ecotourism case study in india

The Journal for Student Geographers

A literature review of ecotourism in India: policy implications and research gaps

By Beatrice Spicer, University of Birmingham

Spicer, B. (2020) A literature review of ecotourism in India: policy implications and research gaps.  Routes  1(1): 41–50.

This essay is an overview of recent research on ecotourism in India, evaluating the social, environmental, political and economic implications of several case studies and highlights the need for re-evaluation of the national policy. It also outlines the evident research gaps, suggesting what needs to be further investigated in order to have a more comprehensive view of the reality of current ecotourism practices with the view of ameliorating them. Concisely, there is an inherent need for ecotourism policy reform in India to prevent ‘pseudo ecotourism’ growth and destruction of environmentally vulnerable areas. 

Table of abbreviations

1. Introduction

As a subset of ‘sustainable development’, ecotourism has been defined by the International Ecotourism Society as ‘responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains the well-being of local people and involves interpretation and education’ (TIES, 2015). Further, the significant aims of ecotourism practice include environmental conservation, cultural preservation, community participation, economic benefits, and empowerment of vulnerable groups (Cobbinah, 2015). Ecotourism is hard to plausibly criticise given that it is often championed as the panacea to the downfalls of mass consumption tourism (Duffy, 2015, cited in Voumard, 2019). However, the ambiguous national policy, (Poyyamoli, 2018) lack of evidence of social empowerment (Das and Chatterjee, 2015) and minimal effort into environmental conservation (Banerji and Datta, 2015) are amid a few of the criticisms which have been exemplified by recent research of case studies of ecotourism in India. 

To explore the reality of ecotourism practice in India, several case studies have been cited. The case study of Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary, in Odisha helps emphasise some social implications of poor ecotourism practice; while both Silerigaon, in Darjeeling and Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve exemplify the adverse environmental impacts of pseudo-ecotourism. The Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve also highlights some political implications of recent ecotourism practice. In contrast, the Kaziranga National Park in Assam, offers some optimism, ecotourism initiatives are more successful than the former case studies due to clear indications of increased incomes, standard of living and awareness of the importance of various issues as a result of ecotourism.

2. Policy implications

Undoubtedly, the policy surrounding ecotourism is akin to its implications. Poyyamoli (2018) evaluates the shortcomings of the National Ecotourism Policy for India, 1998, distinguishing between the reality and rhetoric it presents and enforces. A significant gap in the policy is the very definition of ecotourism itself which fails to include: the equitable sharing of income via active community participation and the conservation of heritage and culture, both of which are fundamental to effective ecotourism practice (​Cobbinah, 2015​). Thus, the definition is ‘erroneous and misleading’ (ibid., p.51). Further, the ambiguity of the policy is reiterated through its ‘operational guidelines’ (ibid., p.53) which do not provide any quantifiable indicators to assess the impacts of ecotourism approaches across India. Finally, the official policy document itself is inaccessible online to researchers and critics, thus limiting the advice that can be given to ameliorate the policy. 

Consequently, these multiple shortcomings of the policy have allowed ‘pseudo ecotourism’ to thrive in India; which involves ‘greenwashing’ of practices as well as carrying mass tourism techniques ‘under the guise of ecotourism’ (ibid., p.50). The effects of this have the potential to be harsher than those of traditional mass tourism due to the environmentally sensitive ‘ecotourism’ destinations (Weaver, 2001, cited in Poyyamoli, 2018). Poyyamoli (2018) is not alone in his critique, as Cabral and Lochan Dhar (2019) have also labelled the policy as ‘lackadaisical’ (ibid. p.12). Given the inaccuracy, ambiguity and ‘pseudo ecotourism’ it encourages the National Ecotourism Policy for India, as Poyyamoli (2018) suggests, needs to be revised in order to prevent ‘pseudo ecotourism’, its effects and encourage the proper practice of sustainable ecotourism nationwide. 

2.1 Social implications

A central part of ecotourism practice is the social benefits for the hosts and the creation of community ownership of the schemes (Jalani, 2012, cited in Das and Chatterjee, 2015). These social implications often manifest themselves in terms of social empowerment which refers to: ‘a community’s sense of cohesion and integrity has been confirmed or strengthened by an activity such as ecotourism’ (Shecyvens, 2000, p. 241). Exploring this concept, through the case analysis of Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary, in Odisha, as seen in Figure 1, Das and Chatterjee (2015) concluded that ecotourism in this area of India is in a ‘nascent stage’ (ibid., p.144).

