red bull research paper

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• Anatol J Cardiol
• v.19(5); 2018 May

Long-term consumption of energy drinks induces biochemical and ultrastructural alterations in the heart muscle

Camelia munteanu.

Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Babes-Bolyai University; Cluj-Napoca- Romania

Corina Rosioru

Corneliu tarba, camelia lang.

Energy drinks (EDs) target young and active individuals and they are being marketed as enhancers of energy, concentration, and physical and cognitive performance. Their long-term consumption raises serious health concerns related to cardiovascular events. Here we investigate the effects of long-term Red Bull ® consumption and its combination with alcohol on certain biochemical parameters and the ultrastructure of the myocardium.

Male Wistar rats were categorized into four groups and given different treatments via oral administration. The Control (C) group received tap water, the Red Bull (RB) group received 1.5 ml/100 g body weight of Red Bull, the ethanol group (E) received 0.486 mg/100 g body weight of ethanol, and the Red Bull and ethanol (RBE) received a combination of the two beverages for 30 days. In the last 6 days of the experiment, the animals were tested for their physical performance by conducting a weight-loaded forced swim test. Immediately after swimming exhaustion, the animals were sacrificed under anesthesia and samples of the heart muscle were harvested for ultrastructural and biochemical analyses.

Our results showed a significant increase in the heart glucose and glycogen concentrations in the RB and RBE groups. Total cholesterol concentration significantly decreased in the RBE and RB groups. Total protein concentration and ALT and AST activities increased in all groups. The biochemical changes were accompanied by ultrastructural alterations.

Conclusion:

Based on these results, we recommend that athletes and active persons should avoid the long-term consumption of the Red Bull ED and, particularly, its combination with alcohol.

Introduction

Energy drinks (EDs) target young and physically active individuals. They contain large quantities of active components such as caffeine, taurine, and niacin. EDs are branded as agents or enhancers of energy, concentration capacity, and physical and mental performance ( 1 ). However, the consumption of EDs, particularly in large quantities, is associated with the occurrence of cardiovascular events such as cardiac arrhythmias, chest pain, hypertension, and even sudden cardiac death ( 2 ). As such, the safety of the long-term consumption of EDs is questionable.

The explosive increase in the consumption of EDs over the past years has led the scientific community to investigate the influence of such products on human health and to identify the reasons for their consumption. Additionally, the past years have witnessed an increase in the incidence of negative effects associated with the consumption of EDs, the most common adverse effects noticed being the nervous, cardiovascular, and gastrointestinal effects.

The risks are even higher if EDs are combined with alcohol. Several studies have investigated the effect of EDs in combination with alcohol and have shown that EDs significantly reduce the immediate effects of ethylic intoxication, which may lead to an increased consumption of alcoholic drinks ( 3 ). Ferreira et al. ( 4 ) have shown that, when combined with alcohol, Red Bull attenuates the perception of alcoholic intoxication.

In general, the short- and long-term effects of the consumption of EDs are controversial. Several studies have addressed the short-term effects of EDs, targeting specific components of EDs and not EDs in their entirety, and have reported positive short-term effects induced by these specific components. For instance, it has been shown that caffeine activates AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), which is a key enzyme that coordinates several signaling pathways that are involved in maintaining cellular energy homeostasis ( 5 ). Additionally, caffeine causes sympathomimetic effects, intensifying heart activity and increasing blood pressure ( 6 ).

It has also been proven that taurine is an indirect regulator of oxidative stress in the myocardium, stabilizing the cellular membranes by directly interacting with phospholipids. It exhibits various biological activities such as a positive influence on the calcium kinetics as well as the protection of the cardiac function and is a modulator of protein kinases and phosphatases in cardiomyocytes. Further, it maintains the normal contractile function of the heart muscle ( 7 ) and reduces arterial pressure ( 8 ).

Some EDs (5-hour ENERGY shots, Monster, Rockstar Energy, and Red Bull) contain niacin (vitamin B3) in doses above the daily recommended intake. Niacin has positive effects in restoring a healthy lipid profile and delaying the progression of atherosclerosis ( 9 ). It has been used for more than half a century in the treatment of lipid disorders, such as abnormally elevated concentrations of LDL, non-HDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and lipoproteins and low concentrations of HDL ( 9 , 10 ).

In fact, most studies have shown that a moderate consumption of EDs over a short period of time improves the cognitive and psychomotor capacities ( 11 ). However, some studies have also highlighted the occurrence of negative effects by the consumption of EDs, such as an increase in the heart rate, and systolic and diastolic pressures and a decrease in the cerebral blood flow ( 12 , 13 ).

Finally, the long-term effects of the consumption of EDs on different systems have been insufficiently studied, and those of such drinks on the cardiovascular system are unknown. However, based on known information (see the preceding paragraph), our hypothesis is that the consumption of EDs represents a serious cardiac risk factor. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of the chronic consumption of an ED (Red Bull) and of its combination with alcohol and to highlight their influence on certain biochemical parameters and the ultrastructure of the myocardium.

All reagents used in this study were of analytical grade and were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Chemie GmbH, Germany. The Red Bull ED was bought from a local market.

Animals and treatments

The study was conducted on male Wistar rats, which were kept under standard conditions and had free access to water and food. Experiments were performed according to the national regulations and were approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee (Registration no. 17928/2017).

Twenty-eight albino male Wistar rats, weighing 182.11±4.7 g, were divided into the following four groups, each with seven animals: the Control (C), Red Bull (RB), ethanol (E), and Red Bull and ethanol (RBE). All animals received a standard diet. The C group had ad libitum access to tap water, the RB group were orally administrated with 1.5 ml/100 g body weight of Red Bull in drinking water daily, for 30 days, and the E group received 0.486 mg/100 g body weight of ethanol daily. The RBE group received both Red Bull and ethanol in equivalent concentrations with each of the other two treated groups.

In the last 6 days of the experiment, the animals were tested for their physical performance by conducting a weight-loaded forced swim test. The animals were forced to swim to exhaustion with a load of 10% of their body weight attached to their tails. Each rat was considered to have reached exhaustion when it remained submerged for ≥5 s. Water temperature varied between 28°C and 30°C, and none of the animals were affected by hypothermia.

After 30 days of treatment, immediately after exhaustion, the animals were killed by exsanguination under anesthesia. Samples of serum and heart muscle were harvested for biochemical and ultrastructural analyses, including the measurements of total heart glucose, glycogen, cholesterol and protein concentrations; in addition, serum and heart muscle ALT and AST activities were measured.

Biochemical analyses

The total glucose concentration was determined using the Somogy Nelson colorimetric assay ( 14 , 15 ). Glycogen concentration was determined using the Montgomery method ( 16 ) modified by Lo et al. ( 17 ). Total cholesterol was assayed using ferric chloride ( 18 ). Total protein concentration was determined using the Bradford colorimetric assay ( 19 ) with the Bradford “ready-to-use” reagent. AST and ALT activities were analyzed using the Reitman and Frankel photocolorimetric assay ( 20 ).

Ultrastructural analyses

For electron microscopy analyses, the myocardium specimens were fixed in 2.7% glutaraldehyde and 2% osmium tetroxide, successively washed in phosphate buffer, and dehydrated in increasing concentrations of acetone. They were then embedded in Epon, and slices were cut at 50-90 nm using a Leica UC6 Ultra microtome on a glass knife. The sections were contrasted and visualized at 80 kV using a TEM JEOL JEM-1010. Images were obtained with a Mega Wiew III camera ( 21 ).

Statistical analysis

All data are presented as mean±standard deviation (SD). For statistical analysis of the effects of different treatments, a one-way analysis of variance with Dunnett’s test was conducted. All data were analysed using GraphPad Prism version 6 for Windows (GraphPad Software Inc., La Jolla, CA, USA). Significance was considered at values of p<0.05.

Biochemical results

The effects of Red Bull, ethanol, and their combination on glucose and glycogen concentrations in the heart muscle are shown in Figure 1 . These results revealed that glucose concentration increased in all treated groups, but this was significant only in the RBE group (RBE, 1.233±0.3867 vs. C, 0.6699±0.2759; p=0.0217*) ( Fig. 1a ). A clear increase in the glycogen concentration ( Fig. 1b ) occurred in the RB group (RB 2.946±1.2 vs. C, 1.077±0.4033; p=0.0019**).

Changes induced by the combined physical effort (swimming test) and consumption of Red Bull and/or ethanol on (a) glucose and (b) glycogen concentrations in the myocardium. The results are presented as mean±SD. P <0.05* and P <0.01** vs. C. C - control; RB - Red Bull; E - ethanol, RBE - Red Bull and ethanol. n=7 in all groups

The concentration of cholesterol was significantly decreased in all treated groups (RB, 2.144±0.3724 vs. C 7.365±3.224; p=0.0004***; E, 2.874±1.071 vs. C 7.365±3.224; p=0.0017**; RBE, 2.264±0.6763 vs. C, 7.365±3.224; p=0.0004***; Fig. 2a ).

Variations in (a) total cholesterol and (b) protein concentrations in the myocardium after physical effort (swimming test) and consumption of Red Bull and/or ethanol. The results are presented as mean±SD. P <0.05*, P <0.01** and P <0.01*** vs. C. C - control; RB - Red Bull; E - ethanol; RBE - Red Bull and ethanol. n=7 in all groups

Our results showed a slight increase in the myocardial protein concentration in all treated groups, being significant in the E group (E, 105.3±3.883 vs. C, 98.23±4.852; p=0.0475*) ( Fig. 2b ).

AST and ALT activities increased in the myocardium and decreased in the serum in all groups ( Fig. 3 ). The increase in the ALT activity in the myocardium was significant only in the RB group (RB, 144.5±25.06 vs. C, 115.1±13.43; p=0.0203*).

The combined effects of physical effort (swimming test) and consumption of Red Bull and ethanol on (a) serum AST, (b) serum ALT, (c) myocardium AST, and (d) myocardium ALT activities. The results are presented as mean±SD. P<0.05* and P <0.01** vs. C. C - control; RB - Red Bull; E - ethanol; RBE - Red Bull and ethanol. n=7 in all groups

Ultrastructural alterations

The most serious ultrastructural modifications observed in the heart tissue of rats in the E group ( Fig. 4a - ​ -4d) 4d ) were those that indicated the onset of alcoholic cardiomyopathy (a loose arrangement of myofibrils, and large spaces between myocytes occupied by several swollen mitochondria with dilated cristae). The morphological alterations induced in the heart muscle by EDs were very similar to those induced by ethanol ( Fig. 4e and ​ and4f 4f ).

Ultrastructure of the ventricular myocardium. (a) Control group: tightly packed intermyofibrillar mitochondria (Mt) surrounded by parallel bands of myofibrils (Myo), with contractile filaments organized in sarcomeres. Numerous lipid droplets (L) are visible in the proximity of mitochondria. Intercalated disks (ID) are visible at the limit between two adjacent cells. Bar, 2 µm. (b) Control group: tightly packed intermyofibrillar and subsarcolemmal mitochondria (Mt) with visible cristae are surrounded by parallel bands of myofibrils (Myo), with contractile filaments organized in sarcomeres. Lipid droplets (L) are visible in the proximity of mitochondria. Intercalated disks (ID) are visible at the limit between two adjacent cells. BV, blood vessel; PM, plasma membrane. Bar, 2 µm. (c) Ethanol-treated group: collagen fibers (C) are abundant in the intercellular space; lysis areas (arrowheads) are visible in the spaces occupied by mitochondria; some mitochondria have altered cristae. Bar, 5 µm. (d) Ethanol-treated group: enlarged spaces between myofibrils are occupied by numerous mitochondria, some showing altered cristae; in contrast, subsarcolemal mitochondria population is reduced, and lysis areas (arrowheads) are visible. Bar, 5 µm. (e) Red Bull-treated group: the intermyofibrillar spaces are enlarged, with numerous lysis areas (arrowheads); numerous mitochondria have altered cristae. Bar, 5 µm. (f) Red Bull-treated group: numerous lysis areas (arrowheads) are present in the intermyofibrillar spaces; several mitochondria show disrupted cristae. Bar, 5 µm. (g) Red Bull and ethanol-treated group: disorganized intercalated disks (ID); numerous mitochondria with disrupted cristae (arrowheads). Bar, 2 µm. (h) Red Bull and ethanol-treated group: numerous vesicles that seem to be filled with glycogen (arrowheads) in the intermyofibrillar spaces, mitochondria having destroyed cristae (Mt), and disorganized intercalated disks (ID). Bar, 5 µm

This study shows, for the first time, that the long-term consumption of EDs, individually or in combination with ethanol, causes biochemical and ultrastructural alterations in the heart muscles.

Our results revealed that both Red Bull and ethanol increased glucose and glycogen concentrations in the myocardium. In the RB group, the increase in the glucose and glycogen concentrations was caused by two ingredients of ED, caffeine and taurine. Normally, caffeine causes calcium release from the intracytoplasmic stores ( 22 ) and activates AMPK via calcium/Calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase-β (CaMKK) ( 23 ). AMPK promotes the uptake and use of glucose in the cardiomyocytes ( 24 ). Besides, AMPK either inhibits glycogen synthesis via the phosphorylation of glycogen synthase or activates glycogen degradation via the phosphorylation of glycogen phosphorylase ( 25 ). However, the chronic activation of AMPK, as probably happened in our study, may increase glycogen synthesis by increasing the glucose uptake and the formation of glucose-6-phosphate. This induces the allosteric activation of glycogen synthase that can overcome inhibitory phosphorylation by AMPK ( 26 ). Moreover, it has been reported that taurine increases glucose uptake, glycolysis, and glycogen synthesis in the heart of adult rats ( 27 ).

In our study, ethanol led to a slight increase in glucose and glycogen concentrations. Ethanol decreases the sensitivity to insulin, which is mediated in the heart muscle by tumour necrosis factor-α (TNFα) and/or interleukin-6 (IL-6), inducing the activation of Jun N-terminal kinases, which inhibits the Akt-AS160-GLUT4 signaling pathway ( 28 ). As such, the glucose concentration should have decreased. We cannot provide an explanation of these results, and there is no study on this topic in the literature. However, ultrastructural modifications shown in Figure 4 led us to consider that the Krebs cycle was not correctly functioning and, consequently, the glucose metabolism in the myocardium was affected.

The combined administration of Red Bull and ethanol produced a significant increase in the glucose concentration, which was expected because the independent administration of each of these components increased the glucose concentration in the myocardium.

Glycogen is a vital molecule for the normal functioning of the myocardium. It is necessary for the ontogenetic development of the heart, because it supplies the necessary energy for the growth and development of the organ ( 29 ). In the mature organ, glycogen is found in small quantities, furnishing energy to the excito-conductor system. A large quantity of glycogen is beneficial only under ischemic conditions ( 30 ). Glycogen accumulation in the myocardium favours the incidence of pre-excitation syndrome ( 31 ). Several studies have reported an association of the EDs and/or alcohol with the occurrence of negative effects at the cardiovascular level (palpitations, cardiac arrhythmias, hypertension and even sudden cardiac death) ( 2 , 32 ); therefore, we cannot exclude the possibility that these effects were connected to glycogen accumulation in the myocardium.

Cholesterol concentration significantly decreased in all groups. This effect can in turn be a cause of the myocardial dysfunctions reported in the chronic consumption of EDs and alcohol. A role of cholesterol is to stiffen the cellular membranes and maintain the shape of cells by forming “bridges” (lipid rafts) in the regions where the membrane proteins are expressed ( 33 ). Additionally, cholesterol controls the membrane fluidity, and, consequently, plays an important role in the the cholesterol to phospholipid ratio ( 34 ). The molar ratio of cholesterol to phospholipids in plasma membranes is usually maintained just below unity ( 35 ). Therefore, reducing the cholesterol concentration may lead to membrane destabilization, which may in turn affect cellular metabolism in the myocardium.

The decrease in the cholesterol concentration induced by Red Bull might have been due to the elevated content of taurine and/or niacin present in the ED. This change is somewhat expected because both taurine and niacin are used in the prevention and cure of atherosclerosis ( 36 , 37 ). More precisely, taurine reduces serum cholesterol ( 38 ) and niacin reduces serum cholesterol and triglycerides and increases HDL concentration ( 39 ).

Decreased cholesterol in the myocardium following chronic ethanol treatment has also been reported by Godfrey et al. ( 40 ) and Hu et al. ( 41 ), but no one has ever explained these results and the physiological significance of the phenomenon is unknown.

The combined administration of Red Bull and ethanol induced an even higher reduction of cholesterol in the myocardium than the independent administration of the two components.

Our results show a slight increase in the myocardial protein concentration in all treated groups, being significant in the E group. The slight increase in the protein concentration observed after the administration of Red Bull could be due to the high content of vitamin B6. A dose of Red Bull sold in Romania contains 250% of the recommended B6 daily dose. Vitamin B6 is an essential cofactor in the functioning of over 140 enzymes required for the synthesis, degradation, and interconversion of amino acids ( 42 ).

The formation of protein adducts could be an explanation for the significant increase in the protein concentration in the E group observed in our study. Research has shown that alcohol causes the accumulation of protein adducts in the hepatic, nervous, and muscular tissues, aggravating the ethanol-induced toxicity in these tissues ( 43 ). In a study by Worrall et al. ( 44 ), increased amounts of reduced acetaldehyde protein adducts, unreduced-acetaldehyde, and malondialdehyde-acetaldehyde were found in the cardiac tissue of rats after 6 weeks of alcohol treatment. Furthermore, a previous study has shown that adducts formed by acetaldehyde with proteins stimulate the formation of mRNA responsible for the synthesis of collagen and expression of connective tissue proteins ( 45 ).

AST and ALT activities increased in the myocardium and decreased in the serum following all treatments. According to the ultrastructural alterations caused by Red Bull and ethanol, the activities of these membrane integrity markers were expected to be increased in the serum. However, our results are consistent with those of Mihailovic et al. ( 46 ), who reported an increase in the AST activity with unchanged ALT activity in the heart muscle after a 10-day treatment with ethanol. Our results show that Red Bull had the same detrimental effects as ethanol, at least in the heart muscle. Furthermore, the combination of Red Bull and ethanol had synergistic and/or complementary effects on AST activity.

The most serious ultrastructural alterations observed in the heart tissue of rats treated with ethanol ( Fig. 4c and ​ and4d) 4d ) are those that indicate the onset of alcoholic cardiomyopathy. As pointed out by De Leiris et al. ( 47 ), human subjects and animal models exposed to chronic ethanol consumption undergo functional and structural alterations in the heart tissue. Oxidative stress induces lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation, reduces the GSH content of mitochondria, and disturbs calcium homeostasis, impairing the contractile capacity of the heart muscle. The organelles also show modified structures with disorganized cristae, resulting in altered oxidative metabolism. An excellent work of Tsiplenkova et al. ( 48 ) gives a detailed inventory of the damages caused by ethanol in alcoholic cardiomyopathy, such as the alteration of mitochondrial membranes including organelle swelling and loss of cristae. These authors also noticed an increase in the number of mitochondria with myocytes, in which the space occupied by mitochondria was larger than that occupied by myofibrils. This is consistent with our observation of enlarged intermyofibrilar spaces filled with mitochondria. Interestingly, we also found that the subsarcolemal mitochondria population was reduced, while numerous lysis areas were present.

In addition, we noticed collagen deposits in the intercellular space, which has also been reported by Urbano-Marquez and Fernandez-Sola ( 49 ) in human patients with alcoholic cardiomyopathy.

Whether such altered cardiomyocytes may end in apoptosis or in necrosis remains unclear; however, apoptosis, or even a combination of apoptosis and necrosis, seems to produce myocyte loss in alcoholic cardiomyopathy ( 50 ).

While cardiomyocyte alterations induced by alcohol consumption are well documented, there is very little evidence, if any, concerning ultrastructural alterations induced by EDs in the heart muscle. In some myocytes of the RB group, the myofibril arrangement showed a loose structure and the space between them was occupied by several large (swollen) mitochondria displaying a rarefied matrix and dilated cristae, which led to the assumption that oxidative metabolism was affected. All these morphological alterations correlated with measured biochemical alterations in glucose, glycogen, and cholesterol concentrations and AST and ALT activities reported in our study. The exaggerated proliferation of mitochondria (“mitochondriosis”) in-between narrowed myofibrils was also reported by Tsiplenkova et al. ( 48 ), as a feature of alcoholic cardiomyopathy.

