research paper on chinese mythology

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A New Model in the Study of Chinese Mythology

Chinese mythology [ shenhua 神話] does not exist independently as a cultural medium like mythology does in the West but, rather, comprises ideological and narrative forms that emerge according to historical and cultural trends. Not only have myths withstood humanity’s conquest of nature, but they have drawn and continue to draw on the mysteries of scientific development for new content. It is possible to identify three highpoints of creativity in the history of Chinese mythology, each corresponding to shifts in the function and nuance of myths. The first highpoint occurred very early on in China’s ancient history, in the period of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors [ wudi sanwang 五帝三王], when myths were a way to articulate history—that is, history as myth. The second highpoint occurred in the period from the Qin through Jin dynasties, when mythology mainly expounded on philosophy and theory—that is, philosophy as myth. The third highpoint occurred during the Yuan and Ming dynasties, when the narrative content of mythology turned toward the religious—that is, religion as myth.

Mythology is a Western concept. The study of Chinese mythology dates back only to the broad dissemination of Western learning in early twentieth century China and, for most of the past century, has employed concepts, theories, classifications, and research methods developed by Western scholars. Few studies attempt to build a theoretical framework of Chinese myths that stems from a native understanding. The strong influence of Western perspectives has led the majority of Chinese humanities scholars to approach Chinese mythology as a cultural product of ancient times. Mao Dun 茅盾 [pseud., Shen Dehong, 1896- 1981 ], one of the founding fathers of the study of Chinese mythology, once defined mythology as “a popular story form in folk cultures of Chinese antiquity.” 1 Lin Huixiang 林惠祥 [1901-1958], a seminal figure in the study of Chinese humanities, also believed that “mythology is an expression of primitive psychology.” 2 Educational materials on the history of Chinese culture published in the past half-century all subscribe to Marx’s idea that “[mythology] disappears . . . when real control over [natural] forces is established.” 3 These tendencies have all treated mythology as a literature of distant ancestors and ancient times to be relegated to dusty tomes and primitive fantasy.

According to this dominant trend, the canon of Chinese mythology consists only of myths found in Han dynasty [202 bce -220] sources, such as “Nüwa Mends the Sky [Nüwa butian 女媧補天],” “Nüwa Creates Mankind [Nüwa zaoren 女媧造人],” “Hou Yi Shoots down the Sun [Hou Yi sheri 后羿射日,” “Gong Gong Destroys Mount Buzhou [Gong Gong chushan 共工觸山],” and “Pan Gu Creates Heaven and Earth [Pan Gu kaitian 盤古開天].” Myths that emerged after the Han dynasty, such as those in In Search of the Supernatural [ Sou shen ji 搜神記] or Investiture of the Gods [ Fengshen yanyi 封神演義]—whose titles even include the character 神 [ shen , spirits, deities] as in 神話 [ shenhua , myth]—have been retroactively called zhiguai 志怪 [tales of the supernatural] and shenmo 神魔 [gods and demons fiction], thus erasing their status as myths. Since the second half of the twentieth century, the large volume of myths emerging in film and television programs featuring visitors from outer space, intergalactic warfare, premodern people traveling to the present, or modern people paying visits to the past are called “science fiction” and “time travel” [ chuanyue 穿越] fiction. If one were to ask why these stories that are indistinguishable from myth are not referred to as such, the inevitable response would be that they were not produced in ancient times.

In 2008, during the Creation Myths International Conference on Comparative Studies held in Beijing, a scholar lamented how unfortunate it is that the practice of archiving creation myths in China did not begin earlier. What this point fails to see, however, is that such a critique essentially uses Western concepts and methodological standards to label our ancestors’ actions as “unorthodox.” What we should do is shed these Western frameworks and, instead, rethink the very theoretical questions we pose about Chinese mythology by starting with the myths themselves.

Yuan Ke 袁珂 [1916-2001], a scholar who devoted his life to the study of Chinese mythology, over the course of his career gradually noticed the limiting effects of Western theory. In 1982, he began to espouse the idea of “broadening the sense of myth.” 4 He believed that “just as old myths exist to this day, so, too, do new myths emerge from this moment.” 5 Many of these ideas can be found in his seminal work, History of Chinese Mythology [ Zhongguo shenhua shi 中國神話史]. It is a great misfortune that his work and ideas have been either overlooked by scholars or marginalized because of the position they take vis-à-vis Western theory.

This paper argues that Chinese mythology does not exist independently as a cultural form but, rather, comprises ideological and narrative forms that emerge according to historical and cultural trends. It defines Chinese myths as a form of expressive art that centers thinking on the unknown and explaining it, including works referred to more widely in other categories, such as zhiguai, shenmo , sci-fi, and time travel. To find proof that myths continue to be generated even in our high-tech world, one needs to look no further than the television programs produced today. Although they experience rises and falls throughout history, myths will never cease to exist completely. In China, mythology has peaked and redefined itself at three distinct points in history: the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors Period [ca. twenty-ninth-twenty-first c. bce ], the Qin through Jin dynasties [221 bce -420], and the Yuan and Ming dynasties [1279-1644]. These three periods, in turn, each represent a shift in the context and content of myth creation.

• History as Myth during the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors Period

The first highpoint in Chinese mythology occurred during the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors period, which was also the height of religious authority and mysticism. This period receives the most attention from scholars of Chinese mythology because its myths most closely resemble what is understood as mythology in the West. Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors mythology is the subject of the chapter “Pre-Qin Myths [Shanggu shenhua 上古神話],” collected in History of Chinese Literature [ Zhongguo wenxue shi 中國文學史], a volume edited by the preeminent scholar Yuan Xingpei 袁行霈. 6 In what follows, I discuss the characteristics and functions of the mythology of this period.

Current scholars of Chinese mythology agree with those in the Doubting Antiquity School [ Yi gu pai 疑古派] of the early twentieth century that pre-Qin history is mythical history. According to them, the Five Emperors are fictional beings and the flood-taming folk hero Yu the Great [Da Yu 大禹] is the incarnation of a bug. The basis of these claims is theory and practice employed in the study of Western mythology. Unlike in China, the history of ancient mythology studies in the West is characterized by a dearth of historical sources. Subsequently, with no way to distinguish between historical and mythological materials of the same period, Western scholars had no choice but to rely on logic to formulate, classify, analyze, and explain myths. Their assessments depended more on this logical process than on material evidence. In China, by contrast, the great volume of historical sources and their continual discovery through archeological digging, have allowed researchers to approach mythology using multiple analytical lenses. Recent reflections on the current state of research reveal that, contrary to long-held notions influenced by Western mythology studies, it is not so much that pre-Qing history is mythical but, rather, that history was expressed through myth. At a time when the official records of history were not widely kept, mythology took on the function of passing down history. The historian Xu Xusheng 徐旭生 [1888-1976] once said, “Ancient legends all carry aspects of history or are, at heart, historical; they most certainly do not exist without basis.” 7

It is possible to explore the idea of “history as myth” in early China by taking a closer look at the story “Kua Fu Chases the Sun [Kua Fu zhuiri 夸父追日].” It is thus recorded in the “Classic of the Great Wilderness: North [Dahuangbei jing 大荒北經],” in The Classic of Mountains and Seas [ Shanhaijing 山海經]:

In the middle of the Great Wilderness, there is a mountain. Its name is Mount Success city-carries-the-sky. There is someone on this mountain. His ear ornaments are two yellow snakes, and he is holding two yellow snakes. His name is Kua Fu. Sovereign Earth [Hou Tu] gave birth to Faith [Xin]. Faith gave birth to Kua Fu. Kua Fu’s strength knew no bounds. He longed to race against the light of the sun. He caught up with it at Ape Valley. He scooped some water from the great river to drink, but it wasn’t enough. He ran toward Big Marsh, but just before he reached it, he died here by this mountain. Ying Long had already killed Chi You, and now he also killed Kua Fu. Then Ying Long left for the southern region and settled there. That is why there is so much rain in the southern region. 8

This story is alternatively recounted in the “Classic of Regions Beyond the Seas: North [Hai wai bei jing 海外北經],” in The Classic of Mountains and Seas :

Kua Fu raced with the sun and ran with the setting sun. He became so parched that he longed to drink, and he drank from the Great River and the River Rapids. But the Great River and the River Rapids were not enough, so Kua Fu went north to drink from Big Marsh. Before he reached it, he fell parched on the way and died. He abandoned his stick there, and it changed into Climbton Forest. 9

The tale of Kua Fu is a classic myth. The nature of Kua Fu’s actions, whether his great ambition of chasing the sun or his superhuman ability to drink entire rivers dry, is far removed from reality. When analyzed from a historical perspective, however, the story reveals three key pieces of historical information.

The first of these is Kua Fu’s identity. The character 夸 [ kua ] has been found on oracle-bone inscriptions containing the names of states as well as in markings on bronze drinking vessels and dagger-axes. It follows that Kua can be taken as a clan name. Fu 父 is glossed in the Shuowen jiezi [說文解字] as “a family elder who is also a leader and disciplinarian,” 10 which can be understood simply to refer to the head of a clan. This reading of the characters in Kua Fu’s name is supported as well by a detail in the myth that describes him having wielded a stick or staff. In primeval times, staffs signified power and would be used only by someone who was a leader. In short, Kua Fu’s name refers to his position as the head of the Kua clan. The sentences “Sovereign Earth gave birth to Faith. Faith gave birth to Kua Fu” tell us that Kua Fu’s clan was a branch of the Hou Tu clan, which, according to passages found elsewhere in the Classic of Mountains and Seas , is descended from the Flame Emperor [Yan Di 炎帝]. From this, we know that Kua Fu is descended from the same clan as Yan Di.

Second, this tale reports on the battle between the Yellow Emperor [Huang Di 黃帝] and Chi You 蚩尤. The passages from the Classic of Mountains and Seas reveal that Kua Fu failed in his rebellion against the Yellow Emperor. The sentence “Ying Long had already killed Chi You, and now he also killed Kua Fu,” tells us that Kua Fu, along with Chi You, was a hero who opposed the Yellow Emperor and was killed by a member of the Yellow Emperor’s faction. In legends passed down in the Miao tribe, Chi You is said to have had a general named Kua Fo 夸佛, who is likely the same person as Kua Fu. According to Miao lore, after Chi You was defeated and killed by the Yellow Emperor, it was his general Kua Fo who led the Miao people south. Kua Fu was shot to death by the Yellow Emperor’s general, Ying Long, during this journey. Valiant men were selected from among those who accompanied Kua Fo to release the souls of the dead from purgatory and sing songs in praise of Chi You’s and Kua Fo’s accomplishments. 11 Miao lore, whose origins reach beyond antiquity, give us insights into the great war between the Flame Emperor and the Yellow Emperor. Their accounts are consistent with those recorded in the Classic of Mountains and Seas .

