multi purpose stadium case study

U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis by HKS

U.S. Bank Stadium is a multi-purpose stadium located in downtown Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States. It is the home stadium of the Minnesota Vikings of the National Football League (NFL) and has a seating capacity of 66,655 for most events, but it can be expanded to up to 73,000 for concerts and other special events. The architecture firm HKS, Inc. designed the stadium and opened to the public in July 2016. The stadium’s unique design features a large, transparent roof that allows natural light to filter in while protecting spectators from the elements . The stadium’s exterior is made of a combination of metal panels and glass, and its angular shape gives it a distinctive, futuristic look.

Inside, the stadium features state-of-the-art amenities, including high-definition video boards, a large sound system, and numerous luxury suites and club areas. The stadium’s seating bowl is designed to provide excellent sightlines for all spectators, and its retractable seating system allows the stadium to be transformed into a variety of configurations to accommodate different types of events. 

What went behind designing U.S. Bank Stadium?

The planning of U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis began in 2007, when the Minnesota Vikings football team began exploring options for a new stadium to replace the outdated Metrodome. The team and the state of Minnesota eventually agreed to a public-private partnership to finance the new stadium, with the Vikings contributing $477 million and the state contributing $348 million. The architectural firm HKS was chosen to design the new stadium, and they worked closely with the Vikings, the Minnesota Sports Facilities Authority, and other stakeholders throughout the planning process. The stadium’s design went through several iterations before the final plan was approved in 2013. One of the key considerations was the stadium’s location, which is situated on a tight site in downtown Minneapolis. HKS designed the stadium to fit within this site, while still providing ample space for seating, amenities, and parking.

HKS drew inspiration from the natural surroundings of Minnesota, incorporating angular shapes and dynamic lines that evoke the ice formations found on nearby lakes and rivers. Another key aspect of HKS’s design philosophy was sustainability. The stadium was designed to be environmentally friendly, with features like a green roof and energy-efficient systems that help reduce its carbon footprint. HKS also prioritised fan experience in its design of U.S. Bank Stadium . The stadium features a variety of seating options, including club seats and luxury suites, as well as multiple restaurants and bars. The massive pivoting doors at the west end of the stadium offer stunning views of the Minneapolis skyline, while the transparent roof allows fans to enjoy the beauty of the outdoors without being exposed to the elements. Overall, HKS’s design philosophy for U.S. Bank Stadium was centred on creating a modern, sustainable, and fan-focused venue that reflects the unique character of Minnesota. The stadium has become an iconic landmark in Minneapolis and has played a key role in the revitalisation of the city’s downtown area.

Construction Techniques and Materials Used by HKS | U.S. Bank Stadium

U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis utilised several innovative construction techniques and materials to achieve its unique design and functionality. Here are some examples:

• ETFE roof installation: One of the most innovative techniques used in the construction of the stadium was the installation of the ETFE roof. Instead of using traditional scaffolding or cranes, a custom-built “spider crane” was used to lift and position the roof panels into place. This allowed for a more efficient and precise installation process.
• Pivoting doors: The stadium’s west end features two massive pivoting doors that can open and close to allow for outdoor events or increased ventilation. The doors were custom-designed and engineered to withstand high winds and extreme weather conditions.
• Reinforced concrete seating: The stadium’s seating bowl is made of precast concrete and reinforced with steel, which provides a sturdy and durable foundation for the seating areas. This technique allowed for a faster and more efficient construction process while also ensuring the safety and comfort of fans.
• Timber trusses: The stadium’s ETFE roof is supported by a series of timber trusses, which were custom-designed and engineered to meet the unique requirements of the stadium. The use of timber trusses allowed for a more sustainable and environmentally friendly construction process while also creating a warm and inviting atmosphere inside the stadium.
• Custom metal panels: The exterior of the stadium is clad in metal panels made of a high-performance aluminium composite material that is lightweight, weather-resistant, and durable. The panels were custom-designed and engineered to meet the unique requirements of the stadium’s complex geometry.
• Glass: Glass was used in several stadium areas, including the massive windows on the north and south sides and the pivoting doors at the west end. The use of glass allows natural light to enter the stadium and creates a connection between the interior and exterior spaces.

Overall, the construction of U.S. Bank Stadium was a complex and challenging project requiring high expertise and innovation. Advanced construction techniques, such as the spider crane, custom-designed pivoting doors, reinforced concrete seating, and timber trusses, allowed HKS and the construction team to bring their vision for the stadium to life. The result is a stunning and iconic venue that has become a symbol of the city of Minneapolis.

• Sustainability

Sustainability was an important consideration in the design and construction of the U.S. Bank Stadium, and the stadium has implemented several features and practices to minimise its environmental impact. Here are some examples:

• LEED certification : The stadium has achieved LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) certification at the Gold level, the second-highest certification level offered by the U.S. Green Building Council. This certification recognises the stadium’s sustainable design and construction practices.
• Green roof: The stadium has a 2.5-acre green roof, which helps to reduce the urban heat island effect and provides natural insulation for the building. The roof also captures rainwater, which is then used to irrigate the surrounding landscape .
• Energy efficiency: The stadium is designed to be highly energy-efficient. It features a low-energy HVAC system, LED lighting, and a building automation system that optimises energy use based on occupancy and other factors. Additionally, the stadium has a green roof that helps to reduce heat island effect.
• Renewable energy : The stadium has a 2.25-megawatt solar array installed on its roof, generating enough electricity to power its LED lighting system. In addition, the stadium has a partnership with a local utility company to purchase wind energy credits, which offset the stadium’s energy consumption.
• Water conservation: The stadium has a rainwater collection system that captures and stores rainwater for use in irrigation and other non-potable water applications. The stadium also features water-efficient plumbing fixtures and a system that recycles water from the ice-making process.
• Sustainable materials: The stadium was constructed using sustainable materials, including recycled steel and concrete, and locally sourced materials were used whenever possible to reduce transportation emissions.
• Recycling and waste management: The stadium has implemented a comprehensive recycling and waste management program, which includes recycling stations throughout the facility and a system for composting food waste.
• Bike facilities: The stadium has bike racks and a bike valet service, encouraging fans to use alternative modes of transportation and reducing the number of cars on the road.

In conclusion, the design of the U.S. Bank Stadium is a striking example of modern architecture. Its angular shape, use of metal panels and glass, and transparent roof create a futuristic and visually stunning exterior. The stadium’s angular shape, metal panel, and glass exterior give it a distinctive look that has become an iconic part of the Minneapolis skyline. e. Inside, the stadium features state-of-the-art amenities and a seating bowl that provides excellent sightlines for all spectators. The retractable seating system allows for various configurations, making it a versatile space for hosting various events. The stadium’s design successfully balances form and function, creating a unique and iconic venue that has become a source of pride for Minneapolis. 

References 

• Joel Hoekstra. U.S. Bank Stadium [online]. Available at: https://www.aia-mn.org/us-bank-stadium/ [Accessed on 3 rd May, 2023].
• Mark A. Williams (2018). U.S. Bank Stadium Innovation Reveal [online]. Available at: https://www.hksinc.com/our-news/articles/u-s-bank-stadium-design-innovation-reveal/ [Accessed on 3 rd May, 2023]
• Wikipedia, (2023). U.S. Bank Stadium [online]. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Bank_Stadium [Accessed on 3 rd May, 2023; Edited on 1 st May, 2023]
• Vector Foiltec (2023) . U.S. Bank Stadium [online]. Available at: https://www.vector-foiltec.com/de/projects/u-s-bank-stadium-transparent/ [Accessed on 4 th May, 2023]
• Naasir Akailvi (2023). Report: $231 million needed to maintain U.S. Bank Stadium for next decade [online]. Available at: https://www.kare11.com/article/news/local/231-million-needed-to-maintain-us-bank-stadium-for-next-decade/89-9cdbb206-b877-47ee-b3aa-205bf03b5c68 [Accessed on 4 th May, 2023]
• ALSD, (2018). Dive Deep into U.S. Bank Stadium, the Home of the Minnesota Vikings and Super Bowl LII [YouTube Video]. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NtIeuAdhJXw [Accessed on 3 rd May, 2023].

Anushree Nehra is an architect and Urban Designer who has worked in more than 40 cities in India within just 4 years. She's got eyes to see beyond what's visible. The relationship between traditional and contemporary concepts intrigues her and she wishes to unfold them through her writings.

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U.S. Bank Stadium

• United States of America (USA)

Other - Leisure facility

Budget: USD 975 million

Construction complete. The Stadium has been hosting events since 2016.

The State of Minnesota is one of the most progressive states in the United States (US) with high standards of living and civic participation. It has set ambitious goals for the inclusion of more women, ethnic minorities, veterans and lower income residents in large infrastructure developments. They are aimed at ensuring all members of the community have access to procurement opportunities during the design, construction and operation phases.

Targeted Stakeholders

• Low-income groups
• Women and girls
• Minority groups
• People living with a disability
• Women- and minority-owned businesses

Project Overview

Why of interest.

Transparent state regulations to increase the involvement of women and minority groups in urban development projects

Robust governance and monitoring processes extended to all contractors

Transparent web-based reporting system used to monitor integration of target groups

Establishment of a Task Force for daily monitoring and supervision

Oversight Committee to manage the execution of the Equity Plan with monthly meetings for all stakeholders

Project Objectives

Achieve the highest possible distribution of benefits to target women, minorities and low-income residents in Minnesota

Reduce discrimination, social inequality and disparity in large infrastructure projects

Make every effort to ensure contractors and subcontractors, vendors and concessionaires employ women, members of minority communities and lower socioeconomic residents when hiring

Work with employment assistance firms to recruit, hire, and retain female, minority and low-income workers during the construction phase

Project Lifecycle Assessment

Project preparation -  a detailed study titled the Disparity Study was conducted in 2010 to identify the status of discrimination against small, minority- and women-owned businesses in Minnesota.

Project procurement -  design and construction contracts included a specific percentage of work to be awarded to the target groups.

Construction -  ensuring all aspects of the Equity Plan were implemented, in particular supervision and monitoring of contractors and vendors.

Project monitoring and evaluation –web-based database for monitoring and collecting data. The Equity Oversight Committee reported monthly on performance against goals.

A state-led program to encourage more women and minorities to pursue the employment and business opportunities created by the construction of a major sporting and events stadium.

The U.S. Bank Stadium (the Stadium) is the centrepiece of Minnesota’s redevelopment plan [1] and has a strong social inclusion agenda aimed at benefitting local communities. The Stadium is owned and operated by the Minnesota Sports Facilities Authority (the Authority), which was also responsible for its design and build.

The project aims to maximise economic, fiscal and social benefits for the State of Minnesota (the State) and its communities. Several initiatives that aimed to promote an inclusive agenda were implemented throughout its design, construction and operation, and were set out in an Equity Plan.

The Equity Plan was developed following a mandate by the State, which aimed to ensure its socially inclusive values and vision were reflected in the design and construction of projects. It is part of wider efforts to increase social inclusiveness and reduce discrimination and disparity. On completion of the Stadium, the Equity Plan was extended by the Authority to cover the operations phase. 

The Equity Plan includes pragmatic goals to integrate women, minorities and low-income residents into the workforce, and women- and minority-owned businesses into the design and construction activities of the project. Specifically, the Equity Plan outlines how to provide employment and equal access to labour market opportunities, and establishes goals for contracts to be awarded to capable, available and willing women- and minority-owned businesses (refer to Table 1: Target goals and additional achievements of the Equity Plan). Veterans and low-income residents were also included in employment initiatives, with much of the engagement led by specialised employment assistance firms.

Table 1: Target goals and additional achievements of the Equity Plan

Project Description

The U.S. Bank Stadium is an indoor, multi-purpose venue located in the City of Minneapolis, Minnesota, the second largest economic centre in the Midwest of the United States (US). It is the home stadium of the professional American football team, the Minnesota Vikings, which is part of the National Football League (NFL). The Stadium is designed to reflect the climate, culture and vision of the city. The facility hosts major national and international events that bring economic, fiscal and social benefits to the State. 

The Stadium is owned and operated by the Minnesota Sports Facilities Authority, which was also mandated to design and build the facility. Initial redevelopment proposals started in 2007. In 2012, funding was approved by the Minnesota State Legislature and the Minneapolis City Council. Construction started in 2013, followed by the opening of the Stadium in 2016.

The 66,200-seat stadium has a 12,300 m² (137,000 ft²) floor area, plus six club spaces that seat up to 65,400 fans, expanding to 72,000 for concerts and other major events. The seven-level stadium includes two general admission concourses, 116 suites, 8,000 club seats, 430 concessions stands, gift shops, restaurants and the Vikings Football museum. 

The Minnesota Vikings provided USD 477 million to finance the Stadium, the State put forward USD 348 million, and USD 150 million was funded through a hospitality tax in Minneapolis. The City of Minneapolis will pay a total of USD 678 million, including financing costs, over the 30-year life of the Stadium, which covers operations and construction costs.

The Authority was mandated by the State to promote the involvement of women and members of minority communities in the design and construction of the project, as described in the Minnesota Statutes - 473J.12 Employment (as outlined below in the Policy regulation and standards section). An Equity Plan was formulated by the Authority to apply the law to the design and construction of the project. After the completion of the Stadium, the Equity Plan was extended to include the operations phase. 

The purpose of the Plan is to implement the Authority’s statutory mandate to promote the employment of women, members of minority communities [2] and low-income residents, create an employment program, hold a job fair, establish goals for construction contracts to be awarded to women- and minority-owned businesses, and establish workforce utilisation goals as required by the Minnesota City Council [3] . The Equity Plan includes a transparent procurement, management and monitoring process that enables contractors, vendors and other organisations to be held accountable for meeting agreed targets. 

Construction required 4.5 million work hours and created 7,500 construction jobs. Of those jobs, 36% were positions held by minorities, 9% by women, and 4% by veterans. In addition, 90% of the construction budget (a total of USD 400 million) was allocated to local businesses, of which 16% were owned by women, 12% were minority-owned and 1% were businesses owned by veterans. 

This work illustrates a number of Action Areas, including  project planning, development and delivery with a particular focus on women and minorities. Specifically, women, minorities and low-income residents were hired during the design and construction of the Stadium, through the Equity Plan’s procurement framework. Specifically, women, minorities and low-income residents were hired during the design and construction of the Stadium, through the Equity Plan’s procurement framework. The appointed architect and contractor had specific goals to meet in relation to working with target groups. In addition, women- and minority-owned businesses were employed under direct supervision of the Authority to complete stadium construction works. The inclusivity focus has been mandated by law so there is also a regulatory context, linked to the Action Area on policy, regulation and standards . Although not specifically elaborated on in this case study, governance and capacity building is another Action Area the Equity Plan addresses, with a leadership team set up to ensure outcomes were achieved.

Key Practices Identified and Applied

Statement of the issue in relation to inclusion and brief introduction.

In the past, the State has tried to understand and remedy discrimination against minority- and women-owned businesses as part of contract and procurement activities undertaken by the City of Minneapolis. Based on a detailed study, titled the Disparity Study, it was identified that ‘ minorities and women are substantially and significantly less likely to own their own businesses. This results from marketplace discrimination in comparison to what would be expected based upon their observable characteristics, including age, education, geographic location and industry. The study finds that these groups also suffer substantial and significant earnings disadvantages relative to comparable non-minority males, whether they work as employees or entrepreneurs ’ [4] . Such disparities are symptoms of discrimination in the labour force, stifling opportunities for minorities and women to progress on equal terms. The disparities reflect more than societal discrimination, as they demonstrate the nexus between discrimination in the job market and reduced entrepreneurial opportunities for minorities and women [5] .

How inclusivity has been addressed

The identified practice is the establishment of an Equity Plan to ensure women, minorities and low-income residents were integrated into the workforce, and women- and minority-owned businesses had the chance to bid for design and construction contracts on a major public project.

The Equity Plan, which defines and governs all inclusivity aspects in relation to the project, is examined in this case study to identify how inclusivity has been promoted in this project. The State has introduced a number of initiatives and regulations to tip the balance back in favour of women and minorities. An example is an ordinance issued for a Small and Underutilised Business Program to assist small, minority- and women-owned businesses in finding new opportunities [6] .

