essay on plate

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Plate tectonics.

The theory of plate tectonics revolutionized the earth sciences by explaining how the movement of geologic plates causes mountain building, volcanoes, and earthquakes.

Earth Science, Geology, Oceanography, Geography, Physical Geography

San Andreas Fault

Tectonic plate boundaries, like the San Andreas Fault pictured here, can be the sites of mountain-building events, volcanoes, or valley or rift creation.

Photograph by Georg Gerster

Plate tectonics is a scientific theory that explains how major landforms are created as a result of Earth’s subterranean movements. The theory, which solidified in the 1960s, transformed the earth sciences by explaining many phenomena, including mountain building events, volcanoes , and earthquakes . In plate tectonics , Earth’s outermost layer, or lithosphere —made up of the crust and upper mantle—is broken into large rocky plates. These plates lie on top of a partially molten layer of rock called the asthenosphere . Due to the convection of the asthenosphere and lithosphere , the plates move relative to each other at different rates, from two to 15 centimeters (one to six inches) per year. This interaction of tectonic plates is responsible for many different geological formations such as the Himalaya mountain range in Asia, the East African Rift, and the San Andreas Fault in California, United States. The idea that continents moved over time had been proposed before the 20th century. However, a German scientist named Alfred Wegener changed the scientific debate. Wegener published two articles about a concept called continental drift in 1912. He suggested that 200 million years ago, a supercontinent he called Pangaea began to break into pieces, its parts moving away from one another. The continents we see today are fragments of that supercontinent . To support his theory, Wegener pointed to matching rock formations and similar fossils in Brazil and West Africa. In addition, South America and Africa looked like they could fit together like puzzle pieces.

Despite being dismissed at first, the theory gained steam in the 1950s and 1960s as new data began to support the idea of continental drift . Maps of the ocean floor showed a massive undersea mountain range that almost circled the entire Earth. An American geologist named Harry Hess proposed that these ridges were the result of molten rock rising from the asthenosphere . As it came to the surface, the rock cooled, making new crust and spreading the seafloor away from the ridge in a conveyer-belt motion. Millions of years later, the crust would disappear into ocean trenches at places called subduction zones and cycle back into Earth. Magnetic data from the ocean floor and the relatively young age of oceanic crust supported Hess’s hypothesis of seafloor spreading . There was one nagging question with the plate tectonics theory: Most volcanoes are found above subduction zones, but some form far away from these plate boundaries. How could this be explained? This question was finally answered in 1963 by a Canadian geologist , John Tuzo Wilson. He proposed that volcanic island chains, like the Hawaiian Islands, are created by fixed “hot spots” in the mantle. At those places, magma forces its way upward through the moving plate of the sea floor. As the plate moves over the hot spot, one volcanic island after another is formed. Wilson’s explanation gave further support to plate tectonics . Today, the theory is almost universally accepted.

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Plate tectonics is the grand, unifying theory of Earth sciences, combining the concepts of continental drift and sea-floor spreading into one holistic theory that explains many of the major structural features of the Earth's surface. It explains why the oceanic lithosphere is never older than about 180 Ma and why only the continents have preserved the Earth's geological record for the past 4000 Ma. It provides the framework to explain the distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes and a mechanism for the slow drift of the continents across the Earth's surface. The theory has now reached such a level of scientific acceptance that the movement of plates, both relative to one another and to the hot-spot reference frame, are being used to infer movement of the hot-spot reference frame with respect to the Earth's rotational axis.

Plate tectonics is an expression of the convective regime in the underlying mantle, but the link between individual convection cells and plate boundaries is not direct because plate boundaries are not fixed and, like the plates, move relative to one another. Plate movements are driven by gravity, largely by cold, dense lithospheric slabs pulling younger lithosphere towards a destructive boundary. A less-powerful driving force is generated by the potential energy of spreading centres, elevated some 2-3 km above the general level of the abyssal plains.

As ideas concerning plate tectonics have evolved since the 1970s, it has become apparent that while the theory can be applied rigorously to the oceans, the same cannot be said of the continents. Because of the strength and rigidity of oceanic plates, deformation is focused into narrow linear zones along plate margins. By contrast, when continental lithosphere approaches a plate boundary, deformation can extend hundreds of kilometres into the continental interior because continental plates are less strong. Such deformation gives rise to the major mountain belts of the Earth, as exemplified by the Alpine Himalayan Chain.

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Plate Tectonics Essay

Plate tectonics.