Finally, the story of Kua Fu recounts the worsening of weather conditions in pre-Qin China. The sentence “he drank from the Great River and the River Rapids, but the Great River and the River Rapids were not enough” can be seen as a mythical way of referring to a historical event in which the Yellow and Wei Rivers nearly dried up because of a great drought. In sources that touch on the reign of the Yellow Emperor, a few weather-related accounts bear mentioning in this context. The first is in the chapter “Letting Be and Exercising Forbearance [Zai you 在宥]” in the Zhuangzi :

Huang-Di [the Yellow Emperor] had been on the throne for nineteen years, and his ordinances were in operation all through the kingdom, when he heard that Guang Chengzi was living on the summit of Kong-tong, and went to see him. “I have heard,” he said, “that you, Sir, are well acquainted with the perfect Dao. I venture to ask you what is the essential thing in it. I wish to take the subtlest influences of heaven and earth, and assist them with the (growth of the) five cereals for the (better) nourishment of the people. I also wish to direct the (operation of the) Yin and Yang, so as to secure the comfort of all living beings. How shall I proceed to accomplish those objects?” Kong Tong-zi replied, “What you wish to ask about is the original substance of all things; what you wish to have the direction of is that substance as it was shattered and divided. According to your government of the world, the vapours of the clouds, before they were collected, would descend in rain; the herbs and trees would shed their leaves before they became yellow; and the light of the sun and moon would hasten to extinction. Your mind is that of a flatterer with his plausible words—it is not fit that I should tell you the perfect Dao.” 12

While it is not possible to take a single word of the Zhuangzi at face value, each and every one can be said to derive from ancient legends. This passage suggests that weather during the reign of the Yellow Emperor was rife with anomalies and strange phenomena. Although the language is a bit exaggerated, one cannot discount its basis in reports of natural disasters at the time.

A similar weather-related account can be found in lore relating to Han Ba 旱魃 [referred to below as Droughtghoul], who is thus described in the “Classic of the Great Wilderness: The North” in the Classic of Mountains and Seas :

There is someone on this mountain wearing green clothes. Her name is Droughtghoul, daughter of the great god Yellow [the Yellow Emperor]. The god Chi You invented weapons. He attacked the great god Yellow. The great god Yellow then ordered Ying Long to do battle with Chi You in the Wilderness of Hope island. Ying Long hoarded up all the water. But the god Chi You asked the Lord of the Winds and the Leader of the Rains to let loose strong winds and heavy rain. So the great god Yellow sent down his sky daughter called Droughtghoul and the rain stopped. Then she killed Chi You. Droughtghoul could not get back up to the sky. The place where she lives on earth never has rain. 13

Add to these Kua Fu’s story, and there are three accounts providing evidence of a drought during the reign of the Yellow Emperor. It would certainly provide a convincing explanation of how Kua Fu dies of thirst.

This interpretation of Kua Fu’s death finds resonance in lore passed down in Lingbao County, Henan. Henan University professor Zhang Zhenli’s investigations into the myth surrounding Mount Kua Fu in Lingbao tell us that, during the war between the Flame Emperor and the Yellow Emperor, the Flame Emperor fled to Shaanxi after being defeated. The Yellow Emperor sent his general Ying Long after him, forcing him to turn west, where he found himself in an area between Shaanxi and Henan. At this time, Kua Fu, a distant clansman of the Flame Emperor, was passing through Lingbao just as the area was suffering the heat of a ten-year drought. Kua Fu reached the northern foot of the Qinling Mountains, located 25 li south of Lingbao, where he died of thirst. The place where he was buried came to be known as Kua Fu Valley and the nearby peak, Mount Kua Fu. 14 The historical roots of this received account are convincing; those who share it do so with apparent respect and reverence for the memory of Kua Fu.

Elements from this tale that corroborate those found in other accounts include the shared clan lineage between Kua Fu and the Flame Emperor, the fact that Kua Fu headed west after his defeat, and that Kua Fu died during his westward retreat, though not by Ying Long’s arrow but because of drought. Although the mysteries of any myth can never be fully unraveled, Zhang addresses this discrepancy by hypothesizing that the descendants of Kua Fu, unable to bear hearing how Kua Fu was killed by the Yellow Emperor, spun this tale about his dying of thirst while retreating. 15 Even so, I believe that the tale of Kua Fu has a strong historical basis. For instance, whether he died of thirst or was killed by the Yellow Emperor, this story places the war between the Flame Emperor and the Yellow Emperor in the same period as a severe climatic event, which is also consistent with descriptions of weather in the quoted passages from the Zhuangzi and the Classic of Mountains and Seas . Evidence of a great drought can also explain differing accounts of the cause of Kua Fu’s death. That Kua Fu and his clansmen fled from east to west might also explain how the legend of his chasing the sun came about.

From this, one can see that the myth of Kua Fu is actually the mythologization of Kua Fu’s history. In the words of Xu Xusheng, it was a time where “it was difficult to think outside the framework of mythology.” 16 Accordingly, historical accounts carried a strong mythmaking sensibility. In fact, mythical figures such as the Yellow Emperor, the Flame Emperor, Chi You, Hou Yi, and Da Yu are all historical figures who contributed to the development of human civilization. It is fair to say that the function of mythology during the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors period was to record history. Although the figures who appear in these records might expound on nature, society, and life, history remains the primary theme of this period’s mythology.

• Philosophy as Myth from the Qin through Jin Dynasties

The second rise of Chinese mythology took place from the Qin through the Jin dynasties. Rational thought reached its height in the Warring States period, but, by the end of this era, it had begun to decline to the point of near extinction. In its place, mysticism emerged as the dominant ideological trend, particularly concerning the quest for immortality. This trend was widespread in both ordinary society and the imperial court. The first emperor, Qin Shi Huang 秦始皇 [259-210 bce ] was known for ordering multiple expeditions to sea in search of the elixir of life. Such actions may appear to be a gullible response to the words of an alchemist. However, they were driven just as much by the larger ideological trends taking hold at the time, signaling a new return to mysticism. As is well known, the word di 帝 originally referred to a deity. Its eventual use to refer to a human monarch not only implied that such a monarch was simultaneously human and divine but also signaled the expanding influence of mystical thought at the time. Di had fallen out of use as a term for rulers for over a thousand years before reemerging at the end of the Warring States period. In 288 bce , the rulers of the Qin and Qi kingdoms reclaimed di as a title, referring to themselves respectively as Emperor of the West [Xi Di 西帝] and Emperor of the East [Dong Di 東帝].

The spread of mysticism during the Qin-Han period has attracted the attention of many modern and contemporary scholars. The Qin-Han chapter of the General History of Chinese Thought [ Zhongguo sixiang tongshi 中國思想通史], edited by Hou Wailu 候外盧 [1903-1987] and others, lists numerous articles on theology in medieval China through the lens of orthodoxy, form, thought, theory, and politics. Jin Chunfeng’s 金春峰 Han Period Thought [ Handai sixiang shi 漢代思想史] also includes chapters dealing with such topics as the relationship between heaven and man, the quest for immortality, divination, mysticism, and Han theology. Lin Jianming 林劍鳴 is a contributing editor to Society and Civilization of the Qin-Han Period [ Qin Han shehui wenming 秦漢社會文明], a book that claims to focus on the topic of “highly superstitious spiritual orientations.”

Although mythology receded into the background during the Warring States period, it flourished with the rise of mysticism during the Qin-Han era. During the latter, mysticism was so prevalent that even the grand historian Sima Qian 司馬遷 [ca. 145-86 bce ] could not escape its influence. A passage from the first of his biographies, “Biography of Emperor Gaozu [Gaozu ben ji 高祖本記],” reads: “It was recorded in later texts that before Liu Bang [Gaozu] rose in rebellion, he had killed a white snake. At that, an older woman had begun to cry, expressing her disbelief that her child, the son of the White Emperor, had been slain by a son of the Red Emperor.” 17 This would be hard to imagine without understanding the intellectual trends influencing Sima Qian.

Mysticism persisted into the Wei-Jin period, particularly in poetry, in which gods and immortals became a recurring image. Cao Cao’s 曹操 [155-220] “The Song of Qiu Hu [Qiu Hu xing 秋湖行]” expresses his wish to “climb Mount Hua” and “wander leisurely among gods and deities.” Similarly, in “Poems of the Wandering Transcendents [You xian shi 遊仙詩],” Ji Kang 稽康 [ca. 223-263] writes that he would like to “wander through eternal gardens without a care” and “have occasion to meet with the Yellow Emperor and Laozi.” In “Singing My Feelings [Yong huai shi 咏懐詩],” Ruan Ji 阮籍 [210-263] writes, “I wander in the wilderness with an easy heart, and bid farewell to the Queen Mother of the West.” These poems demonstrate that the lives of gods and immortals had an effect of mystical seduction for poets in this period. As Liu Xie 劉勰 [ca. 465-522] wrote in the chapter “Elucidating Poetry [Ming shi 明詩]” in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons [ Wenxin diaolong 文心雕龍], “During the Zhengshi reign period [240-249], the Daoist idea of detachment from worldly affairs was quite popular; thus, this idea also seeped into poetry.” 18 In fact, this trend extends beyond the Zhengshi reign period; it appears in works such as the In Search of the Supernatural and Research into Lost Records [ Shi yi ji 拾遺記] during the Jin dynasty, when the highpoint of mysticism comes to an end.