The case study examines the Equity Plan, as well as the management and monitoring structure that was put in place to ensure the agreed targets were met. A bespoke web-based reporting platform is of particular interest, as it is an innovative, transparent and effective way of monitoring contractual obligations in relation to agreed inclusivity targets.

This case study also analyses how the Authority complies with and applies state law [7] to integrate women and minorities in the workforce and involve businesses owned by women and minorities in the design and construction of the Stadium.

Policy, Regulation and Standards

Implementation.

The Authority developed the Equity Plan to define its project-specific inclusivity targets under the following law:

2017 Minnesota Statutes - 473J.12 EMPLOYMENT

• Subdivision 1. Hiring and recruitment

In the design, development, construction, management, operation, maintenance, and capital repair, replacement, and improvement of the stadium and stadium infrastructure, the authority shall make every effort to employ, and cause the National Football League (NFL) team, the construction manager and other subcontractors, vendors, and concessionaires to employ women and members of minority communities when hiring. In addition, the authority shall contract with an employment assistance firm, preferably minority-owned, or owned by a disabled individual or a woman, to create an employment program to recruit, hire and retain minorities for the stadium facility. The authority shall hold job fair and recruit and advertise at Minneapolis Urban League, Sabathani, American Indian Opportunities Industrialization Centre (OIC), Youth build organizations, and other such organizations. Further, goals for construction contracts to be awarded to women- and minority-owned businesses will be in a percentage at least equal to the minimum used for city of Minneapolis development projects, and the other construction workforce will establish workforce utilization goals at least equal to current city goals and include workers from city zip codes that have high rates of poverty and unemployment.

In compliance with the above legislation, the Authority applied inclusivity targets to integrate women and minorities in the workforce and involve businesses owned by women and minorities in the design and construction of the Stadium. As demonstrated in the table below, the project exceeded its required targets, achieving greater integration of women and members of minority groups, as well as integrating veterans and low-income residents.

Whilst these figures may seem quite modest, it is reported that no other project in Minnesota history has achieved this level of diversity.

Project Planning, Development and Delivery

The Equity Program [8] consists of separate Equity Plans for the Design, Construction, Operations and Capital Improvements for the Stadium. 

The Equity Plan (Construction) establishes the project’s inclusivity targets, employment programs and management and oversight bodies, as detailed below.

Inclusivity targets

The Authority’s participation goals for construction-related services were based on the Disparity Study [9] and the gap analysis (see below). The Authority had a legislative mandate to establish and meet goals for the percentage of Stadium construction contracts that would be awarded to capable women- and minority-owned businesses. This percentage was at least equal to the minimum used for City of Minneapolis development projects. The calculation of the goals by the Authority was established using the following:

• the National Economic Research Associates, Inc. for the City of Minneapolis report: The State of Minorityand Women-Owned Business Enterprise: Evidence from Minneapolis, dated October 21, 2010 (also referred to as the Disparity Study);
• registrations of businesses confirmed to be minorityor women-owned; and
• relative local disparity. Using the 2010 census as a baseline, local disparity is based on the total number of local construction or related firms to the total number of construction firms.

The goals for the integration of women- and minority owned businesses in the project and the project workforce utilisation goals included in the Equity Plan are shown in Table 2 above.

Gap analysis

The Authority’s Equity Plan Team (the Team) worked with union groups to undertake a gap analysis to examine the projected labour requirements, and the availability, capacity and willingness of the actual workforce in the Minneapolis metropolitan region. By working with the unions, the Team ensured the targets set out in the Plan were realistic and achievable.

The gaps identified were small, which proved the targets were based on actual demand and supply. The outcome of the analysis drove the activities of the various  employment assistance programs (see below) and demonstrated that the unions were able to provide the workforce for the project.

Targeted Business Program

The Targeted Business Program set a goal of 11% and 9% of construction contracts to be awarded to women- and minority-owned Minnesota-based businesses respectively.

The program defined:

• how the goals should be met;
• the parameters to be respected by the construction manager;
• the obligation to act in good faith to meet the goals;
• the requirements for reporting and monitoring;
• the assistance to be provided by the Authority; and
• the consequences if the construction manager failed to meet the goals or failed to make an effort, in good faith, to achieve them.

Veterans Inclusion Program

The Veterans Inclusion Program aimed to ensure veterans had every opportunity to participate in the project, either through direct employment or as the owners of a small business awarded construction contracts.

Workforce Program

This program set a goal for the number of women and people from a minority community included in the workforce, which was 6% and 32% respectively.

Employment assistance firms

The Authority engaged employment assistance firms to recruit, hire and retain workers from the target groups. The firms, many of them owned by women, minorities or people with a disability, worked with the Authority to ensure the project team had the skills and experience it needed to meet its business and inclusion targets.

The Equity Plan Team and the employment assistance firms held job fairs to promote inclusive work opportunities. They worked with organisations such as the Minneapolis Urban League, Summit Academy Opportunities Industrialisation Centre (OIC), Sabathani American Indian Opportunities Industrialization Centre (OIC), and Youthbuild, which help minorities gain new skills and pursue employment opportunities.

Construction Manager Equity Review Panel

The Construction Manager Equity Review Panel (the Panel) is comprised of ten members who provide advisory recommendations regarding a potential construction manager’s experience and commitment to targeting businesses and workforce programs as set out in the Plan. The Panel’s recommendation is included in the hiring decision. A 60-minute interview is conducted and the construction manager is required to answer questions in relation to:

• their experience and accomplishments on projects that had clear goals for the business and workforce;
• the skills and experience of team members who would be involved in executing the Equity Plan;
• references from public agencies that can validate past experience; and
• a detailed description of strategies that will comply with the Equity Plan, including plans for events, outreach activities, and innovative ideas to reduce the barriers for small businesses and increase the participation of minorities and women.

Stadium Equity Oversight Committee

The Authority established the Stadium Equity Oversight Committee (the Committee) to facilitate communication with the community regarding the Plan and issues associated with the development of the Stadium, and to help ensure accountability and transparency.

The Committee is comprised of representatives from the Authority, Minnesota Vikings Football, the employment assistance firms, the construction manager, the construction manager Equity Review Panel and various government departments.

Monthly meetings of the Committee were held, which were open to the general public. Discussions were conducted regarding the execution of the Plan and related issues, and recommendations regarding the Plan were formulated by the Committee for presentation to the Authority.

The Committee’s staff representatives prepared reports that measured progress against achievement of agreed goals specifically with regard to roles performed by minority groups and other targeted groups. The main goal was to share, in a transparent manner, the performance and implementation of the Plan among all stakeholders.

Supervision and monitoring

As outlined above, specific goals and reporting obligations were set out in the Equity Program. Contractors, subcontractors and vendors had to comply with the Authority’s requests to submit data in an electronic format.

Data was submitted to the Authority, as well as to the City of Minneapolis, the Minnesota Department of Human Rights, and other governmental agencies, as directed by the Authority.

Non-compliance, or intentional or reckless false reporting of workforce data, good faith efforts regarding achievement of workforce goals, or the commercially useful function of reported workforce labour by the construction managers, contractors, subcontractors and vendors shall subject them to prosecution and the application of penalties under the Minnesota False Claims Act.

A robust monitoring approach with a web-based database

Contractors, subcontractors and vendors complied with the agreed targets to include businesses owned by women and minorities. On a monthly and cumulative basis throughout the project, contractors, subcontractors and vendors were required to provide certified payrolls for every person who worked on the project, in addition to:

• total hours of employment on the project;
• total hours of employment of women;
• total hours of employment of minorities; and
• employee zip (or post) codes.

A bespoke web-based tool was used for reporting. It provided a platform for all contractors, subcontractors and vendors to share information related to performance requirements on a daily basis. The following inputs were required:

• personal information, such as name, address and phone number;
• certification (minority business enterprise, women business enterprise, veteran, etc.);
• number of employees; and
• previous work experience on the project.

On a weekly basis, a member of the Authority visited the Stadium’s construction site to supervise and randomly check on the accuracy of the data provided through the web-based tool. On a daily basis, all contractors, subcontractors and vendors entered data into the web-based monitoring system. The Team approved new contracts or changes to existing ones to ensure targets were met. In addition, the Team was in touch with contractors and workers every day to understand their challenges and to propose solutions regarding the implementation of the Plan.

How communities are targeted

Communities were supported through:

• employment assistance firms reaching out to relevant individuals and businesses;
• a number of government agencies helping businesses to become certified and eligible to participate in procurement activities;
• non-profit business support organisations helping to develop strategies to reduce the barriers for businesses and create effective communication activities;
• the Equity Plan Team attending meetings and explaining the Targeted Business Program to interested stakeholders;
• support offered to bidders and their subcontractors to help them identify suitable businesses owned by women and minorities;
• ‘meet and greet’ sessions held to introduce construction managers to small businesses owned by women and minorities;
• pre-bid meetings held during the bidding process to answer questions about the Equity Plan;
• providing a ruling on hiring and contracting issues, based on the requirements and procedures set out in the Equity Plan;
• ensuring contractors and vendors approached the employment and sub-contracting processes in good faith; and
• the identification and pre-selection of lower income residents using zip codes (post codes) to ensure local workers were included in the hiring and sub-contracting process.

Benefits Realisation

Identified benefit and benefit description, job creation and equal access to labour market opportunity.

The Equity Plan generated:

• USD 139 million in revenue for women-owned businesses;
• USD 109 million for minority-owned businesses; and
• USD 13 million in revenue for veteran-owned businesses.

This exceeded the previously set inclusivity target goals.

In relation to workforce goals, minority groups were employed on the project for a total of 1.3 million hours (exceeding the initial goal of 32% by an additional 4%) and women spent more than 300,000 hours in the workforce (a 9% share versus the 6% target).

386 workers were hired from marginalised neighbourhoods to increase access to labour opportunities for lower income residents in Minneapolis.

Social equity and social stability

The project helped to address social inequality and discrimination in the labour force, which has stifled opportunities for minorities and women to progress on equal terms. A number of affirmative and proactive initiatives introduced by the Authority have helped to overcome some of the challenges to social equality.

Stakeholders

Key beneficiaries and roles, institutional stakeholders and partners’ roles, lessons learned, success factors.

Strong leadership and a robust governance structure ensured all programs were well managed, implemented and monitored. The Committee played a key role in engaging with stakeholders and governance structures. The Team led the day-to-day operations and implementation of the Plan with the construction managers, contractors and vendors.

Strong partnerships and a collaborative approach  underpinned the successful integration of women- and minority-owned businesses into the day-to-day operational environment. The Team created a forum to openly discuss any challenges and the requirements of the Equity Plan, which, in turn, made collaboration on a micro and macro level much easier.

Transparent web-based reporting tools enabled the Team to monitor the progress of the target groups working at the Stadium each day.

Key challenges

An effective engagement strategy helped contractors, subcontractors and vendors to develop a common understanding of the requirements of the Equity Plan. However, it took time to familiarise people with the new way of monitoring and reporting progress and achieving consistency throughout the process.

Business leaders had to create a culture that would support the Equity Plan’s more inclusive approach but it takes time to change people’s attitudes and behaviour. It would have been easy to fall back into former practices so a consistent approach was required.

Interview with Tittle, A. (2018, 25 July). Equity Director, Minnesota Sports Facilities Authority. (A. Buetler, Interviewer)

Source of top banner image: provided by Alex Tittle, Equity Director for the Minnesota Sports Facilities Authority

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VLK Architects partnered with ASI Group to provide a toilet partition system that would meet their aesthetic, privacy, and durability requirements. With multiple restrooms throughout the facility, the design called for a consistent partition system that would be suitable for the stadium’s main concourse restrooms (which are heavily utilized during games), the field house, and community room restrooms, as well as within the team locker rooms.

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ASI’s proprietary Integrated Privacy™ Stainless Steel Partitions are manufactured with a privacy component on the partition door that overlaps the pilaster on the hinge side and closes flush on the latch side to conceal any sightlines and guarantee privacy.

ASI Group partitions, washroom accessories, lockers, and visual display products are featured in some of the world’s most prominent projects. Whether you’ve been in the AT&T Stadium in Dallas or the Al Thumama Stadium, in Qatar, chances are you’ve seen ASI.

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Original research article, reusing stadiums for a greener future: the circular design potential of football architecture.

• 1 Oslo School of Architecture and Design, Oslo, Norway
• 2 Department of Outdoor-Life Studies, Sport and Physical Education, University of South-Eastern Norway, Bø, Norway

Since the turn of the new Millennium, there has been an increase in efforts to build environmental-friendly sports arenas around the world. Fuelled by large sporting events like the 2000 Sydney Olympics, the ‘Green Games,’ and the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany, stadium architecture has become a vehicle for this trend. So far, the emphasis has primarily been on new arenas, in line with the widespread belief in international architecture of the 2000s that older buildings are less energy-efficient by default. In addition to that comes a conviction that newness is needed to attract sponsors, investors, and larger audiences—a position powered by commercial interest and the idea of the stadium as an ‘urban generator.’ While new stadiums may have a significant potential when it comes to green performability, that does not necessarily mean that older stadiums are surplus to requirements, even from a climate perspective. In this paper, we look critically at the well-established strategy of replacing old stadiums with new ones by questioning the climate impact of new arenas and investigating the reuse potential of existing ones. We carry out in-depth analysis of two existing stadiums, Tynecastle Park in Edinburgh and Stadio Flaminio in Rome. One of them has already gone through renovation to remain in use while the other is vacant but currently under way to be renovated. We bring in fresh perspectives from sports science, preservation, architecture, and circular design theory to explain why older stadiums become obsolete and to challenge the premise of that destiny. The aim is not only to scrutinize the general lack of reuse but also to highlight green strategies which could give existing stadiums a longer life.

Introduction

‘If the twentieth century can be characterized by growth or expansion, the greatest issue for the world in the twenty-first century is shrinkage’ ( Hidetoshi, 2009 , p. 79). According to the Japanese architect Ohno Hidetoshi, the world no longer has the capacity to absorb everything we build, produce and consume. He does not stand alone in this call for downscaling. ‘Enough: The Architecture of Degrowth’ was the heading of the 2019 Oslo Architecture Triennale. The 2021 recipients of the Pritzker Architecture Prize, one of the highest honors in the profession, were Lacaton and Vassall, the French duo whose motto is ‘Never demolish, never replace.’ Similar agendas are currently being voiced by a number of architects and planners inspired by the principles of circular economy, which is an economic system where all forms of waste are minimized through continuous use of resources ( Lacy et al., 2020 ). This is now translating into architecture, design and heritage management as an anti-dote to overspending and waste accumulation in the building industry ( Mercader-Moyano, 2017 ; Charter, 2018 ). The situation is urgent. Fresh statistics from the EU indicate that the building industry accounts for about 50% of all extracted materials in Europe and that the construction sector is responsible for over 35% of the EU's total waste generation ( European Commission, 2020 , p. 3.6).

The main problem, argues the architect Duncan Baker-Brown, is the saturation of production density, consumer goods and building mass of today's society (2017: xiv). We have been building unsustainably for so long that overspending and wastefulness has become the norm. This applies to the world of elite sports, where bigger arenas, higher standards and larger revenue has been the name of the game. Increasingly more spectacular, expensive and complex sport venues stand as symbols of what Kimberley S. Schimmel has called ‘the problematic growth model’ of sports ( Schimmel, 1995 , p. 145), rooted in dreams about boosterism, trickle-down economic benefits, sector expansion and capital investment.

Paradoxically, in light of these excessive tendencies, there is also much talk about sustainability in sport. But if this is supposed to become more than a rhetoric trick to land bids for sporting mega-events ( Kowalska, 2017 , p. 1–10), many aspects must change. The main question we are raising in this article is whether or not there is a potential within the world of sports to embrace circular thinking as an alternative form of governance. In this context we limit our attention to football architecture. What would it take, within this field of obsessive growth-orientation, to embrace degrowth as a principle for future development?