In the myocytes of the RBE group, the cumulated effects of ED and ethanol were even more dramatic, with an increase in the lysis areas, majority of myofibrils without a regular (parallel) arrangement, myofibrils with a part of them fragmented, and several mitochondria with rarefied structures and dilated cristae. Numerous vesicles were present in the intermyofibrillar spaces, probably filled with glycogen, as has been previously reported ( 49 ) in alcoholic cardiomyopathy. These structural alterations also support the biochemical changes measured in our study. Several myocytes had hypochromic nuclei with irregular borders, and the intercalated disks were fragmented and dehiscent.

Study limitations

Our experimental groups were relatively small but allowed for the statistical processing of results. Further, the duration of further experiments should be extended to provide better insights inon the long-term effects of using EDs, and to highlight possible adaptive mechanisms to their components. In addition, we used only one ED. Therefore, we consider that additional studies are needed using several such drinks, particularly because they have different compositions.

Our results explain, to a certain extent, the symptoms described in the literature for those who consume EDs in large quantities or for a long period of time. We particularly refer to glycogen accumulation in the myocardium, which can disrupt the cardiac activity and may favor the occurrence of tachycardia, palpitations, cardiac arrhythmias, hypertension, and even death ( 2 ). The lowering of cholesterol concentration may, in turn, be a cause of myocardial dysfunctions reported in the literature following the chronic consumption of EDs and alcohol. Athletes, as well as active individuals, should avoid both the consumption of EDs and their consumption in combination with alcohol. Our results showed that EDs produce morphological changes in the heart muscle similar to those produced by ethanol. Further research, on different EDs as a whole and on separate components is necessary to deeply understand their detrimental effects and the mechanisms by which they are produced.

Conflict of interest: None declared.

Peer-review: Externally peer-reviewed.

Authorship contributions: Concept – C.M., C.L.; Design – C.M., C.R., C.L.; Supervision – C.L.; Fundings – Internal resources of Faculty of Biology and Geology; Materials – C.R., C.L.; Data collection &/or processing – C.M., C.L.; Analysis &/or interpretation – C.M., C.R., C.T., C.L.; Literature search – C.M., C.L.; Writing – C.M., C.R., C.T., C.L.; Critical review – C.M., C.R., C.T., C.L.

Energizing the Brand: Red Bull’s Marketing Journey From 1987 to 2023

##article.authors##.

This research paper provides an in-depth examination of Red Bull's pioneering marketing strategies that have cemented its status in the energy drink industry. Renowned for its ties to adrenaline-fueled sports and a distinctive brand image, Red Bull's rise in the beverage industry has been supported by its creative marketing mix that extends beyond the traditional Four P’s framework (Product, Price, Place and Promotion). The company's marketing approach focuses on captivating content and experiential customer engagement, complemented by its adoption of unconventional guerrilla marketing techniques. This study examines key consumer behavior elements to understand the brand's successful audience engagement. Meanwhile, the paper also discusses challenges and criticisms that Red Bull has confronted and addresses those issues by proposing consumer education initiatives to reshape public perception, emphasizing the need to adapt to emerging trends in sustainability and enhanced ethically conscious strategies for target audiences. The sources attributed in this paper include interviews with Red Bull executives, consumer surveys, and a review of academic and industry literature, providing a holistic view of the brand’s dynamic marketing evolution.

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Copyright (c) 2023 Andrew Pan

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The Ultimate Red Bull Marketing Strategy Study

Table of contents.

Red Bull has grown from a simple energy drink manufacturer to one of the most recognized brands in the world. It has become synonymous with sports, extreme performance, and victory. Red Bull is the extreme athlete of marketing, literally and figuratively.

A few key statistics and facts about Red Bull:

• Number of Red Bull cans sold worldwide in 2022: 11.582 billion
• Revenue of €9.68 billion
• Red Bull's marketing budget for 2022 is estimated to be €2,9 billion (it is rumored to be around 25-30% of the yearly revenue)
• Red Bull sponsors athletes in 73 countries around the world .
• Number of employees in 2022: 15,779
• The logo is a breed of cattle called gaur.

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Red Bull History

Styrian success-makers.

The reasons for Mateschitz's conservatism lie in his family background. He grew up in modest circumstances in the upper Murgtal in Styria. His outstanding success is not an isolated case in this province. Arnold Schwar is a compatriot, as is the tennis player Thomas Muster, who for a time topped the world rankings ahead of Boris Becker, André Agassi, and Pete Sampras.

He is also a compatriot of Frank Stronach, who emigrated to Canada as a worker and returned to his homeland as a co-owner of the global auto parts manufacturer Magna. Styrians are said to have always been a bit their boss. Stubborn but not rebellious, strong, and persevering. Dietrich Mateschitz, who has been friends with half of Austria since his success and is nicknamed "Didi," has needed perseverance for his story to become a real success.

From jetlag to energy drinks

In 1976, Chaleo Yoovidhya introduced his Krating Daeng drink in Thailand. The name means "red gaur" in English. The maker was inspired by the energy drink Lipovitan, in which the main ingredient is taurine, and was popular with Thai truck drivers and blue-collar manual laborers.

When he visited Thailand in 1982, the Austrian-born Dietrich Mateschitz discovered that by consuming Krating Daeng, he was able to overcome the effects of jet lag, caused by the rapid change of time zones, much more quickly during the trip. Since the energy drink phenomenon was still unknown on the Old Continent, he was astonished at how many people consume the product, and almost immediately approached the owners of the company with the idea of bringing it there.

Mateschitz had been the international marketing manager for Blendax (now part of the Procter & Gamble Group) toothpaste at the time. The Yoovidhya family, which had already become rich through the pharmaceutical industry, welcomed the idea and began to develop a European business policy and strategy with the Austrian marketing expert.

Mateschitz founded Red Bull GmbH with Yoovidhya in 1984 intending to develop it into a global brand. Both parties invested $500,000, however, Yoovidhya and Mateschitz owned only 49-49% of the shares in the new company. The remaining 2 percent of the shares went to Yoovidhya's son Chalerm, but the agreement left Mateschitz as the de facto head of the company.

Product launch in Austria

The product was first launched in Austria in 1987. Mateschitz, still a bachelor at 39, has quit his lucrative multinational job and has been trying to introduce the Asian recipe to Austria for two or three years. The new product, the unusual flavors, the colors, the advertising are not the resounding success he had hoped for. After the initial setbacks, Dietrich Mateschitz does what he has never done before - he takes out a loan. The reason for his reluctance is simple: he was raised at home to believe that "a decent person does not have debts," and like many entrepreneurs, he still does not like financial institutions.

The startup’s growth has almost immediately slowed down because several well-known Austrian beverage companies considered the revolutionary idea too risky and refused to partner with Red Bull. The food authority was also not a fan of Red Bull, considered it dangerous, and banned its marketing in many places - but Mateschitz was not discouraged. Dietrich Mateschitz cites the three most difficult years of his life as the early days of Red Bull.

Being an experienced manager, he refused to lower the price of the not exactly cheap beverage. He is vigilant about consumer behavior. The highly stimulating product was finally a hit in Austrian discotheques. It was tempting to dance the night away. Word of the new wonder “drug” spread quickly across the border. However, on the German side, Red Bull was still not allowed to be marketed. It was banned for a time in Hungary, France, and Denmark because of what they consider to be its high caffeine and taurine content. It is the desire for the forbidden fruit that has brought the real breakthrough. Consumers "smuggle" a bootleg number of Red Bulls across the then non-EU Salzburg border crossing into Bavaria, where it is sold in nightclubs in violation of the law. From then on, the triumphal procession is unstoppable. And during this time, the custom of mixing it with vodka also arises.

Germany and the United Kingdom were introduced to Red Bull in 1994 after the company’s expansion in Eastern and Central Europe. It was able to win a 75 percent market share on the American energy drinks market despite the slow start and late expansion to the US in 1997.

In the process, Red Bull has also garnered some criticism for its use of extreme sports marketing and its impact on health. Due to this, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and other food regulatory agencies have limited the levels of caffeine, taurine, and glucuronolactone in Red Bull and other energy drinks.

Key takeaways:

A serendipitous meeting between the Austrian and Thai founders of Red Bull was quickly followed by the realization of an excellent business opportunity and action. The recipe was ready - even if it still needed to be refined for European tastes - and the parties focused on market development strategies, sales, and marketing activities.

Still, launching the product in Austria was not a success, and many founders would have given up at this point. But Mateschitz kept his eyes open and recognized what the sales drivers would be in the early days.

• Word-of-mouth marketing,
• The feeling of uniqueness (energy drinks were not yet known to the European public),
• A stronger effect than coffee, which, mixed with alcohol, stimulated parties in Eastern Europe as a non-addictive and non-consciousness-altering substance,
• The progressive association of the brand with sports, in addition to nightlife.

Together, these elements have served to build Red Bull's success on an increasingly efficient and planned business foundation.

The Products

The product portfolio of the company.

Three of Red Bull's products are core products that are sold in all relevant markets, regardless of culture or target group:

• Red Bull energy drink: the familiar gray-blue metal can that comes in a 250 ml edition. In some countries, it is also available in a 350 ml and a 500 ml version.
• Sugar-free Red Bull: Instead of sugar from sugar beets, the company uses aspartame, sucralose, and acesulfame K to sweeten the product. The product's other ingredients and packaging are the same as the original energy drink.
• Red Bull Zero Sugar. The Zero and sugar-free variants differ little in terms of content. According to the company, the only difference is the taste.

However, there have also been numerous drinks that have been launched in limited quantities or connected with specific sporting events. These include The Tropical Edition, The Coconut Edition, The Red Edition, and The Summer Edition, currently available in four flavors. However, Red Bull not only limits the time of availability but also sells specific, localized products for the largest markets. For example, ORGANICS by Red Bull, which is only available in German, is not an energy drink but a soft drink that comes in six flavors. These include cola, tonic, and ginger drinks.

Red Bull cans are 100% recyclable. In addition, with only one manufacturing location, 80% of renewable resources are saved rather than using multiple ones.

Product localization

Almost all of the markets in APAC are served by Red Bull, and the company uses local development strategies to cater to consumer tastes in each market. Red Bull markets in the APAC region curate their product portfolios, and it takes a lot of time for each market to develop the most appropriate product selections. Local and center teams are continuously reviewing the portfolio of products to ensure that the energy, taste, and size requirements are met. Though the original blue and silver Red Bull Energy Drink is still a popular beverage, Red Bull is also interested in creating new products to match the changing tastes of the market.

Red Bull Editions are a seasonal range of localized products. To give an example, Red Bull has a Coconut edition in Singapore that includes coconut and blueberry flavors; in Australia, there are Orange editions (orange flavors), Tropical editions (tropical fruit flavors), and Red editions (watermelon flavors).

Each Red Bull market has a local team that interprets the meaning of the products to ensure they are relevant to the target customers. There is room for growth in the energy drink market through premiumization, even though the market is well established.

Manufacturing

A new Red Bull production facility is being built in Glendale, Arizona. A joint venture between Red Bull, Rauch Fruit Juices, and Ball Corporation, RRB Beverage Operating, is investing USD 250 million in the next few years to build a new 700,000 sq ft-sized facility. Originally, the company planned to start manufacturing in 2021, employing 140 people in the process. There is no news available on how COVID-19 has modified the plans.

Instead of keeping the production process in-house, RB outsourced it to Rauch. Among other beverages, it produces Red Bull's drinks in Nüziders, Austria, and Wildenau, Switzerland. It is only 40 kilometers between the two production facilities despite being in different countries.

It was previously made at a Swiss plant and imported to the U.S., but the company's growing popularity in North America and a threat to taxing cans and products imported from Europe, in general, led to the investment.

One of the joint venture partners, the Ball Corporation, which specializes in the production of aluminum and steel packaging for the food and beverage industry, opened an aluminum can manufacturing plant in Goodyear, Arizona in 2019, not far from the new project site in Glendale.

Sales channels

As a manufacturer of soft drinks, Red Bull does not market its products itself but distributes them to restaurants and stores via Red Bull-owned distribution companies. One such company is Red Bull Distribution Company , which is responsible for distribution in North America. The Group currently employs around 6,000 sales staff who distribute its products in 170 countries around the world.

The sales employees directly involved in the sales process are usually field sales representatives. They cover a predetermined territory by driving around and replenishing products from Red Bull in restaurants and convenience stores. They are also responsible for ensuring that the energy drinks are in the right, highly visible places on the shelves and that the company logos get the attention they deserve.

Of course, the larger chains and online beverage stores are already negotiating directly with distributors. The company's sales activities are rounded off by various corporate purchases.

Beverage retailers in particular tend to offer their customers a diversified product portfolio to generate more sales so that they can not only order a specific beverage but also upsell it. This involves offering additional options (both products and services) to a customer who has already been won over, which can then be sold at a much higher profit because there is no need to advertise and approach the customer again. In contrast, Red Bull has opted for a narrow product range - for a long time, there was only one type of energy drink and one flavor. Today, that range has broadened, but there are still many subsectors (e.g., alcohols, premium products) where there is room for further expansion.

Red Bull works with several international and local distributors, typically owned by RB. Sales are always B2B, with restaurants, small and large grocery stores, and corporate customers on the other side.

The Red Bull Brand

The Red bull brand stands out as a category dominating queen holding 42% of the global energy drink market in 2020. Second comes Monster with a 39% market share.

Company culture

The vision statement of Red Bull is “(The company) is dedicated to upholding Red Bull standards while maintaining the leadership position in the energy drinks category when delivering superior customer service in a highly efficient and profitable manner. We create a culture where employees share best practices, dedicated to coaching and developing our organization as an employer of choice.” (Source: redbull.com)

According to reviews on Indeed and Comparably , Red Bull is successful not only in building an outward-facing brand but also in creating a high-quality corporate culture. Typical feedback praises the internal social life, work environment, and highlights internal development opportunities. However, as in any other organization, those who work under a poorly performing manager are understandably dissatisfied with management skills, work-life balance, and supervisor availability.

Can of innovation: a branding move

The can became the symbol for Red Bull, even though it has been commonly used among beverage manufacturers. There is, however, a significant difference: instead of the usual 330 ml can, which is a bit chunkier, Red Bull has introduced the 250 ml sized container, which is thinner and taller than usual. There are two reasons for this: the unique appearance makes the product stand out from the competition, and it explains why Red Bull is much more expensive than the usual packaged drinks.

Red Bull’s target market: for those who need energy

Red Bull’s target market is young people between the age of 15 and 45 with high income. The company segments its target market even further offering as the main benefit a sense of belonging and enhanced physical and mental performance.

Matschitz explained the failure of Red Bull's first consumer test by claiming that such products only succeed in their intended environment. In sterile laboratories, no one needs extra energy, so Red Bull could not be treated at its true value. The moment the drink was introduced into gyms, parties, and bars, or even boardrooms, the rejection stopped, because the product found its right target audience.

Red Bull’s logo and design over the years

The energy drink was originally created for Muay Thai fighters and blue-collar workers in Thailand. A logo where two red bulls were readying to fight and the bright yellow sun rising behind them is typical for the APAC region. The only direct change was the “Red Bull” inscription written in bold, English font.

The Red Bull logo did not change significantly over the years. What makes the story special is that Mateschitz's marketing background allowed the team to spend extra time finding the right design. However, both the logo and the name and colors scored poorly on focus-group questionnaires. Nevertheless, the owners stuck to their original vision and did not change the design "rescued" from Thailand. Time has proven them right.

Red Bull brands and subsidiaries

Red Bull Racing

AKA Red Bull AKA RBR AKA Oracle Red Bull Racing is a Formula 1 racing team. The team won the 2021 championship with its driver Max Verstappen.

Scuderia AlphaTauri

AKA AlphaTauri is the second Formula One racing team of Red Bull. Originally the company’s junior team, today its considered to be the sister team of Oracle Red Bull Racing.

New York Red Bulls & New York Red Bulls II

The company’s two American professional soccer teams. The first participates in the Major league and the second in the second tier league.

FC Red Bull Salzburg

AKA FC Salzburg, the company’s Austrian professional football club. Red Bull bought the club in 2015 and changed its colors, a move that its fans found controversial.

FC Liefering

Red Bull's second league Austrian football club.

The German professional football club nicknamed Die Roten Bullen. The company bought the team in 2009 and in less than 9 years took it from the fifth tier league to the top-flight Bundesliga.

Red Bull Brasil & Red Bull Bragantino

The two Brazilian football clubs whose teams compete in the second and top tier of São Paulo state football league respectively.

EHC München & EC Red Bull Salzburg

Red bull’s ice hockey teams. The first competes at the highest level of professional German ice hockey. And the second competes in Austria’s top-tier ice hockey league.

Red Bull Records

It’s Red Bull’s global record label focusing on more niche genres like rock, alternative rock, punk rock and hip hop with bands like Awolnation, Twin Atlantic, and Beartooth.

The example of Mateschitz is rather the exception that proves the rule because his decisions - especially in the early years - were always at odds with business logic and common sense. The launch of the energy drink Red Bull in Europe was prepared through a series of processes: Testing the product, obtaining food safety and market approvals, market research as part of the launch. In the end, there were almost no areas left to support the owners' ideas, as neither the food authority nor market research considered energy drinks to be a good product.

Mateschitz, however, stubbornly stuck to his original ideas and, adapting some of the intellectual property brought from Thailand to European tastes, practically single-handedly created a youthful, trendy and energetic brand Red Bull.

Red Bull Marketing Strategy - Sponsoring Sports, Athletes And Events

Red Bull global marketing strategy focuses, but it’s not limited to, sponsorships of extreme sports, athletes and events of every scale, from local to global.

The company generates massive awareness with its presence in unique first-ever events like Felix Baumgartner parachute jump and in major regular events like the Volcom Pipe Pro and the Freeride world tour.

Red Bull’s marketing strategy, however, includes more traditional marketing practices and channels like TV commercials and social media with millions of followers across its Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, LinkedIn, and Youtube tens of accounts. It runs ads across every channel, trying to appear in front of its target audience everywhere it goes.

Red Bull marketing budget

A question on a lot of people's minds is how much does red bull spend on marketing?  Unfortunately, Red Bull does not share its marketing budget, but it is rumored to be around 25% of the yearly revenue. So whilst we can only guesstimate what it spends, one thing we know is that it's a lot of money and a very important focus for Red Bull.

When the product becomes the means of Red Bull advertising

Sponsored stars are today's flesh-and-blood heroes: athletes, drivers, Formula 1 racers, and extreme athletes who stand for real achievement.

In addition to financial support, the stars receive equipment, clothing, and accessories with the Red Bull logo. And of course their advertised product, energy drinks in the required quantity. Red Bull's branded merchandise is particularly valuable because, unlike many beverage competitors, the company does not mass-produce merchandise - it is available only in the inner circle. 

The international marketing activities of Red Bull are aimed primarily at young people who are attracted to and like extreme sports. The range of extreme sports targeted is very broad and includes:

• Mountain biking
• Snowboarding
• Skateboarding
• Wakeboarding
• Cliff jumping
• Ice skating
• Freestyle motocross
• Break dancing.

Red Bull also uses music and  video games  for marketing purposes and has brought in celebrities like Eminem (through its support of the Red Bull "EmSee Battle Rap championships").

Red Bull is also known for its events, including music and art conventions. In Hungary, the company launched Red Bull Pilvaker in 2012, one of the country's most unique music and cultural projects, which commemorated the 1848 Revolution and the War of Independence with the help of outstanding contemporary art artists. The popularity of Red Bull Pilvaker is reflected in the fact that in recent years all tickets for performances at Erkel Theater, which seats almost 2,000 people, were sold out within a few days.

Red Bull also maintains soccer teams in Austria, Germany, the United States, and Brazil - these teams also carry the brand name, Red Bull. By associating the energy drink with these activities, the company aims to reinforce the "cool" image of the product and thus the strength of the brand. The energy drink has also created a market for over 150 additional souvenir items.

