined by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission and reported on in the Employment Information Report (EEO-1). This term includes classifications such as “service workers” or “laborers.” Occupations and occupational categories, as defined by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, classifies workers into “occupational categories based upon the work they perform and their skills, education, training, and credentials. Two examples of occupations are accountants and auditors and janitors and cleaners. Some occupations are found in just one or two industries, but many occupations are found in a large number of industries.” Private sector worker refers to a person currently employed in the private sector, excluding farms (for example, 15 million Black workers), in the private sector data set discussed in part 1 of the report. Employee refers to employees in the participating company data set discussed in part 2 of the report. Labor force refers to people age 16 or older who are either working or actively looking for work. For more examples of EEO job classifications and BLS occupation groups, please see the technical appendix of the full report.

The Black labor force is concentrated in states in the South

Almost 60 percent of the Black labor force (11.8 million people) is concentrated in the South, compared with just one-third of the rest of private-sector workers (Exhibit 1). 5 South Census Region as defined by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. As a result, companies located in states with low Black populations—for example, much of the West and parts of the Midwest and Northeast—will need to think differently about how they effectively attract Black talent (Exhibit 2).

The Black labor force is not located in the fastest-growing regions

Author insights.

Overall, Black workers are not located in the places where current job opportunities are and where job growth will likely rise the fastest through 2030. For example, fewer than one in ten Black workers is located in the fastest-growing cities and counties (such as Provo, Utah). Instead, they overwhelmingly live in places where job growth will range from low to above average, with the bright spots being in megacities (such as Chicago) and urban periphery (such as Clayton County, Georgia). 6 Megacities and the urban periphery are community archetypes discussed further in the full report. For the growth to be inclusive in these areas, workers need to be connected to the opportunities being created (for example, transportation between Black neighborhoods and job locations) and have the right skills for in-demand jobs.

Almost half of Black workers are in three industries with a large frontline presence, with significant underrepresentation especially in high-growth, high-wage industries

Our analysis found that 45 percent of Black private-sector workers (approximately 6.7 million people) work in three industries that have a large frontline-service presence: healthcare, retail, and accommodation and food service. These industries also have some of the highest shares of workers making less than $30,000 (Exhibit 3). In retail, 73 percent of Black workers fall into this category; in accommodations and food service, that share is 84 percent.

Conversely, Black workers are underrepresented in industries such as information technology, professional services, and financial services—all sectors that typically have relatively higher wages and job growth.

Fewer than one in ten Black workers is located in the fastest-growing cities and counties.

More Black workers are in jobs with less opportunity for advancement

More Black private-sector workers, 43 percent, make less than $30,000 per year, compared with 29 percent of the rest of private-sector employees (Exhibit 4). In addition, Black workers tend to be in the industries with the largest frontline labor forces. Three in five Black workers work in frontline jobs such as service workers, laborers, operatives, and office and clerical workers.

Black workers are at higher risk of disruption from automation

Automation will prove disruptive to the labor force in the years to come, but its impact won’t be evenly distributed. For example, one-third of Black workers are in occupational groups such as production work, food service, and office support, which are at heightened risk of losing their jobs to automation. One encouraging trend: health aides is the occupational group with the highest expected job growth through 2030 , and these occupations are disproportionately filled by Black workers.

Job prospects are markedly different for Black and white workers with similar backgrounds

Black workers face higher hurdles to gainful employment than do the rest of the labor force, creating stark disparities. For example, the employment rate for Black workers with some college or an associate’s degree are similar to the total population of workers who have a high-school diploma.

The Black experience in the workplace: Findings from participating companies

Our research drew on data from 24 participating companies ranging in size from 10,000 to 1.4 million US employees and across all geographies, representing a total of about 3.7 million US employees. Several key insights emerged:

Black employees encounter representation gaps at each step

According to our analysis, companies have successfully hired Black employees into frontline and entry-level jobs, but there is a significant drop-off in representation at management levels. In the report’s participating companies, Black employees make up 14 percent of all employees, compared with 12 percent for the US private sector overall. At the managerial level, the Black share of the workforce declines to 7 percent. Across the senior manager, VP, and SVP levels, Black representation holds steady at 4 to 5 percent (Exhibit 5).

Black employees face five common challenges in the private sector

Based on findings from the participating companies, Black employees face five common challenges that materially affect Black representation, advancement, and experience:

Frontline jobs largely do not connect Black employees with sufficient opportunities to advance. Our data set of participating companies shows that Black employees are overrepresented in frontline jobs (18 percent) compared with managerial jobs (9 percent). Frontline jobs could be a launching pad for careers, but today there is just one frontline salaried position for every 20 frontline hourly jobs, reinforcing the need for pathways within and across industries.

Entry-level jobs are a revolving door, and Black employee attrition is high. Black employees make up 12 percent of entry-level employees (such as account associates, software engineers, and paralegals). While hiring has been effective, the higher attrition of Black employees—they are leaving their jobs more often than their white counterparts at almost all levels—reduces the number of Black candidates available for promotion.

Black employees encounter a broken rung from entry-level jobs to managerial jobs. Black employees account for just 7 percent of managers. This broken rung and higher-than-expected attrition rates in the pipeline significantly limit representation at subsequent levels of the company. For Black employees who are able to make it to the manager level, we see some promising signs in promotion rates for these employees.

A trust deficit exists between Black employees and their companies. A trust deficit reflects Black employee perceptions of their workplace as less fair, accepting, and authentic. For example, Black employees are 23 percent less likely to receive “a lot” or “quite a bit” of support to advance, 41 percent less likely to view promotions as fair, and 39 percent less likely to believe their company’s DE&I programs are effective than white employees in the same company.

Black employees lack the sponsorship and allyship to support their advancement. Most Black employees are ambitious and want to advance but perceive a lack of support to help them ascend to management jobs. Only 23 percent of Black employees and 30 percent of white employees believe they get “a lot” or “quite a bit” of support to advance. More than 67 percent of Black employees and 63 percent of white employees report they do not have a sponsor, despite 87 percent of our participating companies reporting that they have sponsorship programs in place.