If, as argued in the previous section, mythology functioned as historical writing in the pre-Qin period, then from the Qin through Jin dynasties, mythology was a way to express philosophy. Because those living during the Warring States period were in a constant state of existential crisis, they favored a rational approach to thought, taking the principles of yin-yang and the five elements [ yin yang wu xing 陰陽五行] as key to understanding the universe. People in the Qin-Han dynasty broadened the application of these principles by reinterpreting them through myths; thus, mythology during this period has a philosophical nuance. For instance, based on the principle that “the shifting relationship between yin and yang is what constitutes the Way,” 19 people in the Qin-Han period began to approach heretofore single gods as part of a marital unit. They coupled Nüwa with Fuxi, Hou Yi with Chang’e, and Queen Mother of the West with King Lord of the East. “The Cowherd and the Weaving Maid [Niulang zhinü 牛郎織女]” and “Married to a Heavenly Immortal [Tian xian pei 天仙配]” are two widely known myths passed down from the Han dynasty that also illustrate this application of yin-yang theory to myth and marriage. In other words, the cosmic duality of yin and yang were treated by people in the Han dynasty as a formal element: if yang represents “heaven” and “man” and yin, “earth” and “woman,” then the interaction between the two forces is what supports the structure of all things. Aside from this application of cosmic duality, deification of certain philosophical concepts that emerged in the pre-Qin also occurred in this period. For instance, the concept of tai yi 太一, which is understood from the chapter “All under Heaven [Tian xia 天下],” in the Zhuangzi to mean Great Unity, referred to the original form of all things in the universe. During the Han period, however, tai yi became an alternative way of referring to the Heavenly Sovereign, whose authority dwarfed even that of the Five Emperors. 20

Now let us turn our attention to two myths that have been treated as canonical in Chinese literary history: “Nüwa Mends the Sky” and “Hou Yi Shoots down the Sun.” Both can be found in the Huainanzi 淮南子 along with textual interpretations of the two stories. The work offers the following reading of “Nüwa Mends the Sky”: “When there is obstruction to the flow of yin and yang, flush it out to reestablish the link. When disruptive energy hurts material objects and the ability of the people to accumulate material wealth, stop and abolish it.” 21 Regarding “Hou Yi Shoots down the Sun,” the work explains:

To aid those who live impoverished lives and help those who have material needs is a way to foster one’s reputation; take action to benefit the people by ridding society of its ills, suppress the chaos of rebellions, and put a stop to violence—this is the way to have accomplishments. 22

Both passages expound on philosophy in the context of narrating a myth, demonstrating the philosophical preoccupation of mythology in this era.

Another prominent phenomenon in this period is the use of myth to interpret philosophical questions that were left unanswered during the pre-Qin. For instance, Qu Yuan 屈原 [ca. 340-278 bce ] writes in “Heavenly Questions [Tian wen 天問]”:

Who passed down the story of the far-off, ancient beginning of things? How can we be sure what it was like before the sky above and the earth below had taken shape? Since none could penetrate that murk when darkness and light were yet undivided, how do we know about the chaos of insubstantial forms? 23

It is recorded in the chapter “The Revolution of Heaven [Tian yun 天運]” in the Zhuangzi :

How (ceaselessly) heaven revolves! How (constantly) earth abides at rest! And do the sun and moon contend about their (respective) places? Who presides over and directs these (things)? Who binds and connects them together? Who is it that, without trouble or exertion on his part, causes and maintains them? Is it, perhaps, that there is some secret spring, in consequence of which they cannot be but as they are? Or is it, perhaps, that they move and turn as they do, and cannot stop of themselves? 24

These passages show us that people in the Warring States era were deeply invested in postulating on the beginning of existence; yet, at the same time, no creation myths have been discovered from this period. In other words, they raised questions but did not provide answers. Creation myths did, however, begin to appear during the Han period and tend to have a pervasive quality of philosophical explication.

Take, for instance, this passage from the book “On the Essential Spirit [Jing shen xun 精神訓]” in the Huainanzi :

In ancient times, when heaven and earth were not yet formed, when the things were unclear and forms vague, it was a state of dark chaos and murky depths, where it was impossible to tell left from right. Then two deities emerged, and, together, they established and made the world. This occurrence was vast without end, broad without bounds. It was at this time that Heaven, Earth, yin, and yang became distinct, scattering to form the four directions and eight extremities, the forces of yin and yang thus worked in tandem to give material form to the myriad things. 25

The “two deities” mentioned here refer to the deification of yin and yang, once again referencing the Han fixation with cosmic duality and anthropomorphism.

During the Three Kingdoms period [220-280] Xu Zheng 徐整 wrote in the Historical Records of the Three Sovereign Divinities and the Five Gods [ San wu li ji 三五歷紀]:

Before the beginning of time, Heaven and Earth were a mass of chaos resembling an egg. It was within this chaos that Pan Gu was born. After 18,000 years, this mass split into Heaven and Earth. The energy of yang rose light and clear to form the sky, whilst the energy of yin sunk muddy and dense to form the earth. Pan Gu, living between Heaven and Earth, went through many changes each day. His wisdom stretched beyond the sky and his abilities possessed more strength than the earth. With each passing day, the sky rose by many measures, the earth thickened by many measures, and so, too, did Pan Gu grow in size. Thus another 18,000 years passed. By this time, the sky had reached extreme heights and the earth had grown to extreme depths, and Pan Gu’s size and height were also extremely great. It was after the formation of Heaven and Earth that the Three Sovereigns of the human world appeared. 26

A Chronicle of the Five Cycles of Time [ Wu yun li nianji 五運歷年記] offers a different account of creation that nonetheless has a strong mythological flavor:

It is from hazy obscurity, a great mass of boundless energy, that all sprouted its first buds of life and that Heaven and Earth emerged distinct. That which was essentially yang became air, rising up and up to form the sky. That which was essentially yin solidified and became the earth. The forces of yin and yang continued to stir, differentiate, and transform, eventually giving birth to fair-minded and peaceful people. Pan Gu, who was the first living thing to emerge from the chaos, underwent a great transformation just before death. The air he expelled became the wind and clouds of the sky; his four limbs and five extremities became four pillars to hold up the sky and five great mountains; his blood became the water of rivers and lakes; his veins became roads and mountain ranges; his muscles and skin became fields and soil; his hair and whiskers became the stars in the sky; his fur became grass and trees; his bones and teeth became mineral, rock, and metal; his essence and marrow become pearls and precious jade; the sweat dripping from his skin became the dew that moistens all things; even the parasites on his body, catalyzed by the wind, became the hordes of common people living in the world. 27

This passage is an illustration of the Daoist principle, found in chapter 42 in the Laozi , that “The Dao 道 begat one; one begat two; two begat three; three begat all things.” Its philosophical implications far surpass its mythical ones. This conjunction of philosophy and myth is precisely the main characteristic of Qin-Jin era mythology.

• Religion as Myth during the Yuan-Ming Period

A resurgence of fixation on the mysterious and supernatural, particularly through the rising trend of “god-making” [ zao shen 造神] took place in the Yuan-Ming period. Although both tales and the ritual worship of god-spirits persisted in folk culture before this period, some even documented in sources on rituals, during the Yuan-Ming period, people built on this foundation to create new gods and spiritual icons in even greater volume. A higher number of the 365 proper gods recognized by Jiang Ziya 姜子牙 [ca. 1156-1017] in Investiture of the Gods do not appear in any source material dated prior to this period. 28 For example, whereas a general Lei Shen 雷神 [God of Lightning] was mentioned in earlier sources, Jiang’s catalog lists twenty-four names of deities under the heading lei 雷 [lightning]. Many previously undocumented deities are also mentioned in the novel Journey to the West [ Xi you ji 西遊記]. It is written in the book “On Rituals [Li zhi 禮志]” in the History of the Ming [ Ming shi 明史]: “In ancient times, there was no practice of making sacrifices to Jupiter or the positions of the moon; this began during the Ming dynasty. Having a cloud deity after the wind deity was also a practice that began during the Ming dynasty.” 29 This reflects the intensification of god-making during the Yuan-Ming period.

A noteworthy work that appeared in this period, the Great Compendium on the Origins and Development of the Three Teachings and Search for the Sacred [ Sanjiao yuanliu soushen daquan 三教源流搜神大全], compiles entries on over 180 deities from the three teachings: Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism. Each entry includes the deity’s name, designation, rank and domain, posthumous titles, and mythical deeds. The majority also have accompanying images of the deity. Some notable entries are those of the Great Jade Emperor [Yu huang shang di], Houtu Goddess of the Earth [Houtu huang di qi], the Immortal Donghua [Dong hua di shen], and the Divine Queen Mother of the West [Xi ling wang mu]. Despite the Confucian tradition of not discussing gods and supernatural forces, this compilation also includes names of Confucian figures. Rather than academic intent, the work reflects fascination with the numinous that draws on the praxis of religious and theological studies.

If we take a closer look at the process of god-making in this period, we can sense a whimsical tone in the narration that is akin to a primeval wonderment at nature. One example is the following excerpt from the Yong chuang xiaopin [涌幢小品]:

The Great Golden Dragon King was named Xie Xu. He resided hidden in Jinlongshan. He heard that the army of the Yuan had entered Lin’an, fell into the lake, and drowned, and that the stiff corpses did not rot. Zhu Yuanzhang raised an army in response. The Great Golden Dragon King aided him in his dreams, resulting in their swift victory. Thereafter, he opened a canal at Lülianghong. Those who prayed as they passed through on boat would have their wishes granted, so a temple was built. While Pan Xiuxun [潘秀馴; 1521-1595] tamed the Yellow River, the many prayers he expressed there were all answered and thus the people grew even more devout in making him offerings. 30

See also this excerpt from Gu sheng [觚剩]:

After the first Ming emperor, Zhu Yuanzhang, secured all under Heaven, he granted titles and land to officers with great achievements. Once, he dreamed of holding an audience at court with tens of thousands of soldiers bowing before him, saying, “We died on the battlefield; please grant compensation to our grieving families.” To this he replied, “There are too many of you. I cannot possibly investigate each of your names. However, if you were to group yourselves into units of five, I could distribute your offerings by locale.” Thus, he commanded the people in the Jiangnan region to build small temples for the offerings. These temples were commonly known as “five holy shrines [ wu sheng ci 五聖祠].” 31

Finally, it is written in the “Four Yanzhou Drafts [Yanzhou sibu gao 弇州四部稿],” by Wang Shizhen 王世真 [1526-1590]:

The Ming emperor Zhu Di dreamed of two deities who informed him that they were on the shores of the southern seas and would go to help him govern the country. The next day, the official in charge of rituals spoke of the deeds of two immortal saviors, Xu Zhi’e and Xu Zhizheng, in Fujian. The emperor then sent two envoys with boxes of incense as offerings to invite back the deities. Thus, likenesses of the two were placed in the southeastern part of the palace, where a temple was built for them so that they could be worshiped. 32

To create a god based on a dream is an act that requires a context in which belief in the supernatural is the norm. Interestingly, the name of the Ming dynasty itself comes from a reference to a religious sect. One can sense the mystical religiosity that pervaded the Ming from this practice of naming.

It is within the context of this mysticism that the third highpoint of mythology emerged. During this era countless mythical works of fiction appeared, including Journey to the West, Investiture of the Gods, Zheng He’s Expedition to the Western Ocean [ Sanbao taijian xiyang ji ], Suppressing Demons [ Pingyao zhuan 平妖傳], Biographies of 24 Arhats [ Ershisi zun de dao luohan zhuan 二十四尊的道羅漢傳], and The Legend of the Cowherd and the Weaving Maid [ Niulang zhinü zhuan 牛郎織女傳]. According to the Guben xijian xiaoshuo huikao [古本稀見小說匯考] and Zhongguo tongsu xiaoshuo shumu [中國通俗小說書目]—which span over thirty genres. 33 Dramatic works of the Yuan-Ming period with mythical elements also number over a hundred, quite an impressive number for the genre.