On the PlayStation 3 community platform PlayStation Home, Red Bull created a dedicated in-game island in 2009 to specifically promote the energy drink Red Bull and the racing series Red Bull Air Race. In January 2012, Red Bull also opened its first personal community area, the " Red Bull House of Skate," which featured an indoor skating rink for visitors.

Red Bull's sports sponsorship activities focus on supporting talented young athletes and helping them achieve their goals. The Red Bull Junior program in motorsports is the most prominent branch of this, but the company follows this philosophy in its support for athletes, regardless of the sport. Sebastian Vettel, Daniel Ricciardo, and Danyiil Kvjat are among the most prominent students of the Red Bull Junior program.

Formula One Red Bull Racing

Red Bull Racing is the Austrian Formula 1 team owned by the energy drink company Red Bull. The company's other team is Scuderia Toro Rosso (later Scuderia AlphaTauri).

The team's direct predecessor is the Stewart Grand Prix, founded in 1997 by Jackie Stewart. In late 1999, it was sold to the Ford Motor Company, which raced it under the name Jaguar Racing. In 2004, Ford decided to sell the unsuccessful but costly team. It was bought by Dietrich Mateschitz, owner of the energy drink company Red Bull. The team was then able to take to the grid at the 2005 Australian Grand Prix as the successor to Jaguar, now in the blue and silver colors of Red Bull energy drinks.

Red Bull was no stranger to motorsport's premier class, having previously sponsored Sauber, Arrows, and its predecessor Jaguar. Having started its own team, Red Bull naturally terminated its contract with Sauber (the Arrows had already ceased to exist in 2002). The drinks company has also appeared in the Formula 3000 series and its successor, GP2, and has a European talent scouting program called Red Bull Junior Team. Later Formula 1 drivers have also emerged from the program, with Enrique Bernoldi, Christian Klien, Patrick Friesacher, Vitantonio Liuzzi, and Scott Speed all having raced in the premier class.

RBR enjoyed immediate success in its first season in 2005, thanks to two of its drivers, Coulthard and Klien. The 2005 Red Bull RB1 was based on the already papered Jaguar R6. The team used the weakest Cosworth engines and Michelin tyres throughout the season. The team exceeded expectations to finish seventh among constructors with 34 points.

For the 2006 season, Red Bull Racing changed engine suppliers and used Ferrari V8 power units for the season. Adrian Newey, who was signed from McLaren in November 2005, was appointed as chief designer. Newey did not play a major role in the design of the RB2, which was almost complete by then, and instead started work on the 2007 model. By 2007, the Adrian Newey-designed RB3 was finally completed, with the Renault engine replacing Ferrari's. Mid-season saw the arrival of Geoff Willis, who had worked as technical director at Williams and BAR and then at Honda. Following the departure of Michelin, Red Bull Racing naturally started on Bridgestone tyres. On the racing front, David Coulthard remained with the team, while Mark Webber took the other seat. Webber left the predecessor Jaguar after 2004 and joined the energy drinkers after two disappointing seasons at Williams. The team finished 5th in the constructors' championship with McLaren eliminated and 24 points, David Coulthard 10th with 14 points, and Mark Webber 12th with 10 points.

For 2009, the retiring David Coulthard was replaced by Sebastian Vettel from Toro Rosso, while Mark Webber remained with the team. The team ended the year with a double victory at the Abu Dhabi Grand Prix. Vettel finished second in the individual championship with 84 points, 11 behind world champion Button. The team finished second in the constructors' championship, 18.5 points behind Brawn GP. From 2010-13, RBR enjoyed a truly golden era, its World Championship victories making it unchallenged.

The 2014-20 Formula 1 era brought less success for Red Bull (regularly replaced by Mercedes in first place), but remained a worthy rival to Ferrari. In the 2021 season, with a Honda engine, they continue to pile on the surprises, and their fans are predicting the resurrection of RBR in an ever-strengthening F1 team.

Red Bull Ring ‍

The Red Bull Ring (originally called Österreichring, between 1997 and 2003 A1-Ring) is an Austrian race track in Styria. The circuit itself is located in the territory of the municipality of Spielberg, but its access roads are in the immediate vicinity of the municipality of Zeltweg, which is why it is often referred to as the "Zeltweg circuit". The track was renovated in 2011 with financial support from the energy drink manufacturer Red Bull to make it suitable for Formula 1 again and will be back on the calendar for the 2014 season.

Red Bull Racing has won at its home track four times since its inception.

Red Bull sponsoring other sports

• In 2006, Red Bull announced they would sponsor the NASCAR Team Red Bull. Lowe's Motor Speedway was their first stop in the Nextel Cup Series. The team was shut down in December 2011 and its assets were acquired by BK Racing.
• A major sponsor of Repsol Honda, Red Bull is the title sponsor of Red Bull KTM Factory Racing and Red Bull Honda World Superbike Team.
• Football has also been a huge part of the company's activities. The Austrian club SV Austria Salzburg was purchased by Red Bull on 6 April 2005, and it was renamed Red Bull Salzburg, a move that has been heavily criticized by supporters' groups in Austria and across Europe. FC Liefering has also been purchased as Salzburg's feeder club.
• Since 2000, the company has owned the Salzburg team in the Austrian Hockey League, now named Red Bull Salzburg. Throughout 2012 and 2013, Red Bull became the team's title sponsor and then bought the club outright.
• A new League of Legends team was formed by Red Bull in 2017, Red Bulls, which competed in the European League of Legends Challenger Series from 2017 until it folded in 2018. Several Red Bull sponsored fighting game players to compete in Tekken and Street Fighter games, as well as The International winner OG, who competes in Dota 2.

Felix Baumgartner parachute jump from space

Baumgartner and his team saw a mission in the world record attempt, for which the athlete had been preparing since 2005. The jump offered the opportunity to collect data to improve life-saving for astronauts and pilots or potential space tourists and to study the behavior of the human body in the stratosphere. It is critical to make the return from space safe for space crews, as they may have to eject from the aircraft and it is life-threatening to enter the stratosphere in an unprepared space suit in such an emergency.

The first record attempt was scheduled for Oct. 9, 2012, at 11:42 a.m. local time, but a strong wind prevented the 834,497-cubic-meter balloon from inflating safely, as it was twisted by the wind. Wind gusts of up to 40 km/h were measured at the top of the balloon, although the wind speed was not supposed to exceed 5 km/h.

The next attempt was therefore postponed until Sunday, October 14 - a postponement that tested everyone's patience but was the only way to ensure safety. At the press conference after the jump, FAI record holder Brian Utleya announced that Baumgartner had reached a speed of 1342.8 kilometers per hour (Mach 1.24), breaking the speed of sound. The pilot came down from a height of 39,045 meters in 4 minutes and 20 seconds, covering 36,529 meters in freefall.

Red Bull, like Ferrari , has found in sports the marketing platform that best reaches its audience. However, the company has not limited its sponsorship activities to motorsports but supports all sports from ice hockey to extreme sports. The company invests most of its marketing budget in financing the Red Bull Racing Formula 1 team and maintaining the racetrack at the Red Bull Ring.

Red Bull also supports music as a nightlife player and various events aimed at partygoers.

Final thoughts and key takeaways of Red Bull’s story

Who owns red bull today.

Red Bull GmbH is a private company with its headquarters in Salzburg, Austria. Two billionaires own Red bull:

• Thai businessman  Chalerm Yoovidhya,  who owns the majority of the company sitting at 51%. His net worth as of 2021 is estimated at $24.5 billion.
• Austrian businessman  Dietrich Mateschitz,  who owns 49% of the rest of the company. His net worth as of 2022 is estimated at $26 billion.

Growth by numbers

According to Forbes , the brand that gives you wings sold 6.8 billion cans in 171 countries in 2018. Among the fastest-growing markets were India (+30%), Brazil (+22%), and Eastern Europe (+22%). Using a marketing strategy built around extreme events, Red Bull has sold a total of 75 billion cans since 1987.

Key takeaways from Red Bull's story:

• The founders’ agility: Red Bull would certainly not look the way it does today if the founders - a Thai pharmaceutical entrepreneur and an Austrian marketing manager - had not had a clear vision for the brand right from the start.
• Product portfolio: The soft drinks market is characterized by the dominance of aggregators (e.g. Coca Cola, which contrary to popular belief does not only produce Coke). To counter this trend, Red Bull has from the beginning thought in terms of a small product portfolio and focused on the energy drink market rather than a diversified range. It was not an easy task, as it was a pioneer in the field at the time of its launch - no other energy drink existed in Europe. The company invested a lot of energy in educating the market, which at first did not welcome this unique product, but now it has become an integral part of it.
• Marketing : Instead of investing millions of dollars in television, radio, and Internet advertising, Red Bull took a different approach from the beginning. Although it was initially forced to do so because many countries did not officially license the energy drink, word of mouth is still the strongest element in the company's marketing. The founders succeeded by identifying the two areas where there was a real need for energy drinks and focusing all marketing activities on them.
• Sponsorship : Red Bull quickly found its audience among athletes as well as party-goers, so it's no wonder that the company turned to sports sponsorships. One of Red Bull's main marketing weapons has been its own Formula 1 team, as well as sponsorship of a number of ball and extreme sports.

The companies more than 30-year history is a powerful story of challenges, of working against the wind, of the founders' strong vision, of defying business logic, and of perseverance. Even though the Austrian entrepreneur Dietrich Mateschitz has made countless decisions that would not have worked for others and that go against everything that business can teach us, the success of his company is beyond question.

If there is anything we can learn from him, it is surely his belief in his team and his own instinct to put an unknown product on the world map. Red Bull now inspires millions of people a year, its sales are skyrocketing (based on the sales statistics, every person on earth could drink one Red Bull), and its marketing efforts are leading the way for many other companies in the industry.

The effects of red bull energy drink on human performance and mood

Affiliation.

• 1 Psychology Department, University of the West of England, Bristol, United Kingdom.
• PMID: 11665810
• DOI: 10.1007/s007260170021

The effects of Red Bull Energy Drink, which includes taurine, glucuronolactone, and caffeine amongst the ingredients, were examined over 3 studies in a total of 36 volunteers. Assessments included psychomotor performance (reaction time, concentration, memory), subjective alertness and physical endurance. When compared with control drinks, Red Bull Energy Drink significantly (P < 0.05) improved aerobic endurance (maintaining 65-75% max. heart rate) and anaerobic performance (maintaining max. speed) on cycle ergometers. Significant improvements in mental performance included choice reaction time, concentration (number cancellation) and memory (immediate recall), which reflected increased subjective alertness. These consistent and wide ranging improvements in performance are interpreted as reflecting the effects of the combination of ingredients.

Publication types

• Clinical Trial
• Randomized Controlled Trial
• Affect / drug effects*
• Attention / drug effects
• Blood Pressure / drug effects
• Caffeine / pharmacology*
• Central Nervous System Stimulants / pharmacology
• Dietary Supplements
• Double-Blind Method
• Glucuronates / pharmacology*
• Heart Rate / drug effects
• Memory / drug effects
• Mental Processes / drug effects*
• Physical Endurance / drug effects*
• Psychomotor Performance
• Task Performance and Analysis
• Taurine / pharmacology*
• Central Nervous System Stimulants
• Glucuronates
• glucuronolactone

• Open access
• Published: 31 October 2007

A survey of energy drink consumption patterns among college students

• Brenda M Malinauskas 1 ,
• Victor G Aeby 2 ,
• Reginald F Overton 3 ,
• Tracy Carpenter-Aeby 4 &
• Kimberly Barber-Heidal 1  

Nutrition Journal volume  6 , Article number:  35 ( 2007 ) Cite this article

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Metrics details

Energy drink consumption has continued to gain in popularity since the 1997 debut of Red Bull, the current leader in the energy drink market. Although energy drinks are targeted to young adult consumers, there has been little research regarding energy drink consumption patterns among college students in the United States. The purpose of this study was to determine energy drink consumption patterns among college students, prevalence and frequency of energy drink use for six situations, namely for insufficient sleep, to increase energy (in general), while studying, driving long periods of time, drinking with alcohol while partying, and to treat a hangover, and prevalence of adverse side effects and energy drink use dose effects among college energy drink users.

Based on the responses from a 32 member college student focus group and a field test, a 19 item survey was used to assess energy drink consumption patterns of 496 randomly surveyed college students attending a state university in the Central Atlantic region of the United States.

Fifty one percent of participants ( n = 253) reported consuming greater than one energy drink each month in an average month for the current semester (defined as energy drink user). The majority of users consumed energy drinks for insufficient sleep (67%), to increase energy (65%), and to drink with alcohol while partying (54%). The majority of users consumed one energy drink to treat most situations although using three or more was a common practice to drink with alcohol while partying (49%). Weekly jolt and crash episodes were experienced by 29% of users, 22% reported ever having headaches, and 19% heart palpitations from consuming energy drinks. There was a significant dose effect only for jolt and crash episodes.

Using energy drinks is a popular practice among college students for a variety of situations. Although for the majority of situations assessed, users consumed one energy drink with a reported frequency of 1 – 4 days per month, many users consumed three or more when combining with alcohol while partying. Further, side effects from consuming energy drinks are fairly common, and a significant dose effect was found with jolt and crash episodes. Future research should identify if college students recognize the amounts of caffeine that are present in the wide variety of caffeine-containing products that they are consuming, the amounts of caffeine that they are consuming in various situations, and the physical side effects associated with caffeine consumption.

Peer Review reports

Energy drink consumption has continued to gain popularity since the 1997 debut of Red Bull, the current leader in the energy drink market [ 1 ]. More than 500 new energy drinks were launched worldwide in 2006 and beverage companies are reaping the financial rewards of the 5.7 billion dollar energy drink industry [ 1 ]. Energy drinks, including Red Bull, Amp, Monster, Rock Star, Rip It, Full Throttle, and Cocaine, are designed to give the consumer a "jolt" of energy provided by the combination of stimulants and "energy boosters" that they provide, including caffeine, herbal extracts such as guarana, ginseng, and ginkgo biloba, B vitamins, amino acids such as taurine, amino acid derivatives such as carnitine, and sugar derivatives, including glucuronalactone and ribose [ 1 ]. Energy drinks typically contain 80 to 141 mg of caffeine per 8 ounces, the equivalent of five ounces of coffee or two 12-ounce cans of caffeinated soft drink such as Mountain Dew, Coca Cola, Pepsi Cola or Dr. Pepper [ 2 ]. Energy drinks have sugar-containing and sugar-free versions. For example, Monster Energy provides 24 grams of sugar per 8 ounces (12% sugar concentration) and Rip It A'Tomic Pom provides 33 grams (14% concentration) [ 3 , 4 ]. Similar to the booming energy drink market, the size of the energy drink container has increased over 300-fold; Monster energy offers consumers a 23 ounces option [ 3 ].

Do energy drinks provide the consumer an extra burst of energy as the advertisements would have you believe? Yes, they do. Smit and colleagues found that energy drinks, as compared to placebo, had energizing effects among 18 to 55 year old participants, with effects being strongest 30 to 60 minutes after consumption and sustained at least 90 minutes [ 5 ]. Caffeine was found to be the primary constituent responsible for these effects. Although there is no human requirement for caffeine, even low doses of caffeine (12.5 to 100 mg) improve cognitive performance and mood [ 6 ]. However, caffeine has been found to have detrimental health consequences. Riesenhuber and colleagues found that the caffeine (but not taurine) in energy drinks promotes diuresis and natriuresis [ 7 ]. Further, acute caffeine consumption reduces insulin sensitivity [ 8 ] and increases mean arterial blood pressure [ 9 ]. High caffeine consumption is associated with chronic daily headaches, particularly among young women (age < 40 years) and among those with chronic episodic headaches and of recent onset (< 2 years) [ 10 ]. Central nervous system, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, and renal dysfunction have been associated with chronic caffeine ingestion [ 11 ]. In sum, the caffeine in energy drinks will provide the consumer the desirable effects of increased alertness, improved memory, and enhanced mood. However, caffeine can have harmful physical consequences.

Although energy drinks are targeted to the 18 to 35 year old consumer [ 12 ], there has been little research regarding energy drink consumption patterns among young adults in the United States. The purpose of this study was to determine (1) energy drink consumption patterns among college students, (2) prevalence and frequency of energy drink use for six situations, namely for insufficient sleep, to increase energy (in general), while studying, driving long periods of time, drinking with alcohol while partying, and to treat a hangover, (3) and prevalence of adverse side effects and energy drink use dose effects among college energy drink users.

A Registered Dietitian and a Health Educator designed a questionnaire that assessed consumption patterns of energy drinks among college students. We initially interviewed a focus group of 32 college students who were enrolled in a senior-level course. We asked these students open-ended questions regarding situations in which college students use energy drinks, the most common energy drinks college students were using, frequency patterns (average number of energy drinks consumed for each situation the focus group identified and the average number of times per month throughout a semester students use energy drinks for each situation), and side effects from using energy drinks.

Based on the focus group responses we developed a 19-item questionnaire. Questions 1 and 2 assessed demographic information (age and sex). Question 3 was a screening question, used to identify energy drink users, and asked "in an average month for the current semester do you drink more than one energy drink per month?" If a participant indicated "no", then they were instructed to skip the remaining questions in the survey and return the questionnaire to the research assistant. Participants who indicated "yes" to Question 3 were instructed to continue the survey, which assessed the type of energy drink usually consumed (regular or sugar-free), side effects associated with energy drink use (jolt and crash episodes, headaches, heart palpitations), and six situations for energy drink use (insufficient sleep, needing more energy (in general), studying for an exam or to complete a major course project, driving a car for a long time, drinking with alcohol while partying, and to treat a hangover).

For the purpose of this study, a jolt and crash episode was in reference to a feeling of increased alertness and energy (the jolt) followed by a sudden drop in energy (the crash) that occurs in response to using energy drinks.

Each of the six situation questions had two follow up questions that assessed the average number of energy drinks consumed for that situation (for example, how many energy drinks do you drink at one time following a night of not getting enough sleep?) and the average number of times per month for the current semester the student consumes energy drinks for that situation.

To provide a frame of reference regarding what constituted an energy drink, the introduction of the questionnaire included examples of energy drinks that were popular on the campus and in social establishments in the immediate geographic region when the survey was administered, these included Red Bull, Rock Star, Amp, and Full Throttle. The questionnaire was field tested among 10 randomly chosen students who were in a public location on campus. The questionnaire took approximately two minutes to complete and modifications to the questionnaire were not necessary based on the field test responses.

From mid-November to the first week of December 2006, 11 trained research assistants (undergraduate and graduate college students) recruited students at a single college from public locations across campus to participate in the study. The research assistants first ensured that those they approached were students at the university and that the student had not previously completed the questionnaire.

The institution is a state university, located in the Central Atlantic region of the United States. The fall 2006 enrollment statistics indicate an undergraduate enrollment of approximately 18,000 undergraduate and 6,000 graduate students, 85% of undergraduates were 18 to 24 years of age, 12% were 25 to 40 years of age and 3% 41 years of age and older [ 13 ]. Further, 92% of undergraduates attended school full-time whereas the majority (60%) of graduate students attended part time. In regard to ethnicity of the student body, 76% were non-Hispanic White, 16% non-Hispanic Black, 2% Asian, 2% Hispanic, 2% unknown, < 1% American Indian, and < 1% non-resident alien.. Sixty two percent of the total student body is female [ 13 ].

To diversify our sample, research assistants varied the time of day and days of the week during weekdays to recruit participants. In compliance with the university's Institutional Review Board for Research with Human Subjects (University and Medical Center Institutional Review Board number 06-0718), students were informed of the study protocol and those willing to participate anonymously completed the self-administered questionnaire. The project was carried out in compliance with the Helsinki Declaration.

Analyses were performed using JMP IN ® software [ 14 ]. Descriptive statistics included means, standard deviations, 95% confidence intervals, and frequency distributions. Pearson χ 2 was used to evaluate differences in frequency distribution of responses. An alpha level of .05 was used for all statistical tests.