Figure 1 . Location map of Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary, Odisha. (Shrestha et al ., 2019.)

The research suggested that although 30 eco-development committees (EDCs), which sought to reduce locals’ dependence on the natural resources, had been set up, they were ineffective in encouraging social empowerment. Only 21% of ecotourism participants and 9% of non-ecotourism participants were members of an EDC, alluding to minimal progress in social empowerment. 

Furthermore, Das and Chatterjee (2015) highlighted that local members of the Bhitarkanika Ecotourism and Eco-development Society (BEES) were not informed of the ‘division or utilisation’ (ibid., p.142) of the money generated via tourists. Locals were unaware of the monetary benefits of ecotourism, depicting little equitability. Additionally, gender inequality existed between self-help groups (SHGs) which were established by locals to support and encourage social empowerment and increase their bargaining power (Rath, 2007, cited in Das and Chatterjee, 2015). The forest department failed to promote the SHGs led by women; however, the male-led SHGs were promoted by the Integrated Coastal Zone Management Project (ICZMP). 

This research illustrates in Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary, as seen in Figure 1, ecotourism has failed to encourage social empowerment and has created social inequality, two serious issues which do not correspond with ecosystem practice. Following Poyyamoli’s (2018) work, this example could be classified as ‘pseudo ecotourism’ as it failed to meet the standards of authentic ecotourism and led to the detriment of societies instead of empowering them. The social implications of this Indian case study further highlight the need for ‘better and more rigorous policies’ (Das and Chatterjee, 2015, p.145) for effective ecotourism practice in India. 

2.2 Environmental implications

Arguably, environmental sustainability and conservation are paramount in the activities of ecotourism (Honey, 2008, cited in, Cobbinah, 2015), thus although ecotourism promotes socio-economic benefits, environmental ones are of utmost importance. While researching small scale ‘ecotourism’ initiatives in Silerigaon, an eastern Himalayan village within Darjeeling, as seen in Figure 2, Banerji and Datta (2015) described an ‘umbilical cord’ between the focus of environmental conservation and the expansion of ecotourism. 

Figure 2 . Location map of Silerigaon, Darjeeling, India. (Banerji and Datta, 2015)

Although the research found that both locals and tourists perceived an increase in forest cover over recent years, it was also notable that 59% of respondents noticed a decline in non-polluted water over the last decade. Further, 71.43% of local stakeholders noticed that the number of wildlife in Silerigaon had decreased and attributed this to increased human intervention. Banerji and Datta (2015) suggested that environmental conservation as a result of tourism capital currently lacks ‘adequate vigour’ (ibid., p.47) in the area, questioning whether or not these initiatives can be deemed as ‘ecotourism’ at all. 

Concerningly, pollution as a result of ‘ecotourism’ in India is not rare. Chowdhury and Maiti’s (2016) research into the ecological health of the Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve, as shown in Figure 3, found the highest concentrations of lead metal pollution surrounding the ecotourism ferry routes. This was a result of a boom in the use of fossil-fuel operated ferries to accommodate the influx of tourists. Although Chowdhury and Maiti (ibid.) sympathise with the vitality of ecotourism as an industry to the economically marginalised in the Indian Sundarbans, they advocate for a symbiotic relationship between conservation and ecotourism (Salam et al. 2000, cited in Chowdhury and Maiti, 2016) especially given the sensitivity of the Sundarbans’ ecosystem. 

Figure 3. Location map of the Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve, India. (Ghosh and Ghosh, 2019).

Both Chowdhury and Maiti (2016) and Banerji and Datta (2015) reinforce the shortcomings of ecotourism policy in India and its failure to regulate ecotourism initiatives. As a result of these failures, environmental conservation as a product of ecotourism capital is limited and environmentally sensitive areas are being exploited, which are implications inconsistent with genuine ecotourism practice. In order to rectify these issues, there is a pressing need for the revisiting of national ecotourism policy in India.

2.3 Political implications

Ecotourism in the Sundarbans of India (Fig.3)  has also recently been the focus of research by Ghosh and Ghosh (2019). The research set out to discover the equitability of implications of ecotourism, from a political ecology perspective. 

This involves looking at the intersection between environmental events or issues and political spheres. Several power struggles were found in the ecotourism practices between the conservation agencies, authorities, locals as well as tourists themselves. One significant finding postulated conflicts between the federal government and their conservation priorities and the local authorities and tourism priorities. Consequently, this prevents the effective application of ecotourism to the area, as the local government cannot promote ecotourism on a big enough scale to provide sufficient and significant profit in terms of capital. 