Plate tectonics is a principal process that largely forms the face of the Earth. It divides over ninety percent of the Earth surface into fifteen primary pieces of lithosphere known as tectonic plates. Plate tectonics is a recognized modern geological theory addressing the motion of the lithosphere. According to this theory, tectonic plates are giant pieces of lithosphere, which altogether provide the planet with a mosaic structure. Slow motions of tectonic plates subsequently result in the movement of both the ocean floor and continents. Plates encounter with each other, extruding the solid earth to form ridges and mountain ranges or denting it to create deep basins in the ocean. Their activity is mainly interrupted by short catastrophic events like earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Primary geological activity is concentrated along the plate boundaries. The fact that the plates are moving has been scientifically proved with the help of satellites, which can accurately measure changes in distance between two points on different plates and determine the speed of their movement. Nevertheless, the mechanism of the movement of tectonic plates is currently under study. The existing theory explains movement of plates by pressure originated in the mantle. Unfortunately, the theory of plate tectonics does not provide an accurate explanation of how the movement of plates is related to processes taking place in the depths of the planet. Joint efforts of geologists, geophysicists, physicists, chemists, mathematicians, and geographers working in the National Park Service have resulted into an efficient technical and scientific description of the structure and movement of lithospheric plates.

Location of Tectonic Plates

Being a significant geologic construct, plate tectonics provides accurate data referring to location of lithosphere plates. The analyzed phenomenon is theoretically based on the fact that the exterior layer of Earth, also known as the lithosphere, is divided into solid pieces called tectonic plates. The forenamed fifteen tectonic plates are named in accordance with their location: the African plate, the North American plate, the Arabian plate, the Cocos plate, and the Nazca plate, along with the Caribbean plate, the Eurasian plate, the South American plate, the Philippine sea plate, the Juan de Fuca plate, the Australian plate, the Antarctic plate, the Indian plate, and the Pacific plate (Saunders, 2011). The mentioned plates occupy around ninety percent of the Earth’s rigid surface.

Figure. 1. Tectonic plates of the Earth (Lillie, 2005).

Tectonic plates like the Eurasian plate and the North American plate mainly consist of continents, while tectonic plates such as the Antarctic plate and the Pacific plate are primarily located under the world ocean. The first group of plates shapes the continental crust of Earth, while the second group participates in the formation of the ocean crust of the planet. The planet’s continents are continuously moving due to motions of the listed tectonic plates. Each of the aforementioned plate moves with an individual speed up to ten centimeters per year and in a specific direction in relation to other plates. Consequently, the plates may crush, pull apart, and sideswipe each other. Location of the place of contact of two tectonic plates is knows as a plate boundary (Oskin, 2013). Names of boundaries depend on moving patterns of the plates as opposed to each other. Correspondingly, it is vital to note that initial location of the plate changes annually, creating new geological boundaries around the planet.

Physiographic Characteristics of Tectonic Plates

It is important to mention the fact that only eight out of the general amount of tectonic plate are defined as the most stable areas of the Earth’s surface. The following plates are considered to be stable due to the performed moderate velocity: the Antarctic plate, the Australian plate, the African plate, the Eurasian plate, the Indian plate, the Pacific plate, the South American plate, and the North American plate (Saunders, 2011).

Australia and its surrounding part of the ocean, reaching Hindustan, represent the Australian plate. The currently observed movement of the given lithospheric plate is directed from the east at a speed of approximately 67 millimeters per year (Frisch, Meschede, & Blakey, 2010, p.11);

The Antarctic plate occupies the lower part of the planet with Antarctica and adjacent portions of the oceanic crust. This plate is relatively stable as it is surrounded by mid-ocean ridges and other lithospheric plates are moving away from it (Frisch, Meschede, & Blakey, 2010, p.5);

The African continent along with the section of oceanic crust, which occupies a part of the bottom of the Indian and Atlantic oceans, constitutes the African plate. The northern part of the plate has experienced a vast breakage, separating Arabian Peninsula from the African continent. Neighboring tectonic plates tend to move away from the African plate while the plate itself produces motions leading to its sinking into the Earth’s mantle with the velocity of approximately twenty-seven millimeters per year. In other words, the plate is experiencing the phenomenon known as geologic subduction (Frisch, Meschede, & Blakey, 2010, p.15);.

The Eurasian plate is shaped by the main part of the Eurasian continent except Hindustan, the Arabian Peninsula, and the northeastern “corner” of the continent. It is the largest lithospheric plate in the world in terms of the content of continental crust (Frisch, Meschede, & Blakey, 2010, p.11);

The Indian plate allocates Hindustan. It is peculiar for collision with the Eurasian plate, which gave birth to the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas. The tectonic plate continues its movement in the northeastern direction at the velocity of fifty millimeters per year, while the Eurasian plate tends to avoid further collisions at the approximate speed of twenty millimeters per year. Additionally, the plate possesses three subduction areas, which precondition its sinking into the mantle. The sinking occurs at the rates of fifty-five, sixty-seven, and eighty-seven millimeters per year correspondingly (Frisch, Meschede, & Blakey, 2010, p.7);