Variability in representation across companies

Variability in representation among the companies in our participating company data set suggests reasons to be optimistic. Although no company has solved the challenge of increasing Black representation at all job levels, many have made significant inroads at specific points in the pipeline. Their successes could hold the key to more favorable outcomes across the private sector.

A path forward

On the current trajectory, it will take about 95 years 7 If the average promotion, attrition, and external hiring rates across the participating companies remain the same for all races, it would take about 95 years for managerial jobs (managers, senior managers, VPs, SVPs, and executives) to reach 12% Black representation overall. for Black employees to reach talent parity (or 12 percent representation) across all levels in the private sector. Addressing the major barriers that hold back the advancement of Black employees could cut that duration to about 25 years. 8 If promotion, attrition, and external hiring rates were best-in-class at each level across the participating companies, it would take about 25 years for managerial jobs (managers, senior managers, VPs, SVPs, and executives) to reach 12% Black representation overall.

Achieving equity for Black workers in the private sector is a structural and multivariate challenge that cuts across many facets of geography, industry, and occupations, as well as advancement and inclusion in the workplace.

Companies and other stakeholders will need to address ten key challenges to create opportunities

Truly making progress will require more than addressing corporate policies; it calls for system-level change, an examination of our broader society, and active collaboration among companies and other stakeholders.

While the challenges are daunting, our research found some bright spots that companies can build on. Trends for both Black representation in the private sector and the promotion rates for Black men and women have shown improvement. High representation in faster-growing and higher-paying industries for Black workers, such as transportation, could present opportunities in the coming years. Nine in ten Black employees believe they are helping their company succeed and that their work gives them a sense of purpose and accomplishment. In addition, our research uncovered pockets of progress on DE&I programs and representation in different companies, which provides the potential for shared learning of best practices across companies.

On the current trajectory, it will take about 95 years for Black employees to reach talent parity (or 12 percent representation) across all levels in the private sector.

Companies can take a number of actions immediately to address their own workforce and culture. Our research, as well as findings by others, suggest the following no-regrets moves.

• Define your company’s aspiration for addressing racial equity —including steps to address structural barriers
• Understand your company’s current state of DE&I, taking into account industry and geographic contexts
• Strategically prioritize interventions
• Reinforce what works—and reimagine what doesn’t
• Track progress to increase accountability—and share successes

Beyond actions by individual companies, a more concerted effort may be required. Companies should consider the following efforts to build broader momentum for effecting system-level change.

• Share best practices on effective programs
• Pursue collaborative efforts to galvanize collective action
• Commit to continued investment and research

The Racial Equity Institute writes, “Our systems, institutions, and outcomes emanate from the racial hierarchy, on which the United States was built. In other words, we have a ‘groundwater’ problem, and we need ‘groundwater’ solutions.” 9 Deena Hayes-Greene and Bayard Love, The groundwater approach: Building a practical understanding of structural racism, Racial Equity Institute, 2018, racialequityinstitute.com.

Companies have an important role to play—along with other stakeholders. It is our hope that this paper helps to inform the conversation on the path forward. We plan to continue to contribute and be part of this journey.

The research in this report was conducted in collaboration with Walmart, the W.K. Kellogg Foundation, PolicyLink, and McKinsey’s Institute for Black Economic Mobility , with video production by Osato Dixon and editorial by Leff Communications.

Bryan Hancock is a partner in McKinsey’s Washington, DC, office; Monne Williams  is a partner in the Atlanta office; James Manyika  and Lareina Yee  are senior partners in the San Francisco office; and Jackie Wong is a consultant in the Philadelphia office.

This experience was brought to you through an intensive collaborative effort by Mike Borruso, Vanessa Burke, Victor Cuevas, Mona Hamouly, Drew Holzfeind, Richard Johnson, Eleni Kostopoulos, Julie Macias, Janet Michaud, Kathleen O’Leary, Charmaine Rice, Dana Sand, Mythili Sankara, Julie Schwade, Katherine Shearer, Cary Shoda, Margaret Swink, Petra Vincent, and Nathan Wilson.

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Excavating the Truth About Medical Racism From the American Medical Directory—Spinning Dross Into Gold

• 1 Columbia University School of Professional Studies, New York, New York
• Original Investigation US County-Level Variation in Availability and Prevalence of Black Physicians in 1906 Benjamin W. Chrisinger, PhD JAMA Network Open

Today we openly scrutinize medical education, policies, and practices in order to discover and purge racial biases, but this openness could not differ more from the insidious means by which early African American medical aspirants were denigrated, exiled, or barred from the profession altogether. Even basic information from the past, such as the absolute numbers of early Black physicians, remains hard to divine. Moreover, an unknown number of early Black physicians, like Harvard’s William Hinton and Meharry’s Eugene Nelson, 1 found it politic to conceal their race in order to escape professional marginalization.

How can we hope to quantify and accurately reconstruct this important history in order to design a more equitable present and future? Chrisinger 2 masterfully addresses this historical void via elegant extractions of data and identification of patterns from one of the few extant fin de siècle data sources: the American Medical Association (AMA) American Medical Directory (AMD), which has been published continually since 1906. Chrisinger analyzed 41 828 physician entries of the AMD, replete with demographic data, to emerge with information about the early days of our nation’s Black physicians. These data can illuminate the early stages of racial inequities because until 1940, the AMD designated Black physicians, over their objections, with a stigmatizing “col.” notation, for “colored.” 2 This noxious racial labeling contributed to the further exclusion of Black physicians from medical training, practice, and professional communities, including from equitable insurance rates and from AMA constituent societies. 2

In the hands of Chrisinger, the racial labeling now illuminates the real nature and extent of early medical inequity. In mining 1906 data from 18 Southern and adjacent states and Washington, DC, the study emerges with an astonishing scope of information. 2 For example, it reveals inequitable access of physicians to their patients by documenting that Black physicians constituted only 1.8% of practitioners and by calculating the much greater distance between Black physicians and where they trained. The study even painstakingly correlates Black physician access with the number of regional lynchings. The insight that enabled the author to perceive a demographic gold mine in this abhorrent “col.” notation is impressive, and the few questions that arise are not criticisms of the analysis but rather points to consider in future investigations.