Fictional works generally are not considered mythology, but works from this period nonetheless contain mythical elements—such as Romance of the Three Kingdoms [ Sanguo yanyi 三國演義], one of the four great classic novels of Chinese literature. The following passage is in the opening chapter:

On the fifteenth day of the fourth month of the second year of the reign Established Calm ( jian ning ), the Emperor arrived at the Great Hall of Benign Virtue for the full-moon ancestral rites. As he was about to seat himself, a strong wind began issuing out of the corner of the hall. From the same direction a green serpent appeared, slid down off a beam, and coiled itself on the throne. The Emperor fainted and was rushed to his private chambers. The assembled officials fled. The next moment the serpent vanished, and a sudden thunderstorm broke. Rain laced with hailstones pelted down for half the night, wrecking countless buildings. In the second month of the fourth year of Established Calm an earthquake struck Luoyang, the capital, and tidal waves swept coastal dwellers out to sea. In the first year of Radiant Harmony (Guang He) hens were transformed into roosters. And on the first day of the sixth month a murky cloud more than one hundred spans in length floated into the Great Hall of Benign Virtue. 34

Chapter 1 of the Ming dynasty novel The Water Margin [ Shui hu zhuan 水滸傳] is titled “Zhang the Divine Teacher Prays to Dispel a Plague/Marshall Hong Releases Demons by Mistake.” The opening passages describe how, on the day “Tai Zu, the Emperor of Military Virtue” was born, “a red glow suffused the sky when this sage came into the world, and fragrance still filled the air the following morning. He was in fact the God of Thunder descended to earth.” 35 Even The Plum in the Golden Vase [ Jin ping mei 金瓶梅], famous for its explicit treatment of relationships between men and women, opens with a poem purportedly written by an immortal. 36 These examples attest to the reemergence of mythology as a trend.

Further, this third highpoint of mythmaking draws on many religious elements and concerns. In chapter 90 of The Water Margin , an abbot says, “May the country be peaceful and the people serene for years to come, the five grains abundant, the three religions glorious, with calm on all four sides, and everything exactly as wished.” 37 In chapter 47 of Journey to the West , Sun Wukong says, “I hope that you can return the three teachings to their original unity, that you may be respectful to the monks as well as the Taoists, and nurture talent amongst the people. If you do so, I guarantee your lands will forever be secure.” 38 In chapter 28 of Zheng He’s Expedition to the Western Sea , the elder Jin Bifeng says, “It was best said in the olden times: ‘the three teachings all originate from the same house.’ ” 39 The opening of Zheng He’s Expedition to the Western Sea likewise discusses the origins of the three teachings. Investiture of the Gods tells the story of conflict between two religious sects; Journey to the West is a story of retrieving religious scriptures—both describe spiritual powers in their depictions of exorcising demons. In these cases, interest in religious concepts converges with the reemergence of myths as a new way to reflect on spiritual themes and figures.

Many works in Ming dynasty drama demonstrate additional effects of this convergence. Lü Dongbin taoliu shengxian meng [呂洞賓桃柳昇仙夢] tells the story of a man, Lü Dongbin, who attains immortality after expiating two tree spirits from sin. In Guang Chengzi zhuhe qi tian shou [廣成子祝賀齊天壽], the character Guang Chengzi bustles about preparing to celebrate the longevity of the Heavenly Son. Qing fengnian wu gui nao Zhong Kui [慶豐年五鬼鬧鍾馗]features the demon queller, Zhong Kui, who takes on the role of an official. Shi Jia fo shuang lin zuohua [釋迦佛雙林坐化] relates how Shi Jia sits meditating in a forest until he meets his death. These works extol the capaciousness of Buddhist principles and the immortal youth of gods and spirits. They depict the process of becoming immortal through self-cultivation and celebrate the longevity of immortal figures. The themes of these plays blend a strong religious aura with aspects of Yuan-Ming material culture. This reflects a change in consciousness not present in earlier periods.

• Concluding Thoughts

We can see from these three shifts in the history of Chinese mythology that myths do not disappear; rather, their function and characteristics evolve along with the ideology of any given period. The myths of antiquity attached themselves to history, the myths of the Qin through the Jin period attached themselves to philosophy, and the myths of the Yuan-Ming period attached themselves to religious spirituality.

In the end, mythology is rooted in the spirit of pondering the mysterious and unknown and tirelessly keeping stride with the narrative themes that ever change and develop over time. In China today, where society is led by such slogans as “Innovate with science and technology,” mythmaking shifts to science fiction themes in order to express people’s hopes and fears regarding the role of technology in the present and the future. In this way, historical shifts feed, rather than threaten, mythology’s core fixation with the unknown. Through this essay, I hope to bring attention to the problem of treating mythology as a singular cultural form that only references primeval times. In order to rectify this tendency, studies on mythology must reconsider the longer history of thought that informs its theory.

1 Mao Dun 茅盾, Shenhua yanjiu 神話研究 [ Research on Mythology ] (Tianjin: Baihua Literary Arts Publishing House, 1981), 3.

2 Lin Huixiang 林惠祥, Wenhua renleixue 文化人類學 [ Cultural Anthropology ] (Shanghai: Shanghai Literary Arts Publishing House, 1996), 267.

3 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Makesi Engesi Xuanji 馬克思恩格斯選集 [ Selected Works of Marx and Engels ] (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1995), 29.

4 See Yuan Ke 袁珂, “Cong xiayi de shenhua dao guangyi de shenhua 從狹義的神話到廣義的神話 [From a Narrow Definition of Myth to a Broader Definition of Myth],” Shehui kexue zhanxian 社會科學戰線 [ Social Science Front ], 2 (1982); “Zai lun guangyi shenhua 再論廣義神話 [Revisiting the Topic on Broadening the Sense of Myth],” Minjian wenxue luntan 民間文學論壇 [ Tribune of Folk Literature ], 3 (1984).

5 Yuan Ke, “Xu yan 序言 [Preface],” in Zhongguo shenhua shi 中國神話史 [ History of Chinese Mythology ] (Shanghai: Shanghai Literary Arts Publishing House, 1988), 2.

6 Yuan Xingpei 袁行霈, ed., Zhongguo wenxue shi 中國文學史 [ History of Chinese Literature ], 4 vols. (Shanghai: Shanghai Literary Arts Publishing House, 1988).

7 Xu Xusheng 徐旭生, Zhongguo gushi de chuanshuo shidai 中國古史的傳說時代 [ The Age of Legend in Ancient Chinese History ] (Guilin: Guangxi Normal University Press, 2003), 24.

8 Yuan Ke, Shanhaijing jiaozhu 山海經校注 [ Notes and Commentary on the Classic of Mountains and Seas] (Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House, 1980), 427; Anne Birrell, ed. and trans., The Classic of Mountains and Seas (London: Penguin, 1999), 185-186.

9 Yuan, Shanhaijing jiaozhu , 238; Birrell, Classic of Mountains and Seas , 123.

10 Xu Shen 許慎, Shuowen jiezi zhu 說文解字注 [ Commentary on the Shuowen jiezi] (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1963), 64.

11 Pan Dingheng 潘定衡 and Yang Chaowen 楊朝文, Chiyou de chuanshuo 蚩尤的傳說 [ The Legend of Chiyou ] (Guiyang: Guizhou Minzu Publishing House, 1989), 99.

12 Guo Qingfan 郭慶籓, Zhuangzi jishi 莊子集釋 [ Collected Interpretations of the Zhuangzi] (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1961), 379-380; English translation in James Legge, trans., The Sacred Book of China: The Texts of Taoism (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), 297-298.

13 Yuan, Shanhaijing jiaozhu , 430.

14 Zhang Zhenli 張振犁, “Kua Fu shenhua tanyuan 夸父神話探原 [Seeking the Origins of the Kua Fu Myth],” in Minsu diaocha yu yanjiu 民俗調查與研究 [ Research and Investigations into Folk Customs ], ed. Zhang Zichen 張紫晨 (Zhengzhou: Henan People’s Publishing House, 1988), 435.

15 Ibid., 436.

16 Xu, Zhongguo gushi de chuanshuo shidai , 24.

17 Sima Qian 司馬遷, Shiji 史記 [ Records of the Grand Historian ] (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1996), 341.

18 Fan Wenlan 范文瀾, Wenxin diaolong zhu 文心雕龍注 [ Annotations on The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons] (Beijing: Renmin University Press, 2014), 67.

19 “Zhou Yi zheng yi 周易正義 [Commentary on the Book of Changes ],” in Shisan jing zhushu 十三經注疏 [ Commentary on the Thirteen Classics ], ed. Ruan Yuan 阮元 (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2011), 161.

20 See “Dong huang tai yi 東黃太一 [The Sovereign of the East: The One],” one of the “nine songs [ jiu ge 九歌]” in the Chu ci 楚辭 [ Lyrics of Chu ]. Tai yi is treated here as a title for a deity. Some scholars suspect that this was added on later during the Han. Their doubt is not unfounded.

21 Zhang Shuangdi 張雙棣, Huainanzi jiaoshi 淮南子校釋 [ Commentary on the Huainanzi] (Beijing: Peking University Press, 1997), 678.

22 Ibid., 828.

23 Huang Linggeng 黃靈庚, Chuci zhangju shuzheng 楚辭章句疏證 [ Annotations and Commentary on Chu Ci] (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2007), 999; David Hawkes, trans., “Heavenly Questions,” in Classical Chinese Literature: From Antiquity to the Tang Dynasty , ed. John Minford and Joseph S.M. Lau (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), 39.

24 Guo, Zhuangzi jishi , 493; Legge, Sacred Books of China , 345.

25 Zhang, Huainanzi jiaoshi , 719.

26 Li Fang 李昉 et al., ed., Taiping yulan 太平御覽 [ Imperial Readings of the Taiping Era ] (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1985), 8.

27 Ma Su 馬驌, Yi shi 繹史 [ Continuous History ] (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2002), 2.

28 Xu Zhonglin 徐仲琳, Fengshen yanyi 封神演義 [ Investiture of the Gods ] (Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House, 1992).

29 Zhang Tingyu 張廷玉 et al., Mingshi 明史 [ History of the Ming ] (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1974), 1282.

30 Yao Zhiyin 姚之駰, “Yuan Ming shi lei chao 元明事類鈔 [Collected Anecdotes from the Yuan and Ming],” in Wen yuan ge siku quanshu 文淵閣四庫全書 (Taibei: Taiwan shangwu yinshuguan, 1986), 884:326.