A total of 496 participants, aged 21.5 ± 3.7 years (95% CI 21.3, 21.8) completed the questionnaire. In regard to the first research question, energy drink consumption patterns among college students, 51% of participants ( n = 253) reported drinking greater than one energy drink each month in an average month for the current semester, with significantly more female (53%) than male (42%) energy drink users reported, χ 2 (1, N = 496) = 6.46, p = .01. Seventy four percent ( n = 187) of the 253 users drank sugar-containing versions with significantly more females (35%) than males (12%) drinking sugar-free versions, χ 2 (1, N = 247) = 16.56, p < .01.

Energy drink consumption patterns of college energy drink users for the six situations assessed are reported in Table 1 . Insufficient sleep was the most common reason to drink energy drinks, as indicated by 67% of energy drink users. The majority of users consumed energy drinks to increase their energy (65%) and to drink with alcohol while partying (54%). Fifty percent drank while studying or completing a major course project, 45% while driving a car for a long period of time, and 17% to treat a hangover. There were no significant differences in use of energy drinks for the six situations assessed by sex, as reported in Table 1 .

In regard to the second research question, the percent of users drinking one, two, and three or more energy drinks by situation are reported in Table 2 . The majority of energy drink users consumed one to treat a hangover, for insufficient sleep, to increase energy, and while driving a car for a long period of time. Using three or more was a common practice (49% of users) to drink with alcohol while partying. The percent of users drinking energy drinks 1 – 4, 5 – 10, and 11 or more days in an average month for the current semester are also reported in Table 2 . For the six situations assessed, the majority of users (73% to 86%) consumed energy drinks 1 – 4 days in a month.

To further identify relationships between the six situations of energy drink use and energy drink consumption patterns, we summed the number of situations for reported energy drink use and compared this to the maximum number of energy drinks consumed for any of the six situations. These results are reported in Table 3 . By sum of situation categories, 16% to 20% of energy drink users consumed energy drinks for a total of one to five of the six situations, 7% consumed energy drinks for a total of all six. As total situations increased so did the maximum energy drink consumption for at least one situation. For example, 40% to 81% of energy drink users who reported a total of three or more situations consumed three or more energy drinks for at least one situation, whereas 29% of those with a total of one situation and 18% of those with a total of two consumed three or more for at least one situation.

Regarding the third research question, weekly jolt and crash episodes were experienced by 29% of users, 22% reported ever having headaches and 19% heart palpitations from consuming energy drinks, which did not differ significantly by sex, χ 2 (1, N = 253) < 0.01, p = .97 for jolt and crash episodes, χ 2 (1, N = 234) = 0.37, p = .54 for heart palpitations, χ 2 (1, N = 252) = 0.45, p = .50 for headaches. The data for side effects by energy drinks consumed are reported in Table 4 . There was a significant dose effect for jolt and crash episodes but not for heart palpitations or headaches. For example, 57% of energy drink users who reported experiencing weekly jolt and crash episodes also consumed three or more energy drinks for at least one situation, whereas 35% of those who denied jolt and crash episodes consumed three or more.

Energy drinks are marketed to young adults and marketing efforts may be particularly appealing among college students. For example, Cocaine energy drink, with a Cut Cocaine variety, has been marketed as a "legal alternative" to the class A drug [ 15 ]. On April 4, 2007, the Food and Drug Administration issued a warning to Drink Reboot, the firm that markets Cocaine, citing numerous marketing violations, including promoting this product as a street drug alternative [ 15 ]. Red Bull energy drink is reportedly a "functional beverage" that was designed to increase physical and mental performance and "is appropriate to drink during sports, while driving, and during leisure activities" [ 16 ] whereas Monster energy provides a "double shot of our killer energy brew. It's a wicked mega hit that delivers twice the buzz of a regular energy drink..." [ 3 ]. The purpose of this study was to identify energy drink consumption patterns and side effects associated with consumption of energy drinks among college students. We found that energy drink consumption is a popular practice among college students, particularly if the student has had insufficient sleep, if they need more energy in general, while studying for exams or working on major course projects and while driving an automobile for a long period of time.

Improvements in mental functioning are of interest among college students, many who suffer from sleep deprivation. The American College Health Association reported that 71% of college students whom they surveyed reported insufficient sleep and not feeling rested for at least five of the past seven days [ 17 ]. Sleep deprivation is associated with selecting less difficult cognitive tasks and college students who have sleep difficulties report a greater frequency of stress [ 18 , 19 ]. Findings from our study support the premise that college students use energy drinks to treat sleep deprivation and while studying for exams or completing major course projects. On the other hand, caffeine consumption has not been found to affect academic performance among college students [ 20 ].

The primary ingredient in energy drinks that has a cognitive stimulating effect is the caffeine [ 5 ], whereas high sugar content (18% concentration) does not improve reaction times slowed by sleep deprivation [ 21 ]. Further, the combination of caffeine and taurine has no effect on short-term memory [ 9 ]. Although low doses of caffeine (12.5 to 50 mg) have been found to improve cognitive performance and mood [ 6 ] and 200 mg doses have been found to improve cognitive task speed and accuracy and increase alertness among young adults [ 22 ], the amount of caffeine provided in energy drinks can easily far exceed the amount necessary to promote cognitive functioning [ 23 ]. This is especially true if a student is consuming 16- or 23-ounce cans or multiple cans of energy drinks for a given situation. Although we did not assess the size of the energy drink cans that participants normally consumed, results from our study indicate that in some situations while students are consuming energy drinks, the amount of caffeine that they consume can exceed the amount needed simply to promote cognitive stimulation. For example, 50% of energy drink users in our study drank two or more energy drinks while studying for an exam or working on a major course project, and 36% to 37% drank two or more following insufficient sleep, when they needed energy throughout the day, or while driving an automobile for a long period of time. Further, drinking multiple energy drinks with alcohol was a popular practice among 73% of energy drink users. The practice of consuming greater amounts of caffeine while socializing has also been documented among American youth [ 24 ] and an alcoholic setting is considered by many college students a primary locus to socialize and to meet people [ 25 ].

Results from the present study indicate that female and male college students are using energy drinks in a similar fashion. Whereas we found a greater prevalence of energy drink consumption and greater use of sugar-free varieties of energy drink use among females, we identified no situation differences nor prevalence of side effects from consuming energy drinks between sexes.

There are a number of limitations to this study that deserve discussion. First, in an effort to ensure the survey instrument could be completed quickly, we collected limited demographic information. Based on the descriptive statistics regarding age, we primarily had undergraduate participants and a slightly greater percentage of male participants as compared to the sex distribution at the university. On the other hand, random sampling throughout the weekdays and times of the day at central locations throughout campus was an advantage to the study design. Additionally, this is a rural state university with a fairly homogenous student body. Second, the data collected was self-reported. In particular, frequency patterns of energy drink intake were asked by situation and were treated as independent and distinct events, which may not have been the case. For example, and energy drink user may consume energy drinks because they had not gotten enough sleep and because they were studying for an exam. As a result, assessment of energy drink consumption may have been overestimated for each of the situation events. On the other hand, the results from this study provide important and novel information regarding energy drink consumption habits among college students. Of particular importance is the finding that using energy drinks for a number of situations is common among college students and that those who use energy drinks for three or more of the situations that we assessed tended to drink three or more energy drinks for at least one situation. Further, side effects of jolt and crash episodes, heart palpitations, and headaches are fairly common, as reported by approximately 25% of users, and there is a significant dose effect of energy drink consumption and jolt and crash episodes.

Using energy drinks is a popular practice among college students, as we found that 51% of 496 college students surveyed reported drinking greater than one energy drink each month. Among college energy drink users, consuming energy drinks is particularly popular for insufficient sleep, when one needs more energy in general, to drink with alcohol while partying, and when studying for an exam or completing a major course project. Drinking three or more for a given situation occurs more frequently among those who consume energy drinks for three or more of the six situations that were assessed. Side effects of consuming energy drinks, including experiencing jolt and crash episodes, hear palpitations, and headaches occur in many energy drink users. However, a dose effect was found only for jolt and crash episodes. Further research should identify if students recognize the amounts of caffeine that are present in the wide variety of caffeine-containing products they consume, the amounts of caffeine that are consumed in various situations, and the physical side effects associated with caffeine consumption.

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BMM participated in the study design, performed the statistical analysis, and drafted the manuscript. VGA conceived of the study and drafted the manuscript. AJC assisted with statistical analysis and helped to draft the manuscript. RFO, TCA, and KBH participated in coordination and data collection and helped to draft the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Malinauskas, B.M., Aeby, V.G., Overton, R.F. et al. A survey of energy drink consumption patterns among college students. Nutr J 6 , 35 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2891-6-35

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49 Case Study: Red Bull Wins the Extreme Niche

Red Bull is an Austria-based company started in 1987 by Dietrich Mateschitz that sells one product: an energy drink containing taurine (an amino acid) that’s sold in a slim, silver-coloured 8.3-ounce can. The drink has been an enormous hit with the company’s target youth segment around the globe. In the year 2018, Red Bull boasted sales of $1.06 billion USD in the United States alone [1] , and has held the majority of the energy-drink market share for years, with a 35.3% market share in 2019 (Monster Energy, their closest competitor, held 25.4%). [2] From Stanford University in California to the beaches of Australia and Thailand, Red Bull has managed to maintain its hip, cool image, with virtually no mass-market advertising.

Red Bull’s Targeted Approach to Marketing

“Red Bull. It gives you wings.” Over the years, Red Bull has organized extreme sports events (like cliff diving in Hawaii and skateboarding in San Francisco), parties, and even music festivals to reinforce the brand’s extreme, on-the-edge image. In 2012, they sponsored Felix Baumgartner’s record-setting freefall from 128,000 feet:

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Their grass-roots approach to reaching the youth market worked: “In terms of attracting new customers and enhancing consumer loyalty, Red Bull has a more effective branding campaign than Coke or Pepsi,” said Nancy F. Koehn, author of Brand New: How Entrepreneurs Earned Consumers’ Trust from Wedgwood to Dell . Red Bull’s success has also gained attention (and concern) among beverage-industry giants, and some have tried to follow its lead: For a time Coke ran a stealth marketing campaign, packaging its cola in a slim can reminiscent of Red Bull and offering it to customers in trendy bars and clubs in New York City.

• “Red Bull Energy Drink Sales U.S., 2015–2018.” Statista. (September 25, 2019). https://www.statista.com/statistics/558082/us-sales-of-red-bull-energy-drinks/ . ↵
• "Energy drink market share in the US in 2019." Statista. (2019, September 25). https://www.statista.com/statistics/306864/market-share-of-leading-energy-drink-brands-in-the-us-based-on-case-volume-sales/. ↵

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Cardio- and cerebrovascular responses to the energy drink Red Bull in young adults: a randomized cross-over study

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Energy drinks are beverages containing vasoactive metabolites, usually a combination of caffeine, taurine, glucuronolactone and sugars. There are concerns about the safety of energy drinks with some countries banning their sales. We determined the acute effects of a popular energy drink, Red Bull, on cardiovascular and hemodynamic variables, cerebrovascular parameters and microvascular endothelial function.

Twenty-five young non-obese and healthy subjects attended two experimental sessions on separate days according to a randomized crossover study design. During each session, primary measurements included beat-to-beat blood pressure measurements, impedance cardiography and transcranial Doppler measurements for at least 20 min baseline and for 2 h following the ingestion of either 355 mL of the energy drink or 355 mL of tap water; the endothelial function test was performed before and two hours after either drink.

Unlike the water control load, Red Bull consumption led to increases in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure ( p  < 0.005), associated with increased heart rate and cardiac output ( p  < 0.05), with no significant changes in total peripheral resistance and without diminished endothelial response to acetylcholine; consequently, double product (reflecting myocardial load) was increased ( p  < 0.005). Red Bull consumption also led to increases in cerebrovascular resistance and breathing frequency ( p  < 0.005), as well as to decreases in cerebral blood flow velocity ( p  < 0.005) and end-tidal carbon dioxide ( p  < 0.005).

Our results show an overall negative hemodynamic profile in response to ingestion of the energy drink Red Bull , in particular an elevated blood pressure and double product and a lower cerebral blood flow velocity.

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Introduction

Energy drinks refer to a category of sugary drinks that also include variable amounts of caffeine, taurine and glucuronolactone as well as other ingredients that may include vitamins and minerals [ 1 ]. Their popularity has substantially increased since their introduction around 1960 [ 2 ], and energy drinks are now one of the fastest growing segments in the beverage industry [ 3 ]. Today, the majority of energy drinks are targeted toward adolescents and young adults [ 4 ], and the manufacturer’s publicity claims positive effects on overall performance, mental concentration, reaction speed, vigilance, metabolism and well-being if such a beverage is consumed [ 5 ]. Despite these claims for beneficial effects, there are health concerns about these energy drinks because of reported side effects like cardiovascular complications or intoxication symptoms [ 6 – 8 ].

There is, however, little robust scientific investigation about the potential health risks associated with energy drinks. Studies investigating the direct impact of energy drinks on the cardiovascular system are few, and the results are not always coherent. A decade ago, Baum and Weiss [ 9 ] investigated the impact of the energy drink Red Bull (RB) on cardiac parameters before and after exercise in trained athletes and found that ingestion of 500 mL of RB did not lead to significant changes in heart rate or stroke volume when assessed within 40 min post-drink under resting conditions; however, increased left atrium contractility leading to increased stroke volume was observed later during the post-exercise recovery period. A few months later, Alford et al. [ 10 ] investigated the effects of RB on exercise performance and mood in two separate experiments, and reported that consumption of 250 mL of RB did not alter resting blood pressure (BP) 30 min later. Similarly, Bichler et al. [ 11 ] reported no change in BP nor in heart rate within 45 min after ingesting capsules containing caffeine and taurine in amounts equivalent to those found in a 250 mL RB drink. More recently, Worthley et al. [ 12 ] compared 250 mL of a sugar-free energy drink of similar composition as RB versus a water control and found an increase in BP without a change in heart rate at one hour post-drink. By contrast, Ragsdale et al. [ 13 ], who compared 250 mL of RB (normal calorie and low calorie) with a control drink, found no changes in overall cardiovascular function as measured by BP and heart rate throughout a 2-h test period. Furthermore, while Nienhueser et al. [ 14 ] reported that 473 mL of RB had no significant effect on heart rate over an one hour post-drink period, Steinke et al. [ 15 ] reported that consumption of 500 mL of an energy drink of unspecified brand, but containing caffeine and taurine in amounts equivalent to two 250 mL cans of RB, resulted in significant increases in heart rate as well as in BP at 2 and 4 h post-drink.

Some of the discrepancies across these above-mentioned studies could be attributed to differential diet and lifestyle of the test subjects, state of fitness (trained vs. untrained), posture during the experiment, the use of different energy drinks varying in amount and type of active metabolites and different volume loads of the same type of energy drink under investigation. Furthermore, several of these studies were not specifically designed to study postprandial cardiovascular responses as judged by the lack of tight control of food and beverage consumption on the study day before the test, too short duration of post-drink monitoring, the lack of an appropriate control drink in some studies, as well as by the limitations for detecting small-to-modest changes in BP due to its infrequent measurements during baseline and post-drink periods. In fact, no study utilized continuous beat-to-beat hemodynamics measurements. Furthermore, despite the controversy about a possible mental effect of energy drinks and the abundance of publications on this topic, no study used a transcranial Doppler approach to evaluate cerebral blood flow velocity.

The objective of the study reported here was to investigate the acute cardiovascular and cerebrovascular responses to the popular energy drink RB under standardized experimental pre-drink and post-drink conditions, and with the use of state-of-the-art techniques for a continuous and comprehensive monitoring of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular functions. We determined, in a randomized crossover study, the beat-to-beat cardiovascular and cerebrovascular responses to oral ingestion of RB and tested the hypothesis that ingestion of this energy drink will impact upon the cardiovascular system leading to increased BP and double product. Since the endothelium plays an important role for the function of resistance vessels, we also tested the hypothesis that microvascular endothelial dysfunction would be a cause of elevated BP in response to the energy drink.

Twenty-five healthy young adults (12 women, 13 men) aged 20–31 years (mean 22.5 ± 0.6) were recruited from our local University student population and their friends. The mean height of the participants was 173 ± 2 cm, body weight 70 ± 2 kg and their body mass index (BMI) was 23.3 ± 0.6 kg m −2 . Exclusion criteria included those with a BMI greater than 30 kg m −2 , competition athletes and individuals with a daily exercise workload exceeding 60 min per day. None of the subjects had any diseases or were taking any medication affecting cardiovascular or autonomic regulation and none reported caffeine intake in excess of 150 mg daily from food and beverages. Based on a questionnaire, 15 subjects (6 vs. 9) were low caffeine users with an estimated daily intake of approximately 60 mg, while 10 subjects (6 vs. 4) were caffeine naïve. The questionnaire included coffee and energy drink consumption. All participants were studied in the morning after an overnight (12 h) fast, and they were requested to avoid alcohol or caffeine for at least 24 h prior to the test. Written informed consent was obtained from each test subject. The study protocol complied with the Declaration of Helsinki and received local ethics committee approval.

Study design

All experiments took place in a quiet, temperature-controlled (20–22 °C) laboratory and started between 08.00 and 09.00 a.m. Every subject attended two separate experimental sessions (each session separated at least by 2 days) according to a randomized crossover study. Randomization was performed using a random sequence generator ( http://www.random.org/sequences/ ) where the session order was determined for 25 test subjects before the study started (1 = Red Bull, 2 = Water). Test subjects were not allowed to know the order of their sessions until they had their first drink. On arrival at the laboratory, subjects were asked to empty their bladders if necessary and to sit in a comfortable armchair. The cardiovascular monitoring equipment was then connected. Following a variable period for reaching cardiovascular and metabolic stability (at least 30 min), the microvascular function test was performed (time required: about 30 min). A baseline recording was then made for 20 min, starting with the beat-to-beat measurements. Then, the test subjects ingested non-blinded either 355 mL of a degased energy drink RB containing caffeine (114 mg), taurine (1,420 mg), glucuronolactone (84.2 mg), sucrose and glucose (39.1 g) or 355 mL of tap water at room temperature. Subjects were asked to ingest their drink in a convenient pace over 4 min. After 2 h of post-drink cardiovascular recording, the microvascular function test was repeated. Throughout the procedures, subjects were permitted to watch neutral documentaries on a flat TV screen set at eye level.

Cardiovascular recordings

Cardiovascular recordings were performed using a Task Force Monitor (TFM) ( CNSystems , Medizintechnik, Graz, Austria) with data sampled at a rate of 1,000 Hz [ 16 ]. Continuous BP was monitored using the Penaz principle from either the index or middle finger of the right hand and was calibrated to oscillometric brachial BP measurements on the contralateral arm. Impedance cardiography measurements [ 17 – 19 ], in which the changes in thoracic impedance are converted to reflect changes in thoracic fluid content/volume over time, were performed based on the original Kubicek [ 20 , 21 ] approach but using an improved estimate of thoracic volume [ 22 ], which allows calculation of cardiac stroke volume. ECG/Impedance electrodes were positioned together with upper arm and finger BP cuffs. Electrode strips were placed at the neck and thoracic regions, the latter specifically at the midclavicular at the xiphoid process level ( CNSystems standard electrode kits).

Transcranial Doppler measurements

Cerebral blood flow velocity was measured using transcranial Doppler ultrasonography ( Doppler - Box , DWL, Sipplingen, Germany). The left and right middle cerebral artery was insonated at a depth of 40–55 mm using a 2-MHz probe, which was fixed in place with an adjustable headset. Beat-to-beat values of systolic, diastolic and mean velocity were recorded and merged real-time with the TFM. Expiratory air was sampled via a nasal cannula, and end-tidal CO 2 measured by infrared absorption ( Datex , Multicap, Instrumentarium Corp., Helsinki, Finland).