In order to discuss this we draw on three contemporary architectural preservation concepts: Adaptive reuse, maintenance architecture and circular heritage ( Sample, 2016 ; Baker-Brown, 2017 ; Charter, 2018 ; Plevoets and van Cleempoel, 2019 ). Adaptive reuse and maintenance are of particular relevance to our study of two historical stadiums—Tynecastle Park ( Figure 1 ) in Edinburgh and Stadio Flaminio ( Figure 2 ) in Rome—and the quest of keeping them in use. Tynecastle Park was chosen as it represents an example of a socially sustainable solution and an exception to the tendency of professional football clubs moving out from inner city locations to more suburban locations, thus disrupting both social and environmental dimensions of stadium (re)construction. Stadio Flaminio is chosen due to its inner-city location and the ongoing effort to restore it under the guidance of a multi-disciplinary team of preservation experts. This process is an unusual example of a full technical and functional restoration of an historic football stadium, with the aim of re-opening it after a decade of inactivity. There is also an element of pragmatism involved in the selection. The corona pandemic has prevented us from conducting new field work, which meant that we had to rely on our previous studies. It should be noted, however, that there is not an abundance of alternatives, given the low degree of football stadium reuse in Europe.

Figure 1 . Hearts fans enjoying the sun in the new main stand at Tynecastle Park, shortly after it was opened in October 2018 (Credit: Hans K. Hognestad).

Figure 2 . Closed and abandoned: Outside the gates of Stadio Flaminio in September 2017 (Credit: Even Smith Wergeland).

As for key concepts, ‘Heritage’ refers to the historical values at hand, architecturally, socially and sporting-wise, while ‘circular’ comes from the aforementioned field of circular economy. The essence of circular heritage is to take an extended lifecycle perspective that focuses on maximizing value in economic, social, and cultural terms for the longest time possible ( Charter, 2018 ). It is a protest against the urge for new things, an encouragement to reuse, repair, refurbish, remanufacture, and repurpose existing things, and a quest to recycle and recover all buildings that fall into disrepair ( Foster, 2020 ). Our aim is to use this as a platform to cover the technical aspects of football stadium reuse alongside the issue of social sustainability—a much-neglected aspect of recent stadium design, as we argue below.

We blend these architectural preservation perspectives with critical studies of sports mega-events ( Müller, 2015 ; Kowalska, 2017 ; Dendura, 2019 ) and studies of how the cultural practices inside and outside football stadia have been affected by globalization in the age of ‘hypercommodification’ ( Giulianotti, 2002 ). Studies of match-day routines and other forms of supporter engagement with the stadium surroundings are of particular use in this regard ( Brown, 2010 ; Edensor and Millington, 2010 ). We also draw on pioneering contributions like John Bale's ‘Playing at home’ (1991) and subsequent variations over the socio-geographical vocabulary he helped establish in the early 1990s ( Bale, 1993a , b ; Bale and Moen, 1995 ). The article backdrop also includes a selection of previous publications by the two authors of this article within these fields of knowledge ( Hognestad, 2012a , b , 2017 ; Wergeland, 2012a , b , 2017 ).

Methodological Considerations

From a methodological point of view, the article depends primarily on critical literature studies and the exchange of theoretical perspectives from several disciplines. We also base our study on several field trips to Edinburgh and Rome, conducted separately, which has provided us with field notes, photographs, and other forms of on-site documentation of the two historical stadiums in question. An important part of the data on Tynecastle Park in Edinburgh stems from an 8 months field-study of identity and meaning among supporters of Heart of Midlothian Football Club back in 1992–93, when the club eventually decided to redevelop the historic inner-city stadium rather than build a new stadium outside Edinburgh, following considerable environmental and fan activism. Data from this case study has also been drawn from several shorter field studies in more recent times, notably in 2017 and 2018 when Tynecastle Park underwent its latest redevelopments. The data on Stadio Flaminio have been collected during two field trips to Rome in the autumns of 2017 and 2018. These trips have included site visits at the stadium accompanied by professor Francesco Romeo from Sapienza Universitá di Roma. Romeo is the project leader of the ongoing process of restoring the Flaminio. He is also the director of the Nervi Virtual Lab, which carries out in-depth studies of Pier Luigi Nervi's structural systems ( PLN Project, 2021 ). In addition to on-site guidance, Romeo lectured on the restoration project on two separate occasions at the Norwegian Institute in Rome.

The data gathered through field work, interviews, and meetings with local expertise have been balanced against additional data gained through archival research and document studies. While the ongoing pandemic stopped us from conducting further field visits, we have coordinated the substantial material we have from earlier field studies from both of these case studies, in order to write this article. We combine this thorough analysis of historical stadiums with a brief discussion of a limited selection of new stadiums, aimed at critically assessing their alleged qualities as sustainable facilities. While this evaluation remains on the surface of many complex issues and raises, perhaps, more questions, and initial objections than substantial answers, we nevertheless find it useful in providing a broader context for our analysis of the historical stadiums.

Super-Size Me

‘The new European stadia embody a historical transformation of profound significance,’ writes King (2010 , p. 34). This shift involves radical reconfigurations of older stadiums, like Old Trafford in Manchester, a re-location from historical venues and locations to new, and a much closer alliance between corporate money and sports. Impressive roofs and fancy glass façades are the new signature features of football architecture, an appearance that ‘transgresses conventional notions of boundaries and space’ (Ibid: 31). King could have added overblown proportions to the list of transgressive tendencies. European football architecture in the 2000s is generally characterized by growth: grandness of scale, grandness of ambition, grandness through expansion. Audience capacities have tended to increase along with the total volume of the stadium. More functions—cinemas, restaurants, conference venues—have been added to the design in the hope of increased profitability ( Wergeland, 2012a ).

Expansion has seemed like the only way forwards for football clubs with a desire for success. Writing on the strategic need for iconic football stadiums a trio of engineers put it like this: ‘Due to the constraints of existing facilities and location of their current grounds, a number of clubs have been forced to consider the complete development of a new stadium’ ( Aritua et al., 2008 , p. 1). In order to build stadiums that are sufficiently iconic from a marketing point of view, clubs simply had to leave their historical facilities. This kind of development, argues sociologist Ramón Llopis-Goig, has altered the configuration of football culture: ‘During the past 20 years, European football has witnessed an intense change process that has radically transformed some of its main structural characteristics’ ( Llopis-Goig, 2015 , p. 104). This has led to hyper-consumption on one side and detraditionalization on the other, symbolized by the widespread urge to replace old stadiums with new.

In football architecture, size obviously matters. But instead of finding the right size, from a long-term perspective, much effort and money had been used on building as large as possible to appear attractive and impressive from the day they open. Up until recently, this approach found support in several publications on sustainable architectural design, most notably Big & Green ( Gissen, 2003 ), an anthology on large-scale green architecture. While large buildings such as skyscrapers, shopping centers and apartment complexes are the worst when it comes to energy consumption and waste management, they can become more environmental-friendly if the appropriate construction systems and design strategies are employed ( Gissen, 2003 , p. 10–11). The advantage of large sports venues in this regard is that they can yield substantial results in terms of energy use and environmental impact. Large façades mean vast spaces for solar panels. Large roofs mean more surface for rain harvesting. If successful, it could have a huge impact on the environmental credibility of sports architecture.

On the other hand, however, size can be a significant problem. As admitted in Big & Green , ‘the construction of buildings is consuming some three billion tons of raw material every year [..]. This gargantuan appetite for raw materials results in some of the same problems associated with the production and consumption of consumer goods’ ( Braungart, 2003 , p. 115). The larger one builds, the bigger the problem, especially when the building is designed to host vast audiences. Sport stadiums attract more people, generate more transport, add more pressure on a piece of land and cause more consumption compared to most other buildings. As the scale goes up, more energy is needed to make the stadium operational.

The big scale also comes with a sizeable time-pressure. Huge stadiums are built to look smashing and function perfectly from their inauguration day. However, as previous studies have shown ( Matheson, 2008 ; Wergeland, 2012b ), many icons crumble in post-championship mode. Mega-event flagships mean mega-challenges, argues Deng and Poon (2017) , who list overstated image building, volatile organization and pricy forgetfulness as the major reasons behind post-event dilemmas. Müller (2015) adds a few more in his dissection of the mega-event syndrome, as he calls it. One should also put maintenance issues on the list, especially in cases where the architectural design is large and complex. This adds further pressure on the daily care, which typically is a subject of neglect in large architectural projects ( Sample, 2016 ).

Another important element is the social dimension. Football stadiums worldwide have for more than a century carried iconic significances in many communities, with stands designed to accommodate both the active and passionate fans and the more neutral spectators ( Frank and Steets, 2010 , p. 1–16). With an urban infrastructure providing both transport to and from the stadium and social meeting points in the shape of pubs, cafes and social clubs, football has since the turn of the last century provided its aficionados with rich opportunities for an extended sociality with friends and foes also before and after games. Until the more radical transformation of stadium architecture from the early 1990's stadia were generally designed to accommodate both active fans in standing terraced areas, to which it was usually cheaper to buy a ticket, along with more comfortable seated sections. Due to several incidents of ‘symbolic hatred’ evolving into violent clashes between rivaling fans during the 1970's and 80's, clubs and authorities introduced CCTV surveillance cameras and also started to ‘pen in’ sections of the stadium, meant to stop fans from both pitch invasions and clashes with rivaling fans ( Armstrong, 1998 ). This meant that fans, once inside a stadium, would find themselves surrounded by barbed wire perimeter fences from which there were no obvious escape route in emergency situations. Some of the most serious incidents of crowd disasters in the history of the game have been caused by derelict facilities, crowd congestion and poor policing, such as in the case of the stadium disasters at Heysel in 1985, Bradford in 1985, and Hillsborough in 1989 ( Darby et al., 2005 ). These accidents also happened as a result of dense crowds participating in the often intense social dramas unfolding during football matches. The subsequent investigations, especially the one from the disaster at Hillsborough stadium in Sheffield in 1989, lead to the so-called ‘Taylor report’ which provided a series of new guidelines regarding safety and security at football stadiums ( Hillsborough Stadium Disaster Final Report, 2000 ). Among the more dramatic turns was the new requirement for all-seated stadiums, which meant that clubs either had to refurbish their existing stadiums with a lower crowd capacity, or choose to find land and get permission from local authorities to build a new stadium. The latter alternative meant that most clubs would have to move out of the city to a suburban or green-belt area with a weaker or non-existent social infrastructure and environmentally unsustainable modes of transport.

These planning dilemmas were of course combined with a commercial approach in which leading clubs and football authorities started to focus less on a one-sided concern for social control and more on the comfort of spectators, and thus threatening to uproot the often passionate social identities attached to a football stadium as a topophilic landscape, analyzed so elegantly by Bale (1991 , 1993a) in the early days of these transformations. The rise of independent fanzines in Britain and elsewhere from the late 1980's and the establishment of independent supporters clubs from around 1990, should be seen as cultural grassroots responses and, in some cases, resistances, to these new ways of thinking about stadium architecture and the development of football as a spectator sport and a business ( Haynes, 1995 ). In some cases, the concerns of fan groups have been of an existential concern as clubs started to ponder various options, with stadium relocation, sometimes with a merger with neighboring clubs, by many seen as real threats to the sociality and passions of football as they knew it.

In the three decades since 1990, most stadiums have been refurbished on the same site as the old ones were located. However, a significant number of football clubs have also opted to construct new stadiums elsewhere, usually in suburban, green-belt areas outside city centers. The provision of nothing but an open-air brick wall for urinating inside Scottish football grounds, experienced by one of the authors here in the early 1990's, is now a fading memory, with somewhat limited nostalgic potentials. However, the compact social infrastructure of that era has in many cases given way for socially more limited practices around games as suburban stadiums with greater comfort and inflated ticket prices have significantly altered the access and nature of stadium landscapes.

As Olof Moen has ascertained (1995), there is a long-standing tradition in football for the inner-city neighborhood scale, simply because most football grounds developed from open and available spaces adjacent to homes, shops and factories. This meant that the structure was relatively dense and that there were close ties between the local social life and the sports architecture. On the plus side, this led to an intertwined relationship between sports and the neighborhood, forging geographical and emotional bonds between club and community. On the minus side, it became increasingly difficult to redevelop the stadium in accordance with growing expectations with regards to capacity, comfort and logistics. This tension, argues Moen, has been the source of much debate among football fans and inner-city residents. If the scale goes up and the stadium moves to a different location, it is never just a practical operation—it signifies a change in values and ideas (ibid: 208-209). Such changes imply an infringement of existing social contracts between the stadium, its audience and its immediate neighbors.

Lack of social engagement—the super-size me approach—is also about super ‘hyper—commodification’ ( Giulianotti, 2002 ). The emphasis on flow, comfort and efficiency has little care for crooked old streets and narrow neighborhood structures. Inner city areas have been replaced with suburban hinterland. This relates to a long-standing trend in urban sports infrastructure investment, which has primarily been aimed at tourists instead of local communities ( Gratton and Henry, 2001 ).

The Greening of Football Architecture

Despite the obvious problems, contemporary football architecture nevertheless prides itself with green rhetoric. A typical example is Eco Park, a new stadium project for Forest Green Rovers in Gloucestershire, England, which was granted planning permission by the Stroud District Council in late 2019. Designed by the renowned Zaha Hadid Architects, it is marketed as ‘the world's first timber stadium.’ While this marketing strategy ignores the fact that timber was the main material in the football stadiums of the late 19th and early 20th century, the Eco Park project is influenced by the technology-driven optimism of the sustainable architecture discourse of the early 2000s. This approach puts existing buildings under pressure in the name of green development. After the tragic disasters of the 1980's, mentioned above, football architecture rejected its heritage. Some of the early examples of demolition and replacement, such as Bolton Wanderer's move from Burnden Park to Reebok Stadium in 1997, did not necessarily involve eco-ambitions. But it quickly became apparent that green impulses were seeping into sports architecture. The Sidney Olympics in 2000, the so-called ‘Green Games,’ was a pivotal moment, diverting much attention to the environmental cause ( Waitt, 1999 ; Davidson and McNeill, 2011 ). The 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany sparked much of the same hype and interest in the field of football architecture ( Helzel and Felix, 2006 ; Eick, 2011 ).

One reason for this optimism on behalf of sustainable technology is that the governing bodies of sports always chase the next tournament and the next building project, rather than critically assessing what they just left behind. ‘After each Olympics and the disappointing economic outcomes, the IOC puts its well-oiled propaganda machine to work,’ as Zimbalist (2017 , p. 2) puts it. He could have added disappointing ecological outcomes to his critical verdict. This forward-driven approach has pushed football architecture in a direction where environmental-friendly features like water harvesting, solar panels and automatic waste management have become mandatory, often paired with planning schemes inspired by green urbanism ( Radovic, 2009 ; Haas, 2012 ). The basic idea is to boost the climate capacity of a building by wrapping an eco-urbanity around it; an urban ecosystem in which buildings merge with the natural environment. The masterplan for the 2016 Rio Olympics is an example of this. Marketed as ‘A masterplan serving today and tomorrow’ with ambitions of ‘leaving a lasting legacy,’ the overriding goal was to ‘deliver sustainable Games in the very broadest sense, so the host city derives ongoing economic, social and environmental benefits’ AECOM (2012) .

The challenge embedded in such visions, regardless of how eco-aware and people-friendly they may be in theory, is that the ‘green’ signaling power of mega-events fades away after the end of the tournament ( Preuss, 2013 ). When reality hits, the legacy suffers. Therefore, ‘legacy’ must not be confused with ‘sustainability’. Legacy can also cover historical heritage but it is much broader and loosely defined as a term, and therefore ‘easily manipulated to suit different ideologies and, in the case of the Olympics, to fit into different meta-narratives of urban development.’ ( Gold and Gold, 2013 , p. 3527–3528). Typically, mega-events cause more physical and economic change than conservation of existing natural, cultural and social values. As Renata Sanchez and Stephen Essex put it: ‘Although world-acclaimed architectural offices were involved in the design of Rio's Olympics works, the projects seem to neglect their users. The legacy of the built environment created by the Rio Olympics appears to be counter to the creation of a sustainable, mixed-use community, and the area is poorly connected and integrated with the rest of the city.’ ( Sanchez and Essex, 2017 , p. 101). Contrary to good intentions, Rio 2016 did not improve the city's natural and social environment according to expectations. From a circular design point of view, events like London 2012 and Rio 2016 are doomed to fail because of the inherit mega-ness of the whole operation. Despite pre-existing plans of reduction, recycling and downscaling, it is notoriously difficult to shrink, adapt and reuse in a discourse where grandness and spectacle lies at the core.