32 Wang Shizhen 王世真, “Yanzhou sibu gao 弇州四部稿,” in Wen yuan ge siku quanshu 文淵閣四庫全書, 884:750.

33 See Tan Zhengbi 譚正璧 and Tan Xun 譚尋, Guben xijian xiaoshuo huikao 古本稀見小說匯考 (Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House, 2012); Sun Kaidi 孫楷第, Zhongguo tongsu xiaoshuo shumu 中國通俗小說書目 (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2012).

34 Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中, Sanguo yanyi 三國演義 [ Romance of the Three Kingdoms ] (Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House, 1997), 1; Moss Roberts, trans., Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 5.

35 Shi Nai’an 施耐庵, Shuihuzhuan 水滸傳 [ The Water Margin ] (Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House, 1997), 1; Sidney Shapiro, trans., Shi Nai’an, The Water Margin (Beijing: Foreign Language Press, 2001), 7-8.

36 Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 and Wang Rumei 王汝梅, ed., Jin ping mei 金瓶梅 [ The Plum in the Golden Vase ] (Jinan: Qilu Book Company, 1987), 2.

37 Shi, Shuihuzhuan , 675; Shapiro, Water Margin , 892.

38 Wu Cheng’en 吴承恩, Xiyouji 西遊記 [ Journey to the West ] (Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House, 1992), 605.

39 Luo Maodeng 羅懋登, Lu Shulun 陸樹崙 et al., ed., Sanbao taijian xiyangji 三寶太監西洋記 [ Zheng He’s Expedition to the Western Sea ] (Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House, 1985), 361.

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Birrell Anne The Classic of Mountains and Seas 1999 London Penguin

Chen Qiyou 陳奇猷 Lüshi chunqiu jiao shi 呂氏春秋校釋 1984 Shanghai Xuelin Publishing House

Fan Wenlan 范文瀾 文心雕龍注 Wenxin diaolong zhu [Annotations on The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons] 2014 Beijing Renmin University Press

Guo Qingfan 郭慶籓 Zhuangzi jishi 莊子集釋 [Collected Interpretations of the Zhuangzi] 1961 Beijing Zhonghua Book Company

Hawkes David Minford John & Lau Joseph S.M. “Heavenly Questions” Classical Chinese Literature: From Antiquity to the Tang Dynasty 2000 New York Columbia University Press

Huang Linggeng 黃靈庚 Chuci zhangju shuzheng 楚辭章句疏證 [Annotations and Commentary on Chu Ci] 2007 Beijing Zhonghua Book Company

Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 & Wang Rumei 王汝梅 Jin ping mei 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] 1987 Jinan Qilu Book Company

Legge James The Sacred Books of China: The Texts of Taoism 1981 Oxford Clarendon Press

Li Fang 李昉 et al. Taiping yulan 太平御覽 [Imperial Readings of the Taiping Era] 1985 Beijing Zhonghua Book Company

Li Xuanbo 李玄伯 Zhongguo gudai shehui xinyan 中國古代社會新研 1988 Shanghai Shanghai Literary Arts Publishing House

Lin Huixiang 林惠祥 Wenhua renleixue 文化人類學 [Cultural Anthropology] 1996 Shanghai Shanghai Literary Arts Publishing House

Li Yuqing 劉毓慶 Shangdang Shennongshi chuanshuo yu Hua Xia wenming qiyuan 上黨神農氏傳說與華夏文明起源 2008 Beijing People’s Publishing House

Li Yuqing 劉毓慶 Tuteng shenhua yu Zhongguo chuantong rensheng 圖騰神話與中國傳統人生 2002 Beijing People’s Publishing House

Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中 Sanguo yanyi 三國演義 [Romance of the Three Kingdoms] 1997 Beijing People’s Literature Publishing House

Luo Maodeng 羅懋登 & Lu Shulun 陸樹崙 et al. Sanbao taijian xiyangji 三寶太監西洋記 [Zheng He’s Expedition to the Western Sea] 1985 Shanghai Shanghai Classics Publishing House

Ma Su 馬驌 & Wang Liqi 王利器 Yi shi 繹史 [Continuous History] 2002 Beijing Zhonghua Book Company

Mao Dun 茅盾 Shenhua yanjiu 神話研究 [Research on Mythology] 1981 Tianjin Baihua Literary Arts Publishing House

Marx Karl & Engels Friedrich Makesi Engesi xuanji 馬克思恩格斯選集 [Selected Works of Marx and Engels] 1995 Beijing Renmin chubanshe

Pan Dingheng 潘定衡 & Yang Chaowen 楊朝文 Chiyou de chuanshuo 蚩尤的傳說 [The Legend of Chiyou] 1989 Guiyang Guizhou Minzu Publishing House

Roberts Moss Romance of the Three Kingdoms 2004 Berkeley University of California Press

Shapiro Sidney The Water Margin 2001 Beijing Foreign Language Press

Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 Shuihuzhuan 水滸傳 [The Water Margin] 1997 Beijing People’s Literature Publishing House

Sima Qian 司馬遷 Shiji 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian] 1996 Beijing Zhonghua Book Company

Sun Kaidi 孫楷第 Zhongguo tongsu xiaoshuo shumu 中國通俗小說書目 2012 Beijing Zhonghua Book Company

Tan Zhengbi 譚正璧 & Tan Xun 譚尋 Guben xijian xiaoshuo huikao 古本稀見小說匯考 2012 Shanghai Shanghai Classics Publishing House

Wang Shizhen 王世真 “Yanzhou sibu gao 弇州四部稿 [Four Yanzhou Drafts]” Wen yuan ge siku quanshu文淵閣四庫全書 1986 vol. 884 Taibei Taiwan shangwu yinshuguan

Wu Cheng’en 吴承恩 Xiyouji 西遊記 [Journey to the West] 1992 Beijing People’s Literature Publishing House

Xu Shen 許慎 Shuowen jiezi zhu [Commentary on the Shuowen jiezi] 1963 Beijing Zhonghua Book Company

Xu Xusheng 徐旭生 Zhongguo gushi de chuanshuo shidai 中國古史的傳說時代 [The Age of Legend in Ancient Chinese History] 2003 Guilin Guangxi Normal University Press

Xu Zhonglin 徐仲琳 Fengshen yanyi 封神演義 [Investiture of the Gods] 1992 Beijing People’s Literature Publishing House

Yao Zhiyin 姚之駰 “Yuan Ming shi lei chao 元明事類鈔 [Collected Anecdotes from the Yuan and Ming]” Wen yuan ge siku quanshu 文淵閣四庫全書 1986 vol. 884 Taibei Taiwan shangwu yinshuguan

Yuan Ke 袁珂 “Cong xiayi de shenhua dao guangyi de shenhua 從狹義的神話到廣義的神話 [From a Narrow Definition of Myth to a Broader Definition of Myth]” Shehui kexue zhanxian 1982 2 256 261

Yuan Ke 袁珂 Shanhaijing jiaozhu 山海經校注 [Notes and Commentary on the Classic of Mountains and Seas] 1980 Shanghai Shanghai Classics Publishing House

Yuan Ke 袁珂 “Zai lun guangyi shenhua 再論廣義神話 [Revisiting the Topic on Broadening the Sense of Myth]” Minjian wenxue luntan 1984 3 58 66

Yuan Ke 袁珂 Zhongguo shenhua shi 中國神話史 [History of Chinese Mythology] 1988 Shanghai Shanghai Literary Arts Publishing House

Yuan Xingpei 袁行霈 Zhongguo wenxue shi 中國文學史 [History of Chinese Literature] 1988 Shanghai Shanghai Literary Arts Publishing House 4 vols.

Zhang Shuangdi 張雙棣 Huainanzi jiaoshi 淮南子校釋 [The Huainanzi Annotated] 1997 Beijing Peking University Press

Zhang Tingyu 張廷玉 et al. Mingshi 明史 [History of the Ming] 1974 Beijing Zhonghua Book Company

Zhang Zhenli 張振犁 Zhang Zichen 張紫晨 “Kua Fu shenhua tanyuan 夸父神話探原 [Seeking the Origins of the Kua Fu Myth]” Minsu diaocha yu yanjiu 民俗調查與研究 [Research and Investigations into Folk Customs] 1988 Zhengzhou Henan People’s Publishing House

Ruan Yuan 阮元 “Zhou yi zheng yi 周易正義 [Commentary on the Book of Changes]” Shisan jing zhushu 十三經注疏 [Commentary on the Thirteen Classics] 2001 Beijing Zhonghua Book Company

See Yuan Ke 袁珂 , “Cong xiayi de shenhua dao guangyi de shenhua 從狹義的神話到廣義的神話 [From a Narrow Definition of Myth to a Broader Definition of Myth],” Shehui kexue zhanxian 社會科學戰線 [ Social Science Front ], 2 (1982); “Zai lun guangyi shenhua 再論廣義神話 [Revisiting the Topic on Broadening the Sense of Myth],” Minjian wenxue luntan 民間文學論壇 [ Tribune of Folk Literature ], 3 (1984).

Yuan Ke , “Xu yan 序言 [Preface],” in Zhongguo shenhua shi 中國神話史 [ History of Chinese Mythology ] ( Shanghai : Shanghai Literary Arts Publishing House , 1988 ), 2 .

Yuan , Shanhaijing jiaozhu , 238 ; Birrell, Classic of Mountains and Seas , 123.

Yuan , Shanhaijing jiaozhu , 430 .

Zhang Zhenli 張振犁 , “Kua Fu shenhua tanyuan 夸父神話探原 [Seeking the Origins of the Kua Fu Myth],” in Minsu diaocha yu yanjiu 民俗調查與研究 [ Research and Investigations into Folk Customs ], ed. Zhang Zichen 張紫晨 ( Zhengzhou : Henan People’s Publishing House , 1988 ), 435 .

Ibid. , 436 .

Xu , Zhongguo gushi de chuanshuo shidai , 24 .

Ibid. , 828 .

Guo , Zhuangzi jishi , 493 ; Legge, Sacred Books of China , 345.

Zhang , Huainanzi jiaoshi , 719 .

Yao Zhiyin 姚之駰 , “Yuan Ming shi lei chao 元明事類鈔 [Collected Anecdotes from the Yuan and Ming],” in Wen yuan ge siku quanshu 文淵閣四庫全書 (Taibei: Taiwan shangwu yinshuguan, 1986), 884:326.

Wang Shizhen 王世真 , “Yanzhou sibu gao 弇州四部稿,” in Wen yuan ge siku quanshu 文淵閣四庫全書, 884:750.

Shi , Shuihuzhuan , 675 ; Shapiro, Water Margin , 892.