Microvascular endothelial function

Microvascular endothelial function was assessed non-invasively in the finger skin microcirculation by a combination of iontophoresis and laser Doppler flowmetry ( Perimed PF5010, Stockholm, Sweden), using a standard protocol [ 23 ] which is briefly described as follows: acetylcholine (1 %, Fluka , Sigma-Aldrich Chemie GmbH, Steinheim, Germany) was delivered to the middle dorsal phalanx of the third finger of the non-dominant hand using an anodal electrical current (0.1 mA for 20 s) and consisted of seven doses of acetylcholine with a 60-s interval between each dose. The electrical current was conveyed by a battery power supply that was isolated from the mains electricity. Then, sodium nitroprusside (0.01 %, Riedel – de Haen , Sigma-Aldrich Laborchemikalien GmbH, Seelze, Germany) was delivered to the same spot of the fourth finger using a cathodal current (0.2 mA for 20 s) and consisted of nine doses of sodium nitroprusside with a 90-s interval between each dose. The skin perfusion responses were recorded by a laser Doppler flowmetry probe, and the probes temperature was kept constantly at 32 °C during all measurements. Coefficient of variation of pre-drink baseline values to acetylcholine was 39 ± 7 % and for sodium nitroprusside 33 ± 7 %, determined from all pre-drink tests, which is in agreement with a previous study [ 24 ].

Data analysis

Values of cardiac RR interval, systolic BP (SBP) diastolic BP (DBP), cerebral blood flow velocity (CBFV), end-tidal CO 2 (etCO 2 ) and breathing frequency (BF) were averaged every 10 min during baseline and every 20 min during the 2 h post-drink period. Heart rate (HR) was calculated from the appropriate RR-Interval. Cardiac output (CO) was computed as the product of stroke volume (SV) and HR. Mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) was calculated from DBP and SBP as follows: MAP = DBP + 1/3 (SBP–DBP). Total peripheral resistance (TPR) was calculated as MAP/CO. Double (rate pressure) product (DP) was calculated as HR x SBP and provides valuable information for the oxygen consumption of the myocardium [ 25 ]. Cerebrovascular resistance (CVRI) was calculated as the mean blood pressure at brain level (BP mean_brain ) divided by CBFV mean . We estimated BP mean_brain as the difference between BP mean (MAP) at heart level and the hydrostatic pressure (BP hydro ) effect at the level of transcranial insonation. We determined the vertical length ( h ) between the insonation site and the fourth intercostal space in the midclavicular line (heart level). The hydrostatic pressure of the blood column between heart and insonation levels was calculated as BP hydro  =  ρ   ×   g   ×   h , where ρ is the specific density of blood (1.06 g/cm 3 ) and g is the gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s 2 ). Acetylcholine- and sodium nitroprusside-mediated vasodilation were calculated as the absolute increase in arbitrary units from baseline to the average of the final two deliveries.

Statistical analysis

All values are reported as mean ± SE. Statistical analysis was performed by two-way ANOVA for repeated measures with time and treatment (drink type) as within-subject factors using statistical software ( Statistix version 8.0, Analytical Software, Tallahassee, FL 32317, USA). Where significant differences were found, the effects of each drink over time were analyzed by comparing values at each time-point over the post-drink period with the basal values recorded during the 20 min immediately before drinking using one-way ANOVA with Dunnett’s multiple comparison test or the Friedman test with Dunn’s post hoc testing. Variables were tested for normality using the D’Agostino & Pearson omnibus normality test. A paired t test or Wilcoxon matched pairs test was used to compare the post-drink effect between the drinks. A Friedman test with Dunn’s multiple comparison post hoc analysis was used to compare vasodilatory responses before and after drug administration (all performed with GraphPad Prism , Version 5, San Diego, CA, USA). All reported p values are two-sided. For all tests, significance was set at p  ≤ 0.05.

Subject characteristics

The test subject characteristics are presented in Table  1 . Baseline pre-drink values on both test days were similar for hemodynamic, transcranial and microvascular measurement parameters. No subject reported gastrointestinal symptoms or other unpleasant effects after ingestion of the drinks.

Cardiovascular responses

Changes for SBP, DBP, HR and DP are presented in Fig.  1 . Compared to baseline values, RB ingestion led to increases both in SBP and DBP as from 20 min post-drink, with the SBP peak (5.2 ± 1.0 mmHg, around 70 min) being reached earlier compared to the DBP peak (6.1 ± 1.1 mmHg, around 90 min). The BP-elevating effects of RB are also found when compared to the water load, with the effect of the RB drink resulting in significantly higher values for SBP (3.3 ± 1.0 vs. 0.3 ± 0.7 mmHg, p  < 0.005) and DBP (4.1 ± 0.7 vs. 1.3 ± 0.4 mmHg, p  < 0.005) if values were averaged over 120 min post-drink. Ingestion of either water or RB led to a drop in HR below baseline values over the first 40 min with the water load effect being significant. Afterwards, HR after RB ingestion rose steadily above baseline or relative to water load values reaching a peak around 90 min (3.7 ± 0.7 beats min −1 ), followed by a subsequent decreasing trend. Ingestion of RB also significantly increased the double product (DP) (391 ± 94 vs. −75 ± 65 mmHg beats min −1 , p  < 0.005) compared to water, with a peak around 90 min (737 ± 130 mmHg beats min −1 ).

Left panel Time course of changes in systolic blood pressure (SBP) ( a ), diastolic blood pressure (DBP) ( b ), heart rate (HR) ( c ) and double product (DP) ( d ) before and after ingestion of Red Bull ( open circle ) and water ( solid rhombus ). Right panel Average changes over 120 min post-drink, equivalent to area under the curve. * p  < 0.05, ** p  < 0.01 and *** p  < 0.005, statistically significant differences over time from baseline values ( left and right panel ). ‡ p  < 0.005, statistically significant differences between responses to the drinks ( right panel ). Time 0 indicates resumption of the recordings after the 4-min drink period

Changes for MAP, CO and TPR are presented in Fig.  2 . In response to the RB drink, the MAP slowly started to increase over baseline values around 30 min post-drink, reaching its peak at a time-point which is later than for CO, namely at about 90 min (5.7 ± 1.0 mmHg). On the other hand, CO immediately rose over baseline values, peaking around 30 min (0.28 ± 0.06 L* min −1 ). When the MAP and CO responses to RB drink are compared to those of the water load, they are significantly higher with RB, namely 3.8 ± 0.7 vs. 1.0 ± 0.5 mmHg ( p  < 0.005) for MAP and 0.20 ± 0.05 vs. 0.04 ± 0.03 L min −1 ( p  < 0.05) for CO. Calculations of total peripheral resistance from BP and CO indicate no significant changes with RB relative to baseline values or to the water load (Fig.  2 ).

Left panel Time course of changes in mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) ( a ), cardiac output (CO) ( b ) and total peripheral resistance (TPR) ( c ), following the ingestion of Red Bull ( open circle ) or water control ( solid rhombus ). Right panel Average changes over 120 min post-drink, equivalent to area under the curve. * p  < 0.05, ** p  < 0.01 and *** p  < 0.005, statistically significant differences over time from baseline values. ‡ p  < 0.005, # p  < 0.05 statistically significant differences between responses to the drinks ( right panel ). Time 0 indicates resumption of the recordings after the 4-min drink period

Endothelial function

No significant differences are observed in baseline values for microvascular endothelial flux when assessed on either day prior to ingestion of RB or water (Table  1 ). In comparison with the response to the water load, however, RB ingestion resulted in a significant increase in the response to acetylcholine-mediated vasodilation (66 ± 10 vs. 117 ± 18 AU, p  < 0.05), but did not influence sodium nitroprusside-mediated vasodilation (Fig.  3 ).

Microvascular measurements before and 2 h after the drink. ACh ( a ) (acetylcholine) and SNP ( b ) (sodium nitroprusside). Baseline refers to the average of the last two applications either of ACh or SNP 20 min prior either drink. Post-drink refers to the average of the last two applications either of ACh or SNP 2 h after either drink * p  < 0.05, statistically significant difference between post-drink conditions. AU arbitrary units

Cerebrovascular responses

Figure  4 shows the changes over time for CBFV, CVRI, BF and etCO 2 . Immediately after ingestion of RB, the CBFV started to decline with a negative peak (−8.2 ± 1.0 cm s −1 ) around 70 min, while CVRI rose gradually above baseline levels, peaking around 90 min (0.22 ± 0.03 mmHg s cm −1 ). Ingestion of water also decreased CBFV and increased CVRI significantly over time but the effect is far less pronounced compared to RB. This is reflected in a significant difference between RB and water if values were averaged over 120 min post-drink for CBFV (−7.4 ± 0.9 vs. −2.2 ± 0.6 cm s −1 , p  < 0.005) and CVRI (0.16 ± 0.02 vs. 0.05 ± 0.02 mmHg s cm −1 , p  < 0.005). The data on changes in BF and etCO 2 show that after an initial stable period for 20 min, etCO 2 started to decline and BF to increase in response to RB (but not with water), with a peak for etCO 2 around 50 min (−1.4 ± 0.3 mmHg) and for BF around 30 min (1.8 ± 0.4 breaths min −1 ). Subsequently, whereas etCO 2 in response to RB returned slowly toward the baseline levels, BF remained elevated above baseline levels even at the end of the test, i.e., at 120 min post-drink. Analyses of the average values over the entire post-drink study time indicate significant differences with RB compared to water both for etCO 2 (−0.7 ± 0.2 vs. 0.4 ± 0.2 mmHg, p  < 0.005) and BF (1.28 ± 0.25 vs. −0.24 ± 0.23 breaths min −1 , p  < 0.005).

Left panel Time course of changes in cerebral blood flow velocity (CBFV) ( a ), cerebrovascular resistance (CVRI) ( b ), breathing frequency (BF) ( c ) and end-tidal carbon dioxide (etCO 2 ) ( d ) following ingestion of Red Bull ( open circle ) and water ( solid rhombus ). Right panel Average changes over 120 min post-drink, equivalent to area under the curve. * p  < 0.05, ** p  < 0.01 and *** p  < 0.005, statistically significant differences over time from baseline values. ‡ P  < 0.005, statistically significant differences between responses to the drinks ( right panel ). Time 0 indicates resumption of the recordings after the 4-min drink period

The aim of this study was to evaluate the acute cardio- and cerebrovascular changes in response to a popular commercially available energy drink, RB. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that has evaluated the influence of an energy drink using beat-to-beat hemodynamics and cerebrovascular measurements. We show that ingestion of one can of RB resulted in an augmented workload to the heart as evidenced by elevated BP, HR, CO and DP values. Based on our findings that ingestion of RB does not lead to diminished microvascular endothelial function in response to acetylcholine, our study suggests that impaired endothelial function, at least in the microvasculature, is unlikely to account for the increased BP-elevating effect of RB. Furthermore, consumption of RB substantially decreased cerebral blood flow velocity and increased cerebrovascular resistance, which stands in agreement with the observed reduction in etCO 2 . The observed overall negative hemodynamic profile in response to one can of an energy drink could aggravate pre-existing health problems and warrants further studies using appropriate patient groups.

Energy drinks are one of the most rapidly increasing beverages promoted aggressively for their claimed beneficial effects on body and mental strength, but the data presented here suggest that consumption of energy drinks is potentially harmful because of the extra cardiac work load and the decreased cerebral blood flow velocity observed during resting conditions. While our data here showing BP-elevating effects of RB in young adults appear to be in conflict with several past studies in which RB ingestion was not found to increase BP, two main explanations can be put forward to account for these apparent discrepancies.

First, analysis of the time course of the changes in BP and heart rate in our study indicates that differences in response to the RB drink versus water control only became statistically significant as from 1 h post-drink, with peak values being reached between 80 and 90 min. Our study thus underscores the potential importance of assessing the cardiovascular effects of RB for periods lasting at least 1 h. This contention is consistent with the results of Alford et al. [ 10 ] and those of Baum and Weiss [ 9 ] where no BP-elevating effect of 250 or 500 mL of RB, respectively, was observed at 30 or 40 min post-drink. It is also in agreement with the data of Bichler et al. [ 11 ] where a change in BP or heart rate could not be demonstrated within 45 min after ingesting capsules containing 100 mg of caffeine and 1,000 mg of taurine, i.e., in amounts equivalent to those found in a 250 mL RB drink. Conversely, our data showing that BP-elevating effects of RB became significant between 1 and 2 h post-drink was in line with the findings of Worthley et al. [ 12 ] where an increase in BP was found 1 h after ingesting 250 mL of a sugar-free RB-like drink compared to a lack of change after water ingestion. Our data are also consistent with the report of Steinke et al. [ 15 ] that consumption of 500 mL of an energy drink that is similar in its composition to RB resulted in significant increases in heart rate (+5–7 beats per min) as well as in systolic and diastolic BP (+4–8 mmHg) between 1 and 4 h post-drink. Thus, unless the assessment of cardiovascular responses to RB and other energy drinks are conducted over periods of 1 h or more, there is a high risk for false-negative results.

Second, differences in the acute cardiovascular responses to RB between our study showing increased BP compared to those showing no effect can also be related to the use of different methodological approaches for measuring BP. Unlike our approach that measured BP by continuous beat-by-beat hemodynamics monitoring, the measurement of BP in previously reported studies by sphygmomanometry only occasionally throughout the experiment is likely to lack the degree of sensitivity required to detect statistically significant modest changes in BP. For example, Ragsdale et al. [ 13 ], in a double-blind experiment in 68 participants where 250 mL of RB was compared to control drinks, reported no changes in BP over a 2 h post-drink period with BP assessed by sphygmomanometry only at 0, 60 and 120 min in response to RB. A more detailed analysis of their data, however, reveals that at the 60 min measurement time-point, BP had increased by 3 mmHg (but non-significantly) in response to the RB drink but not with the control drink. In light of our findings that both systolic and diastolic BP peaks at 80–90 min post-drink, one therefore cannot disregard the possibility that this tendency of an increase in BP, with the RB at 60 min post-drink in Ragsdale’s study [ 13 ], may have been detected as a significant increase by continuous measurement of BP over the 2-h test period.

We conducted microvascular endothelial function testing to investigate whether hemodynamic changes following ingestion of energy drinks are linked to endothelial dysfunction. Using peripheral arterial tonometry to investigate a potential role of energy drinks in endothelial dysfunction, Worthley et al. [ 12 ] presented detrimental effects on endothelial function in their study. In addition, a case report revealed abnormal endothelial function, worse at 90 min following ingestion of a 24 oz (710 mL) Monster energy beverage using the brachial flow-mediated dilation method [ 26 ]. These appear to be in contrast to our findings where acetylcholine-mediated endothelial function showed an augmented vasodilation after consumption of RB. Explanations for these differential findings may be related to differences in the method utilized to investigate endothelial function (i.e., microvascular endothelial function testing, which uses iontophoresis with acetylcholine and sodium-nitroprusside vs. flow-mediated dilation, which assesses the diameter of the brachial artery in response to reactive hyperemia using an ultrasound technique), differences in sugar content, the total volume of drink consumed and to differences in the content of caffeine and taurine in the drinks utilized. Our subjects ingested 355 mL RB containing 39.1 g of sugar while Worthley et al. [ 12 ] used a sugar-free energy drink with 250 mL drink volume containing also less caffeine and taurine compared to the RB drink in our study. Furthermore, a recent publication focusing on the impact of acute administration of caffeine on vascular function found that caffeine augments endothelium-dependent vasodilation in a healthy young subpopulation [ 27 ]. However, caffeine may reduce myocardial blood flow during exercise, and therefore, given that many consume energy drinks and then exercise, this is an area that needs further study [ 28 ]. Furthermore, as somnolence due to sleep deprivation is often an underlying reason for young people to consume energy drinks, studies investigating the interaction between caffeinated beverages and sleep deprivation on vascular functions are also warranted. On the other hand, it was observed that a daily taurine supplementation of 1.5 g in healthy humans had a beneficial impact on microvascular endothelial function in smokers as well as in control non-smokers [ 29 ]. Because our study’s focus was on the cardiovascular responses to the energy drink per se rather to its specific ingredients, we can only conclude that microvascular endothelial dysfunction is not responsible for our observed increase in BP in response to RB. This conclusion is further supported through our hemodynamic beat-to-beat derived data where no change in the total peripheral resistance could be observed.

To our knowledge, this is the first documentation where cerebral blood flow velocity in response to ingestion of an energy drink has been evaluated. In our study, cerebral blood flow velocity started to decline immediately after the drink, reaching a minimum at 80 min and remained below baseline levels for at least 120 min post-drink. This was accompanied by an increased cerebrovascular resistance which could in part account for the observed decrease in velocity. As CO 2 is known as one of the strongest metabolites affecting cerebral blood flow [ 30 , 31 ], our findings that etCO 2 levels are significantly decreased in response to the RB drink suggest that the observed drop in cerebral blood flow velocity and the accompanied rise in cerebrovascular resistance could be due, at least partly, to the change in etCO 2 levels. Indeed, when taken together with the results of a previous study [ 32 ] which in evaluating the role of oral administered caffeine on cerebral circulation could not find a relation between CO 2 and decreasing cerebral blood flow, the possibility arises that our observed changes in respiration parameters are not solely responsible for the observed changes in cerebral blood flow velocity. We cannot be sure whether other vasoactive substances in RB are also responsible for this novel observation, but caffeine is a likely candidate. Similarly, it is tempting to attribute the BP-elevating effects of RB to its caffeine content, but a recent pilot study [ 33 ] reported that repeated consumption of RB drinks between 8:00 and 19:00 led to an increase in mean 24 h and daytime ambulatory BP when compared to caffeine consumption alone. This raises the possibility that other ingredients in RB—in their own rights or in interaction with caffeine—may underline the BP-elevating effect of RB.

Our main findings here are that the RB drink results in an elevation in BP and diminished cerebral blood flow velocity, which contrast with the lack of effect of a similar volume of water (a control vehicle drink) on these hemodynamic parameters. There are of course numerous factors that could—via sensorial and/or metabolic effects—explain the observed differences between the RB drink and water vehicle. Further experiments are warranted to tease out the distinct component(s) of the RB drink (including sweet taste, calorie content, sugars, caffeine, taurine and glucuronolactone) that either in their own rights or through interactions with each other could be contributing to these differential hemodynamic effects.

In conclusion, our results show a negative hemodynamic profile in response to ingestion of RB in young and healthy humans and which could not be explained by impairments in endothelial function. Moreover, ingestion of an energy drink was associated with a substantial drop in cerebral blood flow, hence critically questioning the manufactures promotion about a better mental profile.

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Research related to this paper was funded in part by the Swiss National Science Foundation (Project 3200B0-122554 to JPM).

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Grasser, E.K., Yepuri, G., Dulloo, A.G. et al. Cardio- and cerebrovascular responses to the energy drink Red Bull in young adults: a randomized cross-over study. Eur J Nutr 53 , 1561–1571 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-014-0661-8

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-014-0661-8

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Is the consumption of energy drink beneficial or detrimental to health: a comprehensive review?

• Hani’ Ariffin 1 ,
• Xiu Qing Chong 1 ,
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Energy drinks (EDs) are a type of beverage that mostly contains caffeine and other dietary supplements (if present) and does not contain any alcohol in the ingredients. The products in this category include Red Bull, Redline, Monster, Full Throttle, and others. They are claimed to help in boosting energy, stamina, sports performance, and concentration among individuals. This article focused on the review of the benefits and disadvantages of consumption of energy drinks to health and well-being. ED provides health benefits effects such as improved physical performance, mood and attitude, cognition, and weight loss. Some adverse negative health challenges have been linked to consumption of ED. Therefore, this review is a wholistic appraisal of benefits or detriments of consumption of energy drink to our health and suggestions to curtail the excesses of ED consumption.

Energy drink has been around since 1950, and it is marketed as energy booster and comes in different types, energy shots, fruit-based, non-fruit-based (regular), sugar-free, and plant-based. These products are marketed as a low-calorie “instant” energy drink that can be consumed in a single sip, or bottle to boost energy or to boost the nutritional value of conventional products. Many of them contain different ingredients such as caffeine, guarana, ginseng, yerba mate, acai berry, ginkgo biloba, methylxanthines, sugar, glucuronolactone, taurine, maltodextrin, B vitamins. Vitamin B2 (riboflavin), B3 (niacin), B6 (pyridoxine, pyridoxal, and pyridoxamine), Inositol B8 and B12, vitamin C and vitamin D; calcium, Iron, chromium, zinc, manganese, molybdenum; artificial sweeteners, aspartame, and sucralose. Health benefits such as improved physical performance, improved mood and attitude, improved concentration, and memory, good source of vitamin B and weight loss have been reported. Negative impact on health such as adverse cardiovascular effect, headaches, epileptic seizures, ischemic stroke, hallucinations, muscular twitching, restlessness, sleeplessness, anxiety, depression, gastrointestinal effect, renal effects, dental effects, obesity and type II diabetes, cancer, and caffeine toxicity has been reported.