Chrisinger’s excellent and nuanced portrayal is a snapshot. 2 It captures early racial dynamics affecting qualified African American physicians, but not the earliest, which began with James McCune Smith sailing to Glasgow to earn his doctor of medicine degree in 1837 after being rejected by US schools. Temporal limits apply to what can be gleaned from Chrisinger’s meticulous analysis of the 1906 data—especially because a mere 4 years later, as Chrisinger notes, the 1910 AMA-commissioned report by Abraham Flexner on medical education in the US and Canada 3 catalyzed a sea change in US medical education, including the shuttering of all Black medical schools except for Howard University and Meharry Medical College. 4 Also, any future selection of the Southern and adjacent states listed might profitably include Pennsylvania, a Northern state whose medical culture was long imbued with Southern racial sentiments and was hostile to the medical aspirations of Black individuals. The archives of the University of Pennsylvania medical school noted, “Almost half of the 1859 student body consisted of southern men. … Medical students from below the Mason-Dixon Line formed the largest constituency of Southern sympathizers in Philadelphia.” 5 And postbellum Penn professor William Osler noted, “The faculty … contained a number of men who were saturated with old-time prejudices.” 6

The discussion of data extraction in Chrisinger 2 alludes to the fiendish difficulty of ascertaining the race of physicians in the AMD despite the “col.” designation. Names not so designated cannot always be assumed to be White individuals. Chrisinger noted that some physicians were trained abroad and that “Howard University, known in modern times as a prominent HBCU [historically Black college and university], admitted students of all races, and therefore was not used in this reclassification,” 2 meaning that no assumption was made that all of their students were Black. However other Black medical organizations, such as the National Medical Association and Meharry Medical College, were also open to those of other races. 7 I hope the wealth of information gleaned by the study from Chrisinger will inspire future insightful investigations of overlooked sources that help us understand and avoid historical medical inequities.

Published: May 10, 2024. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.10201

Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY License . © 2024 Washington HA. JAMA Network Open .

Corresponding Author: Harriet A. Washington, MA, Columbia University School of Professional Studies, 203 Lewisohn Hall, 2970 Broadway, MC 4119, New York, NY 10027 ( [email protected] ).

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: None reported.

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Washington HA. Excavating the Truth About Medical Racism From the American Medical Directory—Spinning Dross Into Gold. JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7(5):e2410201. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.10201

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Researchers search for solutions to construct a comprehensive workforce

• Ashley Williamson
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Students stand at perimeter of jobsite during classroom tour. Peter Means for Virginia Tech.

At the perimeter of any construction site, you will find large fences designed to keep construction materials in and danger out. But those aren’t the barriers that keep more people from joining the construction workforce.

Virginia Tech researchers say it’s the invisible barriers that need to be deconstructed. While many in both industry and academia tout best practices to recruit and retain a more diverse crew,  Myers-Lawson School of Construction researchers have found the “perfect answer” doesn’t exist — yet.

“A lot of companies present what they're doing as a best practice, and yet in some cases, they don’t even know if it works within their own organization because the data isn’t there,” said Josh Iorio , assistant director for Myers-Lawson. “There's a ton of space here for improvement.”

With more than a decade of experience at Virginia Tech, Iorio has seen efforts to grow the construction industry in many shapes and sizes. In 2014, he began to join the university’s InclusiveVT efforts. During that time, he coordinated a speaker series, poster projects, and mentorship programs to boost knowledge about diversity and inclusion in construction education. But in the industry, he heard stories of women being treated differently, people being harassed, and racial slurs.

“I'm sitting across from parents with concerns about their daughter going into the industry. Initially, I told them things were changing and getting better and that's the old industry, but I didn't know,” said Iorio. “I saw it as being unethical to basically say things are getting better without any evidence." 

Iorio said that honesty set him on a path to take a real look at representation in the industry. Through years of leading inclusion and diversity efforts within the school of construction, Iorio saw a further disconnect between industry and academic efforts. Both acknowledged problems such as a lack of women, a lack of a diverse and robust workforce, and low retention rates, but there was little to no research about how to fix the problems. 

Merging theory and practice

Enter building construction Assistant Professor Alireza Shojaei. While the majority of his work is focused on revolutionizing the construction industry through digital innovation, he also seeks to innovate hiring and retention practices using data. 

“This work is personal for me. I lived in three different countries on three different continents and saw firsthand the impact and the importance of working with people from different backgrounds and different societies,” said Shojaei. 

Shojaei sees workforce challenges as complex issues involve economics, social sciences, and political initiatives. He and graduate student Mohammad Hossein Heydari are taking an in-depth look at the individual pieces of the bigger puzzle. Their first deep dive focused on the areas where academic leaders offered ideas for potential best practices.

Their research found several scholars offering suggestions for an industry standard including

• Female mentorship or role model programs
• Increasing the number of women in managerial positions  
• Unifying communication practices
• Flexibility in work-life balance
• Transparent promotion criteria
• Return-to-work training for new mothers 
• Sharing success stories

Based on those suggested measures, they then looked at the last 13 years of construction labor data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics for indications of whether those ideas translated into noticeable changes within the construction industry. Combining the qualitative data from the literature and the quantitative data from the labor statistics, they uncovered trends that pointed them toward future exploration:

• Women make up roughly 11 percent of the workforce, but 50 percent of the population. They are by far the most studied group. Efforts have been made to increase the number of women in the workforce, but so far, the data trends do not indicate significant growth.
• Female students outside of construction programs mention the industry's poor image as a deterrent, even in some cases where they have family ties to construction.
• When women are on a job site, there tend to be lower accident rates and higher safety performances, but it’s not known if one causes the other.
• There is a high rate of injury among Hispanic workers in construction. While many say this is caused by a communication issue, the researchers found that it is only one of many factors including higher productivity pressures, poor safety climates, and supervisor pressures. 
• There is limited information about other ethnic groups, LGBTQIA+, and people with disabilities. Researchers say it’s not because those sections of the population are not in the construction industry, but rather a hesitation to self-report due to external fears or pressures.