What, then, about new and so-called ‘eco-friendly’ stadiums—are they better than the disappointing standards of Olympics and FIFA World Cups with regards to sustainability? The hype has certainly been on, especially since the 2006 World Cup in Germany, when many stadiums were either built anew or refurbished with environmental concerns in mind. One example is the Mercedes-Benz Arena in Stuttgart, an existing venue that got refurbished ahead of the World Cup. Still, the eco-boosting solutions were primarily new elements pasted onto the existing structure, like the roof, which can harvest rain water and make it reusable. If a more holistic approach had been in place, the Mercedes-Benz Arena could have qualified as an example of circular design.

The lack of a holistic approach is precisely the problem with many new stadiums. As argued by Schimmel (1995) , stadium construction has been dominated by micro-perspectives: the internal factors—economy, security, logistics etc.—of the stadium design. When considered in isolation from the larger urban context, sustainable performativity is obviously much easier to achieve. The problem is, however, that stadiums must be measured against the total impact they have on the larger urban terrain in order to assess their carbon footprint and other environmental impact parameters. This means that most of the positive examples we have seen over the past years also carry problems. Some projects, like Allianz Stadium in Turin, have tackled the question of size well—Juventus have downscaled the crowd capacity compared to their previous home, the Stadio Communale—and the entire stadium façade is clad with solar panels. On the macro level, there are however at least two highly significant factors that undermine the focus on renewable energy and downscaling: Firstly, the stadium combines a massive car park with no substantial solution for public transit, which means that the stadium generates private car use as the major mode of transport. Secondly, the stadium is situated in a desolate area of the city. This kind of location is typical for the suburbanization trend of the 1990s ( Bale, 1993b ; Horak, 1995 ), which saw football clubs all over Europe moving from the city center to the urban fringe. This form of development is completely at odds with the compact city model commonly associated with sustainable urbanism today ( De Roo and Miller, 2019 ). Allianz Stadium has already been criticized for its failure to comply with this principle ( Lekakis, 2018 ).

The relocation strategy also carries negative social consequences, as further detailed in our study of Tynecastle Park in Edinburgh below. New stadiums are often portrayed as a gift to the local community but they repeatedly fail to deliver genuine local qualities. This is particularly evident in the aftermath of mega-events ( Jennings and Lodge, 2011 ; Kowalska, 2017 ; Zimbalist, 2017 ; Dendura, 2019 ). While the geographical catchment area of football has increased dramatically over the past decades, the significance of the inner city and a central location has never faded in the minds of local stakeholders ( Bale, 2003 , p. 84–107). A football supporter community engages with its team, the local context, and the network of local actors in multiple ways. Their passion, excitement, and involvement plays a crucial role in the production of cultural and economic values in and around the club; an intricate process of co-creation which is often overlooked by owners and investors who are keen to relocate ( Zagnoli and Radicchi, 2013 ). The rational reasons for moving must therefore be carefully considered against a dominant desire to stay if football clubs wish to also remain socially sustainable. Even in cases when big clubs remain in the same area, exemplified by Arsenal's love from Highbury to Emirates Stadium, there may be unresolved issues from a sustainable heritage point of view. Very little of the building mass of old Highbury exists today, and the social culture in the new stadium is completely different due to sky-rocketing ticket prices and other factors which exclude traditional local supporters.

With all these obstacles in mind, it seems almost impossible to imagine that football architecture will become more sustainable in the foreseeable future. On the plus side, there have never been more theoretical and practical solutions at hand. If we look to the avant-garde of contemporary preservation and architecture, two concepts immediately emerge as the frontrunners, inspired by circular thinking: Adaptive reuse and maintenance architecture. Adaptive reuse is essentially aimed at combining preservation techniques with alteration and modernization. This can be based on a variety of different traditions, from careful restoration to progressive transformation ( Plevoets and van Cleempoel, 2019 , p. 7–27). It is a diverse theoretical term that offers a range of practical solutions and intervention strategies (ibid: 28–51). It can be applied to all sorts of buildings, ancient and modern, small and large.

Maintenance architecture mainly comes from the book of that title ( Sample, 2016 ), but the concept is now spreading across the field of architecture through the use of words like ‘repair’ ( Baracco and Louise, 2018 ) and ‘fixing’ ( Livas, 2019 ) in book titles. ‘Maintenance plays a crucial role in the production of architecture, yet by and large architects have treated it with indifference’, claims Sample (2016 , p. 1), with reference to how the modern architectural discourse has created a cult of worship around buildings that are new or appear to be new. This has created ‘falsely constrained endpoints—conception and realization’ (ibid: 7), which means that architecture is often judged as eternally new-born monuments—an impossible condition for any building as decay inevitably sets in. Architecture, she argues, must begin to appreciate the professions that secure permanence, endurance, and preservation of buildings. The building industry needs more input from caretakers and janitors. Sample refers to the massive job of cleaning Beijing's National Aquatic Center, built for the 2008 Olympics, as a lesson to learn from (ibid: 155). If you erect large sports venues in a highly polluted city, you have to tackle the consequences.

Case Studies

In this section we outline the key findings and perspectives from our recurrent field work and research on Tynecastle Park and Stadio Flaminio in light of the principles for reuse, maintenance and circular heritage presented above. Each study provides an overview of the history of each stadium, emphasizing major events and turning points, and an assessment of their current standing. Our study of Tynecastle park deals mostly with the issue of social sustainability in light of the stepwise transformation of an historical football arena. Our study of Stadia Flaminio is primarily concerned with the technical aspects of sustainability and the challenge of re-opening an abandoned venue.

Tynecastle Park

‘Fans’ route to the stadium involves a bodily involvement with the materiality of the environs, producing placed experiences of heartbeat and breath, the particular movement of limbs and the sensing of textures underfoot, the press of bodies, the assailing of the nostrils by familiar smells, and the sonic melding of one's own footsteps with those of a thousand others' ( Edensor and Millington, 2010 , p. 155).

Tynecastle Park is the home of the Scottish professional football club Heart of Midlothian. It is located in Gorgie, a short walk west of the Edinburgh city center. Tynecastle Park ( Figure 3 ) may be described as an archetypical British football ground due to its urban location. Since the early 1900's the stadium has been surrounded by a school, a whiskey distillery, a church and tenements. While required substantial refurbishments have taken place in recent times, the club have had their home in Gorgie since 1881 and the original construction was part of a wider urban development of the area at the time. A new main stand, designed by the famous stadium architect Archibald Leitch ( Inglis, 2005 ), was built in 1914 while the rest of the stadium was refurbished and gradually expanded in subsequent decades to hold crowds of up to 50.000 (the record attendance of 53,396 from 1932 still stands). After World War II old wooden terracings were replaced by concrete steps, making Tynecastle the first all-concrete stadium in Scotland in 1954. Perimeter fences were put up in the 1970's as a crowd control measurement, while a previous standing area along one of the sides was made into a seated area, cutting the capacity to 29.000 by 1981. Six years later the stadium author Simon Inglis viewed Tynecastle Park in the following way: ‘Many British football grounds are hidden in cramped inner-city locations, but none, surely are as penned in as Tynecastle. Tenements and a sootcoloured distillery watch over the ground like cell-blocks over a prison yard, while the stands are clothed in a brooding, dark maroon; the maroon of old British railway stations and also of Edinburgh buses. Hearts-fans must once have felt very much at home on their travels... It all adds up to an inner-city melange which however inconvenient or outdated, few would wish to change one little bit. Just as tourists delight in the ramparts and dungeons of Edinburgh castle, so too do lovers of Scottish football delight in the cloistered intricacies of Tynecastle’ ( Inglis, 1987 , p. 338–9). However, change was indeed looming by the early 1990's.

Figure 3 . Old meets new–view from the old main stand at Tynecastle Park, built in 1914 and demolished in 2017. The Gorgie Road end and Wheatfield stand, erected in 1996, are visible in the background (Credit: Hans K. Hognestad).

In order to meet the recommendations outlined in the Taylor report after the Hillsborough disaster in 1989 ( Hillsborough Stadium Disaster Final Report, 2000 ), the club was faced with a few soul-searching decisions which led the chairman of the Hearts at the time, Wallace Mercer, to come up with proposals which generated substantial resistance and indeed fan activism. Mercer announced in May 1990 that he had entered an agreement with David Murray, a well-known Scottish business-entrepreneur and owner of Rangers Football Club at that time, to develop a new 25.000 all-seater stadium as an element of a huge business-project Murray was planning at Millerhill, a green belt site located east of Edinburgh's city center. The idea was to incorporate other facilities like greyhound tracks, a diversity of community-facilities and make the stadium into a potential venue for pop concerts ( Moorhouse, 1991 , p. 216). The club was hoping to have their new, ‘multi-purpose’ stadium ready by the 1993/94 season. This proposal gave the uprise to heated debates in various media by anyone who had strong feelings connected to the club and its location in Gorgie. The makers of a fanzine called Dead Ball , expressed their views on the re-location plans and a move away from ‘Tynie’ (a local nickname for Tynecastle Park) like this: ‘Any move from Tynecastle to a custom-built stadium is not just a change of location for a football team. It is also in a real sense a violent act. To destroy a central part of many people's lives, whilst it may be progress of sorts, is to put imagination after money. Tynie is not just a football ground; it is part of me, part of us all. It is a concrete representation of the club's history. It wasn't built just with bricks, mortar and wood, it also took dreams, hope and (mostly) despair. It represents the soul of Hearts. The memories of past greats still inhabit the place. It is a connection to Walker, Mackay, Bauld, Conn, Waurdaugh and Ford [former players at the club]... It almost doesn't matter that Tynecastle is a dump’ ( Dead Ball , no 1) ( Figure 4 ).

Figure 4 . Detail from the wooden railing at the old main stand at Tynecastle Park (Credit: Hans K. Hognestad).

Both of these views present the link between the club, its location and its fans as an insoluble unity. And the very existence of the club is, according to these views, tied to the ground of Gorgie, West-Edinburgh. Even though most fans had a strong feeling for the place, there were few people who were against change as such, in the way Inglis' romantic description, quoted earlier, seems to suggest. As the last ironic comment in this quote from Dead Ball , indicates, there was also little sentimentalism attached to the technical standard of the ground in the early 1990's. They opposed any move away from Tynecastle and Gorgie, but desired a functional and more modern stadium that could meet the necessary requirements as the home of one of Scotland's elite football clubs. At the time, football spectators tended to see the ground as both outdated and decaying, which seemed to alienate visiting supporters in particular, as this fan of Dundee Utd wrote in 1993: ‘Consider, also, the dilapidated Gorgie Road entrance which, set back from the road, makes visiting fans feel as though they are entering some Dickensian establishment and, once inside, the high perimeter fences which, when the ground is filled with humanity, give the place the look of a POW camp. Added to all this there is the pungent and nauseating smell of brewing that hangs over this part of Edinburgh to add to the overall ambience. I will not dwell on the toilets, no-one should!’ ( McIlroy, 1993 , p. 120).

A new all-seated stadium would bring an end to the much beloved intimacy of the standing terraces, but were generally preferred to an alternative multipurpose-stadium out of the city. The belief that Tynecastle Park, Gorgie, is the home of Hearts, was prevalent and represented fans' identification with the club in a concrete way. This must be linked to the ways in which ‘the people’ have filled a place provided by an industry with commercial interests, with its own meanings: ‘The landlord provides the building within which we dwell, the department store our means of furnishing it... But in dwelling in the landlord's place, we make it into our space; the practices of dwelling are ours, not his.’ ( Fiske, 1989 , p. 33). What is peculiar here, is the fact that the whole construction of what Zukin calls the ‘vernacular space’ ( Zukin, 1992 , p. 224) was literally threatened by removal. For a lot of fans this meant a threat to the very existence of the community which had grown into the walls and terraces of Tynecastle Park. The proposed move away from Tynecastle would have included more than a relocation of a football-ground. The urban infrastructure around Tynecastle Park, in the shape of numerous pubs and social clubs easily accessible by bus or foot, were equally important to the total football experience for a lot of fans: ‘I mean we love Gorgie and Tynecastle. It's a great area. The problem with new all-seated stadia outside the city or town is that you've got no pubs to go to before the game. You go to Perth and their new stadium is great, but you cannot go for a pint before the game, apart from one which is absolutely mobbed. At Tynecastle you've got maybe 20 to 30 pubs within a 5 min walk from the ground, so you've got a choice and each pub has got its own character, its own history as well' (Peter, 38, personal interview March 1993). The significance of the historical social stability on match days provided by the many pubs and social clubs in the Gorgie area should not be underestimated. One of the authors here were once shown a booklet with fixtures for Hearts games for the 1895–96 season by a collector of football memorabilia. At the end of this booklet there were several advertisements, one of them for ‘The Midlothian Arms,’ which was the old name for Tynecastle Arms, a pub still located right next to the stadium, on the corner of McLeod Street and Gorgie Road. The advertisement read: ‘Before and after games, enjoy our fine selection of wines, spirits and ales.’ With the proposal to move away from its historical home, it was generally feared that this century-old sociality of football would be displaced and limited to the act of taking your car to watch games in Suburbia.

Jim Clydesdale, a director at Hearts F.C. at the time and also an architect, presented the club's vision of a new multipurpose-stadium at Millerhill in a more detailed way, at a seminar held by the Scottish Sports Council inMarch, 1991. The following quotation is taken from the fanzine Always the Bridesmaid (1991), who put their own heading above the reprinted abstract of Clydesdale's paper: ‘Cloud Cuckoo Land,’ meant to illustrate the lack of touch with ‘the ordinary supporter’ that this vision demonstrated. The outline was clealry aimed toward facilitating the tastes of a middle-class family with more money to spend, an attempt perhaps to invite spectators more akin to the flaneur category outlined in Richard Giulianotti's football spectator taxonomy a decade later ( Giulianotti, 2002 ). Dead Ball , the fanzine quoted earlier, described this multi-purpose concept as a ‘post-modern nightmare,’ referring to the multitude of ‘leisure-activities’ this stadium plan would hold (personal interview, October 1992). However, Hearts-supporters were joined by environmental activists who protested against further exploitation of greenbelt land outside the city center, while members of the Lothian Regional Council also objected against the proposal ( Moorhouse, 1991 :216). In the end too many voices were raised against an approval of these development-plans, and the Lothian Regional Council turned the proposition down in August, 1992. Hearts F.C. had to come up with other solutions. After looking at a few other locations, the club finally announced in December 1992 that they were in fact planning to redevelop Tynecastle into a smaller all-seated stadium. However, it wasn't until a year later that concrete plans were made for redeveloping Tynecastle Park. A proposal from the Lothian Regional Council that Hearts could share a new ground with local rivals Hibernian Football Club, who had received permission for building a new stadium at Straiton, 20 km south of the city center, was rejected by Hearts in October 1993, following considerable activism from both sets of supporters. In the end even Hibernian decided to redevelop their old ground, Easter Road in the Leith area, just east of the Edinburgh city center.

Three of the stands at Tynecastle Park were demolished and replaced by new concrete stands between 1994 and 1997. The new all-seated stadium capacity was now reduced to 17,500, which was nevertheless generally seen as preferable to a new and bigger stadium in a greenbelt area outside the city. Eventually the last remaining main stand from 1914, was demolished in 2017. The new main stand, opened in late 2017, increasing the capacity again to almost 20,000. The stands built in the 1990's and the one in 2017 were all designed by the same architect, Jim Clydesdale, quoted above with a totally different stadium vision. Yet, during the 20 years between 1997 and 2017 there were further attempts made by the board at Hearts F. C. to leave Tynecastle Park, in favor of a bigger venue. In 2004 the then chairman of the club, Chris Robinson, had announced that the club was ready to sell Tynecastle Park for other purposes and rent the neighboring national rugby stadium, Murrayfield, with a capacity of 67,000 instead. But once again, it was the chairman who had to leave instead, as supporters were heavily in favor of remaining at Tynecastle. The story about Tynecastle Park shows the strength and sentiments which may be attached to the location and the area, perhaps even more than to the quality of the stadium itself. While Bale (1991) has highlighted the symbolic significance of football stadiums as concrete symbolic representations of communities, a lot of such qualities are tied to the fact that the stadium is part of an urban landscape with plenty of social meeting points and easy access by foot, bike or public transport.