Furthermore, the conflict between the tourists and locals over environmental values has led to an ‘insider’, ‘outsider’ mentality whereby locals have become ‘disenchanted’ (ibid., p.356) to the potential benefits of ecotourism. Lastly, in Pakhiralaya, one of the villages surrounding the Sundarbans Tiger Reserve, a site of ecotourism, 50 households sold up their land for tourism development, resulting in outmigration. Ghosh and Ghosh (ibid.) emphasise that contrary to assumptions, ecotourism cannot be considered a ‘magic bullet’ (ibid., p.363) which will inevitably result in local development and environmental conservation. Instead, power balances in ecotourism initiatives are complicated and in the Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve (Fig.3), the benefits of ecotourism were inequitable, outlining further need for re-examination of national policy. 

3. The outlier – Kaziranga National Park

Figure 4 . Location Map of Kaziranga National Park, Assam, India. (Das and Hussain, 2016) 

Not all recent research of Indian ecotourism is as sombre, as shown by Das and Hussain (2016) whilst researching the impact of ecotourism on economic welfare using evidence from Kaziranga National Park, India (Fig.4). The findings of the research suggest that the total expenditure of ecotourism households is 1.7 times that of agrarian households. In the park, ecotourism has become a more attractive industry than agriculture due to the human-wildlife conflict that arises when park animals destroy crops, as well as the everlasting threat of flooding. As a consequence of ecotourism, respondents believe that they gained a greater awareness of various issues, which has increased their political empowerment within their local area. Moreover, the standard of living of the locals has been significantly enhanced due to the capital generated from ecotourism, increasing access to education, medical insurance and loans to invest in their businesses. This case study unveils that ecotourism in the Kaziranga National Park (Fig.4) has fulfilled the core values of the practice as outlined by Cobbinah (2015), illustrating a multiplier effect of tourist expenditure which correspondingly strengthens the local economy. As shown, the results of this are multi-faceted with positive socio-economic impacts while conserving the environment. 

Unlike the previously cited research, the findings of Das and Hussain (2016) depict a successful ecotourism initiative. Although there is little mention of policy, it can be argued that the ambiguity of the policy does not necessitate unsuccessful ecotourism practice. This example gives hope that with policy clarifications and reforms, other initiatives can have the same positive implications on local populations and set a precedent for environmental conservation. 

4. Research gaps

Despite the recent research into the issues surrounding the practice of ecotourism in India, there are inevitably existing research gaps which hinder solutions to the negative socio-economic, political and environmental implications of ecotourism, as previously implied. As a more comprehensive evaluation of recent research on the topic of ecotourism in India, Puri et al . (2019) outline several gaps in research. The paper posits that a foundation of ecotourism is biodiversity conservation. Thus, further research needs to investigate the effectiveness of conservation goals via environment impact assessment studies. Equally, it is imperative to monitor changing land-use and resource consumption patterns as a result of ecotourism initiatives to ensure that ecotourism doesn’t become an ‘extractive industry’ (ibid., p.136). Additionally, Puri et al. (ibid.) contend that research into the social and ecological ‘carrying capacity’ (ibid., p.137) of the proposed ecotourism site, in order to prevent tourism hindering the balance between conservation and development, which is of pressing urgency. Consequently, these research gaps offer guidance into future action that needs to take place in terms of improving ecotourism practices in India.

5. Conclusion

Looking forward, the practice of ecotourism is likely to become more of a pressing issue. The aims of the Sustainable Development Goals make it more critical than ever that ecotourism initiatives promote rather than hinder environmental conservation and prevent further degradation of environmentally sensitive areas. Unfortunately, as a majority of the cited research shows and Poyyamoli (2018) asserts, ecotourism initiatives in India have previously been examples of ‘pseudo ecotourism’ which can cause further ecological damage as well as having inequitable socio-economic implications. Recent research into ecotourism in India has emphasised that the National Ecotourism Policy is ​‘lackadaisical’ (Cabral and Lochan Dhar, 2019, p.12) and demands for ‘better and more rigorous policies’ (Das and Chatterjee, 2015, p.145), thus current practices mean that ecotourism cannot be the ‘magic bullet’ (Ghosh and Ghosh, 2019, p.363) between conservation and development without policy reform. 

Although this essay is limited in length, clear patterns and examples of poor ecotourism practice across India have been unveiled and these ‘pseudo ecotourism’ techniques will continue to prevail unless national policy transformation occurs.