Conclusions

Most of the health detriments caused because of consumption of energy drink is mostly due to the presence of excess quantity of caffeine and sugar. If the quantities of caffeine and sugar content in energy drink are kept at FDA- and WHO-recommended daily consumption amount, then it will not be present any problem to health. Consumption of energy drink that contains natural ingredients such as yerba mate, acai berry, ginkgo biloba, methylxanthines, amino acid, guarana, and ginseng with moderate FDA- and WHO-approved daily consumption of caffeine and sugar is not detrimental to health.

Energy drinks (EDs) are a type of liquid beverage that contains caffeine and may or may not contain other dietary supplements (Alsunni 2015 ). They are non-alcoholic drinks that claim to boost energy, stamina, sports performance, and concentration (Al-Shaar et al. 2017 ). Energy drinks use a combination of stimulants and energy boosters to give the consumer an “energy boost.” Caffeine is the main ingredient in most energy drinks. They typically have 80–150 mg of caffeine per 8 oz, which is about the same as 5 oz of coffee or two 12-oz cans of caffeinated soda (Alsunni 2011 ). Most brands on the market are high in glucose, while some do provide artificially sweetened variants. The common ingredients used in ED are being classified into 4 different categories: natural extracts (ginseng, guarana, yerba mate, acai, caffeine, and ginkgo biloba), macronutrients (carbohydrates and protein), micronutrients (vitamins and minerals), and artificial sweeteners (aspartame and sucralose).

Manufacturers recently have shifted their consumer focus from athletes to young people. Energy drinks are aggressively marketed in places popular with teens and young adults. The capability of EDs to control mood, increase alertness, reduce fatigue, improve athletic performance (Giles et al. 2012 ), and lower high levels of perceived stress has been promoted aggressively among college students (Pettit and DeBarr 2011 ).

Currently, there are major concerns about the safety of these products. There have been several reports linking energy drinks to negative health effects. Despite this, energy drink manufacturers believe that their products are safe and appropriate for customers. Scientists are conflicted on whether energy drinks have negative health impacts. There are only a few extensive reviews of the literature evaluations that show the acceptability and safety of energy drink intake, especially among young individuals.

Article was obtained through online database search from Mendeley, Science direct, Scopus, PubMed, Google Scholar. Search was limited between 2001 and 2021.

Brief introduction of ED

Japan was the first country to invent the energy drink. Amphetamines were immensely popular in the postwar period until legislation was implemented in the 1950s to restrict their usage. Then, in 1962, Taisho released Lipovitan D shown in Fig.  1 A, a legal, stimulating tonic packaged in minibar-size bottles. By the 1980s, Japanese businessmen tried to push the frequent consumption of fortified vitamins and extra-caffeinated drinks (Engber 2013 ). The first energy drink appeared in the USA in 1949 and was marketed as “Dr. Enuf.” They were originally introduced in Europe in 1987, and the market quickly spread across the globe with the introduction of Red Bull in 1997 (Zucconi et al. 2013 ). Since then, the energy drink market has grown rapidly, with several new brands hitting the markets across the world. In 2013, energy drinks were consumed in more than 160 countries for a total of 5.8 billion liters (Bailey et al. 2014 ). In 2017, energy drinks accounted for 30% of all packaged beverages sold in convenience stores in the USA in terms of dollar sales. According to energy drink sales data, the global market for energy drinks was worth $53 billion in 2019 (Edgson 2021 ).

A Energy shots, B variety of fruit-flavored energy drinks, C non-fruit-based (regular) energy drink, D sugar-free energy drink, E plant-based energy drink

Types of ED

Energy shots.

There are two types of energy drinks on the market. One is marketed in bottles the same size as regular soft drinks, such as a 16-oz bottle. The other type, known as “energy shots,” comes in little bottles that hold 2 to 212 oz of concentrated drink (NCCIH 2021 ). Energy shots can contain the same total amount of caffeine, vitamins, or other functional ingredients as their larger versions and may be considered concentrated forms of energy drinks. Energy shots are typically marketed as a low-calorie “instant” energy drink that can be consumed in a single sip (or “shot”), as opposed to energy drinks that encourage users to drink a full can, which can have 250 cal or more (We-energy 2015 ). An example of energy shots of ED (Lipovitan D brand) is shown in Fig.  1 A.

Fruit-based

The development of blended drinks is a successful way to boost the nutritional value of conventional products or to overcome the problems associated with current products (Márquez Cardozo et al. 2017 ). Several researchers have created alternatives to energy drinks based on fruits. For example, Márquez Cardozo et al. ( 2017 ) formulated mango energy drinks containing caffeine at a concentration of 30 mg/100 mL, though Nowak and Goslinski ( 2020 ) evaluated various fruit energy drinks containing pineapple, apple, strawberry, raspberry, carrot, and pomegranate juice. An example of a variety of fruit-based energy drinks is shown in Fig.  1 B.

Non-fruit-based (regular)

Regular or non-fruit-based EDs are beverages that contain large doses of caffeine, sugar, and a variety of other stimulants and substances such as guarana, taurine, or vitamins (Higgins et al. 2010 ). Examples include ED brands such as Red Bull, Rockstar, Monster, Full Throttle ED, and NOS. Figure  1 C shows the non-fruit-based (regular) ED of Red Bull brand (Table 1 ).

In recent years, consumption of sugar-free energy drinks has increased possibly because of the low-calorie, refined sugar content. The main active ingredient in sugar-free energy drinks such as Red Bull is caffeine. Caffeine is one of the most widely used ergogenic aids, with acute caffeine ingestion increasing aerobic exercise endurance and reducing fatigue. Although they are claimed as sugar-free, artificial sweeteners are heavily used as the ingredients such as Aspartame (Null Chiropractic LLC n.d.). It is also known as non-nutritive sweeteners which are high-intensity sweeteners that are used in small amounts to reduce the caloric and sugar content of food and beverages (Choudhary and Pretorius 2014 ). An example of a sugar-free energy drink is shown in Fig.  1 D.

Plant-based

Most energy drinks incorporate additional artificial mood enhancers, synthetic caffeine, and a huge amount of sugar. Plant-based energy drinks, on the other hand, contain only natural caffeine, electrolytes, vitamins, and antioxidants, as well as a blend of natural caffeine, electrolytes, vitamins, and antioxidants. An example of plant-based energy drinks is shown in Fig.  1 E.

Major ingredients and constituents of ED

Natural extracts.

Natural ED may get a boost from the antioxidants, vitamin, minerals, and naturally occurring caffeine derived from the fruits, herbs, and plants. The natural extracts found in various types of ED are summarized in Table 2 .

Caffeine concentration in ED varies significantly, ranging from 47 to 80 mg per 8 oz to 207 mg per 2 oz, and comes from a variety of sources (Generali 2013 ), while moderate caffeine consumption (up to 400 mg per day) is usually regarded as safe and even beneficial to adults' well-being (McLellan et al. 2016 ). Caffeine is a stimulant that antagonizes adenosine receptors and stimulates dopamine neurotransmission in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Interactions with various receptors result in a variety of outcomes. O’Mathúna ( 2021 ) stated that moderate acute dosages (200–350 mg) reduce heart rate and raise blood pressure in adults, while also enhancing emotions of well-being, focus, and arousal.

Reports on other constituents of ED are relatively limited. Guarana is a plant extract native to South America which contains a significant amount of caffeine, with 1 g of guarana equivalent to 40 mg of caffeine (Al-Shaar et al. 2017 ). Guarana is frequently added as an ingredient in ED for its stimulatory impact due to its high caffeine content (Heckman et al. 2010 ). The effects of guarana are currently unknown. It is uncertain whether it has an additional or synergistic impact when coupled with caffeine. However, it has been found that guarana can act as an antioxidant, traditional medicinal, and an effective stimulant. It can also treat fatigue and depression related to cancer treatment (Moustakas et al. 2015 ). The amount of guarana in a 16-oz energy drink can range from 1.4 to 300 mg. Although there are no standard quantities, the FDA considers guarana to be safe. It is also unclear how much guarana is in each drink because many manufacturers do not specify the milligram value. As a result, it is safe to believe that the amount of caffeine in the products is higher than the amount listed, especially if guarana is present (Schimpl et al. 2013 ).

Ginseng has been used as a medicinal herb for ages and is claimed to boost energy, reduce fatigue, relieve stress, and improve memory. It is also claimed to activate the hypothalamus and pituitary glands, which subsequently release an anti-inflammatory hormone called adrenal corticotropic hormone. Normal ginseng-incorporated energy drink appears to have a regular amount of 200 mg per day, although most people can safely take up to 2700 mg through supplementation (Caffeineinformer n.d). However, there are several adverse effects caused by ginseng abuse which include maniac episodes, uterine bleeding, gynecomastia, long QT syndrome, atrial fibrillation with bradycardia, hypertensive crisis, and acute lobular hepatitis (Ratan et al. 2021 ).

Yerba mate is derived from the Ilex paraguariensis plant, which is native to South America and is mostly used to make yerba mate tea. Yerba mate tea has historically been a popular beverage in South American countries; however, its global appeal is growing due to its high concentration of bioactive components such as polyphenols, xanthines, flavonoids, saponins, amino acids, minerals, and vitamins (Valenca et al. 2013 ). Yerba mate has anti-inflammatory and anti-diabetic effects, as well as functioning as an oxidative stress regulator. Furthermore, yerba mate has demonstrated in vitro cytotoxicity to cancer cells as well as inhibition of Topoisomerase II, which is involved in cell division and hence inhibits cancer cell proliferation; however, further in research is needed (Heckman et al. 2010 ). Both in vivo and in vitro yerba mate has a beneficial effect on the management of obesity. In both normolipidemic and dyslipidemic people, yerba mate consumption improved blood lipid markers considerably. Additionally, yerba mate assisted in the decrease in LDL cholesterol levels in people who were taking statins (Yunusa and Ahmed 2011 ).

Acai berry is an ingredient that is increasingly appearing in energy drinks. The acai berry is produced by the Acai Palm tree, which is native to South America. Antioxidants are abundant in the berries, but not as much as in a concord grape or blueberry (Yunusa and Ahmed 2011 ). Most acai berry advantages are unproven and linked to marketing hype. It contains a high number of oxidants, nutrient dense, has anticancer properties, and helps to lower cholesterol levels (Arakelyan 2020 ).

Ginkgo Biloba

The ingredient ginkgo biloba is named after the unique tree from which it derives. It is associated with improvement of memory retention, focus, and circulation, as well as acting as an antidepressant and showing indications of aiding persons with Alzheimer's disease. It is recognized by the German government as a treatment for memory loss, attention problems, and depression. A normal supplemental dose is 60 mg. Most energy drinks, on the other hand, do not contain enough ginkgo to be beneficial. Blood thinning, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, headaches, dizziness, heart palpitations, and restlessness are some of the other side effects of ginkgo (Yunusa and Ahmed 2011 ).

Methylxanthines

Methylated xanthines (methylxanthines) are produced by many different plant species.

They are commonly found in regular diet, as well as in a variety of incredibly common beverages and meals. Caffeine, theophylline, and theobromine are the most common methylxanthines found in nature. Methylxanthines have a long history of usage as therapeutic agents in a diverse variety of medical applications. Methylxanthines have been/were utilized in medicine as CNS stimulants, bronchodilators, coronary dilators, diuretics, and anticancer adjuvant therapies. Aside from these uses, methylxanthines have been linked to several other health benefits, including neurodegenerative disorders, cardio protection, diabetes, and fertility (Monteiro et al. 2019 ). However, methylxanthines have a limited therapeutic spectrum and, as a result, a high rate of side effects. When concentrations of methylxanthines are below 20 mcg/ml, milder side effects such as nausea, vomiting, increased stomach acid secretion (and subsequent gastroesophageal reflux), polyuria, sleeplessness, palpitations, headaches, and tremors are more common (Gottwalt and Tadi 2021 ).

Macronutrients

Breakdown of macronutrients such as carbohydrates and proteins will contribute to the major sources of energy. Different classes of macronutrients are summarized in Table 3 .

Carbohydrates

Simple sugars (such as sucrose, fructose, or beet sugar) are a fast-acting source of energy and are used in energy drinks to boost cognitive performance. Sugar content in drinks is normally around 27 g per 8 oz. Energy drinks with a higher volume surpass the daily sugar limit of 32 g (Rath 2012 ). The amount of sugar in one can of ED (500 mL or 16.9 oz) is usually around 54 g (Higgins et al. 2010 ). Due to the strong significant evidence linking added sugar consumption to poor health, many institutions, including the World Health Organization, have advised limiting sugar intake (WHO 2015 ).

Glucuronolactone

The human body produces glucuronolactone (DGL) when glucose is broken down by the liver.

This component is found in all connective tissue. DGL is believed to help with detoxification, the release of hormones and other compounds, and vitamin C production. It is included in energy drinks because it claimed to help with glycogen depletion by preventing other compounds from depleting muscle glycogen stores. (Yunusa and Ahmed 2011 ).

A semi-essential amino acid that is not involved in protein synthesis and is abundant in mammalian tissues is known as taurine (2-aminoethanesulfonic acid). It is naturally found in human bodies, mostly in the brain, eyes, heart, and muscles (Beyranvand et al. 2014 ). Taurine is also naturally found in protein sources such as milk, meat, and fish. It is a common ingredient in sports supplements, energy drinks, dietary supplements, and non-caffeinated energy drinks. It has also been proved to help athletes perform better. Taurine is normally included in levels of 1–2 g per serving in products that specify the amount of taurine contained (Childs 2014 ). Taurine has been recommended as a treatment for epilepsy, heart failure, cystic fibrosis, and diabetes due to its anti-inflammatory properties (Caine and Geracioti 2016 ). Taurine may help to manage blood sugar levels and fight diabetes. Without any modifications in food or exercise, long-term supplementation reduced fasting blood sugar levels in diabetic rats used in research labs (Chauhan and Piracha 2021 ). According to some animal studies, increasing taurine intake can help prevent type 2 diabetes by lowering blood sugar levels and insulin resistance (Ito et al. 2012 ). However, additional research is required before any conclusions can be drawn.

Maltodextrin

Maltodextrins (C 6 H 10 O 5 ) n·H 2 O are saccharide polymers composed mostly of glucose units linked by -1,4 glucosidic boundaries. Maltodextrins are produced by enzymatic hydrolysis with or without acid, although only to a lesser amount than starch syrups (Klinjapo and Krasaekoopt 2018 ). Commercially accessible, typically white powders with excellent purity and microbiological safety are utilized in a wide range of food and beverage products, including baked goods and sports drinks (Hofman et al. 2016 ). Maltodextrins are known for their relatively high molecular weights and limited reducing power. Maltodextrin solutions have low osmotic pressures, high viscosities, and little or no sweetness due to their high molecular weights (Featherstone 2018 ). Maltodextrins, like any other carbohydrate, were found to reduce net glycogen breakdown during long-duration exercise while maintaining a high whole-body glucose oxidation rate (Hofman et al. 2016 ).

Micronutrients

Many EDs are fortified with various types of vitamins and minerals. The purpose of the micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) improves person’s emotion and increases the alertness and focus. The health benefits and side effects of the micronutrients in different types of ED are summarized in Tables 4 and 5 .

A group of eight water-soluble vitamins that play a significant role in cell function is referred to as B vitamins. Vitamin B 2 (riboflavin), B 3 (niacin), B 6 (pyridoxine, pyridoxal, and pyridoxamine), inositol B 8 and B 12 are the most common B vitamins added to ED (Heckman et al. 2010 ). Considering the significance of B vitamins as coenzymes in many metabolic processes, most people in the USA already consume the necessary daily quantity, and thus, any additional B vitamins added to ED are often lost in the urine, with no further health benefits (Heckman et al. 2010 ). Other additives including l-carnitine, d-glucuronolactone, and inositol have less research on their composition and function, with just a few studies showing minimal advantages (Yunusa and Ahmed 2011 ).

Riboflavin (B 2 )

Riboflavin, often known as crucial vitamin B2, is a heat-stable water-soluble vitamin. The flavoenzymes of the respiratory chain require riboflavin (B2), which facilitates energy metabolism involving lipids, carbs, and proteins (Yunusa and Ahmed 2011 ). It is also an important vitamin for a variety of physiological functions in the body, such as lowering migraines and boosting the immune system (Suwannasom et al. 2020 ). Riboflavin levels taken orally in a diet or from most multivitamin supplements rarely give side effects or toxicity (Pinto and Zempleni 2016 ).

Niacin (B 3 )

Niacin is used to make the reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) (vitamin B3). This coenzyme is necessary for supplying protons for oxidative phosphorylation and is important for cell energy production. It also raises the production of l-dopa, dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine, among other neurotransmitters (Yunusa and Ahmed 2011 ). Niacin dosage, either alone or in addition with statins and/or bile acid sequestrants, was reported to significantly improve markers of atherosclerosis, such as carotid intima-media thickening and stenosis incidence and balance out the ratio of HDL/LDL cholesterol in patients with dyslipidemia (Meyer-Ficca et al. 2016 ). The characteristics including skin flushing and itching were reported in clinical trials, as well as more significant disorders such as gastrointestinal and musculoskeletal issues, heart failure, diabetic complications, and new-onset diabetes (Meyer-Ficca and Kirkland 2016).

Pyridoxine (B 6 )

Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine hydrochloride) is a coenzyme that plays a role in amino acid and homocysteine metabolism, glucose and lipid metabolism, neurotransmitter generation, and DNA and RNA synthesis. Pyridoxine hydrochloride is involved in protein and red blood cell metabolism, as well as immune system function and the conversion of tryptophan to niacin (Yunusa and Ahmed 2011 ). It also works to utilize a protection reaction against chronic diseases including cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and diabetes by inhibiting inflammation, inflammasomes, oxidative stress, and carbonyl stress (Thanutchaporn et al. 2020 ). However, vitamin B6 can be toxic if its concentration inside the body is too high, resulting in sensory neuropathy with no apparent cause. Degeneration of peripheral nerve sensory fibers and myelin, as well as the dorsal columns of the spinal cord, results in bilateral loss of peripheral sensation or hyperesthesia, as well as limb pain, ataxia, and loss of balance (Abosamak and Gupta 2021 ).

Inositol (B 8 )

Inositol (previously vitamin B8, but no longer considered a vitamin because it is produced by the human body) comes in nine different stereoisomers, the most common of which being myoinositol. It is a component of cell membranes, aids in the digestion of fats by the liver, and aids muscle and nerve function (Higgins et al. 2010 ). The consumption of inositol may also help in preventing the development of chronic diseases—including obesity, diabetes, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer (Dinicola et al. 2017 ).

Cyanocobalamin B 12

Cyanocobalamin is a vitamin B12 synthetic compound used to treat vitamin B12 deficiency. It is involved in several methylation reactions in the human body. In the body, it functions as a cofactor in the conversion of homocysteine to methionine as methylcobalamin, and as adenosylcobalamin in the conversion of methylmalonyl-CoA to succinyl-CoA as adenosylcobalamin. Cell division and expansion rely on both responses (Vasavada and Sanghavi 2020). This vitamin also aids nerve cell function, is required for DNA creation, and is necessary for red blood cell formation.

Vitamin C is required for the body's basic physiological activities. It aids in tyrosine, folic acid, and tryptophan synthesis and metabolism, as well as the hydroxylation of glycine, proline, lysine, carnitine, and catecholamine. It promotes cholesterol conversion to bile acids easier, decreasing blood cholesterol levels. Vitamin C also improves iron absorption in the intestines by converting ferric to ferrous. It protects the body from the harmful effects of free radicals, pollution, and poisons as an antioxidant (Chambial et al. 2013 ). Although large doses of vitamin C are safe, there have been reports that they can induce hemolytic anemia in individuals who have glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency (Unlu et al. 2016 ).