The Pacific plate is formed by the site of the oceanic crust, shaping the bottom of the Pacific Ocean. In the area of California, the plate moves northward at a rate of fifty-five millimeters per year. The size of the Pacific plate is steadily declining due to several subduction areas. Under the Eurasian plate, it is sinking into the mantle at a rate of seventy-five millimeters per year. Under the Indian plate, it sinks at a rate of eighty-two millimeters per year. Under the North American plate, it approaches the mantle at a rate of thirty-five millimeters per year, and at a rate of twelve millimeters per year under the medium-sized Philippine lithospheric plate (Frisch, Meschede, & Blakey, 2010, p.16); The North American plate is shaped by the North American continent, the north-western part of the Atlantic Ocean, about half of the Arctic Ocean, and the northeast “corner” of Eurasia (Frisch, Meschede, & Blakey, 2010, p.13);

The South-American plate constitutes South America and a part of the ocean crust of the Atlantic Ocean. The plate has two subduction zones of nineteen and five millimeters per year (Frisch, Meschede, & Blakey, 2010, p. 2).

Tectonic plates posses several physiographic characteristics, which primarily deal with location of continents and oceans, shaping mountain chains and ocean trenches and leading to the rising activity of earthquakes or volcanoes. The continental crust is ordinarily older and thicker than the oceanic crust of tectonic plates. The first one ranges from thirty-five up to seventy kilometers, while the latter is usually from seven to ten kilometers (Saunders, 2011). Thickness of the crust directly affects its mobility and its physical integrity as the majority of physical formations occur on the planet’s tectonic plates. In terms of psyhiography, there are three main groups of tectonic plates’ boundaries: convergent, divergent, and transform boundaries. The tectonic plates that approach each other create the so-called convergent boundaries (Frisch, Meschede, & Blakey, 2010). Geological theory identifies the plates, which are moving away from each other, as plates creating divergent boundaries and the ones that are sliding by each other have transform boundaries. In addition, modern plate tectonics defines plate rift zones, i.e. territories where boundaries are not clearly defined and that may transform relatively quickly.

Figure 2. Types of plate boundaries (Israel, 2012)

Divergent boundaries are places, which generate a new crust from energy obtained from the plates pulling away from each other. Divergent boundaries are the major precondition of the existence of certain volcanoes, valleys, and trenches all over the globe, for instance, numerous volcanoes in Iceland and deep rift valleys located in eastern Africa (Frisch, Meschede, & Blakey, 2010, p.195). Convergent boundaries, in turn, are defined as places where the crust is destroyed due to the collision of two tectonic plates diving one under another. It is owing to convergent boundaries that the geological society has the opportunity to study ocean trenches and such chains of mountains as the Andes in South America and the Himalayas in India. In addition, convergent boundaries are to take full responsibility for the existence of volcanoes on the planet. According to the theory of plate tectonics, transform boundaries neither bring forth nor break the crust as they slide by each other using a horizontal pattern. These boundaries create the planet’s seismic active locations such as the California region known as the Ring of Fire (Oskin, 2013).

Figure 3. Planet’s earthquake activity map (Lillie, 2005).

Stratigraphy of Tectonic Plates

The National Park geology holds a significant place in terms of the stratigraphy of tectonic plates. Stratigraphic columns for different tectonic locations vary due to the origin of their formation. This is the reason why it is more appropriate to analyze the stratigraphy of tectonic plates using concrete national parks and monuments. The paper analyzes the example of the Bryce Canyon National Park located in Utah and presents the stratigraphic column of its tectonic history (Stratigraphy of Bryce Canyon national park and vicinity, n.d.). The stratigraphic column provides data referring to tectonic history of the North-American plate. As seen on Figure 5, the ground base of the canyon in the majority of its parts is represented by Wahweap formations of the mid to late Cretaceous (100-75 MYA). The latter belongs to the period when the territory of North America was covered by an inland sea dividing the continent into two halves (Anderson, Chidsey, & Sprinkel, 2010). The shore of the forenamed inland sea formed shale and sandstone deposits along its shore. Reptiles, mollusks, and other ammonite fossil assemblages formed the John Henry and Drip Tank constituents of the stratigraphic column (Stratigraphy of Bryce Canyon national park and vicinity, n.d.). Fossil accumulations of the upper part of wahweap formations included mammals, crabs, dinosaurs, and freshwater fish.

Figure 4. The prominent pink cliffs present at the Bryce Canyon (Israel, 2012).