6. References

Cabral, C., and Dhar, R. L. (2019). Ecotourism research in India: from an integrative literature review to a future research framework. ​ Journal of Ecotourism ,​ pp.1-27. 

Chowdhury, A. and Maiti, S.K., (2016). Assessing the ecological health risk in a conserved mangrove ecosystem due to heavy metal pollution: A case study from Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve, India. ​ Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal ​, ​ 22 ​(7), pp.1519-1541. 

Cobbinah, P.B.,( 2015). Contextualising the meaning of ecotourism. ​ Tourism Management Perspectives ​, (16), pp.179-189. 

Das, D. and Hussain, I., (2016). Does ecotourism affect economic welfare? Evidence from Kaziranga National Park, India. ​ Journal of Ecotourism ​, ​ 15 ​(3), pp.241-260. 

Das, M. and Chatterjee, B., (2015). Ecotourism and empowerment: A case analysis of Bhitarkanika wildlife sanctuary, Odisha, India. ​ IIM Kozhikode Society & Management Review ​, ​ 4 ​(2), pp.136-145. 

Datta, D. and Banerji, S., (2015). Local tourism initiative in an eastern Himalayan village: sustainable ecotourism or small-scale nature exploitation?. ​ Bulletin of Geography. Socio-economic Series ​, ​ 27 ​(27), pp.33-49. 

Ghosh, P. and Ghosh, A., (2019). Is ecotourism a panacea? Political ecology perspectives from the Sundarban Biosphere Reserve, India. ​ GeoJournal ,​ ​ 84 (​ 2), pp.345-366. 

Poyyamoli, G. (2018). Ecotourism Policy in India: Rhetoric and Reality.​ Grassroots Journal of Natural Resources, ​ 1(1), pp.46-61. 

Puri, M., Karanth, K.K. and Thapa, B., (2019). Trends and pathways for ecotourism research in India. ​ Journal of Ecotourism ,​ ​ 18 (​ 2), pp.122-141. 

Scheyvens, R., (2000). Promoting women’s empowerment through involvement in ecotourism: Experiences from the Third World. Journal of sustainable tourism, 8(3), pp.232-249. 

Shrestha, S., Miranda, I., Kumar, A., Pardo, M.L.E., Dahal, S., Rashid, T., Remillard, C. and Mishra, D.R., (2019). Identifying and forecasting potential biophysical risk areas within a tropical mangrove ecosystem using multi-sensor data.  International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation ,  74 , pp.281-294.

The International Ecotourism Society. (2015). ​ TIES Announces Ecotourism Principles Revision – The International Ecotourism Society ​. [online] Available at: https://ecotourism.org/news/ties-announces-ecotourism-principles-revision/ [Accessed 11 Dec. 2019]. 

Voumard, M. (2019). Promises and pitfalls of ecotourism: patterns from a literature review.​ Investigaciones Turísticas ​ (17), pp.1-23.

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DOI : 10.17485/ijst/2010/v3i12.21

Year : 2010, Volume : 3, Issue : 12, Pages : 1247-1254

Original Article

Island eco-tourism: A case study of Andaman islands, India

D. Thulasimala 1 and Pearl DevDass 2*

Department of Geography, Queen Mary’s College, Chennai—600 004, TN, India Department of Geography, JNR Mahavidhyalaya College, Port Blair, Andaman, India [email protected]  

A pristine world of silver sands, clear blue seas, coral reefs, swaying palms, tropical forests, volcanic mountains and a gently undulating landscape is what the Andaman and Nicobar islands are all about. The islands comprising of 572 islands/islets, extend over an area of 8,249 km 2 . Located between 6 o 45” N and 13 o 41” N latitudes and 92 o 12” E and 93 o 57” E longitudes, the islands offer exciting ecotourism products with natural and cultural settings. The present study dealt with tourism products, what attract tourists to the Andaman and Nicobar islands, preferences and choices among the touristic places and products. The scope of the present research work includes the assessment of positive and negative impacts of ecotourism in the Andaman’s as perceived by the domestic and international tourists. It provides suggestions and recommendations on the basis of the analysis of field data on the tourist profiles, tourism products and tourism infrastructure. Furthermore, on the basis of the outcome of this research; the research has suggested to the tourism planners and administrators suitable proposals for the development of ecotourism in the Andaman’s. More than 60% of the tourists have informed that they received information about the Andaman and Nicobar islands from their friends and relatives. The age composition of the tourists indicates that 57% of the tourists were in the age group of 31-50 years and 92% of the tourists were highly educated and none of the respondents in the sample was illiterate. The occupational structure of the tourists was found mixed, 70% of the total tourists comprised of technicians, government servants, private sector employees, students and teachers. Occupation wise, money spent by the tourists indicates that the government sector tourists earned a mean monthly income of about Rs. 28,000 and spent an average of Rs.72, 000 on their tour. Further, their sources of funding for the tour came from the leave travel concessions (LTC) schemes. According to the scores given by the visitors, for the natural tourism products, landscapes topped with 93.4% of the visitors, beaches with 90.5% and scenery with 88.9%, reserved forests with 86.8% and limestone caves with 68%. Similarly, the cultural and historical tourism products scored 82.2% for the natural history, historical sites 81.89% and museums 74.7% and heritage sites 72.4%. This clearly indicates that the Andaman has abundant natural beauty with a rich cultural heritage to become an ecotouristic destination. Keywords : Andaman, islands, India, Nicobar, tourism. 