Vitamin D is exceptional that it can be produced in the skin because of sun exposure (Nair and Maseeh 2012 ). Vitamin D is both a vitamin and a hormone produced by our bodies. It is a fat-soluble vitamin that has long been recognized to aid in the absorption and retention of calcium and phosphorus, both of which are essential for bone formation. Vitamin D may help prevent cancer, heart disease, fractures and falls, autoimmune illnesses, influenza, type 2 diabetes, and depression, according to recent studies (Nair and Maseeh 2012 ). However, a higher possibility of exogenous hypervitaminosis D with symptoms of hypercalcemia also known as vitamin D toxicity (VDT) is caused by excess intake or overdose of vitamin D (Marcinowska-Suchowierska et al. 2018 ).

Calcium (Ca)

Calcium is most typically associated with the development and metabolism of bone as a nutrient. Calcium hydroxyapatite (Ca 10 [PO 4 ] 6 [OH] 2 ) makes up almost 99% of total body calcium and is found in bones and teeth, where it gives hard tissue its strength. Calcium is required for vascular contraction and vasodilation, muscular function, neuronal transmission, intracellular interaction, and hormone production in the circulatory system, extracellular fluid, muscle, and other tissues. Through the process of bone remodeling, bone tissue serves as a calcium storage and supplier for these key metabolic demands (Ross et al. 2011 ). The prevention of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and blood pressure reduction not only been linked to a sufficient of dietary calcium consumption but also with low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels and prevention of osteoporosis and colorectal adenomas (Cormick and Belizan 2019 ). However, excess consumption of calcium might lead to increase in the incidence of constipation, severe diarrhea, and abdominal pain (Li et al. 2018a , b ).

Iron is a vital element for practically all living creatures since it is involved in a range of metabolic activities such as oxygen transport, DNA synthesis, and electron transport (Abbaspour et al. 2014 ). The most important health benefits that this nutrient provides are to prevent iron deficiency anemia especially to pregnant mothers and women during menstruation. As for its adverse effects associated with oral iron intake, it is frequently reported to be gastrointestinal side effects which include nausea, flatulence, abdominal pain, diarrhea, constipation, and black or tarry stools (Tolkien et al. 2015 ).

Chromium (Cr)

Chromium is a trace mineral that can help with insulin sensitivity as well as protein, carbohydrate, and lipid metabolism. The exact mechanism by which chromium improves the body is unknown, and human insufficiency reports are uncommon. A deficit could be linked to a variety of health issues. Impaired glucose tolerance leads to poor blood sugar management in persons with type 2 diabetes, and ineffective cholesterol control, which increases the risk of atherosclerosis and heart disease. However, there is insufficient evidence to back up either the advantages of chromium or the risks associated with a deficiency (Wilson and Ware 2021 ).

Zinc is an essential nutrient, which means that your body cannot make or store it. It is an essential trace mineral for maintaining good health and is only second to iron in terms of body content among the trace minerals. It is present in every cell of the body, and it is required for the normal functioning of the body's defensive (immune) system. Zinc can be present in a wide range of foods, both plant and animal. Breakfast cereals, snack bars, and baking flour are typically fortified with synthetic forms of zinc because they do not naturally contain the mineral. Cell division, cell development, wound healing, and glucose digestion are all facilitated by this protein. The senses of smell and taste require zinc as well. The body requires zinc to grow and develop normally during pregnancy, infancy, and childhood. Zinc also helps insulin perform better (MedlinePlus n.d.). There are several adverse effects for excessive intake of zinc which includes immediate symptoms such as abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting (Plum et al. 2010 ).

Manganese (Mn)

Manganese (Mn) is a mineral that is mostly derived from food and water in the human body. Mn is absorbed by the gastrointestinal system and subsequently delivered to mitochondria-rich tissues (the liver, pancreas, and pituitary, in particular), where it is rapidly concentrated. Mn is also involved in the synthesis and activation of many enzymes (e.g., oxidoreductases, transferases, hydrolases, lyases, isomerases, and ligases); glucose and lipid metabolism; protein, vitamin C, and vitamin B synthesis; hematopoiesis catalysis; endocrine regulation; and immune function improvement (Li and Yang 2018 ). The health benefits for the consumption of manganese in our diet include regulation of cellular energy, bone and growth of connective tissue, blood clotting and improve brain development. However, there are also adverse effects in Mn which includes the increase in oxidative stress, a well-established molecular mechanism of Mn-induced toxicity (Avila et al. 2013 ).

Molybdenum (Mo)

Molybdenum is a crucial trace element for microorganisms, plants, and mammals. It can be found in large amounts in legumes, grains, and organ meats. It helps break down toxic sulfites and prevents toxins from building up in the body by activating enzymes. Mo is required in extremely small amounts by the human body (usually 100 mg per day1), as opposed to macronutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, salt, calcium, magnesium, potassium, chlorine, and others, which are required in larger amounts (Sabatino et al. 2018 ).

Artificial sweeteners

The role of artificial sweeteners is to provide sweetness to ED without adding extra calories and glucose. They may also aid in controlling blood glucose level and thus reduce the risk of obesity and diabetes. The health benefits and side effects of the artificial sweeteners in different types of ED are summarized in Table 6 .

Aspartame (E951) is a dipeptide-based synthetic sweetener that is nearly 180–200 times sweeter than sucrose while having a low calorific value. The consumption of regular sugar is restricted in diabetics who have trouble controlling their blood sugar levels. This is caused by diabetics' insufficient amounts of insulin, a hormone that regulates sugar absorption in the bloodstream. Aspartame helps to restrict sucrose intake by acting as a sugar substitute and release a very small amount of energy. Since it is digested more slowly than sucrose, blood sugar levels stay steadier over time. After swiftly absorbing glucose into the bloodstream, people with reactive hypoglycemia produce an excess of insulin (Zafar et al. 2017 ). Aspartame metabolites may also be a primary cause for adverse effects, such as headache, compromised memory, mood changes, and depression and others which are not being identified yet (Lindseth et al. 2014 ). Aspartame's metabolic metabolites (aspartic acid, phenylalanine, and methanol) have been determined to be more toxic to the body than the original chemical. After ingesting aspartame, both normal persons and phenylketonurics saw a significant increase in plasma phenylalanine levels (Stegink et al 1977 ; Koch et al 1976 ). Many studies have linked aspartame consumption to health implications. There could be a link between aspartame consumption and the development of diabetes mellitus (DM) and type 2 diabetes (T2D), as well as effects on obesity levels, glucose and insulin intolerance, and alterations in the microbiota of rats' offspring. In humans, there have been reports of premature birth, allergic reactions, and weight gain in newborns, increased risk of early first menstruation (11 years), mood disorders, mental stress, and depression, autism development in children, neurodegeneration, modification of neuronal cell functions, disruption of homeostasis, learning, and memory. Aspartame, whose metabolite is phenylalanine, is a common food additive that is particularly toxic to those with phenylketonuria. Aspartame releases 50% of its mass as phenylalanine after digestion, resulting in an increase in phenylalanine levels in the blood. Although the genotoxicity of aspartame is unknown, it has been shown to promote proliferation and slow apoptosis in test cells, suggesting that it may have carcinogenic qualities. Increases in the markers Ki 67, PCNA, and bcl-2 were also seen. The markers c-myc, Ha-ras, and the p53 suppressor gene have all increased significantly. Females who are exposed to aspartame from a young age are more likely to develop lymphomas and leukemias. P27 and H-ras expression has also been found to be higher in studies. There is no evidence of a link between aspartame and pancreatic, gastric, or endometrial cancer. Aspartame's consumption has been linked to free radical generation and decrease in antioxidant enzyme activity (Mohammad et al. 2017 ; Ab Qayoom et al. 2018 ; Zafar et al. 2017 ; Czarnecka et al. 1957 ; Iman 2011 ). Table 7 shows effects of aspartame in various diseases.

Sucralose is a modified version of ordinary sugar (sucrose) with the E number E955 attached to it. It is typically available in granular, liquid, or mini-tablet form under the brand name “Splenda,” or as individual Canderel yellow packets (no other versions of Canderel as they contain different sweeteners). Sucralose has no calories, but because it is so sweet (about 600 times sweeter than sugar), it is frequently blended with other sweetening substances like maltodextrin in granulated form. This adds volume and texture while diluting the strong sweetness. These, on the other hand, are not calorie-free, and a teaspoon has roughly 2–4 cal in it. This is roughly 20% of the sugar calories that the granulated product is supposed to (British Dietetic Association 2018 ). The health benefits for sucralose as a beverage sweetener include improvement in weight loss, as well as prevention of tooth decay, diabetes, and reactive hypoglycemia. Safety concerns regarding sucralose were mostly related to the fact that it comes from a class of chemicals called organic chlorides, some types of which are known as toxic or carcinogenic; however, the chlorine presence in an organic compound does not guarantee its toxicity (Lindseth et al. 2014 ). Thus, there is lack of evidence or study regarding the toxicity and carcinogenic effect of sucralose consumption.

Health benefits of ED

Improved physical performance.

Walsh et al. ( 2010 ) investigated the effects of energy drinks on treadmill exercise time to exhaustion. During a moderate-intensity endurance run, they noticed a significant increase in time to exhaustion, as well as improvements in perceived feelings of focus, energy, and tiredness (Walsh et al. 2010 ). Another research examined how caffeinated energy drinks affected acceleration tolerance and strength when subjected to a “G” load. Energy drinks improved relaxed G tolerance and increased strength but did not influence acceleration tolerance duration, according to the findings (Walker et al. 2010 ). According to the findings of a recent study, caffeinated energy drinks containing around 3 mg/kg of caffeine greatly increased the physical performance of female volleyball players (Perez-Lopez et al. 2015 ).

Improves mood and attitude

Taurine is found in ED ingredients and plays a role in metabolic processes. Amino acids are often added to energy drinks and supplements because they are the building blocks of proteins and precursors of neurotransmitters. The assumption is that enhanced amino acid availability will improve protein synthesis and neurotransmitter reserve, influencing consumer mood (Childs 2014 ). Another research found that 50 mg of guarana in EDs given twice daily for 21 days improved fatigue and tiredness ratings without affecting anxiety or depression in people receiving systemic chemotherapy. Prolonged treatment sessions did not create any noticeable mood effects in healthy participants (e.g., 360 mg 3 times daily for 3 days) or in people undergoing radiation therapy (75 mg daily for 28 days) (Silvestrini et al. 2013 ).

A range of automated memory and attention tests were used to examine cognitive performance, while the mood was assessed using a variety of questionnaires such as the Profile of Mood States (POMS), Bond–Lader, and Chalder Fatigue Scales. Both cognitive function and mood were dramatically enhanced in partially sleep-deprived persons who drank energy drinks, according to the findings. They were able to maintain their initial levels of attention for six hours, but the placebo group was unable to do so (Wesnes et al. 2013 ).

Improved concentration and memory

Only a few randomized controlled trials (RCTs) on energy drinks have been reported. 5-way crossover research with 20 college students (mean age 21 years) was conducted in one of the studies. They drank 250 mL of either flavorants (not expected to have physiological effects), the energetic drink (glucose, caffeine, ginseng, and gingko), or a placebo consisting of the medium used for the other drinks. The energy drink considerably increased “secondary memory” ( P  = 0.007) and “speed of attention” ( P  = 0.044) when compared to the placebo (O’Mathúna 2021 ).

Other studies involving Red Bull energy drink and sports performance have also been documented, in which participants were given either Red Bull or a placebo drink to drink. The Red Bull groups improved their aerobic endurance by 9% ( P  < 0.05), as well as their anaerobic performance by up to 24% ( P  < 0.05). Significant improvements also occurred in mental performance, including choice reaction time, concentration, and memory (O’Mathúna 2021 ).

Good source of vitamin B

Energy drinks frequently include significant amounts of B-group vitamins, often at higher doses than the daily recommended requirement for healthy people. High dietary folate and vitamin B6 intakes have been related to a lower risk of death from stroke, coronary heart disease, and heart failure, according to studies (Cui et al. 2010 ). B vitamins have also been proven to lower homocysteine levels, which have been associated with a variety of comorbidities, including pregnancy problems, cognitive impairment and mental illnesses, and cardiovascular risks. Although B vitamin supplementation lowered homocysteine levels and has a significant protective impact against stroke, there was no advantage in reducing cardiovascular disease, myocardial infarction, coronary artery disease, cardiovascular death, or all-cause mortality, according to a meta-analysis (Huang et al. 2012 ).

Weight loss

Energy drinks have been shown to be relatively useful in stimulating metabolic alterations in various studies (Jeffers et al. 2014 ). Caffeine in energy drinks may accelerate metabolism by fewer than 100 cal per day, which might burn around 1 pound of fat in a month. Caffeine's weight loss effect is dose-dependent, according to Tabrizi et al. 2019 . Repeated energy drinks in a day, on the other hand, can have major health and well-being effects. Nevertheless, there is a lack of evidence and study investigating the effects of energy drinks on weight loss endeavors (Jeffers et al. 2014 ).

Health disadvantages of ED

Adverse cardiovascular effect.

Several researchers have examined the short-term effects of ED on the cardiovascular system, focusing on caffeine and sugar (38–40). Consuming 355 mL of ED raised systolic and diastolic blood pressure, heart rate, and cardiac output according to a recent randomized crossover study on healthy adults (Grasser et al. 2014 ). A meta-analysis of 15 studies published in 2016 found that acute ED consumption led to higher systolic and diastolic blood pressure across the pooled results (Shah et al. 2016 ). Aspartame administration (54.87.3 mg kgG1 b.wt. day) resulted in elevated blood pressure, increased body weight, and a short-term increase in blood pressure, plasma glucose and triglyceride values, as well as a transitory reduction in plasma urea, all of which could affect cardiovascular risk factors (Martinez-Morales et al 2015 ). When compared to a control group, aspartame (40 mg kgG1 b.wt.) causes a rise in blood glucose, cholesterol, and triglycerides (Prokic et al 2014 ).

Caffeine toxicity is assumed to cause at doses higher than 400 mg per day for adults, 100 mg per day for adolescents (12–18 years), and 2.5 mg per kilogram of body weight for children (< 12 years), with serious symptoms often linked to cardiovascular consequences (Seifert et al. 2013 ). The US National Poison Data System received 4,854 ED-related calls between October 2010 and September 2011, including significant adverse events like seizure, dysrhythmia, and tachypnea (Seifert et al. 2013 ). In addition to palpitations, agitation, and tremor, data from Australian poison control centers indicate these primary symptoms of recreational or accidental ED consumption among children and adolescents (Gunja and Brown 2012 ). Considering that these data are based on self-reported signs and symptoms, and most consumers may not recognize ED as a toxin, ED-related toxicity concerns are likely to be underestimated.

Neurological effect

Caffeine causes a pro-nociceptive condition of cortical hyperexcitability, which is connected to acute and recurrent daily headaches (Espinosa and Sobrino 2017 ). Using a statistical model, Mostofsky et al. 2019 determined that drinking one or two caffeinated beverages did not alter the likelihood of getting a migraine headache on the same day. The probabilities were much higher when the volunteers took three or more caffeinated drinks. There was a nonlinear relationship between caffeinated beverage consumption and the likelihood of a migraine headache on that day in this study. This shows that excessive consumption of caffeinated beverages on that day may be a migraine trigger (Mostofsky et al. 2019 ).

Epileptic seizures

Caffeine has been shown to cause seizures in people who are sensitive to it, especially when they are sleep-deprived. There has been no conclusive evidence of a relationship between seizures and energy drinks. Nonetheless, after drinking a lot of energy drinks, some people started having new adult-onset seizures without any signs of intracranial abnormalities or electroencephalography (Dikici et al. 2013 ). In kainic acid-induced seizure models in rats, long-term administration of taurine in drinking water increases seizure susceptibility and reduces clonic seizure latency. Caffeine is also a natural stimulant that can be found in coffee and tea. Caffeine overdose has been linked to seizures in humans (Dikici et al. 2013 ).

Ischemic stroke

In young- and middle-aged adults, alcohol misuse is also an independent risk factor for ischemic stroke. Rapid absorption and the resulting increase in the CNS may cause more negative effects when high-volume energy drinks are consumed with vodka on an empty stomach (Dikici et al. 2013 ). According to Steinke et al., after consuming 500 mL of energy drink on a weekly basis, heart rate increased 5 to 7 beats per minute, and maximum mean systolic blood pressure increased 10 mm Hg. On an empty stomach, drinking a high-energy drink with vodka may contribute to ischemic stroke by raising blood pressure and heart rate. In addition, the patient has hemorrhoid-related iron deficiency anemia. Anemia due to iron deficiency may play a role in ischemic stroke (Dikici et al. 2013 ). In Syrian weanling hamsters, aspartame increased appetite and weight gain and caused histological alterations in brain and liver cells, while aspartame metabolites, aspartic acid, phenylalanine, and diketopiperazine are responsible for neuron and astrocyte degeneration (Hassan 2016 ; Rycerz and Jaworska-Adamu 2013 ).

Hallucinations

Hallucinations may occur in people who consume more than 300 mg of caffeine per day. High levels of cortisol can be caused by caffeine consumption, which could explain the above. Cortisol amplifies the physiological effects of stress, increasing the risk of hallucinations (Crowe et al. 2011 ).

Physiological effect

Muscular twitching.

Caffeine overdose can result in muscle twitching, which can be caused by minor muscle contractions or uncontrollable twitching in muscle groups controlled by motor nerve fibers. Dietary deficiencies, medication side effects, and strenuous exercise are all possible causes.

Muscle twitching can be caused by stress or anxiety, or it can indicate a nervous system disorder (MedlinePlus 2021 ).

Restlessness

Energy drinks significantly increased the odds of insomnia and jitteriness/activity when compared to the control group (P 0.05), according to a meta-analysis. Caffeine intoxication, a clinical syndrome described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition, is linked to many of the negative effects of energy drinks. Caffeine intoxications are typically indicated by restlessness. (Nadeem et al. 2021 ).

Sleeplessness

There is currently inadequate research evaluating how these substances function alone or in combination to produce mental health issues. It is possible that caffeinated and sugary EDs influence sleep behavior (i.e., the sleep–wake cycle) by stimulating the adrenergic system, which could contribute to poor psychological distress management and mental health issues (Kaur et al. 2020 ).

Psychological effect

According to report from Hofmeister et al. ( 2010 ), in two samples of students, anxiety levels were found to be higher in energy drink consumers compared to non-consumers. Nevertheless, in one of the two groups, anxiety was only higher among regular users compared to nonregular users, making it difficult to say whether the association was dosage-dependent or not. In addition, another study found that energy drink use was associated with anxiety in a large sample ( N  = 4957) of Turkish 10th grade students; anxiety scores were higher in those who had used the products once in their lifetime, once to three times a month, once to five times a week, and every day, compared to nonusers in the previous year. However, at the multivariate level, the impacts were no longer significant (Evren and Evren 2015 ).

Over a two-year period, this study discovered strong positive relationships between ED use and depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms in young adult males (but not females). Males who switched from non-ED to ED use experienced greater depression and stress symptoms over time. The findings backed up previous research that found a link between ED use and sadness and stress symptoms. Males are more likely than females to have these relationships, according to cross-sectional studies (Kaur et al. 2020 ). Consumption of aspartame has been linked to mood problems, mental stress, and sadness. Long-term aspartame usage affects the cerebral and cerebellar cortex, causing neurodegeneration, altering neuronal cell activities, and disrupting homeostasis, learning, and memory (Czarnecka et al. 1957 ).

Gastrointestinal effect

A case with a woman that presented with jaundice, abdominal pain, and highly increased liver enzymes was reported following energy drink overconsumption (Vivekanandarajah et al. 2011 ). The same result was reported by Huang et al. in a 36-year-old man (Huang et al. 2014 ). More research is needed to determine which people are particularly vulnerable and the mechanism by which energy drinks cause hepatic injury.

Renal effects

EDs are not the same as “sports drinks,” which provide hydration and electrolyte replenishment. EDs are rich in carbohydrates, which influence fluid absorption and cause gastrointestinal distress, as well as caffeine, which tends to cause diuresis, which results in greater urinary output and natriuresis rather than hydration (Higgins et al. 2010 ). Excessive Red Bull consumption has been linked to a variety of effects, including acute renal failure, greater systolic and diastolic blood pressure, heart rate, and even decreased blood supply to the brain (Greene et al. 2014 ). According to Schöffl et al. ( 2011 ), after consuming 750 mL of energy drink, this patient developed acute kidney failure with tubular necrosis and rhabdomyolysis. Due to its potential to change renal blood flow and regulate osmolarity in the renal medulla, the authors speculated that excessive intake of taurine may be implicated in the development of kidney injury; however, this role has yet to be proven (Chesney et al. 2010 ). Nephrotoxicity is caused by the ingestion of aspartame (Martins et al 2007 ; Bahr and Zaki 2014 ).