Correspondingly, the latter suggests that rocks of the canyon were formed in the shoreline area of the inland sea. Kalparowits Formation, located above the Wahweap Formation, in Figure 5 is seen to be consisting of alluvial floodplain deposits and shoreline fossil assemblages such as sharks and rays. Bryce Canyon is widely known for its pink, orange, and buff colored rocks. The mentioned colors have their origin in the Claron Formation of the Tertiary period (Anderson, Chidsey, & Sprinkel, 2010). These rocks were deposited after the recession of the inland sea in the alluvial plains, deltas, and river channels.

Figure 5. The stratigraphic column of Bryce Canyon (2014).

Figure 5 exposes formation of pink hollow formation and pink limestone member at the sea level of the inland sea as it contains rocks formed in deltas. The white limestone member, along with the sandstone member was formed in broad lakes after the recession of the inland sea.

The conglomerates of sandstones and mudstones were formed after numerous floods affected the climate change in the Eocene. The next level above the Claron Formation is the Mount Dutton Formation and the Osiris Tuff as results of relatively violent volcanic activity during the period from 40 MYA until 23 MYA. Top layers of the Bryce Canyon are to be analyzed as the result of quiet volcanic eruption forming boat mesa conglomerate, younger basal, and quaternary deposits after 20 MYA (Anderson, Chidsey, & Sprinkel, 2010). Thus, the stratigraphy can be addressed as a vital component of the changing nature of the tectonic activity and the natural observation of tectonic processes producing them.

Petrology of Bryce Canyon

The primary petrology patterns of the Bryce Canyon are associated with the Hoodoos, the pinnacle rocks rich in calcium carbonate. As calcium was historically washed away by water erosion from the rocks, it left horizontal traces (grooves and protrusions), which greatly contributed to the beauty of the national park. The chemical decay is the key to the variety of colors presented within the Bryce Canyon. The mentioned decay resulted from the oxidization of iron presented in the compound of the canyon rocks. Oxidization of iron produced primarily red colored mineral called hematite (Fe2O) constituting the Pink Cliffs. Along with hematite, the area is reach in limonite (FeO(OH), a yellow tint produced by the iron’s reaction with water. In addition, manganese constituents (MnO) evolved into the lavender shades of wall staining (Chronic & Chronic, 2004). Dolomite rocks along with pure limestone form the white color seen on the canyon walls.

According to Figure 6, the petrology of Bryce Canyon national park reveals five primary groups of mineral cliffs: pink, gray, white, vermilion, and chocolate cliffs, which are principal accumulations of the platform sediments (Foos, 2011). The chocolate cliffs are tapeats sandstones created during early Cambrian Period by the ocean waters. The grey cliffs come from the Muav limestone, which was deposited during the late Cambrian Period due to the Sauk Sea transgression.

Figure 6. Cross-section of Bryce Canyon (Foos, 2011).

The petrology of the Bryce Canyon has its roots in the late Cretaceous period and the first half of the Cenozoic era. The Claron Formation formed the hoodoos and the monolith parts were presented by the white cliffs. The hoodoos, in turn, are built from sedimentary rocks and cretaceous rocks, making the Bryce Canyon National Part one of the most interesting places on the planet in terms of mineral formations.

Structure of Bryce Canyon

Bryce Canyon consists from picturesque fourteen amphitheaters, which are located along the edge of the Paunsaugunt Plateau. The sedimentary conglomerate of this national park was formed by erosion of water and exposure to strong winds. Consequently, it evolved in the formation of rock fins and hoodoos. As mentioned before, the Bryce Canyon contains numerous joints and fractures. The joints of the Bryce Canyon are vertical and are ordinarily set in parallel groups. Large-scale crustal movements along with the erosion pressure and removal of overlying sediments have historically generated these parallel groups known as hoodoos (Anderson, Chidsey, & Sprinkel, 2010). Besides the rock structures, which are widely present in Bryce Canyon, there are several specific structures assisting in the identification of the tectonic history of the region. These specific structures are known as faults and are located around the national park due to crust deformation. The canyon’s structure attains both normal and reverse faults, which makes its landscape very attractive in terms of geology. The hoodoos themselves resulted from the uplifting of rocks, which significantly expanded, forming an exfoliation dome (Anderson, Chidsey, & Sprinkel, 2010). As the rock is uplifted and expands, perpendicular fracture planes are created. These fractures are generated by the exfoliation that is eroded to consequently shape peninsular rocks and walls. The latter is eroded to form the canyon’s arches and, with time, it is reduced to hoodoos.