“The research over time is increasing, but not fast enough to generate the knowledge we need to be able to solve the problems that we've identified. We need a concerted effort between the people whose job it is to conduct research and the people whose job it is to recruit and retain within construction,” said Iorio, who is serving as the connection point between construction industry executives and researchers. “What we found is that there aren't any obvious best practices, right? That's the punchline.” 

Data can unlock solutions to help both individual companies and the industry as a whole, but that data needs to come from the companies themselves, which requires buy-in and transparency.

“Hopefully, what comes of this is that the industry will see there's still a lot of work to be done. The researchers need access and support from those in the industry. We don't need all of your data, but rather specific kinds of data so that we can prove some of these theories that we're presenting here,” said Iorio.

With specific data, the researchers could investigate subfactors that affect recruitment and retention within companies including location, sector of construction, safety, company policies, profits, and more. The research team recently added graduate students Hossein Naderi and Reachsak Ly to review industry articles and journals for similar suggestions about best practices.

“We need to talk to people; we need to conduct surveys, collect data, and see if we can connect these policies to the results that we are seeing and see what is and is not effective,” said Shojaei.

Josh Iorio (left) and Ali Shojaei (right) discuss ongoing research efforts. Ashley Williamson for Virginia Tech.

Partnership for industry progress

The researchers found companies are hesitant to provide data due to fears of being judged or facing consequences. With over a decade of work in this area, Iorio is helping companies dismantle those fears through transparency. In 2021, he began to host “elephant in the room" discussions to bring together people who work on inclusion and diversity efforts within their own companies. There, the group had honest conversations about the issues and potential solutions that exist across the spectrum.

“The future of the industry is focused on smart construction and technology. But if we don't have people, there's no industry of the future,” said Iorio. “This type of work takes time and money, both of which are valuable resources for a company’s bottom line. What we want to offer is research-backed inclusion and diversity models that have tangible results so companies can invest in the best areas to yield the best results.”

Over the years, Iorio has worked closely with several companies that believe in this vision for the future of the industry, including construction management consulting firm  MBP  and its co-founder and CEO,  Blake Peck . He has seen the industry change over many decades and envisions a partnership with the research team as a pathway for more people to enter the industry and keep the story of this dynamic industry alive.

"We have a great story here in the construction industry, but we unfortunately keep it a secret," said Peck. “I hope this research sheds light on the great work we do, our desire to increase representation and the importance of implementing strategies and processes that are specifically designed for the rewarding and dynamic nature of construction.”

In the long run, researchers hope these efforts not only elevate the experience of current industry workers, but open more doors for a new generation of leaders. This summer, Shojaei and his team plan to publish a knowledge database to give people a chance to access the available data. 

Chelsea Seeber

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Sometimes when working towards diversity, equity, and inclusion, we discover a need to take a collective step back and address unresolved challenges that arise in our teams. These challenges can have an impact on workplace culture and can create barriers that inhibit our collective growth and ability to make positive change. Each challenge is an opportunity to deepen our understanding of our colleagues, learn how to resolve conflict constructively and support team growth and evolution. Our 90-minute Reflect and Reset workshop guides workplace groups through a series of reflection activities designed to help groups identify ways to address needs and take actionable steps to move forward collectively.

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Microaggressions cause harm in every workplace. Yet many of us remain confused about what a microaggression is, how to know if one is happening / has happened, and the numerous ways microaggressions impact others. This 90-minute workshop offers a deep dive into microaggressions, microaggessive terminology, and the impacts of microaggressions in our everyday lives. By offering participants the opportunity to expand their knowledge of microaggressions, our workshop aims to encourage the understanding, compassion and confidence necessary to identifying microaggressions and intervening when they are happening.

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When learning about microaggressions, many of us wonder how we can intervene when we experience or witness a microaggression. But what do we do when someone tells us we are the person enacting a microaggression? How can we practice dismantling microaggressions in our everyday self-expression at work? How do we empathetically and consistently hold ourselves and each other accountable? This workshop offers participants an opportunity to reflect on the ways all of us can perpetuate microaggressions and will explore how to move forward once we've been made aware of the microaggressions we perpetuate. Participants will build skills such as crafting meaningful apologies, learning to understand and say what we really mean, and strategies for holding ourselves accountable.

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Join the Office of Diversity and Inclusion's Strategic Diversity Planning, Training and Assessment unit in this 90-minute workshop designed to help participants better understand the most common microaggressions that impact the Asian Pacific Islander Desi American (APIDA) community. Participants will learn the impacts these microaggressions have on folks across APIDA identities and formulate ways to take action to dismantle these microaggressions in our everyday lives.

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A fundamental part of skill building is practice. This workshop gives participants an opportunity to practice how we can address microaggressions. Participants will work together to apply microintervention strategies that can be used when we experience or witness a microaggression, as well as practice strategies for how to respond to microintervention resistance and microintervention with supervisors / leadership. Note: This workshop is designed to be attended after Microaggressions 102.

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For Asian and Asian American communities, the global response to COVID-19 has meant a reiteration of anti-Asian racism and scapegoating. Since January 2020, Asian and Asian American communities have lived with unceasing, racially motivated attacks, ranging from verbal berating and humiliation to brutal acts of violence targeting our communities' most vulnerable. The Atlanta murders of six Asian identifying women, and the countless, daily attacks on Asian elders, several of which have ended in fatalities, are evidence of this violence.

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For decades, Asian and Asian Pacific Islander Desi American (APIDA) folks have been denied our racial reality. Socially constructed perceptions of either academic or professional success have made us a “model minority," effectively erasing our historical and present day experiences with systemic racism and oppression. When we unpack the numerous identities that exist within the APIDA community and the historical legacy of oppression APIDA folks contend with on a daily basis, we see that the label of “model minority” is nothing but a myth, and that this label serves a very different sociological function.