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The Evolution of Yama According to the Classical Religious Texts, explores the role of Yama, as the god-king-hero with roots in Indo-European mythology, with a shared belief in the origin and the fate of humankind. Contextualizing and comparing overlapping features of Indian, Iranian, and Near Eastern mythology testify to the existence of a much earlier myth, affirming the ancient Yama as an important figure in the myth’s overall cross-cultural universality. In India, Yama is the king of the Golden Age during the first age of the creation, as both the spiritual and material leader. In Iran, he is the first king, founder of civilization, and educator of all people. He is referred to as the descendant of the first man. Similar to the biblical story of Adam, he is the progenitor of the human race, and his death marks the origin of death. He is referred to as a god, an immortal who is the first to die, the father of the human race, and the king of the dead. Taking these texts as a starting point, the commonalities among Yama and his ancient Near Eastern counterparts are brought to light.

Jeremie Zulaski

This paper traces the iconographic symbolism of the South Asian deity Yama from its earliest origins in the Rig Veda through Tibetan tantric Buddhism utilizing a 19th century CE Tibetan, gold-plated bronze Yama sculpture in the collection of the Museum Volkenkunde in Leiden.

Klaus Antoni

I. The following discussion is concerned with a conception of death significant to the peoples of East and Southeast Asia. Similar ideas can also be found throughout the entire Circum-Pacific area. These notions deal with the belief that death does not mark the end of one's existence-it is rather the necessary prerequisite for a new life, which originates from death.1 Let us begin with the portrayal of the world of the dead made by the Chinese philosopher Wang Ch'ung TEAE (27-97 A.D.). In his book Lun-heng AfJ Wang Ch'ung cites in his chapter " The Spirits " the following passage, originally from the Shan-hai-Ching Wji ,ff (" Book of the mountains and oceans "), though now no longer extant in that work: The Shan-hai-cheng further states: The mountain Tu-shuo J1A arises from the center of the blue (eastern) ocean. On it stands a huge peach tree that twists itself over an area of 3,000 li. An opening of its branches in the northeast is called kuei-men Pq, " the gate of the spirits of the dead " (demons). There, the ten thousand spirits of the dead go in and out. Above them are two gods (shen Jo, or spirits) named Shen-t'u fl and Yii-lii M_. It is their responsibility to inspect the ten thousand spirits of the dead. They seize the evil and harmful, tie them with ropes and throw them for the tigers (tiger?) to eat.2 A good deal of information is hidden in this short portrayal. First, it is apparent that there are a great many different elements typical of Southeast Asian conceptions of the hereafter present: the Island of the Dead, the dangerous gateway, the divine guards and their perilous

S. Behnaz Hosseini

The idea of resurrection (i.e. life after death) is a common thread amongst different religions; however, there are considerable differences in concepts regarding the return of the soul in this world. Like Manichaeism, there is a comparable belief in the Yārsāni Faith, referred to as Doon-ā-Doon. Significant similarities and differences among Manichaeism and Yārsān regarding resurrection underscore the motivation for conducting this study. From the analysis available ancient scripts, as well as viewpoints from Yārsāni scholars and leaders, this study attempts to obtain and offer a new, accurate, and pervasive interpretation of Yārsānis’ beliefs about life after death. Furthermore, the results obtained from this work will be analysed and compared with the obtained results with Manichaean beliefs, resulting in a new, innovative, and upgraded assessment.

De La Salle University, Department of History

Christian Talaguit

This paper focuses on the pre-hispanic Philippine concept and belief in Resurrection as attested in the epic traditions of the Panay-Bukidnon such as the Labaw Donggon Epic, recorded by F. Landa Jocano, and the Sugidanon epics, recorded by Alicia Magos. And to provide further context, this paper also delves in the related concepts of Cosmology, Death and the Afterlife of the Panay-Bukidnon. It should then be clear that the belief on the Resurrection in the Philippines predates Christian influences.

Gary Varner

Interdisciplinary Journal of Yagya Research

Pratishtha Pathik

Yagya or sacrifice has been an integral part of Indian history and culture. More particularly in ancient India, Yagya appears as the backbone of entire social and political structure. Thus, most of the Vedic literature revolves around the sacrificial ritual in different forms for numerous purposes. In contemporary world, when the scientific temperament dominates almost all spheres of life, masses seek to comprehend everything pertaining to human lives in a rational way. However, the recognized truth is that human society exists in a dilemmatic situation where on one hand they are not ready to discard their cultural heritage, customs and traditions and on the other hand they aspire to abide with scientific logic and reason. Therefore, it is essential to trace the philosophy and common logic of one of the most consistent sacrificial practice of Indian culture, i.e. Yagya. And since the Yagya tradition traces its antiquity from the ancient India, there is a requirement to illustrate t...

Journal of Ritual Studies 34.1: 31-42

The commemoration of one's ancestors is one of the central institutions of Chinese ritual culture. Early sources, such as the Book of Rites and the Xunzi, feature detailed prescriptions of mortuary procedures, as well as theoretical discussions on the meaning of ancestral sacrifices. This article offers a new reading of these sources against the backdrop of recent scholarship on the neurophysiology of trauma to argue that in early China, mourning and commemorative rituals were sometimes seen as preventative therapeutic measures designed to deal with the death of one's loved ones and foil the potential development of trauma that might follow their loss. It begins by examining the role of funerary rituals in providing structure during the immediate aftermath of death and suggest that part of their efficacy lies in their ability to flood the mourner's working memory thereby thwarting potentially hazardous thoughts and desires from setting in. It then proceeds to discuss two components of ancestral rites, the preparatory stage of ritual fasting (zhai) undertaken by the mourner, and the subsequent interaction between the mourner and the "personator of the dead" (shi). It concludes by demonstrating the impact of ritual in facilitating a therapeutic experience of contact with one's ancestors that can physically contradict the distress and helplessness associated with the trauma of their death by replacing the memory of the loss of one's parents with the life-affirming, and palpably corporeal, celebration of their life.

Costantino Moretti 牟和諦

Antonio J. Morales

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Mythology Research Resources

Use the links below to jump directly to any section of this guide:

Mythology Fundamentals

Ancient and classical mythology, asian and oceanic mythology, african and middle eastern mythology, european mythology, mythology of the americas, additional resources for learning about mythology.

From time immemorial, human beings have attempted to answer their questions about the nature of the universe and life itself through storytelling. Myths unite us across lines of cultural difference, forming the framework by which people identify themselves and understand the wider world around them. As Joseph Campbell writes in   The Hero with a Thousand Faces , no matter how different myths are from people to people and from age to age, they all form “one, shape-shifting yet marvelously constant story that we find, together with a challengingly persistent suggestion of more remaining to be experienced than will ever be known or told” (1). This guide will provide you with websites, books, podcasts, and more that introduce the world of myth and invite deeper exploration into these fundamental stories.

The deceptively simple question, “what is mythology” produces a range of complex answers. Mythology is a category of human expression that defies uncomplicated definitions. While myths rest under the label of tradition or story or legend, they vary in their purpose and the manner in which they are told. Explore mythology’s roots and etymology through the resources below.

Mythology: Origins, Etymology, and Genre

The Wikipedia Mythology Portal

For a look at mythology in its broadest sense, visit the Wikipedia Mythology Portal. This resource links to articles on myths from around the world, and includes fun facts and featured articles and images.

"What Is Mythology?" (ThoughtCo)

This article from ThoughtCo explores the basic questions surrounding mythology, and outlines methods for study and interpretation.

CrashCourse Video: "Mythology" (YouTube)

Mike Rugnetta gives an overview of mythology in this introduction to the CrashCourse series on myth. You'll find many other CrashCourse videos, offering more specific and in-depth information, later in this guide.

Definition and Etymology of Mythology (Merriam Webster)

In this dictionary entry, learn how the roots of the word "mythology," from the Greek  mythos (story) and logos (word), emphasize its ties to oral tradition.

In Search of Myths and Heroes (PBS)

This video documentary series, hosted by Michael Wood, details some of the most well-known myths and heroes around the world. The Queen of Sheba, Shangri-La, King Arthur, and Jason and the Golden Fleece each get their own episode.

Mythology and Folklore Resources ( The Mythology Podcast )

The Mythology Podcast provides a list of resources for all things mythology and folklore, including directories, classic texts, and a blogroll.

Mythology and Folklore: Similarities and Differences

"The Meaning of Myths, Folklore, Legends, and Fairy Tales" (ThoughtCo)

Esther Lombardi parses out generic differences in this article. She explains that myths and folktales share roots in oral storytelling, but the scope of these stories is different. Myths tend to look at big-picture questions, whereas folklore is more localized.

"The Difference Between Myths, Legends, and Fairy Tales" (The Poetics Project)

Learn more about the differences and points of connection between myth and folktales, courtesy of this article from The Poetics Project.

Folktexts: Folklore and Mythology Electronic Texts (Univ. of Pittsburgh)

This resource provides a repository of texts relating to myth and folklore, from A - Z. Among them, you'll find a Chinese Creation and Flood Myth from the Miao people, Blackfoot creation and origin myths, and Apuleius's Cupid and Psyche .

Before the scientific and technological advances of modern times could help explain natural phenomena, people turned to storytelling to understand the world around them. Famous tales from the ancient world have formed the basis for many works of literature and art up to the present day. From the Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh to Ovid’s Metamorphoses, myths from  civilizations of the past have retained cultural relevance well into the twenty-first century. Learn more about myths from Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome below.

Mesopotamian Mythology

"Mesopotamian Mythology: The Ancient Gods of Sumer and Babylon" (Godchecker)

Discover the Mesopotamian pantheon ("all the gods" pertaining to a certain culture) via the Godchecker website. Learn about the Epic of Gilgamesh, and discover the connection between Sumerian, Akkadian, and Mesopotamian gods.

"Mesopotamian Mythology" (Ancient-Mythology.com)

Learn more about the interaction between gods and heroes in ancient Mesopotamian myth with this website, which links to articles on Abgal, Nabu, Zu, and more.

LitCharts Study Guide for The Epic of Gilgamesh

This LitCharts Study Guide will help you get to know the most famous piece of writing from Mesopotamia. Among its many sections are resources on context, both quick-reference and detailed plot summaries, and an interactive theme wheel. 

"Great Myths and Legends: Adapa the Sage" (Univ. of Pennsylvania via YouTube)

Dr. Stephen J. Tinney presents a video lecture on flood mythology in Mesopotamia. The information presented is made possible through the recently-published text of ancient fragmentary tablets.

CrashCourse Video: "Ancient Mediterranean Pantheons" (YouTube)  

Learn more about the Sumerian deities in a continuation of Mike Rugnetta’s program on ancient Mediterranean gods.