Geologic History of Bryce Canyon

The surface of the Bryce Canyon National Park consists mainly of rocks belonging to the Tertiary, Cretaceous, and Jurassic periods. The Bryce Canyon has been scientifically proved to exist over sixty million years during the Eocene epoch of the Tertiary Period. Sixty million years ago, the territory of the Bryce Canyon was covered with waters of inland seas and lakes. The long-term exposure to water erosion led to two thousand feet deposit of large amount of silt, lime, and sand. As s result of severe storms and changes in weather, it has evolved into a unique geological area (Foos, 2011). The region was shaped by numerous mudslides, volcano eruptions, and water erosions, which moved sediment and stimulated deposition of different minerals in the canyon’s layers. The major result of the changes that occurred in the area was related to the accumulation of sand, gravel, and sedimentary within the basin of the inland sea. With time, the forenamed accumulations hardened and transformed into the compounds of the Claron rock formations of the canyon hoodoo sculptures. The first premises of the canyon formation were preconditioned by extensive interior seaway located in the Western interior basin of North America. The Bryce Canyon geological history comprises two major historical periods: the Mesozoic and the Cenozoic periods. Clearly, the Mesozoic rocks are tapped by Cenozoic rocks because of intense regional erosion.

• The Mesozoic Period. The Mesozoic rocks, specifically Jurassic age rocks at Bryce Canyon, begin the record of the surface geologic history in the area with limestone, dolomites, sandstones, and shale. As the Jurassic period lasted for more than hundred million years, it provided invasion of shallow seawater to the northeast-southwest border of Utah. The latter margin was pertained to relate to the Andean-type formations, which similarly provoked volcanic activity in the seduction areas. The described process is traced nowadays in the mountain system of the Andes (Foos, 2011).
• The Cenozoic Period. It is addressed as a more modern period of the canyon development that happened roughly forty million years ago. The forenamed segment was distinguished by the arrangement of the upper levels of hoodoos consisting of the Claron Formation or the Bryce Limestone. The Claron Formation appeared in the result of local basins filled with sediments, creating hoodoos, amphitheatres, and other outstanding geological shapes observed at Bryce Canyon today.

Plate tectonics is a complex theoretical notion in geology due to its ability to clarify and elucidate the geological history of the surface of Earth. Bryce Canyon in Utah is an outstanding example of the insight brought by plate tectonics. According to the theory of plate tectonics, minerals and multiple vertical structures found in the canyon uncover the geological history in terms of what happened in the geologic past of the area. It has been proved that cliffs presented at Bryce Canyon were initially formed at the sea level. This answers the question of the origin of the presently observed mountain plateau formed by sedimentary accumulations. Severe volcanic eruptions experienced in the canyon’s region consequently led to the formation of various faults and specifically volcanic rocks. Evidently, throughout the history, Bryce Canyon has survived much weather- and climate-related stress. Modern convergent plate boundaries present many of the same volcanic rocks and faults. Elevation of the site indicates that tectonic forces uplifted the entire era. The uplift observed at Bryce Canyon is obviously the result of a regional tectonic activity. After it occurred, the area began to erode, creating a valley filled with water from rivers, frost, gravity slides, and winds. The theory of plate tectonics is to be perceived as the driving force of comprehending processes occurring on the planet millions of years ago and processes that are to be expected in the coming centuries.

Healthy Eating Plate vs. USDA’s MyPlate

The Healthy Eating Plate , created by experts at Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and Harvard Medical School, points consumers to the healthiest choices in the major food groups. The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) MyPlate , though it has been revised to reflect some key findings, still doesn’t offer the most complete picture when it comes to basic nutrition advice.

The Healthy Eating Plate is based exclusively on the best available science and was not subjected to political or commercial pressures from food industry lobbyists. Here’s a table showing how the Healthy Eating Plate compares to the USDA’s MyPlate, section by section.

• Learn more about the Healthy Eating Plate
• Read the press release about the Healthy Eating Plate launch on September 14, 2011.

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Plate Tectonics Theory and Its Development Essay

The theory of plate tectonics was introduced by the Canadian geophysicist John Tuzo Wilson (Garrison and Ellis 74). According to Wilson’s theory, the Earth’s outer layer is composed of nearly “dozen separate major lithospheric plates” that float on the asthenosphere (Garrison and Ellis 74). When the deformable asthenosphere is heated from below, it expands, becomes less dense, and rises (Garrison and Ellis 74).

When the asthenosphere reaches the lithosphere, it turns aside, “lifting and cracking the crust” to create the plate edges (Garrison and Ellis 74). The newly shaped pair of plates slides down to the swelling ridges that deviate from the spreading center. In the location of divergence, the new seabed is formed (Garrison and Ellis 74). Larger plates contain continental crust as well as oceanic ones. The major plates jostle about “like huge slabs of ice on a warming lake” (Garrison and Ellis 74).