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Charting Your HR Future: A Career Pathways Toolkit

Whether you've always been interested in HR or stumbled into it by accident, you'll find endless opportunities to create a fulfilling career. One of the best things about the industry is the flexibility for bringing your passions into your professional work. The possibilities are vast—embrace them and forge your path.

Generally speaking, three paths can lead to an entry-level position in the field:

• A college degree in HR.
• A degree in a related subject, like business or industrial/organizational psychology, then applying those skills to HR by earning appropriate certifications.
• Working for several years in an operational role at a company, then transitioning into HR.

Early in your career is a great time to experiment. Say yes to as many opportunities as possible. This allows you to discover your strengths, interests, dislikes and what aspects of HR you enjoy most. You'll also gain exposure to different colleagues, leaders and cultures, which is a great way to learn from the examples of others, both good and bad.

SHRM's Career Compass podcast is one place to find career pathway insights from HR professionals, workplace leaders and experts. Joining your SHRM student chapter and local professional chapter is another way to learn about the various HR career paths available and how other professionals advanced to their current role.

Here's a quick look at the traditional job-title hierarchy within HR.

Entry-Level HR Job Titles

• HR Assistant.
• HR Generalist.
• HR Specialist.

Midcareer HR Job Titles

• HR Manager.
• HR Analyst.
• Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS) Manager.

Senior HR Job Titles

• HR Director.
• Vice President of Human Resources.
• Chief Human Resource Officer (CHRO).
• HR Business Partner.
• HR Consultant.

As in every industry, after a few years of experience, opportunities to advance will emerge. Careers are no longer linear, so you might be surprised to learn that a person who holds a position you aspire to achieve began their career in a different field, like teaching in a K-12 classroom. And you'll meet others who always knew their passion was HR.

Critical Skills for Every HR Role

Jim Link, CHRO at SHRM, says the most important HR skills are not listed in a job description or taught in school. It's crucial for applicants not to overlook these skills, which can help them land a job even without prior HR experience.

1. Critical Thinking: Critical thinking skills means taking disparate pieces of information and pulling them together to form a new thought or observation or draw a conclusion. It means being curious rather than exclusively task-oriented.

To develop critical thinking skills, Link recommends participating in a project or program that must produce an outcome, a change. This could be with a community organization or a business. He also suggests reading and getting smarter on a topic. Pick any topic of interest, take a deep dive into and move beyond reading the text to talking with others about ideas you come up with to question or progress the thought to the next step.

"When I interview young people, I ask them to tell me about an experience or an opportunity where they made something or contributed to achieving a change," Link said. "Many cannot begin to answer that."

2. Numerical Reasoning: Numerical reasoning is the ability to look at a problem analytically and use numbers to assess if the idea is good, has momentum, or can be associated with a return on investment.

"What I observe in young folks is that the idea of belonging to a group or part of a movement translates into thinking in a mass way," Link said. "This is often not the skill businesses need. HR needs people who can analyze a problem and provide a recommended solution. That often has a numerical basis to it."

You can strengthen your numerical reasoning skills without taking a math class by reviewing common formulas and their use in everyday life. For example, calculating your portion of a shared bill and a tip at a restaurant without using your phone, or pulling out a ruler and working with fractional measurements.

Brushing up on your numerical skills can be fun—there are countless math games to work your brain and avoid the trap of thinking they are just for kids. For example, BBC Bitesize  breaks common math topics and equations into bitesize refreshers.

3. Social Skills: Social skills extend beyond the ability to communicate through spoken and written communication clearly and effectively.

"These skills are also related to how you connect with your peers, build a network and approach someone if you need something," Link said. "It's about how you persuade, influence and negotiate. To some degree, it takes trial and error to find your way through those things, but it also takes continued learning from mentors and professional development."

General Advice: Become "known for something," and make that expertise part of your personal brand . This is more than starting a business or being entrepreneurial, Link explained. It's about identifying and sharing your "zone of genius," the skills other people count on you for. It might be that you are reliable, how you care for and treat others, how you bring calm to difficult situations, or your tenacity and grit in difficult situations, etc.

"You need to be known for something before anything else and that others can rely upon you for something," Link said. "This is incredibly important and will make a meaningful difference in your career and the organizations in which you work."

HR ROLES: A SNAPSHOT

Organizations may have different titles for similar roles, and there may be several pathways or specialties within the job categories highlighted below. As your career progresses and you advance into leadership positions, the education and experience requirements will increase alongside the level of responsibility.

A sampling of HR-related job descriptions is available on the SHRM website. Filter for human resources in the menu titled "All Sectors."

Generalist vs. Specialist

As the name suggests, HR generalists are professionals with knowledge and skills across many HR disciplines. These roles offer a good deal of variety in the type of work performed.

Specialists choose one aspect of HR and invest in developing expertise in that area. Some specialists manage global HR—a growing specialty area—while others concentrate on organizational development and meeting the organization's needs for workers in the future, payroll, recruiting, benefits or analytics. Still, others pursue HR consultancy or teaching HR in an academic setting. Many options are available depending on the area of HR that interests you most.

The company size may also factor into whether you choose a generalist or specialist position. Smaller companies are more likely to hire generalists who can handle a broad range of HR duties. Larger organizations typically hire specialists or an entire team of specialists.

HR Generalist

The Human Resource Generalist is involved in the day-to-day functions of the human resource department, which can range from hiring to overseeing pay, benefits and leave, and managing company policies.

Most HR professionals start their careers as an HR assistant or coordinator because the role allows them to experience all HR tasks.

Generalists can continue on this path and advance into management and leadership roles or transition to a specialization. Some people alternate between generalist and specialist positions at different points in their career.

Sample Job Summary

The Human Resource Generalist will run the daily functions of the human resource department, including hiring and interviewing staff; administering pay, benefits and leave; and enforcing company policies and practices.