Stadio Flaminio

The origins of Stadio Flaminio were not particularly promising from a circular heritage point of view. It was built on the same piece of land as Stadio Nazionale stood from 1911 until it got demolished in 1957, when it was deemed ‘unfit for use due to the ravages of time’ ( The Organizing Committee, 1960 , p. 58) ahead of the 1960 Rome Olympics. It therefore had to be replaced ‘by an ultramodern stadium’ (ibid), according to the organizing committee. We can here clearly recognize the rhetoric from today's Olympic extravaganza as well as Stadio Flaminio's own destiny in the 2010s. It's predecessor, Stadio Nazionale, was used during the 1934 FIFA World Cup and had a strong connection to the Mussolini regime, the main political force behind the development of what would eventually become Rome's Olympic Village in 1960. The political connotations may have furthered the demolition cause ( Figure 5 ).

Figure 5 . Faded elegance: Pier Luigi Nervi's concrete design in a state of advanced decay, September 2017 (Credit: Even Smith Wergeland).

Stadio Flaminio is situated in Rome's Parioli district, north of the city center. The stadium is located along the Via Flaminia close to the left bank of the Tiber in close proximity to other Olympic facilities from 1960, like Palazzetto dello Sport and Villaggio Olimpico (the athlete's village). Just across the river, northwest of the athlete's village, lies Foro Italico, the main hub for sports facilities in Rome, including the majestic Stadio Olimpico. It is no exaggeration to say that this part of the eternal city is characterized by sports heritage.

The task of building a modern stadium on a historical spot was handed to Pier Luigi Nervi, the Italian engineer best known for his pioneering use of reinforced concrete as a structural and decorative material in the post-war period ( Iori and Poretti, 2019 , p. 3). His son, Antonio Nervi, was also assigned to the project as the lead architect. Construction went on from 1957 to 1958 and the stadium was inaugurated in 1959, a good year ahead of the Olympics, without exceeding the estimated cost. For such a large venue that is a commendable feat. Upon completion, the city of Rome had gained a 42.000 capacity arena with a number of design innovations. All sectors of the stadium were provided with bars and other services. The most striking feature from a visual point of view was the hovering roof canopy that kept about 8.000 seats under cover while it was still in use.

Although the stadium was purpose-built for football, which it hosted during the Olympics, it also featured four gymnasiums, a fencing hall, a covered and heated swimming pool, changing rooms and a first aid station. This kind of functional and spatial diversity was unusual compared to the expected standard in the post-war period. From a structural engineering perspective, the stadium was top notch. The building system, based on a complex combination of in-situ concrete and prefab concrete, was unique for this particular stadium. While concrete architecture is often associated with fixed modular systems and standard construction schemes, very little of the kind was used here. Instead, father and son Nervi devised a concept in which every building part—the grandstands, the structural frames, the roof canopies—had its own signature, construction-wise and aesthetically. There are similar stadiums from this period but if you study the details, the individuality of Flaminio is striking, down to the smallest nuts and bolts. This made it stand out in its prime time. It also means that the building is uniquely difficult to manage today, when entrepreneurial construction normally depends on defined standards ( Sample, 2016 ). The brief of renovating it is therefore a bit of a challenge, which we shall explore soon.

The Flaminio was regarded a success during the Olympics and it had, for quite a long while, a purposeful afterlife. Since the Olympics, it has been used as a concert venue (both Pink Floyd, Bruce Springsteen and Michael Jackson performed there in the late 1980s), the Italian Rugby Union used it to host the Six Nations Tournament (2000–2011) and the two major football clubs of the city, AS Roma and SS Lazio, used it as a temporary venue during the renovation of Stadio Olimpico before the FIFA World Cup in 1990. It was also a home ground for Atletico Roma FC, who played in the Italian Serie C from 2005 to 2011, when the club dissolved. This event turned out to be a twist of fate for the Flaminio too, since the stadium now became vacant as a consequence and has been abandoned as a venue for sporting and cultural activities ever since.

The stadium has not been left entirely to its devices, however. A multi-disciplinary team of preservation experts, led by the Department of Structural and Geotechnical Engineering at the Sapienza University of Rome, joined forces with the Pier Luigi Nervi Project and Docomomo Italy to apply for funding within the Getty Foundation's Keeping it Modern programme. This application was successful and the project officially obtained the support of the Getty Foundation in June 2017 ( Stadio Flaminio, 2021 ) to develop a four-step conservation plan under the leadership of the aforementioned Romeo. The Getty grant was awarded the same year to the Japan Sport Council in support of the renovation of Yoyogi National Gymnasium in Tokyo, built by the Japanese architect Kenzo Tange ahead of the 1964 Olympics. Suddenly, there were two sports arenas under the Getty Foundation's ‘Keeping it modern’ umbrella. Someone must have envisioned a future for old arenas. In July 2018 the Flaminio got listed as a cultural heritage site by the city of Rome, which means that it now has legal protection and formal status as culturally significant.

Even with funding and listing in place, the challenge is still pretty immense for Romeo and his team. ‘The stadium is now in an advanced state of decay’ ( Stadio Flaminio, 2021 ) as they had to admit before work commenced. One of the biggest issues to solve is Nervi's strong dependence on concrete—a building material that still dominates in today's sports architecture. During the post-war period, Nervi's heydays, concrete became the most widely used material in the construction industry. It was cheap, efficient, accessible and flexible. It also turned out to be one of the most toxic and wasteful materials on the planet. For every ton of cement produced, approximately one ton of CO 2 is released ( Mehta and Monteiro, 2014 ). It devours raw materials like few other substances in the building industry. Its relation to water alone is highly problematic: concrete consumes water like a swamp, thus ‘stealing’ it from living creatures. Clearly, the hegemony of concrete in sports architecture has to be challenged in the name of sustainability. The problem is, however, that demolition of concrete architecture is also an environmental threat. The process is time-consuming, money-consuming and adds to the already negative pollution and waste account. To tear down large concrete buildings therefore makes little sense from a circular perspective. They ought to stay in use for as long as possible.

On the plus side, the technical, structural and material quality of the original work is very high compared to other concrete buildings from the same period ( Romeo et al., 2021 ). This makes the rehabilitation all the more worthwhile. Much like the contemporary team who is now trying to fix it, Nervi surrounded himself with the best available expertise of the day during the construction of the Flaminio. Another positive aspect is the size, which makes it possible to imagine that it could work as a contemporary arena from a capacity point of view. For security reasons and the all-seating principle, it can probably only house about 30.000 spectators within the existing regulations—but that is still fairly large. If a more adaptive approach had been possible the stadium could probably reach an audience of around 40,000. This points to a crucial dilemma at sports governance level—the difficulty of operating outside the so-called ‘technical manuals’ ( Dunne, 2007 ) of IOC, FIFA and other transnational sporting bodies. These guidelines, which must be followed in order to get international approval, can be a real obstacle for innovative preservation and adaption to local needs. This is probably going to be one of the toughest hurdles to pass for the Flaminio conservation team.

This means that a lot of effort must be placed on the fourth step of the conservation plan, which deals with guidelines for recovery and reuse. Romeo's team is undoubtedly well equipped to tackle that which lies before—the historical study, the structural analysis, the physical changes and transformations—but they have to come up with something truly remarkable in order to breed new sporting life into Stadio Flaminio. This is particularly tricky since AS Roma are already planning a stadium elsewhere in Rome and SS Lazio dream of doing the same—they have certainly been reluctant to consider a return to Stadio Flaminio ( Stadium Business, 2019 ). What could become an option is to turn it into the official home for Italian rugby. Plans are currently under way for a three-step renovation of the entire Villaggio Olimpico. The third phase of this process is supposed to allow the stadium to return to its former glory as a major rugby venue—‘to give new life to an architectural jewel that has been left to itself’ ( Stadium Business, 2018 ) according to Daniele Frongia, the City of Rome's Councilor for Sports. The vision has allegedly been backed by a full-bodied proposal from CONI (the Italian Olympic Committee) and FIR (the Italian Rugby Federation). Only the future will reveal whether this ‘Casa del Rugby’ ( Wanted in Rome, 2018 ) will actually materialize but the idea seems to be well-supported by the those who matter: the city administration, the politicians of Rome and the national sports associations.

The Rise of the Reused Stadium?

In conclusion, let us return to our opening questions in light of the two cases. Is there a future for historical stadiums? Does football architecture have a circular design potential? The most accurate answer we can give at this point is: it depends. From an overarching perspective, the following conditions are most important: Firstly, the world of sports must become willing to take better care of its architectural legacy. This will necessitate a major change of attitude, involving more reverie for the quality of historical venues, more investment in maintenance and more concern for local stakeholders. Secondly, there is dire need for legislative changes to make it easier to sustain existing sports venues as part of a local sporting culture. This means that guidelines for capacity, security and logistics must be adapted to the buildings and neighborhoods in question, not the other way around. If the current guidelines continue to apply, regardless of context, reuse will remain very difficult. Thirdly, there is need for further research and investment in pilot projects like the Stadio Flaminio restoration. Presently, there are more examples of stadiums surviving against the odds—they are typically set for demolition, but the process has been stalled for various reasons—than stadiums that survive because they are actively maintained and developed. If we get to a stage where more existing stadiums are properly financed and managed, there would be more lessons to learn from and—hopefully—positive experiences. This could become a counterweight to the prevailing approach of demolition and construction.

Based on the insights gained from Tynecastle Park and Stadio Flaminio, we would argue that there is a potential for reuse and, as a radical extension of that, circular management of football architecture. Obviously, our cases are not entirely comparable, since they represent different historical origins, different sporting contexts, different local communities, different stages of restoration, and different degrees of current usability. They nevertheless offer a number of cues for future development which could serve as a starting point for a more universal and transferable strategy for reuse of historical stadiums. From Tynecastle, there is the vital social culture, local stakeholder engagement and continuous use of the same urban property to build upon. From Flaminio, there is the technically advanced restoration, the multi-disciplinary approach, the funding and the overall plans for new use to draw inspiration from. While none of these examples can aspire to be called circular heritage in the strictest meaning of the term—too much building mass has been removed from both locations over the years without any kind of recycling—there are aspects of both that could be ‘Frankensteined’ into a fully circular model.

One thing is certain: If international sports federations and clubs want to commit themselves more to green values and withstand the test of circular principles, the journey is going to be hard, difficult and frustrating. The replacement of ‘new, large and spectacular’ with ‘durable, modest and simple’ is going to demand a U-turn of unforeseen magnitude and, probably, a new generation of sports leadership. The uplifting thing, as we have shown, is that there are theories, principles and expertise ready to aid such development. Anything can be repaired these days. If Hillary Sample is right, the architecture of the future will be less about conception and realization and more about durability: ‘An expanded building cycle that incorporates maintenance has the potential to affect the future of architecture contributing to the cycle of creation, building, occupancy, the representation of architecture, and image circulation, which in turn will impact invention.’ ( Sample, 2016 , p. 9). Through this surprising turn of events, the old school of preservationists has re-emerged as the avant-garde. The unlikely rise of the reuse stadium represents a similar chance of re-branding football culture.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

Funding will be split between University of South-Eastern Norway and the Oslo School of Architecture and Design.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Matheson, V. (2008). “Mega-Events: The effect of the world's biggest sporting events on local, regional, and national economies,” in The Business of Sports Vol. 1 , eds D. Howard and B. Humphrey (Westport, CT: Praeger), 81–99.

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Keywords: sustainable architecture, circular heritage, historic stadiums, reuse & recycling of materials, football culture, maintenance

Citation: Wergeland ES and Hognestad HK (2021) Reusing Stadiums for a Greener Future: The Circular Design Potential of Football Architecture. Front. Sports Act. Living 3:692632. doi: 10.3389/fspor.2021.692632

Received: 08 April 2021; Accepted: 27 May 2021; Published: 23 July 2021.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2021 Wergeland and Hognestad. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Hans Kristian Hognestad, hans.k.hognestad@usn.no ; Even Smith Wergeland, even.smith.wergeland@aho.no

This article is part of the Research Topic

Environmental Sustainability in Sports, Physical Activity and Education, and Outdoor Life

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Royal Arena World-Class Multi-Purpose Venue and Urban Growth Stimulator

Copenhagen, Denmark

The Challenge

To create a flexible multi-use arena that attracts local and international spectators while sparking urban development around Copenhagen’s Orestad neighborhood.

The Design Solution

The design team of Royal Arena, 3XN in collaboration with HKS, embraced the challenge to create a world-class sports venue that would be welcomed to Copenhagen as good neighbor. Designers used two primary elements – a plinth and a bowl – to achieve this goal. The plinth absorbs the movements of guests through small plazas, pockets and other areas that help the building seem warm and intimate. The design of the bowl, meanwhile, provides clear sight lines with easy loading, which makes for seamless and cost-effective performances. Glass topped by Accoya wooden fins create a wave pattern that provides natural light and transparency for those both inside and outside the arena, adding to the desired feeling of warmth and openness, as well as the Nordic look of the structure. In addition, the Accoya is fully reusable and recyclable, enhancing the sustainability of the 12,500-seat arena.

The Design Impact

The first event at Royal Arena was a Metallica concert in 2017. Rod Stewart also graced the stage and other world-class artists are scheduled to perform there as well, including Justin Timberlake and comedian Kevin Hart. The 2018 Ice Hockey World Championship was held there and the venue will be one of several sites hosting the 2019 World Men’s Handball Championship.

Project Features

• 322,917 square feet (29,999 sm)
• 12,000 seats (expandable to 15,000)
• 1,500 club seats
• Private club lounge and dining
• Locker rooms
• Office space
• 2017 A+ Award, Sport and Recreation, Stadium/Arena, Architizer A+ Awards

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Stadium Case Study: Lucas Oil Stadium, Indiana

By SVC Staff

Though it opened ten years ago, Lucas Oil Stadium remains a state-of-the-art multi-purpose facility seating over 67,000 fans with a retractable roof. Home to the NFL’s Indianapolis Colts, its flexible design can also accommodate NCAA basketball, and concerts among other national and local events. The seven-level stadium design has embraced AV and digital signage technology […]

Though it opened ten years ago, Lucas Oil Stadium remains a state-of-the-art multi-purpose facility seating over 67,000 fans with a retractable roof. Home to the NFL’s Indianapolis Colts, its flexible design can also accommodate NCAA basketball, and concerts among other national and local events.

The seven-level stadium design has embraced AV and digital signage technology since opening its doors. And like many stadiums, it has extended the AV experience past the stands. The Lucas Oil Plaza, located on the north street level of the stadium is a public congregation area for events and concessions featuring a multitude of performance motor vehicle exhibits. Since the beginning signage has helped set the mood in this dynamic space. But it was time for a change.

The plaza’s original digital signage network included 13 single displays and a 16-screen, 4×4 video wall, blending Lucas Oil promotional content with entertainment. In operation for 10 years, the original AV/digital signage system was implemented in an archaic manner. Much of the operation was manual and de-centralized, using a rack-mounted touch panel to power certain systems on and off, switch video sources and manage other control elements. Meanwhile, the team had to go directly to DVD players and certain displays to turn them on. A cluster of noisy, power-hungry and heat-producing 4RU servers that fed digital content increasingly began to fail.

The 4×4 video wall also began to prove problematic. As years progressed, and displays died, it became increasingly more difficult to source identical replacements. The original NEC 52-inch displays also each featured a ¾-inch bezel, which equated to a 1-1/2-inch gap between displays. Increasingly, the wall noticeably resembled a checkerboard, even as bezels have all but disappeared from modern displays.