In human terms, the movement of plates is rather slow, reaching up to 5 centimeters per year. The interaction between plates occurs in diverging, converging, and sideways-moving boundaries (Garrison and Ellis 74). Frequently, one plate may force another wrinkle into mountains or move it below the surface. There are two forces that may cause plate movement:

• plates are shaped and slide off the elevated ridges of the spreading centers;
• plates are tugged downward into the mantle by their edges that are dense and cool.

The evidence of many centuries of research indicates that the slow movement of plate tectonics recreates the Earth’s surface, shapes or destroys ocean basins, and splits or expands continents (Garrison and Ellis 74). The ancient granitic continents, the density of which is low, ride high in the lithospheric plates, barging on the asthenosphere that moves below them at a slow pace. This process has advanced since the Earth’s crust’s initial cooling and solidifying (Garrison and Ellis 76). Tectonic plates are defined as the cool external layers of convection currents in the upper mantle (Garrison and Ellis 74).

The system of plates is powered by heat. Because some parts of the mantle are heated more than others, convection currents are created when warm mantle material ascends, and cool material descends (Garrison and Ellis 75). The movement of plates is generated by gravity.

The concept of plate tectonics was developed from the ideas of continental drift (Garrison and Ellis 74). The theory of continental drift was introduced by the German researcher Alfred Wegener at the beginning of the 20th century (Tate). Wegener noticed that the fossil remains of some extinct plants or animals could be discovered on several continents that were not adjacent to each other (Tate). The observations allowed Wagner to make a conclusion that in the distant past, the configuration of continents was not the same as at the time of his research. Wegener’s discovery received the title “continental drift” (Tate).

The theory of continental drift fits in the discussion of plate tectonics because both of these phenomena result in considerable changes in the Earth’s surface. Critics rejected the possibility of continental drift due to the geological view of Earth’s mantle (Garrison and Ellis 62). However, scientists continued to develop Wegener’s theory. In particular, Japanese scientists Kiyoo Wadati and Hugo Benioff argue that volcanoes and earthquakes near Japan may be related to continental drift (Garrison and Ellis 73).

Works Cited

Garrison, Tom, and Robert Ellis. Oceanography: An Invitation to Marine Science . 9th ed., CENGAGE Learning, 2016.

Tate, Karl. “ Plate Tectonics and Continental Drift (Infographic). ” LiveScience . 2016. Web.

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MyPlate: Understanding the Dietary Guidelines for Americans

Katerina Kerska, National Center for Health Research

An important goal of the U.S. government is to help guide adults and children to be as healthy as possible. One way to do so has been to make dietary recommendations as visual representations of nutrition guidelines. You may be familiar with the “Food Pyramid” or “MyPyramid,” but the most recent diagram is called “MyPlate.” The dietary recommendations are updated every 5 years to keep up with current research and health data. The most recent update of the Dietary Guidelines came out in 2020, and it uses an updated MyPlate visual model.

The 2020 MyPlate model, shown below, shows a plate containing the five food groups (fruits, vegetables, proteins, grains, and dairy) in a place setting [1] . It is designed to help you to visualize how much of your plate should be taken up by a particular food group.

photo from  myplate.gov

How Does MyPlate Work?

The MyPlate image is a plate that is divided into four sections, with each section representing how much of each food group you should eat. Vegetables make up the largest section, followed by grains. Together, fruits and vegetables fill half the plate while proteins and grains fill the other half.

It may surprise you that MyPlate does not include meat as one of the 5 food groups. Instead, the category “protein” includes fish, shellfish, eggs, beans, peas, nuts, seeds, and soy products, in addition to meat.

A small blue circle on the side of the plate represents dairy. The latest USDA Guidelines include fortified soy alternatives in this category.

This simple model is designed to make it easy for consumers to see what an ideal meal should look like, without too many restrictive details. For specific food group amount recommendations, refer to the  MyPlate website  or the  full Dietary Guidelines .

Some critics of MyPlate say it shouldn’t include dairy, which they argue is unnecessary for a healthy diet. Critics also say it is important to give information about the size of the plate and the portions because different people have very different ideas about how large a “portion” is.

How To Plan Family Meals Using MyPlate

The nutrition information in MyPlate is based on a set of recommendations called “Dietary Guidelines for Americans [2] . The guidelines provide detailed instructions for planning healthy meals and snacks for all ages and life stages, such as recommendations for women who are breastfeeding or for toddlers. These guidelines are fairly long, but here some key points:

• Make half of your plate fruits and vegetables. Try to choose whole or cut-up fruits without added sugars, and vary your vegetables; try different types as well as cooking them in different ways (raw, steamed, roasted, sauteed). However, try to avoid fried vegetables. Try to choose a variety of colors when picking out your vegetables.
• Move to low-fat or fat-free dairy options. Lactose-free or fortified soy versions are also recommended.
• At least half of your grains should be whole grains. Look on labels for the word “whole”– not multigrain or seven-grain. Brown rice and whole-wheat pasta also count. Try to stay away from grain-based desserts and snacks, such as baked goods.
• Vary your protein. Try different types, such as seafood, eggs, beans, unsalted nuts, soy products, lean meat, and poultry.
• If consuming alcohol, do so in moderation. Limit your intake to 2 drinks or less a day for men and 1 drink a day or less for women.
• Limit added sugars, sodium, and saturated fat. 