Sample Duties/Responsibilities:

• Compliance tracking.
• Recruitment and interviewing facilitation.
• Background checks.
• Compensation, benefits, disciplinary matters, performance and talent management, and occupational health and safety.
• Federal, state and local employment law compliance.

Examples of generalist job titles include HR business partner,  HR generalist , HR assistant,  HR manager , people services specialist, HR director/VP of HR. The most-senior HR generalist roles are Chief Human Resource Officer (CHRO) or Chief People Officer (CPO).

Talent & Acquisition

Talent acquisition professionals, or recruiters, focus on the methods and processes for identifying, recruiting and retaining the staff a company needs to operate. This role also includes evaluating current tactics and proposing changes as needed for attracting, hiring and onboarding new employees.

The Recruiter will research, develop and implement effective recruiting and staffing strategies to attract a diverse pool of qualified and capable talent to the organization.

• Assessing the current and future workforce needs. Factors considered in workforce planning include government influence, economic conditions, business competition and workforce demographics.
• Recruiting external and internal candidates and involvement in the hiring process, such as screening candidates, interviewing, pre-employment testing, writing offer letters and onboarding new hires.
• Staying current on various federal, state and local laws and regulations.

Examples of talent and acquisition job titles include recruiter, recruitment and retention specialist or manager, staffing specialist or manager, or chief talent manager or officer.

Employment Law & Compliance

Human resource compliance officers play a critical role in organizations of all sizes. The HR compliance officer's job is to ensure the company adheres to all compliance laws and to educate employees about potential compliance issues.

"Many HR generalist roles require a good working knowledge of Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulatory and compliance guidelines. Business classes or an HR degree covers enough HR law and compliance for generalist roles," Link said. "Those who choose to specialize in HR law earn a law degree."

An HR compliance specialist will help monitor compliance with external and internal regulations and support the compliance team with identifying potential operational risks and educating employees about compliance policies and potential issues.  

• Creating or maintaining an employee handbook.
• Organizing compliance training to avoid legal or financial liabilities.
• Drafting procedures, policies and processes.
• Conducting employee-related investigations and handling sensitive employee information.
• Staying current on federal, state and local labor laws.

In union environments, this role is commonly referred to as a labor relations specialist, with duties that involve:

• Interpreting union contracts.
• Assisting with collective bargaining agreement negotiations.
• Handling labor grievances.
• Advising supervisors on union contract interpretation.

Examples of employment law and compliance titles include compliance specialist, compliance analyst, payroll and compliance manager, employment investigator, or labor relations specialist .

Diversity, Equity & Inclusion

DE&I specialists play a pivotal role in establishing and attaining an organization's diversity goals. These often include recruiting a more diverse pool of candidates and increasing opportunities for internal promotion of minority employees.

DE&I professionals also strive to eliminate bias from internal procedures, promote pay equity, and educate employees about diversity and inclusion. They also identify and address barriers and ensure the company remains accountable for achieving its DE&I goals. Critical to this role is a company culture where all employees feel seen, heard and valued.

The DE&I Manager will develop and implement the organization's diversity initiatives and strategy to attract, hire and maintain a diverse workplace.

• Researches, develops, recommends and executes creative strategies to foster the organization's diversity, equity and inclusion goals.
• Reviews current practices and policies, assessing and analyzing the extent to which they support or hinder the company's diversity goals.
• Drafts and implements recruiting and hiring strategies to attract employees from diverse backgrounds.
• Maintains knowledge of diversity-related issues, legislation and best practices.

Examples of DE&I roles include diversity and inclusion strategist; project manager DE&I; director of diversity, equity and inclusion; diversity, equity and inclusion manager;, and diversity, equity and inclusion analyst, coordinator, and trainer.

Human Resource Analyst

An HR Analyst collects various data points that are then analyzed to evaluate HR processes and recommend enhancements. This role focuses on analyzing data and statistics such as retention rates, sales quotas and performance reviews to identify trends within the organization's workforce.

HR Analyst roles can vary. For example, a people-focused analyst may look at retention, performance reviews, how long it takes to fill a position, the onboarding process and the productivity of new employees. However, a compensation analyst looks at pay market surveys and pay benchmark data to help determine a pay range and total benefits packages to aid recruitment and retention efforts.

Sample Job Summary:

The HR Analyst will collect, compile and analyze HR data, metrics and statistics and apply this data to make recommendations related to recruitment, retention and legal compliance.

• Analyzes data and statistics for trends and patterns with attention to recruitment, hiring practices, motivation, turnover and compliance with employment laws and regulations.
• Prepares reports of data results, presenting and explaining findings to senior leadership.
• Identifies and recommends reasonable short- and long-term goals, milestones and benchmarks for key performance metrics.

Examples of human resource analyst roles include associate HR analyst, HR analyst, people data analyst, compensation analyst, HR information system analyst or senior analyst.

Total Rewards/Compensation & Benefits

Benefits specialists are responsible for planning and managing a range of employee benefits, such as health, dental, vision, short-term disability, life insurance and retirement plans. They also look for opportunities to expand the offerings within a company's budget and mission to stay competitive in recruitment.

The Compensation and Benefits Administrator coordinates and manages the employee compensation and benefits programs.

• Designing and managing compensation structures.
• Administering benefits plans, including insurance and savings programs.
• Researching and comparing incentive compensation plans offered by demographically comparable organizations, and making recommendations for enhancements or improvements required to keep the organization's plans competitive and effective.
• Completing records, reporting and other documentation required by federal, state and provider rules, regulations and policies.

Some specialists perform tasks within all compensation, benefits and job analysis areas. Others specialize in just one of these areas. Examples of total rewards and compensation roles include compensation, benefits and job analysis specialists .

Employee Engagement

Employee engagement roles encompass a range of management and consulting positions aimed at fostering a motivated and productive workforce. Typically situated within the company's HR department, these roles involve initiatives to enhance employee engagement by modifying corporate culture, implementing policy changes and improving the work environment.

As an employee engagement professional, your responsibilities may include managing employee rewards programs, assessing employee positivity levels and addressing any negative influences. Moreover, you will often collaborate with various departments to facilitate effective communication and ensure each group has the necessary resources and support to fulfill their respective roles.