• 29 April 2020

How to cite this paper

Pearl DevDass, Island eco-tourism: A case study of Andaman islands, India. Indian Journal of Science and Technology. 2010: 3(12).

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Tourist's level of awareness and attitude about destination ecotourism development: a case study of Munnar, Kerala, India

• Published: 18 August 2023

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• Chindu Chandran   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6349-4365 1 &
• Prodyut Bhattacharya 1  

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In the sphere of mass tourism, ecotourism offers a method for promoting conservation and sustainability. Ecotourism differs from mass tourism as it includes recreational activities focusing on environmental conservation, education, and cultural experiences. Previous studies have explored tourists' awareness and attitudes towards ecotourism in various destinations but considering the unique cultural and geographical context of the destination, highlights the need for a destination-specific scale to inform sustainable decision-making. Tourist behavior and attitudes are critical to the tourism destination's long-term viability. This research aimed to study the attitude and awareness levels of tourists in Munnar towards environmentally sustainable tourism. Primary data were collected from the tourists adopting convenient sampling method. The survey results demonstrate that people have a positive attitude and are aware of the importance of environmentally friendly tourism. The findings also show that tourist awareness and attitudes toward Munnar's ecotourism and conservation are highly and strongly associated. Studying traveler understanding and attitudes toward sustainable tourism would be highly beneficial to local governments and ecotourism destination operators in responding to environmentally sustainable tourism and adapting to the need for better tourism practices.

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Acknowledgements

We want to express great appreciation to Dr. Pratyansha Singh (Ph.D. Environment Management, GGSIP University, Delhi) and Mr. Apoorv Kalra (B. Tech. Aerospace, SRM University, Chennai) for valuable and constructive suggestions in the statistical analysis of the study. We would also like to show our gratitude to the Kerala Forest Department for their support throughout this research.

We want to thank Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University for providing Short Term Research Fund (GGSIPU/DRC/Ph.D./Adm./2016/1904) supporting this research work.

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Chandran, C., Bhattacharya, P. Tourist's level of awareness and attitude about destination ecotourism development: a case study of Munnar, Kerala, India. Environ Dev Sustain (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-023-03745-5

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• Sreerekha. M. Ecology and Economy: A Case Study on Thenmala Ecotourism in Kerala, India. Applied Ecology and Environmental Sciences . Vol. 8, No. 6, 2020, pp 351-354. http://pubs.sciepub.com/aees/8/6/4 ">Normal Style
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Ecology and Economy: A Case Study on Thenmala Ecotourism in Kerala, India

Nature has always been vibrant that we inherent from the past and pass on to future generations to use. There is a symbiotic relationship between ecosystem and socio- economic life of the people. The present study seeks to review certain aspect of ecology and economy in the context of Thenmala ecotourism. Kerala the southernmost state of India and popularly known as God’s own country in tourist literature. Thenmala ecotourism project is the first planned ecotourism project in the country. Thenmala is a small village at the foothills of Western Ghats and predominantly a forest covered area located in the Kollam District of Kerala. Ecotourism is an emerging concept in tourism industry and this programme encompasses education, sustainable development, respect for fragile environments and the people with whom the traveller is interacting. The concept of ecotourism today has sharpened its aspects in the goals of responsible tourism by making maximum participation in responsible positions for the local as well as tribal hosts India.