In Our Time: The Epic of Gilgamesh (BBC)

Melvyn Bragg hosts a radio program on The Epic of Gilgamesh  with guests from leading UK universities. Learn how the tablets containing the story were gradually discovered, reassembled, and translated. 

Egyptian Mythology

Egyptian Collection: Gods and Goddesses (The British Museum)

Discover the ancient Egyptian pantheon through the British Museum’s extensive collection of artifacts devoted to the deities.

"Gods of Egypt" (Tour Egypt)

Egypt’s Ministry of Tourism presents a comprehensive web guide to ancient Egyptian gods and goddesses. You'll find pages on Aken (Ferryman of the underworld), Mut (Grandmother of the Gods), Wadjet (the serpent goddess), and many others.

The History of Egypt Podcast

This podcast's many episodes allow you to uncover Egypt’s history up to the fall of Rome, and how it intertwines with "pyramids, pharaohs, gods, and mysteries."

"11 Most Popular Myths in Ancient Egypt" (Ancientfacts.net)

This article guides you through the most popular myths of ancient Egypt, beginning with the myth of creation and ending with the Cinderella-like tale of the Girl with Rose-red slippers.

"Ancient Egyptian Mythology" ( Ancient History Encyclopedia )

Joshua Mark outlines Egyptian mythology’s structures and stories as they relate to history and society. He begins with a helpfully detailed "definition" of Egyptian mythology.

Greek and Roman Mythology

Course on the Ancient Greek Hero (edX)

Delve deeply into the myths of Greek heroes in this 17-week free online course, co-sponsored by Harvard and taught by professors from Harvard and Brandeis.

Wikipedia Article on Greek Mythology

This article provides a broad overview of ancient Greek myths, from literary and archaeological sources to modern interpretations.

In Our Time : "The Greek Myths" (BBC)

Melvyn Bragg hosts a radio program on Greek myths, "from Achilles to Zeus," with guests from leading UK universities. Learn about Penelope's shroud, Arachne's presumption, and Cerberus the three-headed dog.

GreekMythology.com  

The first website devoted exclusively to Greek myth, GreekMythology.com has operated since 1997. The site provides resources on nearly every individual god, Titan, or mortal involved in Greek mythology, and includes information on films and books which serve as a broad introduction to the topic.

Class on Greek and Roman Mythology (Coursera)

With this open online course, you can delve into the stories that comprise Greek and Roman myth with Professor Peter Struck of the University of Pennsylvania.

The Roman Empire: "Mythology" (PBS)

This article, which accompanies the PBS series on the history of ancient Rome, outlines ancient Roman myth and religious belief.

Wikipedia Article on Roman Mythology

Wikipedia offers an overview of Roman myths and religious practice. Learn about Rome's founding myth and interactions with foreign gods.

CrashCourse Video: "Greek and Roman Pantheons" (YouTube)

Watch and learn about the deities of ancient Greece and Rome with this CrashCourse video. It addresses origin stories, family relationships, and each god's "specialty."

Myths and History of Greece and Rome Podcast

This podcast overs well over 100 episodes, in which host Paul Vincent discusses the intersection between myth and history in ancient Greece and Rome.

The nations comprising Asia and Oceania are home to diverse peoples with distinct mythologies, grounded in the unique natural landscapes of the region. Some Chinese myths involve floods, while Polynesian legends tell of volcanic eruption and island formation. Further, religion and indigenous spiritual practice have influenced myths from Asia and Oceania. These include Hindu mythology in India and the Aboriginal belief in the prehistoric golden age of Dreamtime.

Indian Mythology

Wikipedia Hindu Mythology Portal

Wikipedia provides a sweeping overview of Hindu and Indian mythology and legend. You can learn about anything from demons to weapons to eschatology.

Hindu Texts (Internet Sacred Text Archive)

Read texts about the Hindu deities in English translation. This archive contains links to each of the four Vedas, the primary texts of Hinduism.

"East vs. West—The Myths that Mystify" (TED Talk)

Devdutt Pattanaik investigates the differences between Indian and Western myths, and suggests how these differences influence belief systems.

Indianmythology.com

Stories of Hindu deities and Indian epics are available in English and Hindi in this repository of mythic stories. You'll also find links to information about Indian temples.

CrashCourse Video: "Indian Pantheons" (YouTube)

Mike Rugnetta continues his exploration of mythic pantheons with this video on Indian gods. He focuses on stories that were written in Sanskrit.

Indian Mythology Archive ( The Mythology Podcast )

Learn more about the Ramayana, the Hindu goddess Kali, and monkey god Hanuman with these Mythology Podcast episodes.

Chinese Mythology

E.T.C. Werner's Myths and Legends of China (Project Gutenburg)

Read Werner’s influential and in-depth volume on Chinese mythology, first published in 1915. Learn about the goddess of mercy, the guardian of the gate of heaven, and many other stories.

Barbara Laban’s "Top 10 Chinese Myths" (The Guardian)

Author Barbara Laban shares her favorite Chinese myths in this article from The Guardian , from Sun WuKong the monkey king to the Chinese zodiac.

CrashCourse Video: "Flood Stories from China" (YouTube)

Mike Rugnetta teaches about Chinese flood stories in this CrashCourse video. He tells the story of Yu, an ancient engineer and mythical ruler.

"Chinese Myths and Legends" (Shen Yun Performing Arts)

The famous Chinese performance troupe Shen Yun provides a website with information on ancient Chinese legends.

"Chinese Mythology" (Windows to the Universe)

Explore Chinese mythological views on the ten suns, twelve moons, and story of creation on the Windows to the Universe website.

Japanese and Korean Mythology

"Mythology on the Japanese Main Island" (Shimane Prefecture)

Myths that came from the Shimane area of Japan, which is located on the main Honshu island, are explored on this website.

"Korean Mythological Gods and Stories" (Study.com)

Study.com provides an overview of Korean deities and legends. You'll learn about the mix of "shamanism, Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, and various local myths" that inform the fluid Korean mythology.

"Japanese Mythology: 5 Ancient Myths and Legends" (Takelessons.com)

Explore five essential points of ancient Japanese mythology with this site. Included here are the Japanese creation myth, Amaterasu and the cave, Hare of Inaba, the legend of Emperor Jimmu, and more.

"Yokai" (The Mythology Podcast)

Discover one of the supernatural creatures of Japanese myth— the yokai—with The Mythology Podcast. In this episode, you'll encounter "human-headed trees, fox weddings, a trip to the underworld, and enchanted umbrellas." 

The Dangun Myth and Foundation Day ( Korea Today via YouTube)

Watch this video to learn about the mythical founding of Korea. The Dangun myth stars Korea's legendary founder, the son of the Prince of the heavens and a woman who was once a bear.

Australian and Polynesian Mythology

"Australian Aboriginal Creation Stories" (National Geographic)

This article, which accompanies Morgan Freeman's National Geographic documentary The Story of God , details creation myths of the Aboriginal Australian people.

"The Gods of Aboriginal Australia" (Godchecker)

Godchecker's introduction to the Aboriginal Australian gods includes an A - Z index, a section on the mythological golden age of Dreamtime, and tracks the latest popular Australian deities based on webpage hits.

"Maui and the Creation of the Islands" (PBS)

This video, presented by Tom Cummings of Hawaii's Bishop Museum and featuring the storyteller Kealoha Kelekolio, relays information on the Hawaiian creation myth. 

"Hawaiian Myths Tell A Story About Volcanic Activity at Kilauea" ( Forbes )

Discover how mythology interprets volcanic activity in Hawaii through this Forbes  article. You'll learn about a volcanic fight between two mythological sisters, Pele and Hi'iaka.

"Mythology of the Polynesian Islands" (Window to the Universe)

Explore legends of the Maori people, Hawai’i, and Rapa Nue (Easter) Island via the Windows to the Universe Website. You'll meet the creator god Makemake, the Maori Sky Father Rangi, and many others.

From deserts to jungles, the African continent is composed of vastly diverse geographical climates and landscapes. The mythology of the continent reflects that diversity. The populations of the Middle East, located across the Mediterranean from North Africa, also developed wide-ranging belief systems. In this section, you'll encounter myths influenced by Judaism, Islam, and Zoroastrianism.

African Mythology

CrashCourse Video: "African Pantheons and the Orishas" (YouTube)

This CrashCourse video introduces you to the deities of the Yoruba people of western Africa. It gives particular attention to the Orisha spirits.

"The Gods of Africa" (Godchecker)

Godchecker provides a list of African deities, tracing similarities and differences among the pantheons of different cultures and tribes across the continent.

Dictionary of African Mythology (Oxford Reference)

Oxford Reference hosts a dictionary of African mythology by Harold Scheub. Though full access to the text requires a subscription, you’ll be able to search abstracts and titles of legends in alphabetical organization, and connect deities and stories to specific tribes and countries.

"West African Mythology" (Windows to the Universe)

This webpage offers an introduction to the mythology of the Yoruba and Fon people. Learn about Shango, the Yoruba deity of thunder and lightning, and many others.

"Top 10 African Myths" ( The African Exponent )

African myths, ranging from the story of the Zambezi River God to the creation of the world, are collected in this article from online news outlet The African Exponent .

"Yoruba Myth, Folklore, and the Orishas" (The Mythology Podcast)

Listen to this podcast for an introduction to Yoruba religion and mythology. You'll learn about the culture's connection to divination, and learn about some of the Orishas in the Yoruba pantheon.

Arabian, Islamic, and Iranian Mythology

Radio Programs on Arabian Mythology (BBC)

In a series of radio programs hosted by the BBC, you can listen and learn about touchstones of Arabian myth, from jinn to the One Thousand and One Nights .

Wikipedia Article on "Islamic Mythology"

Wikipedia’s entry on Islamic mythology discusses the supernatural events, beings, and sacred places that figure in the Qur'an.    

"Iranian Mythology: Gods and Goddesses" (Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies)

This post from the Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies offers brief descriptions of each god and goddess in the Persian pantheon, from Agas (demoness of illness) to Zurvan (god of infinite time and space). 

Video on Zoroastrianism (Khan Academy)

This video details the rise of the ancient Iranian religion Zoroastrianism. You'll encounter Zarathustra, Ahura Mazda, and the Avesta.

Jewish Mythology

Wikipedia Article on "Jewish Mythology"

The Wikipedia entry on Jewish mythology provides a good point of departure for further exploration. Learn about the creation myth in Genesis (which is shared with Christianity), and find links to separate articles on Jewish apocrypha, Merkabah mysticism, and more.

"Eight Fascinating Jewish Myths" (BeliefNet.com)

This article provides an overview of mythology associated with Judaism, from golem to Solomon’s vampire. Learn about the many sources for Jewish myth, from the Talmud to Kabbalistic literature.