With centralized control, system reliability, and visitor experience all lacking, the decision was made to substantially update the network in two phases: First, a new digital signage network deployment; and second, an engaging video wall that would breathe new life into the overall AV operation. In both cases, the new network, comprised of seven motor sports-themed displays and a more dynamic 16-screen video wall would be more automated, visible, energy-efficient, scalable, and pleasing to the eye.

While the Lucas Oil Plaza signage network has always had a broad footprint, the content has been fairly simple. The previous Dell servers fed PowerPoint slides and content from DVD players and laptops to the various endpoints. However, the expense of maintaining the original system, coupled with its fading reliability, clearly pointed to a new strategy.

The Plaza’s existing wired infrastructure was repurposed and provided plenty of bandwidth to distribute and control content over IP. This steered toward an AV over IP architecture to support the second-generation digital signage network, leading to Atlona for networked distribution and control, and BrightSign for digital signage content management and playout.

As IT technicians, the team was at home managing systems over IP networks. These systems are far more dynamic and flexible than working with legacy circuit-based systems, where operation is fairly limited to its original premise at the time of installation. Moving to IP made sense as a common infrastructure that could scale easily, and support new applications and technologies as the AV vision evolves.

The migration to IP also overcame many potential signal and distance limitations inherent in legacy systems. As large as Lucas Oil Plaza is, a system was needed that would achieve greater signal distribution distances, and easily add PoE network repeaters when and where necessary.

Atlona’s OmniStream AV over IP platform proved the ideal choice for switching and distribution over the network. There was an immediate benefit from the integration perspective: OmniStream worked with the existing wired infrastructure since there was twisted pair wiring from the central rack to the various displays. Furthermore, OmniStream could operate with multicast transmission applied to each switch. This would avoid sending AV traffic to network devices that did not require it, saving bandwidth and eliminating device potential lockups due to related network traffic.

In addition to the single displays, the OmniStream rack feeds the Plaza’s 4×4 video wall. The video wall’s location prevented any feasible option to install (16) separate twisted pair runs to the decoders behind each display. Instead the choice was a single high-bandwidth infrastructure—a 10Gb copper CAT6a backbone from the core switch to all other switches, which further preserves network bandwidth. Having a detailed static IP address allocation for all devices also proved essential to ensure system stability and reliability, avoiding any potential shifting IP addresses or IP conflicts.

The OmniStream source distribution is comprised of three OMNI-112 dual-channel IP encoders and an OMNI-111 single-channel IP encoder. This is all located in a central equipment rack with the source equipment and two Cisco SG350X-24MPP core network switches. In the plaza, a total of 23 OMNI121 single-channel IP decoders feed the screens, with one decoder assigned to each display (16 supporting the video wall and seven supporting the exhibit displays). An additional two network switches were added behind the video wall to support the OmniStream decoders and each display’s LAN communication.

PoE capability allowed for centrally managed power to the OmniStream encoders/ decoders, and all digital signage content is reliably disseminated with visually lossless video quality, and no noticeable signal latency.

Integration of the exhibit displays and video wall first required a significant teardown phase. Removal of the video wall was itself an enormous task: Each display and mount had a combined weight of roughly 150 pounds, equaling roughly a literal ton of total weight removed. The fact that the video wall was suspended 20-to-30 feet in the air only exasperated the situation.

The outer panels of the existing video wall enclosure were stripped down to its frame, and a total of eight 16-foot sections of horizontal channel strut were added for the new display mounts to attach to. New CAT6A UTP cabling was also pulled to the video wall to provide plenty of bandwidth for multiple simultaneous video sources to be displayed (if desired).

Once the exhibits were prepared, the installation process began for the new screens. The new video wall is comprised of 16 LG 55VX1D landscape screens, with Chief ConnexSys mounts supporting the displays. These are precision mounts offering six points of adjustment across height, tilt, depth and lateral movement.

The digital signage displays are fashioned as creative kiosks, with positioning in key traffic areas – some of which were repositioned for more visibility to fans. Two 86-inch LG landscape displays were added to the restrooms; dual LG 42-inch landscape displays were added to two Oil Bottle exhibits; dual Elo 17-inch portrait displays were added to two antique Gas Pump exhibits, and a single LG 49-inch landscape display was added to a performance motor teardown exhibit.

On the source end of the digital signage system, the latest technology was utilized to improve overall playout. BrightSign digital signage has greatly simplified how we manage our digital signage content. Previously the original A/V integrator had to be involved to facilitate all content changes. BrightSign’s BrightAuthor software now makes it simple to accommodate changes in house with one person, intuitively and on short notice. Importantly, the system “wakes up” when plaza power is turned on for the day, with content playout resuming where it left off. This is both a convenience benefit as well as an efficiency improvement that preserves stadium energy.

The BrightSign XT1144 players bring similar operational benefits. The players are solid-state, which means we no longer have to deal with computers and an operating system to support playout. The standard player configuration loads and loops the content from an SD card, with no concern about computer security, failing hard drives or maintaining the OS. The digital signage players are modestly priced enough to allow quick and simple swap out at the connection point in the event of a failure.

The standard content playing on each exhibit display includes:

• Video Wall: Lucas Oil Racing series and products
• Restrooms: MATV (Lucas Oil’s TV network) motorsport racing content
• Oil Bottles: Lucas Oil Off-Road racing content
• Gas Pumps: Lucas Oil Monster Jam and motocross content
• Engine Display: Lucas Oil NHRA drag-racing content

Both OmniStream and BrightSign will support 4K content, but the current content is HD – a big step up from the analog-only video support of the previous architecture. Live sources can also be injected into the network for the first time; when delivered from laptops or plugin sources, an Atlona HD-SC-500 three-input scaler up-converts the content. When required, the Plaza’s Klipsch Pro Audio system is utilized to distribute digital signage audio content via the system’s analog audio matrix.

The move to centralized control using the Atlona Velocity control platform over the network has perhaps been the greatest operational efficiency boost. In addition to eliminating the very manual and siloed approach to control on site, it has liberated the staff through remote control operation. Staff can remotely connect the system, troubleshoot issues, and update the system’s configuration among other benefits. The system can also be controlled through smartphones and tablets utilizing the intuitive tap-and-drag UI that Atlona’s Velocity provides.

Ease of configuration was an immediate benefit. Velocity’s web-based configuration software includes a large number of predefined devices in its database – in fact, the Lucas team only had to custom-configure one driver for our audio matrix. The system’s event macros automated many of the processes as the configuration progressed. This was achieved via a simple pull-down menu, and selecting the event and action to be performed; Velocity has a very extensive drive database.

Perhaps the most beneficial aspect was the simple assignment of inputs and outputs for the OmniStream distribution network. Specifically, there were no manual command steps required to map encoder inputs to decoder outputs, which accelerated the video routing configuration process. The programming for this element was automated behind the scenes, so it understands how to map outputs based on drag-and-drop events.

Beyond leaving behind the manual control processes of the first-generation system, the remote management features of the new system deliver the greatest operational value. Velocity’s user interface is clean and uncluttered, which allows one to view the system and easily talk technicians through an operating process or a troubleshooting issue as needed. Remote service is as simple as accessing the menu and configuration on a smartphone.

The system is still modest enough where the Velocity Cloud service is not required. Control requests are processed through the Velocity VGW-250 Gateway , connected with a rack-mount 15-inch Elo Touchscreen PC. The customized Elo touchscreen operates in kiosk mode and displays the Velocity user interface. The UI is web-based and responsive, allowing almost any element to toggle on and off. The benefit is customization to suit any environment or user.

There are innumerable benefits of moving to an AV over IP environment, many of which have been stated above. While there are no immediate plans to further expand the system, the IT network and AV system infrastructure are well-prepared to accommodate future changes, including options to connect video cameras and social media feeds to the signage network, particularly for presentation on the video wall. As referenced above, the second-generation network is architected to accept and inject live sources, which is a big change from before.

At any rate, moving to AV over IP means no longer being boxed in by a fixed switcher and input/output limitations. Adding more displays is as simple as making the routing and control connections.

James Crain is Facilities Manager and Cory Poore is IT and Network Technician, Lucas Oil Products, Inc.

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Stadium Anchored Mixed-Use Development: Part 3

How pro sports teams have become big players in commercial real estate.

Welcome to Part 3 in our series on stadium anchored mixed-use development, a concept that is changing professional sports, commercial real estate and the cities, towns, neighborhoods and even states where professional sports stadiums and arenas are located.

In Part 1 , we discussed the aspirations of the NFL’s Chicago Bears to build a new, state of the art multi-purpose stadium and adjacent mixed-use development on the former site of a Chicago-area horse racing track, an ambitious plan emblematic of the surging sports anchored development trend.

In Part 2 , we looked at the business side of professional spectator sports, a massive, $179 billion industry, as well as the new stadium construction boom that kicked off in the late 1990s and shows no signs of halting.

In this installment, we discuss the modern history of sports stadiums in the US and the evolution of stadium revenue and financing models.

A Brief History of US Sports Stadiums

Sports Stadiums, Pre-World War II

Pre-World War II, most sports stadiums were built by the teams themselves using private funds and were site-driven, designed to fit into the urban neighborhoods where they were located, both physically and architecturally 1 .

Venerable old ballparks like Wrigley Field and old Comiskey Park in Chicago, Yankee Stadium and the Polo Grounds in New York and Fenway Park in Boston are prime, familiar examples.

Relatively few people owned automobiles then—people living in and near cities relied heavily upon public transportation– so there was no need to surround stadiums with parking.

Very few sports stadiums at the time were publicly funded or municipally owned. Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum , constructed in 1923 and still standing and in use today, was the first sports venue that was built using any public funds 2 .

Sports Stadiums, Post World War II

After World War II, professional sports, sports stadiums and stadium financing and ownership all began to change. As the country began to heal from the war, the popularity of professional sports skyrocketed and sports became a lucrative business.

Eventually, as teams’ local fanbases grew, their stadiums became local economic engines on gameday and the teams generated substantial tax revenues for the cities and states they called home.

Recognizing their growing clout, team owners began demanding new stadiums paid for with public funds to draw more fans, increase revenue and boost their bottom line, threatening to relocate their franchises elsewhere if local government didn’t acquiesce.

The Brooklyn Dodgers and then team owner Walter O’Malley were the first to make good on their threats, relocating to sunny Los Angeles, California in 1958 3 after New York City officials repeatedly rebuffed their requests for a new, publicly funded stadium.

The Dodgers’ cross-town rivals, the New York Giants, simultaneously followed suit, moving to San Francisco in 1958 4 after the foggy northern California city lured them with promises of a new, taxpayer funded stadium.

Soon thereafter, not wanting to lose their professional sports teams– angering fans, alienating voters and losing a valuable source of tax revenue and civic pride in the process– cities and states began bowing to team owners’ wishes, building new stadiums using taxpayer funds. From roughly the mid-50s through the mid-70s, approximately 75% of new stadium costs were paid for with public funds 5 .

The 1960s ushered in the era of the multi-purpose stadium, stadiums that were designed and built to accommodate multiple sports 6 , most commonly baseball and football.

Among the more high-profile were the Houston Astrodome, former home to MLB’s Astros and the NFL’s Oilers, built in 1965 7 ; Philadelphia’s Veterans Stadium, which opened in 1971 and hosted both Eagles football and Phillies baseball games 8 ; and Pittsburgh’s Three Rivers Stadium, the former home of both MLB’s Pirates and the NFL’s Steelers, which opened in 1970 9 .

The Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome in Minneapolis, which opened in 1982, was the very epitome of a multi-use sports stadium. The NFL’s Vikings, MLB’s Twins, NBA’s Timberwolves and University of Minnesota Golden Gophers football team all called the Metrodome home at various points, and the venerable stadium with the inflatable roof hosted two NCAA Men’s Basketball Final Four tournaments and many other high-profile sporting events 10 .

Multi-Purpose Stadium Similarities

Besides hosting sporting events and concerts, the multi-purpose stadiums had several things in common:

• Aesthetically, most were drab and monolithic, constructed of cold steel and concrete, with few memorable architectural features. Function— providing seats, concessions and restrooms for as many paying, revenue-generating fans as was practical and getting those fans in and out of the stadium efficiently—was heavily prioritized over form.
• Most new stadiums at the time were surrounded by a sea of surface parking lots to accommodate fans. By that point, most fans were driving to games versus taking public transportation, a result of the mass migration to the suburbs from cities, a social trend that had profound and far-reaching consequences for big cities and their residents, businesses, finances and commercial real estate.
• In addition, unlike stadiums of old, which were located in the heart of bustling urban neighborhoods, most new sports stadiums built during the 1960s and 70s were located in sparsely populated or economically disadvantaged areas or the suburbs, where land was relatively cheap and plentiful and the presence of a stadium wouldn’t interfere much with daily life.

Sports Stadiums and Eminent Domain

Sometimes, cooperative state and local governmental officials would exercise their powers of eminent domain 11 and essentially force the landlords, residents and businesses in the neighborhood to sell their properties to make way for the new stadium, which they argued would benefit the public by creating jobs and increasing tax revenue.

Public Funds For Stadiums

Perhaps the most consequential similarity between the multi-use stadiums: as mentioned, they were largely paid for by taxpayers, as was the next generation of sports stadiums and arenas.

According to a 2010 study from the National Conference of State Legislatures, 22 stadiums built since the 1960s were financed entirely with public funds , most commonly with tax-free municipal bonds 12 .

Between 1991 and 2010, 101 new sports stadiums were built, most at least partially funded by taxpayers 13 .

Similar to eminent domain, team owners and local politicians argued that a new sports stadium or arena would be an economic engine for the neighborhood, city and state—even the region—essentially paying for itself and then some by generating new jobs and millions in additional tax revenue, while spurring additional development in the surrounding area, which in turn would create even more jobs and more tax revenue.

And, much like Brooklyn Dodgers owner Walter O’Malley back in the late 1950s, team owners would threaten to relocate their pro sports franchise if they didn’t get their way, which led to some owners getting sweetheart stadium deals funded completely by taxpayers.

Major League Baseball’s Chicago White Sox had played their home games in Comiskey Park, on the city’s south side, since it opened its gates to fans in 1910 14 .

After buying the team from legendary baseball impresario Bill Veeck Jr. in 1981, new owners Jerry Reinsdorf and Eddie Einhorn began lobbying Chicago and Illinois state officials for a new publicly financed stadium.

When a deal in Chicago wasn’t forthcoming, Reinsdorf and Einhorn looked to Addision, IL, a suburb about 25 miles west of Chicago.

After Addison voters narrowly rejected a proposal to finance a new stadium for the White Sox, the team’s owners played hardball, threatening to move the White Sox to St. Petersburg, FL to play in the then under-construction and completely publicly-funded Florida Suncoast Dome – now Tropicana Field– unless the City of Chicago and State of Illinois came through with a new stadium deal.

In 1988, The Illinois General Assembly finally passed a bill approving public funds for a new stadium just minutes before the team’s final deadline 15 .

The Illinois Sports Facilities Authority , a governmental body created specifically to oversee the funding and operation of the White Sox new stadium, used its powers of eminent domain to acquire about 100 acres of property adjacent to old Comiskey Park 16 .

Construction of the new stadium– which would also be named Comiskey Park initially, and which local fans would refer to as “New Comiskey Park” to avoid confusion—was funded entirely through municipal bonds and a hotel tax. The White Sox contributed no monies 17 .

Even after construction of their new stadium was well underway, the team continued to wield the threat of relocation to negotiate one-sided lease terms, to the point where the White Sox paid zero rent the first 18 years and their stadium rent was among the lowest in MLB thereafter 18 .

The Traditional Stadium Revenue Model

As far as that additional neighborhood development around new stadiums, teams were, for the most part, hands off. The prevailing sports business model for decades was to generate stadium revenue on game days through traditional streams: ticket sales, parking, concessions, souvenirs and in-stadium advertising, including signage on scoreboards and in concourses.

Concerts, ice shows, circuses, festivals and other non-sports events held at the stadium were also a source of revenue for teams.