The Employee Engagement Specialist is responsible for providing support and guidance to staff related to workplace issues, policies and relationships. This role serves as a resource to help employees navigate obstacles to a successful and productive work experience.

• Acts as a member of the HR Services-Employee Relations team, collaborating with HR business partners and maintaining open lines of communication with other HR functional areas.
• Manages various employee notifications from the beginning to the end of process.
• Responsible for analysis and reporting of data contained in the HR systems.
• Assists with managing the exit interview process, primarily conducting exit interviews, but also may be called upon to assist with providing data and reports from exit surveys.

Examples of employee engagement roles include employee relations coordinator, employee relations specialist, employee relations manager, employee/labor relations representative, senior manager of employee relations or VP of employee relations.

Learning & Development

Learning and Development (L&D) professionals design and manage employee development and training initiatives. These departments are responsible for identifying skills gaps within the organization and devising internal learning programs to equip employees with new skills and enhance existing ones.

The role is also responsible for training new and current managers, facilitating ongoing employee development, tracking and analyzing employee participation rates, and evaluating L&D program effectiveness and identifying opportunities for improvement.

The Training Associate will organize, facilitate and deliver training programs for employees.

• Conducting training sessions and administering on-the-job training programs.
• Evaluating training programs and external providers.
• Maintaining the necessary records of employee participation in all training and development programs.
• Conducting training needs analysis.
• Identifying training needs for specific industries, such as sales techniques or safety programs.
• Managing strategic continuous improvement processes for the organization and aligning development programs with the business goals

Examples of learning and development roles include trainer, employee development specialist or manager, leadership development specialist or manager, organizational development (OD) specialist or manager.

Salaries for HR Professionals

Salaries for HR professionals differ and are dependent upon many factors such as an organization's size, economic activity, geographic location, and profitability.

SHRM's HR Compensation Data Center , powered by Salary.com, features customizable salary information for numerous job titles across industries. As part of your SHRM membership, you can access one salary report at no cost; additional reports are available.

The Bureau of Labor Statistics'  Occupational Outlook Handbook  also provides general compensation information and job growth expectations.

A Look at Pathways to Leadership

Finding your place in HR can be lot of fun as you discover different aspects of the industry and how to align your personal interests with your career. An HR career also offers an advantage—the opportunity to specialize, change direction or enter from a totally different prior position.

To offer inspiration for your career journey, here's a look at how these six HR leaders began and advanced in their careers.

Angelo Apollos, SHRM-SCP Current Title: AVP, Human Resources Business Partnering at Inovalon

"After a failed attempt to launch my corporate/professional career in an inside sales role, I reached out to the recruitment consultant who placed me to ask for guidance. Ultimately, my position was eliminated in a companywide restructuring just before my first anniversary. My recruitment consultant took pity on me and offered me a temp assignment as a receptionist for their agency where I got exposure to all aspects of agency life.

"Eventually, I was offered a permanent position as recruitment coordinator and started working closely with the executive search team. The leader took me under her wing and was my first true mentor. She helped me understand my career interests, goals, strengths and weaknesses. Through her mentorship, I started to explore the prospect of a career in HR, which led me to get my HR qualifications.

"A few years later, when I moved to the U.K., I landed a temp job in the personnel department for the technology arm of a global financial services firm. In this role, I spent weeks entering and converting hard-copy employee and payroll records into electronic format in the firm's computer system. As they say, the rest is history!"

Career Pathway: Head of Human Resources, North America, Travel Zoo Senior Principal People Business Partner, CA Technologies Senior Principal, HR Business Partner, CA Technologies Director, Human Resources, CA Technologies Senior HR Generalist, CA Technologies Senior Consultant, HP Senior Consultant, QPL Ltd IT Recruitment Consultant HR Associate, HSBC Global Investor Services HR Analyst (Contract), ABN AMRO Bank N.V. Assistant Recruitment Consultant, Trinity Group Consulting IT Recruitment Operations Support, Drake International Sales & Marketing Coordinator, Drake International

Education: Bachelor of Business Management; Diploma of Business Administration; Diploma of HR Management

Advice: "It is important to be super curious and professionally inquisitive. You have to learn as much as possible about your chosen field and do your best to stay abreast of changes. Do not sit back and wait for your employer to train you, go out and learn for yourself. The tech industry moves and changes so rapidly, requiring concentrated effort and time to stay current. You don't have to understand the deep technical specifics of software engineering, but you do have to understand at a high level how all the elements and layers fit together and then, more broadly, how the overall tech industry landscape is shaped.

"You have to learn how to be comfortable with ambiguity and change. HR in the tech sector requires a highly agile mindset, and change resiliency, so you have to develop your adaptability and the art of juggling (often competing) objectives.

"HR professionals, regardless of industry sector, typically see the very best and the very worst of leaders and employees. The good in people is often great, inspiring and uplifting. The other side of that coin can be challenging to manage and navigate."

Nancy Betz Current Title: Retired CHRO and Admin Officer and Executive Advisor for SHRM

"I started my career as a legal assistant before moving into HR in a corporate setting as an HR specialist working in compensation. I then moved to learning and development and into an HR generalist role before becoming a director level, and then CHRO."

Career Pathway:

SVP/Chief HR and Administrative Officer with their Executive Network, Federal Home Loan Bank VP/Chief HR and OMWI Officer, Federal Home Loan Bank Director, HR, Federal Home Loan Bank Director, HR, Wells Fargo Home Mortgage Global Director, HR, Pioneer, a DuPont Company Director, HR, Optimum Quality Grains, a joint venture between DuPont and Pioneer Human Resources Manager, Pioneer Compensation Coordinator, Pioneer  Training and Development Coordinator, Pioneer Hi-Bred International

Education: Bachelor of Science in Business Management; Master's in Adult Education/Learning and Development (closest program offered at the time to Human Resources)

Advice: "Build relationships with key stakeholders along the way and help the business solve its business issues. Find a sponsor or mentor to help you learn the culture and grow your career. I chose an extremely tough, difficult partner to mentor me, and I learned so much in a short time from her, and it helped me grow my career in the company. 