1. Introduction

The formations of ecological signs as a direct outcome of inter relationship between nature and human subsistence strategies. Studies show that everything in the socio-cultural regime revolved round eco- culture of this economy and everything was disposed of so as to establish its eco -cultural hegemony over other economies 1 . Tourism is recognised as one of the important global service industry today and it has seen rapid growing industry. Over the last fifty years tourism has become one of the largest economic sectors globally, accounting for some 9 percentage of the world’s GDP and over 200 million jobs 2 .

International agencies like the United Nations World Tourism Organization have estimated that nations like India and China would become the superpowers in the global tourism map by the year 2020 3 . The 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, the Rio Earth summit were identified Travel and Tourism as one of the key sectors of the economy which could make a positive contribution to achieving sustainable development 4 .

Ecotourism is an emerging concept in tourism industry and this programme encompasses education, sustainable development, respect for fragile environments and the people with whom the traveller is interacting. According to the World tourism organisation: “Ecotourism is the tourism that involves travelling to relatively undisturbed natural areas with specific objective of studying, admiring and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals as well as any existing cultural aspect found in this areas” 5 . Ecotourism is one of the key sectors for India in the service sector negotiations under General Agreement on Trade in Services in the WTO 6 . The India’s New Tourism Policy 2002 was implemented in the 10 th Five Year Plan, will generate awareness about the benefit of tourism for the host population 4 .

2. Western Ghats and Tourism

The Western Ghats which are older than the Himalayas and are described one of the 8 “hottest hotspot” areas of biodiversity were inscribed in the UNESCO World Natural Heritage Sites list in July 2012 7 . The term Western Ghats refers to the practically unbroken hill chain (with the exception of the Palakkad Gap) or escarpment running roughly in a north-south direction, for about 1500 Kilo meter parallel to the Arabian sea coast, from the river Tapi (about 210 16’ North) down to just short of Kanyakumari (about 8019’ North) at the tip of the Indian peninsula 8 . The number of tourists visiting the Western Ghats is increasing steeply. The forms of tourism observed are nature based on ecology, wildlife, religious, social and business. Religious tourism has the highest share of tourism in the Western Ghats followed by other forms of tourism. The Western Ghats are naturally is an important centre of sustainable development efforts. The Gadgil Report says that Tourism needs special attention in the Western Ghats and such sites need to be understood as production-consumption systems. These are “systems in which environmental goods and services, individuals, households, firms and states are linked by flows of materials, energy and relationships in which transactions of money and information or negotiation of power and influence take place” 8 .

3. Definitions of Ecotourism

Tourism has immense potential to accelerate progress across the Sustainable Development Goals. This sector can generate quality job for durable growth, reduce poverty and offer incentives for environmental conservation a triple-win to help countries transition toward more inclusive, resilient economies 9 . The term ecotourism was emerged in the late 1980s as a result of the world’s acknowledgement and reaction to sustainable practice and reaction to global ecological practices. Ecotourism was a term first coined by Hector Ceballos Lascurain 10 , a Mexican Environmentalist in 1983. The first organisation devoted to ecotourism was the International Ecotourism Society founded in 1990.

Ecotourism meant to be a Sustainable form of natural resource based tourism. There are many well recognized definitions formed a clear picture of the concept of ecotourism. Ecotourism Society defines ecotourism as responsible travel that conserves natural environments and sustains the wellbeing of local people 11 . Das says, “ecotourism, defined as responsible travel to natural areas, that conserves the environment and improves the welfare of local people, has caught the attention of diverse interests, both as an economically profitable leisure activity, and as a means of conservation and development” 12 .

National ecotourism strategy (1994) defines “ecotourism is the nature based tourism that involves education and interpretation of the natural environment and is managed to be ecologically sustainable”. Wenjun Li (2009) describes in the recent decades, ecotourism emerged as one of the most economic, effective and environmentally friendly way of utilizing natural resources and maintain sustainable development in natural reserves 13 . According to Weaver (1999), Interest in ecotourism now wide spread among tourism planners and marketers, is rationalise by a number of popular assumptions regarding the sector’s potential economic, environmental, and socio-cultural benefits. However, most of the definitions of eco-tourism boil down to a special form of tourism that meet the criteria like it provide environmental conservation include meaningful community participation and it is profitable and can be self-sustained.

4. Ecological Economics of Thenmala Ecotourism in Kerala

Kerala situated the southernmost tip of India. The state blessed with excellent weather and networked by forty- four rivers, thirty - four lakes, Pond, lovely hills, its numerous lagoons, dense vegetation and paddy cultivation. The tourism destinations like silent valley National park, wild life sanctuaries of Shenduruney, Parambikulam, Neyyar, Periyar and the bird sanctuaries of Thattekkadu and Kumarakam enrich the exotic wild life. According to the 1999 statistics of Kerala has eleven Wildlife Sanctuaries, two National parks, one tiger reserve and many potential ecotourism destinations 5 .