Other Guidelines For Healthy Eating

The USDA Dietary Guidelines encourage Americans to use MyPlate as a tool to plan healthy meals [2] . They also outline 4 guidelines to “make every bite count”:

• Follow a healthy dietary pattern at every life stage. Your eating patterns — what you eat most of the time– are important. Think of how you and members of your family can shift to a healthier eating pattern. The Guidelines give specific recommendations for all ages across the lifespan. The full set of recommendations can be found  here .
• Customize your choices. Eating healthy can still be enjoyable! The new guidelines provide advice on how to include personal preferences, cultural traditions, and varying budgets when choosing foods to eat.
• Eat Nutrient Dense Foods. Nutrient-dense foods are full of vitamins and minerals that promote health. They have little added sodium, sugar, or saturated fats. Examples of nutrient-dense foods are fruits, vegetables, whole grains, eggs, seafood, beans and lentils, unsalted nuts and seeds, lean meat, and poultry. Fresh, unprocessed foods have the most nutritional value.
• Limit Foods and Drinks with Added Sugar, Sodium, Saturated Fats. It is recommended that at least 85% of calories come from nutrient-dense foods while no more than 15% come from other sources. Look for ways to make healthy swaps such as water instead of soda or plain, low-fat yogurt instead of full-fat yogurt, or flavored yogurt with added sugars. Many foods such as dried fruits, granola bars, fruit juices, and condiments like ketchup or pasta sauces can often be full of hidden sugars or salt. Take advantage of nutrition labels to help you choose food and drinks that contain less sodium, fat, and added sugar.

For more guidance, the USDA offers the  MyPlate.gov  website. You can use the website’s  MyPlate Tools   to create a personalized plan just for you. It also has other resources to help you find healthy recipes, calculate your caloric needs, work within your budget, and learn more about how to maintain a healthy diet. Alternatively, there is now a MyPlate App to help you make healthy choices on a daily basis.

The Bottom Line

MyPlate can be a helpful basic guideline for people of all ages to know how much to eat from each food group, but it’s important to also follow the additional guidelines above for healthy eating. By eating unprocessed, nutrient-dense foods and limiting sugars and saturated fats, Americans at any age can begin forming healthy eating patterns.

If you are interested in reading more about diet and nutrition, you can check out these articles:

Eating Habits that Improve Health and Lower Body Mass Index

Obesity in America: Are You Part of the Problem

Ten Easy Tips to Get Your Family Eating Healthy

The Cost of Obesity: A Higher Price For Women

Is When You Eat Just as Important as What You Eat?

All articles are reviewed and approved by  Dr. Diana Zuckerman and other senior staff.

The National Center for Health Research  is a nonprofit, nonpartisan research, education and advocacy organization that analyzes and explains the latest medical research and speaks out on policies and programs. We do not accept funding from pharmaceutical companies or medical device manufacturers.  Find out how you can support us here.

• MyPlate.gov. United States Department of Agriculture.   http://www.choosemyplate.gov/index.html
•  U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.  Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2020-2025. 9th Edition . December 2020.  https://www.dietaryguidelines.gov/

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Hanckwitz's Essay on engraving and copper-plate printing rediscovered

2019, Journal of the Printing Historical Society

Hanckwitz’s poem An essay on engraving and copperplate printing is the earliest description in English of a copperplate printer’s workshop and provides an insight into the status of engraving in the eighteenth century. It has been regularly cited but before the recent discovery of a single copy in Paris its contents have been unknown. This article includes an annotated transcript of the poem and sets it in the context of the business of rolling press printing. Included are the costs of apprenticeships, setting up in business and wages for this and other printing trades extracted from a neglected source, Kersley’s table of trades (1786).

Related Papers

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The prints and accompanying ephemera (trade cards, flyers and proposals for subscription) displayed serve to stress the all-important role of publishers in commissioning and disseminating prints of every sort. Copper Impressions aims to illustrate what might have been printed on Michael Phillips's working replica of a wooden intaglio rolling press, at present here in the Library and so very like the one in Abraham Bosse's Traicté des Manieres de Graver en Taille Douce....& d'en Construire la Presse... (Dean Aldrich's copy of the book was on display); constructions of its type were still current in the 18th-century (though it must be admitted that this particular press is too small to have accommodated the large plates by Sharp and Simon, published by Macklin and Boydell). William Hogarth was an artist who jealously published his own works; Boydell and Macklin were entrepreneurs. A fourth display case gave a glimpse of those who inhabited the milieu in which painters, printmakers and publishers plied their wares. This exhibition, curated by Nicholas Stogdon and Cristina Neagu, was punctuated by several printing workshops conducted by Michael Phillips. It opened with talks on aspects of 18th century engraving, followed by a workshop on printing from relief-etched copper plates.