"Solomon’s Ring" ( Myths and Legends Podcast )

In this podcast, hear the story of King Solomon’s magical ring. Purportedly a gift from God, the ring allowed him to control demons and had quite a few other impressive powers, too. 

"Turning to the Angels to Save Jewish Mythology" ( Ha'aretz )

Read about the legend of the Watchers and the mythology of angels in this article from an Israeli newspaper, which connects Judaic myth with the wider world of the ancient Middle East.

Mythology from the Northern climes features snow queens and fae, cattle raids and golden eggs. Here, you can find information on some of the most influential myths of the European continent and the British isles. You'll discover tensions and continuities between ancient, pagan myths and the Christian tradition which dominated the region from the Middle Ages onward.        

Russian and Slavic Mythology          

"5 Most Popular Tales from Slavic Mythology" (Slavorum)

Familiarize yourself with popular Slavic myths through this article. You'll learn about the god Rod, who came to earth in a golden egg, and why the lord of darkness Chernobog wanted to capture the universe.

"The Gods of Slavic Mythology" (Godchecker)

Here, Godchecker provides information on the pantheons of Russia and Eastern Europe. The A - Z index will introduce you to Baba-Yaga, Mikula, Zorya and more.

"What is Known About Slavic Mythology" (Culture.pl)

This article presents a broad overview of deities and myths from across Eastern Europe. Learn about Perun, the most important god in the Slavic pantheon, and his many incarnations.

"Russian and Slavic Mythological Creatures" (Study.com)

Learn about spirits and creatures featured in Russian and Slavic myths via Study.com. The article introduces both single-figure creatures and spirits.

Celtic Mythology

"The Gods of Celtic Mythology" (Godchecker)

Learn more about the ancient Celtic pantheon through Godchecker. You'll read about the power of the Druids, and meet "megalithic military mother goddess" Morrigan.

"Irish Mythology" (Luminarium)

Let Luminarium introduce you to Ireland’s ancient Celtic deities and heroes, from the legendary heroes Fionn mac Cumhail and Cú Chulainn to the gods Danu and Dagda.

"Celtic Mythology: The Mythological Cycles" (Sacredfire.net)

This webpage offers information about the different mythic story-cycles, along with an introduction to some of the more famous Celtic tales like Tain bo Cualinge.

The Celts Documentary: "Sacred Groves" (BBC)  

The third episode in the BBC's series on the Celts focuses on Celtic mythology and its relation to the pagan religious practice of Druidism.

Norse Mythology

"Viking and Norse Mythology" (History on the Net)

A collection of information on Norse gods and creatures, from giants to land spirits, is available on this website. Learn about Freya and Baldur, along with Yggdrasil and the nine worlds.

CrashCourse Video: "The Norse Pantheon" (YouTube)

Meet the Norse gods Loki, Thor, Freya, Odin and more in this video. CrashCourse recommends that you watch this video before Ragnorok, as it may not be available when the universe ends.

In Our Time : "The Norse Gods" (BBC)

Here, host Melvyn Bragg moderates a conversation on the Norse pantheon. Learn about Valhalla, Thor and his hammer, and an all-important ash tree.

The Norse Mythology Blog

Dr. Karl Seigfried blogs here about Norse religion and mythology. You'll find posts on everything from mythology's influence on current events to shield-maidens.

"Norse Gods and Goddesses" (Mythologian.net)

In this post, delve into stories of Norse gods and goddesses and their rise and fall to Ragnarok (“the twilight of the gods”).

Ancient Native American tribes held many different beliefs about the nature of the universe in North America. Meanwhile, in South America, native peoples such as the Aztec and Inca had their own visions of gods and the wider world around them. Spanning two continents, mythology of the Americas varies as widely as the rainforests, plains, and tundra in which they were formed.

Mythology of the Indigenous Peoples of North America

Wikipedia Article on "Mythologies of Indigenous Peoples of North America"

The Wikipedia portal to Native American mythology is organized by tribe and region for a comprehensive introduction to pantheons and legends.

"Inuit Mythology" (Windows to the Universe)

The Windows to the Universe site provides information on Inuit myths. Here, you'll be introduced to the Inuit deities of the sun, moon, and sea.

"Mythology of North American Indians" (Windows to the Universe)

Here, you can find introductions to myths of the Algonquin, Pawnee, Navajo, and Lakota tribes. Learn about the Algonquian tribe's many names for the full moon, and the connection between coyotes and the Milk Way in Navajo myth. 

Native American Mythology Resource Guide (Touro College)

The Touro College library provides an introductory resource guide to Native American myth, including book selections and web resources.

Central and South American Mythology

"Aztec Mythology" (Windows to the Universe)

Windows to the Universe lays out Aztec myths related to celestial deities and planets. Learn about the moon goddess Coyolxauhqui and the sun god Huitzilopochtli.       

"Aztec Creation Myth: The Legend of the Fifth Sun" (ThoughtCo)

Did you know the Aztecs believed their world had been created and destroyed four times before? In this ThoughtCo article, read about the Aztecs’ calendar, mythology, and their vision of the world’s creation.

Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian: "The Creation Story of the Maya" (YouTube)

Watch this short Smithsonian video about the Popol Vuh, the book detailing the Mayan creation story. You'll discover tales of the Hero Twins and the creation of the sky.

"Mythology of the Mayas" (Windows to the Universe)

The Mayans’ mythological understanding of the planets and elements is described here. Learn about how the Mayans' detailed astronomical knowledge informed their mythology.

"The Gods of Mayan Mythology" (Godchecker)

Godchecker introduces the Mayan pantheon here. Discover information on Cabrakan (God of the mountains), the hero twins Hunahpu and Xbalanque, and the World-tree.

"Amazon Mythology" (Windows to the Universe)

Windows to the Universe uncovers the mythology of the Mamaiurans, an Amazon Indian people living in Brazil. You'll learn about the moon god Iae, and why the Mamaiurans had to share daylight with the king of the birds.

"The Gods of South America" (Godchecker)

Like other Godchecker pages, this introduction to the gods of Brazil, Peru, and Chile includes an A - Z index of gods and a list of the latest popular deities. 

"Inca Mythology" (Windows to the Universe)

Explore Incan mythology of the sun and earth on this webpage. You'll find brief introductions to the generous sun god Inti and his wife Pachamama.

"Incan Mythology: The Golden Gods of the Andes" (Godchecker)

Godchecker provides an introduction to the Incan deities. Meet the potato goddess Axomamma, and discover how the health goddess Cocomamma met an unfortunate end.

Resources for Teaching Mythology

Sharing mythology from around the globe with students allows them to appreciate unique stories and connect cross-cultural ideas, and also helps them understand the origins of literature, history, and the arts.  With the following tools, you can create lesson plans and find inspiration for assignments and assessments.        

Teaching Tips from Mythweb

Ideas for creative writing assignments and etymological explorations abound in this aggregated list of lesson plans and activities to teach students about mythology.

"Mythology" (Windows to the Universe)

This resource from the National Earth Science Teachers Association draws comparisons between mythology and the natural world. You can delve into specific myths about planets and astrological phenomena, family trees of deities, and myths by region.

MythFun.com

The Myth Man’s website provides a colorful spin on Greek myth, telling stories of heroes, gods, and creatures alongside a look at mythology’s influence on contemporary life. It also offers two mythology quizzes.

"Myths, Folktales, and Fairy Tales": Teacher’s Activity Guide (Scholastic)

Well-known publisher Scholastic has collaborated with authors to create resources that inspire students to learn about and write their own larger-than-life stories.

Mythologyteacher.com

English teacher Zak Hamby has compiled a website of teaching materials and sample lesson plans for educators looking to teach Greek, Roman, and Norse myths to their students.

ArtsEdge: "Myths and Heroes" (The Kennedy Center)

Nested under ArtsEdge's "Myths and Heroes" section, you'll find lesson plans about myths for students from fifth through twelfth grades.

"Folktales, Fairytales and Mythology" (National Endowment for the Humanities)

Several back-to-school lesson plans and resources are available courtesy of the NEH, including one on Greek mythology and another on "Navigating Ancient Worlds."

Teacher Resources in Latin, Greek, Mythology and Classics (American Classical League)

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Mythology resources (Teachers Pay Teachers)

Search for lesson plans and assessments on mythology, created by teachers for teachers, for varying grade levels. You'll find entire unit plans along with individual activities.

The resources below will help you delve deeper into the world of mythology, inside or outside of the classroom.  Fundamental texts in the study of mythology are covered here, along with podcasts and encyclopedias to empower you to discover new myths.

A Complete Encyclopedia of Myths and Legends

This alphabetized online encyclopedia contains A - Z entries on characters and tropes from myths worldwide. You'll find entries on trees in mythology, the  Bhagavad Gita , Micronesian mythology, and much more.

Encyclopedia Mythica (Pantheon.org)

Encyclopedia Mythica provides over 7,000 web articles relating to myths from around the globe, organized by geographical region and special interest content areas.

Mythology Podcasts (PlayerFM)

PlayerFM has aggregated an up-to-date list of the best mythology podcasts, including Jason Weisner’s popular Myths and Legends .

LitCharts Study Guide to Margaret Hamilton’s Mythology

Explore Hamilton’s famous 1942 book, which serves as a comprehensive introduction to the Greek, Roman, and Norse gods, with this LitCharts study guide.

Bulfinch’s Mythology Online (Project Gutenberg)  

Access Thomas Bulfinch’s formative work on mythology, first published in 1867. It's available in several electronic formats via Project Gutenberg.

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A Study of Chinese Audience Preferences for Mythological Film and Television Works

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• Sheng Ye   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2300-6598 9  

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In the context of globalization, mythological film and television works of various countries, as mass communication media and ideological carriers, are facing challenges and impacts from various aspects in cross-cultural communication. In the future development of film and television industry, how to respond to the competition with more active and effective creation of film and television works containing regional cultural characteristics and how to win a place in the cross-cultural communication in the world are important issues that will be faced in the development of film and television works containing regional cultural characteristics. This study is an attempt to analyze the preferences of Chinese audiences for mythological works in the cross-cultural communication environment, and to give some opinions to help mythological works be more easily recognized and liked by the public in their creation, and to provide reference for the cross-cultural communication of mythological works with regional cultural characteristics.

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Ye, S. (2021). A Study of Chinese Audience Preferences for Mythological Film and Television Works. In: Rau, PL.P. (eds) Cross-Cultural Design. Applications in Arts, Learning, Well-being, and Social Development. HCII 2021. Lecture Notes in Computer Science(), vol 12772. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-77077-8_8

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-77077-8_8

Published : 03 July 2021

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