The excellent geographical features of Kerala and serene environments attracted tourists in all over the world. Tourist arrival is one of the most important indicators of the demand for tourism in a particular destination point. Kerala one of the highest growth rate in tourist arrivals and the following table gives the data on Foreign Domestic tourist arrivals over the last five years. From 2014 onward, it can be seen that there is steady growth in tourist arrivals. The given below official Statistics shows that the foreign and domestic tourists are increasing in absolute terms.

Table 1. Tourist Arrivals (2014 - 218) [14]

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Ecotourism today has sharpened its aspects in the goals of responsible tourism by making maximum participation in responsible positions for the local as well as tribal hosts India 15 . The Government of Kerala is committed to develop plans for utilizing the ecotourism potential in the State. The Government assure that ecotourism is promoted on the basis of sound principles of ecological sustainability. Thenmala Ecotourism is India’s first planned ecotourism project 16 based on sound principles of ecological sustainability. Thenmla lies on the western slope of Western Ghats, in Kerala and ecosystem management in Thenmala attracted many tourists from all over India.

Thenmla is a small Village, located at the foothill of the Western Ghats, between Kulathupuzha and Punalur, in Kollam District of Kerala, with full of rivers, streams, hillocks and evergreen forests 17 . The hilly village of Thenmala is situated 22km east of Punalur on the Kollam - Shencotta railway 18 . The area is covered by dense forest, Tea and rubber plantation and beauty of this destination is attracted large number of domestic and international tourists. Thenmala Forest Division and Shenduruney Wildlife Division fall wholly within the district 18 .

The name Thenmala is derived from two words “ Then ” and “ Mala” in local parlance. Then ‘Thenmla’ translates to Honey Hill’ and high quality honey is exported from this area. The majority part of Thenmala is under forest cover and it borders the Shenduruney Wildlife Sanctuary. The artificial lake formed by Parappar dam built across the Shenduruney and the Kulathupuzha rivers occupies the central part of the sanctuary. The forests of Thenmala offer excellent fortuity for ecotourism with a wide array of flora and fauna. The surrounding dense forest is also known for the good quality timber that is in much demand across the country. In order to promote tourism ten satellites enters are identified around Thenmala. These places are Palaruvi falls, Aripa, Kulathupuzha, Aryankavu, Achancoil, Konni, Pamba, Kochu Pamba, Umayar and Ponmudi. Thenmala ecotourism project won the prestigious Pacific Asia Travel Association gold award for 2003-2004, the National Tourism Awards for the most Eco - friendly organization in 2001-2002, and the best ecotourism practices in 2003-04 19 .

5. Shenduruney Wildlife Sanctuary

Thenmala Ecotourism project has been formulated in and around the shenduruney Wildlife Sanctuary with the assistance of Tourism, Forest, and Irrigation Departments. Shenduruney wildlife sanctuary is the one of the richest areas of Bio- diversity in Western Ghats. The sanctuary is located in Kollam district and comes under the control of Agastyavana Biological Park. The etymological meaning of the name “Shenduruney” is derived from a tree called “ Shenkurrunjy” or Chenkurunji which is an endemic tree was found in this region. Chenkurinji tree ( Gluta Travancorica) from which the sanctuary got its name Shenduruney grows here. This area is covered with Tropical evergreen forest and semi evergreen forest comprises three fourth of the total area of sanctuary. The major forest type in the region are Sothern Hilltop Evergreen forest, West coast semi Evergreen forest, Sothern secondary moist mixed Deciduous forest, Myristica swamps and Reed Brakes.

Historically, Shenduruney has rich heritage and the remnants of pre-historic period was excavated from this area. A recent study was conducted by P.Rajendran, Archaeological Research association of the Poona Deccan College, has resulted in the excavation of the remains of Stone Age Culture from a large cave situated at the north western part of the Shenduruney River. It has been proved these remains belong to the Mesolithic Age and this study reveals the fact that Shenduruney River Valley Civilization was the one the oldest river valley civilization in India 20 .