The Book Collector

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This article describes the process of printing from copper plates followed by an attempt at the analytical bibliography of engravings in books, from which I have tried to discover how engravings are printed when they are made specifically for inclusion in books, something about which the early manuals are silent. Finally I make some suggestions about descriptive bibliography.

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This essay examines new developments and trends in the study of eighteenth-century prints, with a particular focus on reproductive engraving, book illustration, fine art etching, and caricature. Recent studies demonstrate an increasingly theoretical engagement with the production and reception of prints and assert the centrality of prints and printmaking to the field of art history. Digital scanning and database technology have dramatically expanded scholarly access to the printed page, posing both opportunities and challenges to the conceptualization of the Enlightenment print.

Barry F . W . Cottrell

This essay tells the story about the material origins of copperplate engraving in late Gothic and early modern Europe; how its rapid evolution into a mature graphic art form by the end of the 15th century was triggered by a concatenation of innovations in key medieval technologies, especially in the making and widespread use of paper.

THE DRIVEN LINE–HUMAN EVOLUTION AND ENGRAVING

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In F. Oser, U. Renold, E. John, E. Winther & S. Weber (Eds.), VET Boost: Towards a theory of professional competencies. Essays in honor of Frank Achtenhagen, (pp. 315-334). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.

Åsa Mäkitalo

The topic of this chapter is the art and skill of making engravings. It might seem somewhat odd, perhaps even exotic, to introduce this craft as part of a discussion about modern vocational training and its problems in high-tech societies with technology-intensive production systems. Making engravings is a very marginal activity on the fringes of the modern labour market, and very few people learn this as a craft and in order to make a living. However, there are, in our opinion, some good reasons for scrutinizing this ancient craft in some detail, since its development has something to tell us about human skills, social practices, identities of craftspeople and technological change.

Liverpool University Press

Caroline Parre

Emília Ferreira

Why exhibit engravings? Is engraving an art? Old doubts, which remain intact in the minds of many. And yet, engraving has lived with us for centuries, in books, on the walls of our houses, in the maps that enlighten us about the ways of the world. This prosaic proximity has drawn us away from its artistic nature. And yet, in spite of massification, the presence of engraving in our daily lives has rarely been modest. Apparently simple to define (a technique that employs an engraved material to make prints) reality proves to be richer and more surprising. In this text I aimed to explore the history of this discipline — so closely related to drawing — and to take the pulse of some contemporary approaches to its artistic nature.

It is a well-known and established fact that the origins of early print making bare a close relationship with goldsmith workshops, with Albrecht Dürer as the most celebrated representative of this development. Surprisingly, the printed output of these early engravers for goldsmith- and architectural design is a field which gained little attention by print scholars so far. This paper examines the professional position and production of this particular new genre of ornament prints from goldsmith-engravers in the Low Countries such as the architect Alart DuHameel (c. 1460 – c. 1506) or the anonymous Master W with the Key (active c. 1465-85). A major part of these engravers’ output consisted of designs for metalwork such as reliquaries, censors, chalices or crosiers. By providing designs for a wide range of craftsmen - ranging from architects, over wood carvers to goldsmiths – this group of goldsmith-engravers can be interpreted as intermediate players in the dissemination of geometrical designing knowledge to a great variety of media. This paper addresses issues such as the dissemination of design skills, the practical and aesthetic function of design prints, the interdisciplinary crossovers between craftsmen by printed media, and the self-representation of the artist by the use of house marks and monograms.

LESSON PLAN FOR ENGLISH TEACHERS

On my plate.

Level: Pre-intermediate (A2-B1)

Type of English: General English

Tags: IELTS B2 First (FCE) emails, letters and texts health and wellbeing food and drink

Publication date: 07/26/2021

Students define vocabulary and briefly discuss opinions about food choices before reading an essay (or composition) about organic food. They identify some of the key grammatical structures before considering what features make an essay successful, especially if it is written for an exam. They then gain some practice in using these features before planning and writing an essay of their own. There is also a short optional speaking activity related to food memories. Some exercises in the lesson review language points from units 37-46 of the course plan, but the lesson plan can also stand alone. It also supports students who are looking ahead to the Cambridge B2 First exam or who are preparing for IELTS.

by Stephanie Hisrchman

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