"Don't be afraid to take on challenges that come your way. I often felt unsure and intimidated at the time of career opportunities, and all worked out well. You can find people along the way to help you by building and nurturing your network. This requires work but is very important to do for your career." 

Beth Goldstein

Current Title: Former CHRO, Consultant & Coach, Beth Goldstein Consulting, and SHRM Executive Advisor

"I started my career running a business, not HR. I ran multiple retail locations and was accountable for the profitability of each. I managed managers, each of whom was responsible for the hiring, development and retention of their teams. It was a fantastic experience and really helped me develop business acumen and leadership capabilities. Eventually, I had an opportunity to transition into HR, which was a great match for my strengths."

Career Pathway: Consultant, Executive Coach, Beth Goldstein Consulting CHRO, CoolSys, Inc. CHRO, Smile Brands, Inc. VP, Organizational Development, Borders Group, Inc. Director, HR, Borders Group, Inc. Regional Human Resources Manager, Borders Group, Inc. Regional Human Resources Manager, Contempo Casuals District Manager, Contempo Casuals Store Manager, Contempo Casuals  

Education: Bachelor of Arts, Psychology; Master's in Business Administration

"I got my MBA much later to ensure I had the knowledge to be part of the C-Suite, where you must be able to speak the language of business in order to influence strategy and drive change."

Advice: "I moved up in my career by saying 'yes' to the opportunities that were offered to me, by taking initiative to develop my capabilities and by working hard to get results, often exceeding expectations. Trying different things gives you insights into what you like, what you're good at, what you want to do more of, and what you don't want to do.

"Being open to opportunities also exposes you to different colleagues, leaders and cultures. This is a great way to learn from the examples of others, both good and bad. One of the most valuable lessons I ever learned was taking the initiative for your own career. Ask questions, volunteer, make suggestions. You will be surprised how much that is appreciated and recognized!"

Kelli Kombat

Current Title: Vice President, DEI Business Leader, Spark Foundry and CEO, Coaching Engagement and Optimism

"I had an opportunity to have a career path early in my career and shadowed some of the brightest and best at Ford Motor. I worked as a generalist and continued to diversify my career in a variety of industries and levels."

Career Pathway: Global Head of Talent & DEI, IDEO.org Global Director, Employee Experience & DEI, International Trademark Association AVP Human Resources, Supply Chain, L'oréal HR Director, Americas, Volvo Cars AVP Human Resources, Multicultural Beauty, L'oréal Human Resources Director, L'oréal Human Resources Association, Ford Motor Company

Education: Bachelor of Science in Mass Communication; MBA with a concentration in HR Management

Advice: "Trust your instincts. The grass is not always greener. Focus on your values. They will never steer you wrong. Never stop learning. Surround yourself with people who are humble and those who have a growth mindset.

"Center your work on organizational justice in everything regarding the employee experience. Inclusion is innate. It's our job as HR professionals to create a coaching culture with a goal of belonging. DE&I is not a pillar and certainly not the work of just HR. It won't be effective unless there's galvanizing effort and plenty of ambassadors. 

"DE&I work can sometimes feel like the work of inches. Lean into your patience, and don't just do what is fast, fun or easy. Ask a lot of questions, learn your biases and then work on your cultural fluency. Finally, it's important to get a coach. Take that engagement seriously, set meaningful goals and be open to the process."

Jim Link Current Title: Chief Human Resources Officer, SHRM

"I grew up on a family farm and in college I worked as an HR intern at GE. Through that internship, I learned the importance of connectivity and communication, especially when conversations are tough or difficult. I also saw firsthand how vitally important it is to have empathy in management and leadership."

Career Pathway: Chief Human Resources Officer, Randstad Managing Director, Human Resources, Randstad General Manager, Human Resources, Porsche Director, Human Resources, The Pillsbury Company Human Resources, General Electric HR Internship at General Electric

Education: Bachelor of Arts, Public Relations; Master of Arts, Organizational Communication

Advice: "Where possible and as much as possible, develop your critical thinking capability. Critical thinking is the ability to look at disparate variables of pieces of information and pull together an outcome from that intellect. If you have that or can fine-tune what you have, it will help you secure a job and make you more successful than any other skill at this time.

"Establish an HR network. Read, read and read about HR and business. Develop a sense of business acumen and the connection between how a business operates and how to set people up for success."

Amy Mysel Current Title: Seasoned CHRO, Principal, Mysel Consulting, LLC and Executive Advisor, SHRM

"My first job was in recruiting, and it helped me learn a lot about the business. I also got some early 'wins' by filling jobs quickly and building a good reputation. In addition, I was working directly with many senior leaders, including the CEO, and built their trust by filling jobs successfully and managing the candidates and company reputation well."

Career Pathway: Interim Vice President, US Pipe and Foundry Principal, Mysel Consulting, LLC Vice President, Human Resources, Provisur Technologies  Senior Vice President, Human Resources & Communications, True Value Executive Vice President, Human Resource, Planning & Communications, Market Day Vice President, Human Resources, Caremark International Vice President, Lee Hecht Harrison Senior Vice President, Human Resources, Foote, Cone and Belding (FCB) Recruiter and then Executive Director, Playboy Manager of Manpower Planning (a recruiting role) Personnel Manager

"I had an unusual leap formed from recruiting to executive director at Playboy when the vice president of HR departed. Since 1980, I've remained in VP HR roles."

Education: Bachelor of Arts, liberal arts

"Take business courses during your undergraduate studies. I did not go back for my master's but would recommend it now. The credential and business acumen it builds is invaluable."

Advice: "Work on balancing your own goals to come up the ladder through a variety of functions so you learn the underpinnings of HR with the needs of the organization. Don't fear taking on new roles that you don't know as much about. Believe in yourself and your capabilities. Look for mentors throughout your career, and maintain those relationships long term."

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