Shenduruney wildlife sanctuary confesses that the region has diverse flora with high rate of endemism 21 . This area is covered with Tropical evergreen forest and semi evergreen forest comprises three fourth of the total area of sanctuary. The major forest type in the region are Sothern Hilltop Evergreen forest, West coast semi Evergreen forest, Sothern secondary moist mixed Deciduous forest, Myristica swamps and Reed Brakes. The Myristica swamps are tropical wetland found in the valley of Shenduruney and Kulathupuzha River. The Myristica swaps, a vanishing ecosystem, now largely confined to 53 patches in the Kulatupuzha and Anchal forests and the Shenduruney Wildlife sanctuary 22 . The major ecotourism spots in the Shenduruney sanctuary are Kallar Trial, Dharbhakulam Trial, Kattlapara-Choodal Bird watching Trail and boating in the sanctuary. The Shenduruney forest was declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1984.

6. Thenmala Ecotourism Promotion Society (TEPS)

In the year 1998, the ‘Thenmala Ecotourism Society’ was founded as a Government of Kerala undertaking to promote ecotourism activities at Thenmala and its surroundings. The main aim of this organisation is promoting Ecotourism activities at Thenmala and its surrounding areas with cooperation of Forest, Irrigation and tourism Departments.

7. Objectives

The important objectives of the project are:

Ÿ To develop Thenmala Dam and its neighbouring areas as a major tourism destination by the turn of this country.

Ÿ To promote ecotourism on the basis of sound principles of ecological sustainability in Thenmala and its neighbouring area.

Ÿ To have a well-planned tourist destination with attention on sustainable tourism development so as to become a model for other destination in advancing programmes.

8. Impact of Thenmala Ecotourism

There are both positive and negative impact based on various activities by the tourist and the changes which are taking place. Thenmala ecotourism play beneficial role for the conservation cultural heritage, economy and environment. The ecotourism creates a knowledgeable society in a village at Thenmala and it upgrades the public infrastructure. The ecotourism in Thenmala there appear to play an important role in protecting the natural environment. People should make aware the ecological impacts damage to ecosystem: effects on physical environment. As considering the economic side, tourism should create the employment opportunities for the local communities in the particular region. After coming of Thenmala ecotourism the local people got jobs, number of them provide tourist with local food and lodging, guide service and locally made handicrafts as a result their community receives substantial direct economic benefit. Moreover Thenmala region brought about variety of other positive changes including more jobs and increased the income of the family and this result an improved standard of living for the population. Abolition of poverty is possible under ecotourism and income generation these are the important objectives of ecotourism.

Considering the negative impact of ecotourism, the maintenance of bio diversity is a critical component of the sustainability. The promoters of ecotourism have forgotten or needful ignoring the principles of ecotourism. As a consequence of this we are facing a new form of ecological imperialism in which western cultural values are being impressed on the indigenous culture through ecotourism. The major interruptions by the local residents and officials in the Thenmala ecotourism project from domestic and foreign tourist are mostly on the destruction of natural habitat, wildlife disturbances and conflicting attitude 23 . Ecotourism is the buzzword in tourism. Exciting industry, government and conservationists like, it has come to embrace environmental friendly, community friendly and market friendly tourism 4 . But even though its value in rising awareness of the relationship between tourism and environment, the term has become misused that it is little worthless cliché, which may be harmful as conventional form of tourism. Another disadvantage of ecotourism, sometimes it may be considered only an extension of tourism marketing. The ecotourism need government or NGO’s proper financial support otherwise it will not work out the expected level. Moreover the concepts of ecotourism will work out only the support and cooperation of the local people. Unless the local people will participate the programme will not be consider an ecotourism.

9. Conclusion

Ecology is one of the most critical components essential for the well-being of a society and the foundation for a sustainable and powerful economy. Thenmla, with its diverse nature and culture has enjoying a unique place in the pages of history. Thenmala lies on the foothills of Western Ghats, this area coming under the ecologically sensitive area and need special attention and need to preserve or the future generation. Tourism has experienced continued hike and increased diversification becoming one of the fastest developing economic sector in the world. Thenmala ecotourism project is India’s first planned ecotourism project. The ecosystem management in Thenmala attracted tourist from different parts of India. Ecotourism can able to contribute to development which is economically, ecologically and socially sustainable. This addresses the fundamental issues like conservation of nature, culture, society and promotion of traditional knowledge by developing tourism through community participation. In the functioning of Thenmala ecotourism local people have significant role than any other agency. Endeavour to make tourism and inclusive social experience it is ensure to that there is access for all especially the vulnerable and disadvantaged communities in the society.

Published with license by Science and Education Publishing, Copyright © 2020 Sreerekha. M

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