However, most sports stadiums and arenas are used only a small fraction of the year. For example, between the preseason and regular season, each NFL team plays 10 home games. Economist Victor Matheson found that between 2000 and 2009, the average NFL stadium hosted 4.9 non-league events a year 19 . That means the average NFL stadium is in use only 15 days a year and sits idle the other 350, nearly 96% of the calendar year.

While teams in North America’s other four major leagues play more regular season home games– 81 for MLB teams, 41 for NBA and NHL teams and 17 for MLS teams —their stadiums are empty and quiet most days too, even including preseason games, the playoffs—if the team makes the post-season—and special events.

On days no events are scheduled— the vast majority– stadiums and arenas generate zero revenue for their home teams. No tickets are sold; the acres of surrounding parking lots sit empty. There are no fans to buy concessions or bobbleheads or game programs. The teams recognized this.

Changing Public Sentiment About Stadiums

Around the same time pro sports teams started reconsidering their traditional stadium revenue models, something else occurred, something pro sports teams, with all their power, influence, connections and money couldn’t control: taxpayers and politicians were becoming increasingly resistant to the idea of using public funds to finance new stadiums for private businesses owned by extremely wealthy individuals and big, deep-pocketed corporations 20 .

This deepening public sentiment was driven by two main factors: state and municipal operating budgets had been tightening for years, to the point where funds for critical services, like education, infrastructure upkeep and police and fire protection, were being cut 21 ; and that new sports stadiums and arenas were hardly the economic catalysts team owners had claimed 22 , with study after study showing that team owners profited greatly from the stadium deals, but the cities, states and taxpayers that financed their venues did not.

In 2017, 83% of economists surveyed agreed that for taxpayers, the cost of subsidizing a new stadium is likely to outweigh the local economic benefits 23 . Similarly, economics professors Roger Noll and Andrew Zimbalist conducted a comprehensive review of public stadium investment and in every case found that a new sports venue had a small or even negative impact on economic activity and employment 24 . Sports economist Michael Leeds suggests that a professional baseball team has about the same economic impact on an area as a midsized department store 25 .

Pro Sports Reaches A Crossroad

Consequently, professional sports teams found themselves at a critical crossroads. Under increasing financial and public pressure, they began looking for new ways to finance new stadiums and to increase revenue from those stadiums.

Eventually, they turned their attention to one of the promised but mostly unrealized benefits of new stadiums they had largely ignored previously: redevelopment of the area around the stadium and the shower of economic benefits that would bring.

Next, Pro Sports Teams Get Off T he Sidelines and Join T he  Commercial Real Estate Game

In the next post in our series on stadium anchored mixed-use development, we’ll discuss why and how professional sports teams embraced commercial real estate, adapted their revenue models and became major commercial real estate developers and owners.

On a related note, if you happen to be involved in sports anchored development, Realogic offers several services and solutions that can help you maximize the returns on your next project:

• Our off-the-shelf Excel development models have been tested and refined over the course of 30 years and thousands of successful and profitable commercial real estate projects and can be used to accurately model even the biggest and most complex mixed-use projects. Using Realogic’s accurate, proven models instead of taking on the formidable task of building your own will save you time and money, eliminate the trial and error and give you greater confidence in your numbers.
• Or, if you’d prefer, we can do the financial modeling for you . Realogic’s skilled, experienced consulting team has modeled thousands of commercial real estate projects of all types and complexity over the past 30 years, including ground-up development and mixed-use properties. We work quickly and accurately and can work in your choice of modeling platform. Another big benefit: our transparent financial models feature exposed formulas so you can see exactly how numbers were calculated and make modifications and adjustments as you see fit.
• Finally, if your sports anchored project is located in a Qualified Opportunity Zone, as many are, we have extensive experience working with QOZs and QOFs. We know how to deftly navigate the ins and outs of Opportunity Zones and offer a variety of expert services and solutions to help you maximize the return on your Opportunity Zone investments .

About The Author

Terry Banike is Vice President of Marketing for Realogic. Over the course of his career, he has worked in marketing, communications, journalism and public relations, and has written news stories and features for newspapers, trade publications, newsletters and blogs. A rabid reader of anything and everything on commercial real estate, Terry closely follows commercial real estate news and trends and frequently posts about real estate on the Realogic Blog. He can be reached at [email protected] .

1, 2, 3- Thebusinessresearchcompany.com/report/spectator-sports-global-market-report 4- Bestdataanalytics.com; GDP ranking of countries in the world in 2021 5- Statista.com/statistics/214960/revenue-of-the-north-american-sports-market/ 6- Statista.com/statistics/193457/total-league-revenue-of-the-nfl-since-2005/ 7- Statista.com/statistics/193466/total-league-revenue-of-the-mlb-since-2005/ 8- Runrepeat.com/nba-revenue-statistics 9- Theathletic.com; NHL revenues reach record highs thanks to jump in sponsorship, licensing deals; June 25, 2022 10- Worldfootballindex.com; How MLS Compares to the Premier League In Terms of Viewership & Income Generated; July 25, 2022 11,12- Forbes; The World’s 50 Most Valuable Sports Teams 2022; September 8, 2022 13- Statista.com/statistics/253353/brand-value-of-sports-events-worldwide/ (2019) 14- Forbes; Super Bowl Advertising: The 2022 Edition; February 18, 2022 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20- thestreet.com/lifestyle/sports/super-bowl-revenue 21, 22, 23, 24- Statista.com/statistics/214960/revenue-of-the-north-american-sports-market/ 25- Thehogstynetwork; NFL Revenue Sharing 101; January 23, 2020 26- Theathletic.com; NHL Financial Impact; How Much Money Does A Team Bring In Each Home Game?; March 13, 2020 27- Thesportsrush.com; How Do NBA Teams Make Money: A Complete NBA Revenue Breakdown; December 10, 2021 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33-Hunden Strategic Partners; State of the Industry: 2022; Coliseum Conference; September 2022

Images: https://www.walteromalley.com/en/biography/short/walter-omalleys-legacy.

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Sustainable design of sports stadiums : case study analysis of stadiums for the Olympic Games 2000 in Sydney, 2004 in Athens and 2008 in Beijing / Sven Schmedes

Schmedes, Sven

Edited by Welsh School of Architecture, Cardiff University - 2015

In the first part of this thesis a review of the subject is presented. A brief history of the development of stadium design in the Olympic context, evolving requirements for staging Olympic Summer Games, the structure of organizations involved, existing literature research and certification methods are summarized. In the second part, the methodology and development of the bespoke research tool based on existing certification systems such as BREEAM, LEED and DGNB is described. Subsequently, case studies for three different stadium types (Olympic stadium, indoor stadium and football stadium) used for the Olympic Summer Games in Sydney (2000), Athens (2004) and Beijing (2008) are analyzed based on literature research, field surveys and interviews. The comparative assessment of each stadium type is conducted with an evaluation matrix in three denominations: urban category, environmental category and social category. In each category two indicators with two respective parameters are evaluated based on a five-point score system. Subsequently the general applicability of the research tool is verified with an example appraisal of Wembley Stadium which was used for the Olympic Summer Games in London (2012). Conclusions are drawn in the third part of the thesis, separately for each of the three denominations urban category, environmental category and social category. The last chapter summarizes recommendations for stadium design in the Olympic context. To ensure a long-term utilization of each sports stadium after the Olympic Games it is suggested that applicant/candidate cities carry out comprehensive feasibility studies in collaboration with an operator to develop a bespoke project brief and business plan for operation of each venue at bidding stage.

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Architecture Research

p-ISSN: 2168-507X    e-ISSN: 2168-5088

2016;  6(6): 154-159

doi:10.5923/j.arch.20160606.03

Sports Arena Development: Scalability Impact on Urban Fabric Integration

Amna Aljehani , Salim Ferwati

Department of Architecture and Urban Planning, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar

Copyright © 2016 Scientific & Academic Publishing. All Rights Reserved.

This paper examines the evolution of arenas and its integration in the urban fabric. Arenas have always been an important building type that has been used since ancient times. The integration of arenas into the urban fabric has become a recent issue with the increase interest for hosting Mega Sporting Events. Mega Sporting Events usually require large structures that sometime are poorly integrated with its surroundings. The focus of this study is to examine the history of sports arenas and its integration into the urban fabric with focus on stadium scalability. In this study, the method used to examine arena development and integration is based on a historical qualitative method to examine the timeline of arena development and impact factors, in addition to the comparison of two case studies: Khalifa International Stadium and Qatar Foundation Stadium. The paper concludes that stadium scalability is impacted by urban form factors such as land uses, density, accessibility and connectivity. These factors impact the decision to scale down or up a stadium for better urban integrations. It also proposes further research questions that can base this study as a critical background study of arena development.

Keywords: Sport Arenas, Stadiums Urban Fabric, Scalability

Cite this paper: Amna Aljehani, Salim Ferwati, Sports Arena Development: Scalability Impact on Urban Fabric Integration, Architecture Research , Vol. 6 No. 6, 2016, pp. 154-159. doi: 10.5923/j.arch.20160606.03.

Article Outline

1. introduction, 2. literature review, 3. methodology, 4. discussion, 4.1. the development of arenas as a building type, 4.2. stadium scalability: choosing between scaling up or down a stadium, 4.3. case studies: khalifa international stadium vs. qatar foundation stadium, 4.3.1. khalifa international stadium, 4.3.2. qatar foundation stadium, 4.3.3. case study summary, 5. conclusions, acknowledgements.

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Management of multi-purpose stadiums: importance and performance measurement of service interfaces

2010, International Journal of Services Technology and Management

Maintaining and increasing visitor satisfaction is a crucial success factor in managing modern, multi-functional stadiums for sports, concerts, shows and other kinds of events. Based on a typical service delivery process when attending an event, this study identifies the relevant factors that influence visitor satisfaction with stadiums. An analysis of this process and its service interfaces by means of direct observation allows us to establish relationships in a structural equation model. Using data from almost 2,500 visitors of a major German multi-purpose stadium, the hypothesised relationships are subsequently tested by means of the partial least squares (PLS) path modelling approach. An importance-performance map-based assessment is used to derive recommendations for improving service interface performance and hence, visitor satisfaction.

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Charles Parrish

The Convention Industry Council (2014) identifies sports stadiums as one of three types of meeting venues. Specifically, these facilities are considered non-traditional venues and it is unclear if their features and services meet the expectations of corporate and social meeting/event planners. This is a critical gap in both the sport management and meetings/events literature. If stadiums are to effectively generate ancillary revenue by attracting and hosting corporate and social events on non-game days, it is important for sports teams and stadium authorities to understand if their features and services satisfy the wants and needs of prospective customers (meeting and event planners). Currently, there are a limited number of empirical studies that explore the use of professional stadiums for corporate and social events. These studies focus either on marketing efforts (Lee, Kim, & Parrish, 2012; Parrish, Lee, & Kim, 2014) or planner perceptions (Lee, Parrish, & Kim, 2015) and do not investigate if stadiums satisfy customer expectations of key features and services. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate event/meeting planner satisfaction with outdoor professional sports stadium features and services. Participants (n = 266) included in the study were professional event and meeting planners with the capacity to make site selection decisions on behalf of their organization or clients. Also, all participants had prior experience with either attending or planning a corporate or social event at an outdoor professional sports stadium.

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The purpose of the current research was to examine the differences between expected quality of service and the perceived quality of service experienced by spectators at selected professional basketball stadiums in Northern Greece. Five hundred spectators filled in the evaluation instrument created for the purpose of the study. The Wilcoxon's matched-pairs signed-ranks test showed a statistically significant difference in all 23 items between expectations and perceptions of service quality and in all cases only organizational weaknesses were proved to exist and no strengths. The exploratory factor analysis revealed nine factors: "show time expectations", "installation’s evaluation", "convenience and employee evaluation", "show time evaluation", "employee expectations", "convenience expectations", "installation’s expectations", "comfort evaluation" and "comfort expectations". The challenge of providing o high quality sport and recreation service becomes less difficult when sport managers know what their customers expect from a service and what they feel is important to quality. From a managerial perspective, identifying the dimensions and knowing both a spectator's evaluations and expectations of a provided service indicates the direction that management should take in investing its efforts and resources to increase the probability of the customer experiencing a positive outcome from watching.

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Panagiotis ioannou

Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal

Nagarajah Lee

Christian Ringle

ACPES Journal of Physical Education, Sport, and Health (AJPESH)

Sununta Srisiri

This research aimed to propose a model for the enhancement of service quality of the 2nd Thailand Open Master Games 2022 in Thailand. Data were collected from a sample survey of 583 participants i.e., athletes, referees, coaches, officials, team managers, volunteers, and all involved. A simple sampling was used. A particular focus of the study is if and how participant satisfaction influences participant’ expenditures. It is hypothesized and argued that expenditure depends on satisfaction relative to perceived service quality. Descriptive and regression analytical techniques were employed for data analysis. Three primary dimensions in service quality were identified in the sports context: sporting event quality, staff quality, and venue and sports facilities quality. It is empirically found that perceived service quality affected participants' satisfaction and those participants with satisfaction greater than their perceived service quality during the visit spend significantly m...

Annals of Tropical Medicine and Public Health

Amritashish Bagchi

Background:Where there is a sport, there are fans. Fans are the heartbeat of any sport as they tend to motivate players on the fields, during a live match. Their emotions are involved with players, teams, and countries.The objective of this study was to generate ideas and strategies that a facility can acquire, that fulfil the requirements and expectations of fans, which will make them visit the facility. Methods: In making this possible, five closed group discussions have held, where the participants shared their insights as a fan. In this era of advanced trending technologies and digital transformation, connecting with fans has made it easy and, their expectations can be met. Conclusion:The discussions were made to get a deep understanding of the fans' experience in a stadium and also focus on uplifting their belief in the future through better facility management and quality services, based on which meaningful conclusion had formed, that a facility can transform.

amir montazeri

This study aimed to empirically develop a reliable and valid model specifically for measuring service quality of sport conferences as sport event tourism. To assess the model which has been established based on the survey, data gathered from 136 of attendees in sport conference. Finding of this study showed that participants form their service quality perceptions based on their evaluations of 4 primary dimensions including: venue quality, conference quality, access quality and trip quality. Total variance of these dimensions explained %53.82 variance of services quality. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that each of the four factors influence on the services quality, and the fit indices confirmed the conceptual model that presented in this study (Chi-Square=85.456, df=23, P=0.001, RMSEA=0.142). As a result, it is recommended to conference organizer and tourism managers, to considering these factors next to each other in order to increase and improve the service quality.

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WSP London’s Structures Team Scores by Saving Significant Time and Reducing Project Risk

How Visicon streamlines project coordination for a stadium in the UK  

Taking on demanding projects is nothing new for the WSP London office, but when working on a new multi-purpose section of a stadium in the UK, the Structures Team turned to Visicon to significantly save valuable time and reduce their risk in project delivery.

General section showing complexity of steel structure supporting stands and cantilevered roof.

The project – referred to as “The Stand” – includes a luxury pool & spa, boutique hotel, various gathering spaces with related concourses, seating for approximately 9,000 spectators, and a 35-meter cantilevered roof.    Construction materials consist of a concrete foundation, composite deck flooring, precast bowl units and a large steel superstructure and roof.  Although broad in usage, the project is set within a very tight physical footprint and short construction timeframe.

“Producing efficient, buildable and well-coordinated designs in fast moving and complex projects, like The Stand, absorbs substantial amounts of our design teams’ time.”

- Andy Heffer, WSP Associate Director

Super positioning all models is a basic way to review compliance between the models.

“Producing efficient, buildable and well-coordinated designs in fast moving and complex projects, like The Stand, absorbs substantial amounts of our design teams’ time,” according to Andy Heffer, WSP Associate Director.  “Ensuring that the golden thread of information is retained throughout coordination, analysis, design, modelling, drawing, fabrication and on to the site teams is an essential quality assurance process. The multi-step nature of this process provides substantial opportunities for error, both human and procedural.”

Support detail of cantilevered wall shown represented in 3 separate modelling tools.

Various design and analysis tools were used for The Stand, including ETABS for the steel design while the majority of disciplines – including the structural team – produced construction drawings via Revit.  “With the project’s demanding geometry and numerous site constraints, the steel frame required comprehensive coordination between the ETABS 3D model, Revit 3D model and the steel fabricator’s 3D model (in Tekla), with Visicon being an invaluable tool to achieve this,” explains Trent Byrne, WSP Associate.

Screenshot showing configuration of checking algorithm on right and mismatched beams color-coded in model. Beams that are grey and transparent have matching section assignment and pass the test. This instance of the checking algorithm was set to test members in ETABS against those in the Tekla model.

“ With the project’s demanding geometry and numerous site constraints, the steel frame required comprehensive coordination ... with Visicon being an invaluable tool to achieve this."

- Trent Byrne, WSP Associate

By using Visicon to automatically identify the detailed differences between their various 3D models, the WSP London Structures Team calculates they have saved a total of 4 weeks of a Senior Structural Engineer’s time that would have been spent manually reviewing 2D steel shop drawings over the course of the project.  “We’ve never had this type of tool before,” reports Peter Townsend, WSP BIM Model manager. “Visicon quickly picks up member discrepancies and even allows us to easily check their manufactured camber against our intended in-place deflections.  It’s also an incredibly friendly piece of software to use.”

“We’ve never had this type of tool before....Visicon quickly picks up member discrepancies ...It’s also an incredibly friendly piece of software to use.”

- Peter Townsend, WSP BIM Model Manager

Inherent modeling differences like pre-cambering that was accounted for in the Tekla fabrication model but not shown in the design intent models added a degree of complexity when trying to compare models. Visicon’s component matching algorithm can be configured to account for such expected model deviations.

WSP also saw Visicon reduce the risk of human error in the ongoing transfer and checking of information between the various analysis and Revit models.  Adds Heffer, “Visicon found multiple instances of out-of-date and un-coordinated information during the later stages of production; this led to fewer instances of costly site re-work and re-design.”

“Visicon has become part of our day-to-day suite of tools that we use."

Color-coding the model by Orphan components is a quick and easy way to identify which members are only present in one of the models. This is a fast way to catch early modelling discrepancies and also identify temporary members included in the steel fabrication model.

Adoption of the software is growing across the WSP London office.  “As more projects use Visicon to check and authorize their models we plan on establishing a standard set of checking rules as an important part of our standard quality assurance procedure going forward.”  Adds Townsend, “Visicon has become part of our day-to-day suite of tools that we use.”

The project team (from left to right): Andy Heffer, Trent Byrne, and Peter Townsend.

As one of the world’s leading professional services firms, WSP provides engineering and design services to clients in the Transportation & Infrastructure, Property & Buildings, Earth & Environment, Power & Energy, Resources and Industry sectors, as well as offering strategic advisory services. WSP's global experts include engineers, advisors, technicians, scientists, architects, planners, environmental specialists and surveyors, in addition to other design, program and construction management professionals. Their talented people are well positioned to deliver successful and sustainable projects, wherever clients need us. https://www.wsp.com

About Visicon

Visicon is a 3D model review solution used by AEC firms worldwide as a fast and powerful way to view, query and compare their project models.  Beyond providing a robust suite of model viewing and comparison functionalities, Visicon is also used by customers to automate their model checking and management tasks, saving them time and increasing project quality.  https://www.visicon.com

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City Receives Feasibility Study for Multi-Purpose Stadium

July 23, 2021

The City of Albuquerque released an extensive study from CAA ICON and Crawford Architects analyzing the feasibility of a multi-use stadium facility. CAA ICON is a leading strategic consulting firm specializing in the sports and entertainment venue industry. The USL Championship soccer team New Mexico United would be one tenant in the facility. The facility would be available for a range of uses, including performances, worship events, and home to a possible future women’s soccer team. The study, funded by City Council, includes a comprehensive assessment of market demand for a stadium and analyzed several sites across the metro area as potential locations for the team’s permanent home. The consultants provide preliminary site proposals, but the City has not yet made any determinations. The project will move through an extensive public input process before any further steps are taken.

“This study is a key part of our due diligence as we explore the possibility of a multi-use facility,” said Lawrence Rael, Chief Operating Officer for the City of Albuquerque . “We’re glad to have the results of the study so we can discuss the findings with the community, make proper considerations, and initiate next steps.”

The Executive Summary and Full Study are available online.

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The added value of smart stadiums: a case study at Johan Cruijff Arena

Purpose The objective of stadium owners is to attract visitors to their stadiums and by this optimally use their business potential. Stadiums face increasing competition from home-viewing options, with which especially aging stadiums have trouble competing. This paper aims to study the concept of smart stadiums as a solution to this problem, adding the corona age as an additional challenge. Design/methodology/approach First, (smart) stadium literature and theories are reviewed. Then, a case study is conducted, consisting of document review, observations and semi-structured interviews with specialists. The case that is studied is the Johan Cruijff Arena in Amsterdam – the stadium has the ambition to be the most innovative stadium in 2020. Findings Nine different smart tools were identified in the case study, which supports the optimization of various processes in the stadium such as ticketing and crowd control. The findings from this case study showed the potential of the smart stadium concept and how it can add value for the stadium’s stakeholders. The use of smart tools can improve the effectiveness and efficiency of stadium operations, and it can be used to improve the visitors’ experience. However, concrete numbers of progress were difficult to obtain because the smart tools were only recently implemented. Originality/value As seen in the past few years, more and more stadiums are branding themselves as a smart stadium. However, research on this subject is still scarce: existing research focused on other types of real estate. By exploring the work done in theory and practice, the authors hope to increase research on the subject of smart stadiums.

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PurposeThis paper aims to provide an exploratory investigation into contemporary interpretation methods used in historic gardens and their fundamental role in enhancing the visitor experience and sense of a place.Design/methodology/approachA series of semi-structured interviews (n= 65) with Wrest Park visitors – who had the opportunity to experience new interpretation methods provided on-site – have been carried out in an attempt to explore their sense of place through interpretation.FindingsThe research suggests that interpretation has a fundamental role to play in “telling the story” of historic gardens, with 92.5 per cent of the sample understanding elements of the place’s history, significance and evolution. The findings further suggest the presence of two distinct visitor typologies – history explorers and leisure seekers.Practical implicationsThe study provides implications for theory and practice and recommendations for historic garden practitioners.Originality/valueThe importance of conceptualising and operationalising interpretation in historic gardens has received relatively little attention across the extant body of heritage interpretation literature. English Heritage’s Wrest Park, which is amongst England’s most prominent historic gardens, is used as a case study.

Unpacking the package

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to explore the ways in which both formal and informal control, operating as a package, are implicated in responding to organisational change arising from the introduction of the Australian Federal Government’s Clean Energy Act (2011). Design/methodology/approach – This investigation is based on a review of archival data, and semi-structured interviews conducted with 15 staff at different hierarchical levels within an Australian renewable energy company. Findings – Although formal management control systems and informal control both played important roles in the organisation’s reorientation to organisational change, it was the latter form of control that predominated over the former. The influence of the prevailing organisational culture, however, was pivotal in orchestrating both formal and informal control efforts within this organisation. Originality/value – This study contributes to management control theory and practice in two ways: first, it provides much needed empirical evidence about the ways in which management controls act as a package; second, it offers insights into the relative importance of the components of a management control package in the context of a particular organisational change. In addition, it responds to Laughlin’s (1991) call for empirical “flesh” to be added to the skeletal framework he advocates to make this conceptualisation of organisational change, “more meaningful”.

Digital forensics and evolving cyber law: case of BIMSTEC countries

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to discuss the role of digital forensics in an evolving environment of cyber laws giving attention to Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) countries, comprising Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Nepal and Bhutan, in a dynamic global context. Design/methodology/approach This study uses a case study approach to discuss the digital forensics and cyber laws of BIMSTEC countries. The objective of the study was expected to be achieved by referring to decided cases in different jurisdictions. Cyber laws of BIMSTEC countries were studied for the purpose of this study. Findings The analysis revealed that BIMSTEC countries are required to amend legislation to support the growth of information technology. Most of the legislation are 10-15 years old and have not been amended to resolve issues on cyber jurisdictions. Research limitations/implications This study was limited to the members of the BIMSTEC. Originality/value This paper is an original work done by the authors who have discussed the issues of conducting investigations with respect to digital crimes in a rapidly changing environment of information technology and deficient legal frameworks.

Exploring producers' motivations and challenges within a farmers' market

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to explore food producers' motivations and challenges whilst participating in short food supply chains (SFSCs). This paper compares findings with previous literature and investigates the topic in the context of producers' motivations.Design/methodology/approachThe paper includes a literature review concerning producers' motivations to engage in SFSCs. A case study was designed to investigate motivations underlying producers' engagement in SFSCs, as well as the challenges that they face. Semi-structured interviews were conducted in a farmers' market located in Mexico. Thematic analysis is used to identify the principal issues for producers'. Propositions based on findings are presented.FindingsFindings suggest that small, large, part-time and full-time producers are willing to engage with farmers' markets for diverse primary economic and non-economic motivations. Individual and collective challenges were also identified.Originality/valueThis research helps to explain producers' motivations and challenges within SFSCs in an under-researched context, namely a focus on producers' and in the Global South.

Sinabung volcano: how culture shapes community resilience

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore how culture, including traditions and social structures, can influence resilience and how culturally sensitive relief operations can put affected people and their context at the core of any interventions. Design/methodology/approach A case study of the Mt Sinabung volcano area in Indonesia was undertaken. As part of the case study, an analysis of interventions was conducted, which was complemented by semi-structured interviews with Karo cultural experts and humanitarian organisations. Findings Culture influences the manner in which the Karo people react to volcano eruptions with varying implications for recovery. In addition, relief organisations which understand people’s actions through a cultural lens have better managed to tailor programs with long-term impact, thereby avoiding aid dependency. Practical implications Practical examples of disaster management activities that adequately account for the beneficiaries’ way of living prior to the eruptions are provided. Aid actors are provided with guidance concerning how to better tailor their activities in line with a cultural lens. Originality/value The study provides empirical grounding for claims concerning the role of culture in planning interventions in Indonesia and other similar contexts.

Social urbanism: public policy and place brand

PurposeThis paper aims to focus on how a public policy designed to address a social problem ultimately became the place brand.Design/methodology/approachThis paper uses a qualitative case study approach focusing on the city of Medellín, Colombia. It draws from fieldwork conducted in Medellín over 2014 and 2015, including semi-structured interviews with an array of local stakeholders.FindingsThe paper concludes that local governments should be aware that the policymaking process can become part of their branding. It also shows the importance of the continual involvement of stakeholders in the place brand process to ensure it is a sustainable brand.Originality/valueThere are limited studies which focus on how a public policy designed to address a social problem ultimately becomes the place brand. This paper shows how a public policy, social urbanism, became the branding of Medellín.

The deputy principal instructional leadership role and professional learning

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to report on a study examining the perceptions of secondary principals, deputies and teachers, of deputy principal (DP) instructional leadership (IL), as well as deputies’ professional learning (PL) needs. Framed within an interpretivist approach, the specific objectives of this study were: to explore the extent to which DPs are perceived as leaders of learning, to examine the actual responsibilities of these DPs and to explore the PL that support DP roles. Design/methodology/approach The researchers used multiple perspective case studies which included semi-structured interviews and key school document analysis. A thematic content analysis facilitated qualitative descriptions and insights from the perspectives of the principals, DPs and teachers of four high-performing secondary schools in Sydney, Australia. Findings The data revealed that deputies performed a huge range of tasks; all the principals were distributing leadership to their deputies to build leadership capacity and supported their PL in a variety of ways. Across three of the case study schools, most deputies were frequently performing as instructional leaders, improving their school’s performance through distributing leadership, team building and goal setting. Deputy PL was largely dependent on principal mentoring and self-initiated but was often ad hoc. Findings add more validity to the importance of principals building the educational leadership of their deputies. Research limitations/implications This study relied upon responses from four case study schools. Further insight into the key issues discussed may require a longitudinal data that describe perceptions from a substantial number of schools in Australia over time. However, studying only four schools allowed for an in-depth investigation. Practical implications The findings from this study have practical implications for system leaders with responsibilities of framing the deputies’ role as emergent educational leaders rather than as administrators and the need for coherent, integrated, consequential and systematic approaches to DP professional development. Further research is required on the effect of deputy IL on school performance. Originality/value There is a dearth of research-based evidence exploring the range of responsibilities of deputies and perceptions of staff about deputies’ IL role and their PL needs. This is the first published New South Wales, Australian DP study and adds to the growing evidence around perceptions of DPs as instructional leaders by providing an Australian perspective on the phenomenon. The paper raises important concerns about the complexity of the DP’s role on the one hand, and on the other hand, the PL that is perceived to be most appropriate for dealing with this complexity.

Using media to promote artisan food and beverages: insights from the television industry

Purpose – The increasing frequency with which food and beverage producers feature in mainstream media, including television cooking shows, provide opportunities and pitfalls for using media to promote artisan food and beverage businesses. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate these, as experienced by a group of food and beverage producers who appeared on the popular Australian television show, Gourmet Farmer. Design/methodology/approach – Findings are based on semi-structured interviews with 14 of the producers featured on the show, plus textual analysis of relevant segments of the show. Findings – While all of the producers felt that food television offered a good promotional tool, those who were most familiar with the practices of media production and whose businesses offered experiences through which viewers could access (or imagine) a “taste” of the Gourmet Farmer life tended to be more satisfied than those who were less familiar with the practices of media production and who expected a greater focus on their products and production practices. Practical implications – The development of media skills is essential for artisan producers to get the best outcomes when using media to promote their businesses. Originality/value – The experiences of food and beverage producers using food television to promote their businesses have not previously been the subject of thoroughgoing research. This paper offers new insights into how artisan producers can best capitalize on the opportunities offered by food media.

Beyond social capital: a capability approach to understanding Refugee Community Organisations and other providers for “hard to reach” groups

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to explore the value of the “capability approach” as an alternative framework for understanding and conceptualising the role of Refugee Community Organisations (RCOs) and other providers for groups conventionally considered “hard to reach”. Design/methodology/approach – A study of the education services of RCOs, drawing primarily on semi-structured interviews with 71 users, is put forward as a case study for how the capability approach can be operationalised. Findings – The capability approach is found to offer various valuable insights, relating to its appreciation of the multi-dimensional nature of human wellbeing, the significance of individual diversity, and the importance of human agency. Research limitations/implications – The case study is based on a relatively small purposive sample, and may have limited external validity. As the research design proved strong for exploring how RCOs develop their users’ capabilities but weak for exploring if and how they may also constrict them, further research in this area is required. Practical implications – A number of valuable attributes of the capability approach are highlighted for broadening the understanding, the role of RCOs and other service providers. Social implications – The paper outlines the potential of the capability approach to contribute to policymaking related to RCOs and other providers, and to debates relating to social exclusion, cohesion and integration. Originality/value – The paper draws attention to the value of the capability approach within the field of migration research.

Adaptations in traditional courtyard houses in Baghdad, Iraq

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to investigate the adaptations that have been made to traditional courtyard houses (TCHs) in Baghdad, Iraq. The aim is to develop an understanding of various factors in the adaptation of these buildings to suit contemporary lifestyles, which will contribute to the wider field of building adaptability. Design/methodology/approach Empirical evidence was collected through case studies of 12 TCHs in the Al-Kadhimiya area of Baghdad, which involved a physical survey of buildings and semi-structured interviews with 24 occupants. Findings Case study analysis show that building adaptability involves both a change to physical spaces and also to lifestyles; with the latter being more likely when there are limitations in how much change can be made to the physical structure. Research limitations/implications The focus of this research is mainly on users’ adaptation of spaces and therefore does not consider the full range of stakeholders involved in the adaptation process. The findings also only apply to the cases considered and may not be applicable to other house types or locations. Originality/value Studies on building adaptability mostly focus on the ease of change to the building fabric, although the role of users is acknowledged. This study provides insights into the complexity and variety of changes that users can make, which are influenced by lifestyles and driven by the need for comfort. These insights are represented in an adaptation model, which can serve as a basis for further research.

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