Dental effects

There is growing evidence that the intake of possibly erosive beverages is on the rise. Also, there has been a significant correlation discovered between the consumption of energy drinks and the deterioration of teeth (Hasselkvist et al. 2010 ). The consumption of ED was linked to a 2.4-fold rise in tooth deterioration. This has been related to energy drinks' low pH and high sugar content (Li et al. 2012 ). The sugars in drinks are metabolized by plaque microorganisms to generate organic acids that bring about demineralization (Li et al. 2012 ). Pinto et al. have discovered that drinking energy drinks can cause cervical dentin hypersensitivity by eliminating the smear layer of the teeth (Pinto et al. 2013 ).

Obesity and type II diabetes

Energy drinks often have high sugar content, ranging from 21 to 34 g per ounce. Sucrose, glucose, and high-fructose corn syrup are the main sources of sugar. As a result, excessive consumption of high-energy drinks may raise the risk of obesity and type 2 diabetes (Bedi et al. 2014 ). Furthermore, the amount of sugar in energy drinks may decrease intestinal bacteria activity, variety, and gene expression, increasing the risk of obesity and metabolic syndrome (Greenblum et al. 2012 ). Acute caffeine consumption reduces insulin sensitivity, which may justify the spike in blood glucose levels observed in some studies after energy drink consumption (Ragsdale et al. 2010 ). Caffeine intake lowers insulin sensitivity in a dose-dependent approach, with a 5.8% increase in insulin for each mg/kg increase in caffeine (Beaudoin et al. 2012 ). There may be a link between aspartame consumption and the development of diabetes mellitus (DM) and type 2 diabetes (T2D), and it was found to be dangerous to mice in terms of behavior and biochemical analysis parameters when used as a food additive (Czarnecka et al. 1957 ; Abu-Taweel 2016 ; Zafar et al. 2017 ; Collison et al. 2012 ). When C57BL/6J mice are exposed to chronic aspartame treatment beginning in utero, it causes changes in blood glucose levels, spatial learning, and memory, as well as weight growth (Collison et al 2013 ).

The link between sugary drinks and cancer risk has received far less attention. Nevertheless, because of its mechanical plausibility, this potential relationship raises growing concern. Sugary drinks are, in fact, strongly linked to the development of obesity, which is now identified as a major risk factor for several cancers. Besides obesity and adiposity, insulin resistance induced by high glycemic index or glycemic load, which has been linked to breast cancer, hepatocellular cancer, and diabetes-related carcinomas, could be a mechanism behind a link between sugary drinks and cancer. Chemical compounds in sugary drinks, such as 4-methylimidazole in drinks containing caramel colorings (described as possibly carcinogenic to humans by the International Agency for Research on Cancer, IARC), pesticides in fruit juices, and artificial sweeteners like aspartame, could all play a role in cancer development (Chazelas et al. 2019 ). Another study revealed that a combination of caffeine, taurine, and guarana may stimulate and increase apoptosis by lowering superoxide dismutase and catalase activity in human neuronal SH-SY5Y cells in vitro (Zeidán-Chuliá et al. 2013 ). In both male and female rodents, aspartame ingestion has been shown to be a carcinogenic and angiogenic agent. The markers Ki 67, PCNA, and bcl-2 all showed an increase. According to rat studies, 200 mg/kg body weight caused a considerable surge in the markers c-myc, Ha-ras, and the p53 suppressor gene in rats. Females who are exposed to aspartame from a young age are more likely to develop lymphomas and leukemias. P27 and H-ras expression has also been found to be higher in studies (Czarnecka et al. 1957 ; Soffritti et al 2010 ; Alleva et al 2011 ; Gombos et al 2007 ; Martins et al 2007 ).

Caffeine toxicity

Caffeine is a stimulant that has been used for ages around the world because of its ability to increase mental alertness. Caffeine lethal dosages have been reported at blood concentrations of 80 to 100 µg/ml, which can be achieved with a dose of 10 g or more. Caffeine overdoses in adults are uncommon, but when they do occur, they are frequently triggered by an intentional overdose of medications (Murray and Traylor 2020 ). Four caffeine-induced psychiatric disorders have been classified by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Caffeine intoxication, anxiety, sleep disturbance and other related disorders are all examples of caffeine related disorders (Juliano et al. 2012 ). Caffeine intoxication symptoms are most common in individuals who consume 200 mg or more of the stimulant. Anxiety, insomnia, gastrointestinal problems, muscle twitching, restlessness, and spells of exhaustion are just a few of the symptoms (Bedi et al. 2014 ).

Combined effects of alcohol

Underage and younger consumers enjoy alcohol combined with energy drinks, and the beverage industry has benefited on this dynamic trend by aggressively marketing to teenagers and young adults. Nonetheless, there have recently been concerns about the combination's potential public health implications. Consequently, the FDA issued warning letter to manufacturers, effectively banning the manufacture and sale of pre-mixed caffeinated alcoholic beverages (CABs); however, consumers continue to combine energy drinks with alcohol by hand (e.g., Red Bull and vodka, Jaeger Bomb) (Heinz et al. 2013 ). CAB use is linked to problematic alcohol use and harmful alcohol-related effects. In a large multi-site survey, college students who consumed alcohol mixed with energy drinks reported more alcohol-related risk behaviors (e.g., riding in a car with a drunk driver, being hurt or injured, sexually exploiting another student, being taken advantage of sexually) than students who consumed alcohol alone. Furthermore, students who drink caffeine–alcohol combination drink more alcohol and engage in riskier drinking behaviors (e.g., binge drinking) than students who solely consume alcohol (Heinz et al. 2013 ).

Reduction of antioxidant enzyme activity

Aspartame use lowers hepatic tissue superoxide dismutase (SOD), superoxide dismutase SOD and catalase CAT activity in renal tissue, and glutathione (GSH) levels while increasing glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity in liver tissue. This could be due to the creation of methanol or other metabolites, as aspartame is metabolized into aspartic acid, phenylalanine, and methanol in the ratio of 50:40:10, as well as a little quantity of aspartyl phenylalanine diketopiperazine, especially when heated (Abhilash et al 2011 ; Iman 2011 ; Prokic et al 2014 ; Choudhary and Devi 2014 ; Alwaleedi 2016 ; Adaramoye and Akanni 2016 ; Iyyaswamy and Rathinasamy 2012 ).

Inflammation

Aspartame caused neurotoxicity, oxidative stress, and inflammation in rat brain tissue, as well as a large increase in protein carbonyl content and a significant drop in reduced glutathione concentration. Also, a significant increase in brain interleukin-1 (IL-1) and tumor necrosis factor- “(TNF-)” production was accompanied by a significant reduction in brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF), serotonin, and acetylcholine esterase (AchE) activity, as well as a substantial increase in acetylcholine (Ach) accumulation in brain homogenates (Lindseth et al 2014 ; Kamel 2015 ).

Preterm birth and maternity problem in women

Intake of artificially sweetened drinks containing aspartame as one of the ingredients has been associated with an increased risk of premature birth in both normal-weight and overweight women, indicating that aspartame intake and use, particularly during pregnancy, may have detrimental consequences (Halldorsson et al 2010 ; Czarnecka et al. 1957 ; Martins et al 2007 ; Czarnecka et al. 1957 ). There have been instances of allergic reactions, and weight growth in babies in humans. Aspartame has been proven to enhance the probability of an early first menstruation (11 years) in females aged 9–10. Aspartame absorption by mothers during pregnancy is linked to autism in children. Maternal absorption of aspartame during pregnancy correlates with autism in children (Halldorsson et al 2010 ; Czarnecka et al. 1957 ; Martins et al 2007 ).

This review has given a lot of insight into the benefits and detriments of the consumption of energy drink to human health. The author’s view is that the ingredient type and the amount contained in the energy drink determine to a major extent the effect on health. The presence of caffeine in ED is not a threat to health; rather a moderate acute dose ranging from 200–350 mg reduces heart rate and raise blood pressure in adults, while also enhancing emotions of well-being, focus, and arousal. Moderate caffeine consumption of up to 400 mg per day is usually regarded as safe and even beneficial to adults' well-being. Guarana has been reported to possess antioxidant, effective stimulant and may be effective in treatment of fatigue and depression related to cancer treatment. A 16-oz energy drink can range from 1.4 mg to 300 mg and is considered safe by Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Ginseng is useful in boosting energy, reducing fatigue, relieving stress, and improving memory and anti-inflammatory activity through activation of corticotropic hormone release from hypothalamus and pituitary glands, and consumption of regular amount of 200 mg per day is considered safe. However, the consumption of more than 2700 mg per day may pose a threat to health such as maniac episodes, uterine bleeding, gynecomastia, long QT syndrome, atrial fibrillation with bradycardia, hypertensive crisis, and acute lobular hepatitis.

Yerba mate and acai berry possess useful pharmacological such as anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, antioxidant, in vitro anticancer, inhibition of topoisomerase II, anti-obesity and reduces LDL cholesterol levels. Ginkgo biloba has good health benefits, a normal supplemental dose of 60 mg per day present biological effect such as improvement of memory retention, focus, enhanced blood circulation, and antidepressant. However, consumption of ginkgo biloba maybe poses health discomfort of blood thinning, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, headaches, dizziness, heart palpitations, and restlessness. Methylxanthines act as CNS stimulants, bronchodilators, coronary dilators, diuretics, and anticancer adjuvant therapies, aside from treatment of neurodegenerative disorders, cardio protection, diabetes, and fertility. Consumption of methylxanthines at lower dose may pose milder side effects such as nausea, vomiting, increased stomach acid secretion, polyuria, sleeplessness, palpitations, headaches, and tremors which are more common.

Energy drink that contains sugar concentration of 500 mL or 16.9 oz usually around 54 g maybe detrimental to health, strong evidence has associated sugar consumption to poor health, and many institutions, including the World Health Organization, have advised limiting sugar intake. This is because the consumption of regular sugar for diabetics who have trouble controlling their blood sugar levels causes insufficient amounts of insulin that regulates sugar absorption in the bloodstream. Consumption of ED that the sugar content is above the daily sugar limit of 32 g for sure will be detrimental to health and Rath 2012 reported that energy drinks with a higher volume usually surpass the daily sugar limit of 32 g. Glucuronolactone is useful in detoxification, the release of hormones and vitamin C production, and protection of muscle glycogen stores. Taurine is associated with treatment of epilepsy, heart failure, cystic fibrosis, and diabetes; however, additional research is required before any conclusions can be drawn. Carnitine acts as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compound and may reduce the exercise-induced muscle damage. Maltodextrins reduce net glycogen breakdown during long-duration exercise while maintaining a high whole-body glucose oxidation rate. Artificial sweeteners such as aspartame and sucralose are added in energy drink to replace sugar and restrict absorption of sugar. Aspartame helps to restrict sucrose intake by acting as a sugar substitute and releases a very small amount of energy. Aspartame metabolites may also be a primary cause for adverse effects, such as headache, compromised memory, mood changes, and depression and others which are not being identified yet.

The presence of vitamins such as vitamin B, riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), pyridoxine (B6), inositol (B8), cyanocobalamin B12, vitamin C and vitamin D in energy drink has various health benefits. B vitamins as coenzymes in many metabolic processes facilitate energy metabolism involving lipids, carbs, and proteins, boast immune system, oxidative phosphorylation, and cell energy production; amino acid and homocysteine metabolism, glucose and lipid metabolism, neurotransmitter generation, and DNA and RNA synthesis. The consumption of inositol (former B8) is reported to assist in preventing the development of chronic diseases, including obesity, diabetes, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer. Incorporation of mineral such as calcium, iron, chromium, zinc, manganese, and molybdenum is very useful to health. Most of the minerals are useful for vascular contraction and vasodilation, muscular function, neuronal transmission, intracellular interaction, and hormone production in the circulatory system, extracellular fluid, muscle, and other tissues. Oxygen transport, DNA synthesis, and electron transport prevent iron deficiency anemia, protein, carbohydrate, and lipid metabolism. They help in glucose and lipid metabolism; protein, vitamin C, and vitamin B synthesis, hematopoiesis catalysis, endocrine regulation, regulation of cellular energy, bone and growth of connective tissue, blood clotting, improvement of brain development, and immune function improvement (Li and Yang 2018 ); consumption of aspartame and the development of diabetes mellitus (DM) and type 2 diabetes (T2D), obesity, changes in the microbiota of the offspring of rats. In humans, there has been evidence of premature birth, allergic reactions, weight gain in the newborns, increase in the risk of an early first menstruation, mood disorders, mental stress, and depression, development of autism in children, neurodegeneration, modification of the functions of neuronal cells, interruption of homeostasis, learning and memory, harmful people with phenylketonuria, free radical generation, impairment of antioxidant enzymes and carcinogenic.

Consumers should be aware of the potential side effects of aspartame, notwithstanding the lack of solid clinical data on those side effects. The author concludes that the oral treatment with a high dose of aspartame used in those animal trials was rare in humans. Future epidemiological studies and clinical trials are needed to look at the long-term effects of aspartame use at the recommended daily amount. The position of aspartame has remained controversial due to the lack of scientific data supporting and opposing its use. The negative side effects of aspartame ingestion, on the other hand, are extensively documented in human and animal studies. Investigations in similar fresh avenues are strongly urged to cover existing research gaps and put an end to the debate regarding aspartame use. The critical assessment of the literature supporting aspartame use appears to be affected in part by interest groups. The authors propose that bias-free comprehensive trials be used to investigate the safety of aspartame in a variety of groups with varying clinical circumstances. As a result, authorities such as the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), the Agence Française de Sécurité Sanitaire des Aliments (AFSSA), the FSSAI (Food Safety and Standard Authority of India), and the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) should reconsider the acceptable daily intake (ADI) of aspartame among the public.

In the food and pharmaceutical industries, aspartame is a common sweetener; therefore, it is critical to understand the benefits and drawbacks of aspartame to determine the danger of negative health effects. Based on current knowledge, the benefits of using aspartame outweigh the risks of adverse effects, and thus, this artificial sweetener will continue to be a common ingredient in products. Given the widespread use of aspartame as an artificial sweetener, it appears reasonable to continue study into its safety. Nonetheless, whether aspartame is the direct cause of sickness is unknown.

Most of the health detriments caused because of consumption of energy drink is mostly due to the presence of excess quantity of caffeine and sugar, and presence of aspartame. Scientific reports from in vitro and in vivo have linked aspartame to many detrimental health issues. The presence of aspartame in the energy drink may pose a health risk to consumers. However, if the quantities of caffeine and sugar content in energy drink are kept at FDA- and WHO-recommended daily consumption amount, and no aspartame content, then it may not present any problem to health. Consumption of energy drink that contains natural ingredients such as yerba mate, acai berry, ginkgo biloba, methylxanthines, amino acid, guarana, and ginseng with moderate FDA- and WHO-approved daily consumption of caffeine and sugar is not detrimental to health.

Availability of data and materials

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.

Abbreviations

• Energy drinks

Cyanocobalamin

Ascorbic acid

Cholecalciferol

Ergocalciferol

World Health Organization

Maltodextrins

Cardiovascular diseases

Low-density lipoprotein

Randomized controlled trials

International Agency for Research on Cancer

Caffeinated alcoholic beverages

Food and Drug Administration

Polycystic ovary syndrome

Ribonucleic acid

Central nervous system

Deoxyribonucleic acid

Superoxide dismutase

Glutathione

Glutathione S -transferase

Diabetes mellitus

Type 2 diabetes

Marker of proliferation Ki-67

B-cell lymphoma 2

C-myelocytomatosis

Tumor suppressor protein

Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors

European Food Safety Authority

Agence Française de Sécurité Sanitaire des Aliments

Food Safety and Standard Authority of India

Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives

Acceptable daily intake

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We thank UCSI University for supporting and providing facility for this project.

Research fund was fully supported by UCSI University CERVIE REIG grant number REIG-FAS-2020-031.

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Ariffin, H., Chong, X.Q., Chong, P.N. et al. Is the consumption of energy drink beneficial or detrimental to health: a comprehensive review?. Bull Natl Res Cent 46 , 163 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s42269-022-00829-6

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• Micro/macronutrients
• Natural ingredients
• Health benefits

Red Bull has spared no expense in pursuit of its own path to market domination. Its efforts have been so extensive that the number of sportspeople and events it sponsors can be listed in the hundreds. In some areas the company has even popularized brand new sports. This method of recognition has been hugely successful, despite the enormous amount of money invested.

Scope of this research

MarketLine Case Studies describe topics such as innovative products, business models, and significant company acquisitions. Fact-based and presented in an accessible style, they explain the rationale of commercial decisions and illustrate wider market and economic trends.

Research and analysis highlights

Red Bull has forged an entirely new market segment with its unique product, and today is the number one worldwide energy drinks company. Its current sales volume exceeds 4 billion cans sold and it operates in 160 countries.

Red Bull's way of showing off its products and becoming recognized by its target audience is unusual but hugely successful, and despite its extensive investment is actually more economical than traditional advertising methods. The company runs and owns numerous sporting events and teams, all showing the Red Bull logo in pride of place.

The company may face some tough challenges from its competitors as they are now using similar techniques to get their own products recognized, which may negate Red Bull's current advantage. Some of Red Bull's main competitors are well-funded and operated by multinational corporations.

Example of areas examined in this report:

- How has Red Bull managed to dominate the energy drinks market?

- What is Red Bull's method of gaining public recognition?

- How does Red Bull compare to its main competitors in the market?

- What is Red Bull's background?

- How does Red Bull's marketing campaign compare to more traditional methods of brand recognition?

List of Figures

Figure 1: Krating Daeng can

Figure 2: Red Bull can

Figure 3: Red Bull revenues

Figure 4: Red Bull and Monster revenues

Figure 5: Leading energy drinks players' market shares

Figure 6: Red Bull website contents

Figure 7: Red Bull cartoon advert

Figure 8: Red Bull Racing Formula 1 car

Figure 9: Red Bell New York

Figure 10: A Red Bull snowboarding helicopter

Figure 11: Valentino Rossi sporting the Monster logo

For more information visit http://www.researchandmarkets.com/research/d8v2hf/red_bull_a_trailb .

Research and Markets Laura Wood, Senior Manager [email protected] U.S. Fax: 646-607-1907 Fax (outside U.S.): +353-1-481-1716 Sector: Advertising and Marketing

History of Red Bull Company Research Paper

Introduction, people element, place element, physical presence, conclusion and recommendations, list of references.

Red Bull is one of the leading energy drinks manufacturer and distributor in the world. The firm was started in 1987 in Thailand, and has since gained a global market coverage. According to Lehmann (2005, p. 138), this firm experienced massive success in 1990s because this industry was less competitive. The company chose a market niche that had few players.

Most of the major firms in this industry were manufacturing and distributing fizzy drinks and other beverages. Coming with the energy drinks was seen as a unique trend, and this earned this firm a lot of market share during its early stages of existence.

The firm has been able to expand to other international markets, especially in Europe and the United States. The report by Lehmann (2005, p. 140) shows that it is the world’s largest energy drinks manufacturer and distributer.

The success of Red Bull in the market can be attributed to the three elements of marketing which include people, place, and physical evidence. Red Bull has been successful because of the employees involved in the firm at various capacities.

The place element of marketing mix has also been very important in helping the firm achieve maximum success. Physical evidence has also played a major role in helping this firm to succeed. This research will analyze these factors in order to determine their relevance to the performance of this firm.

Red Bull’s success in the market can be attributed to the three marketing elements mentioned above. According to Ewbank and Foulger (2010, p. 26), it is always important to analyze some of the specific success factors in an organization based on the marketing mix elements.

Upon a critical study of Red Bull, the researcher has been able to determine that the three elements of people, place, and physical evidence have played a major role in helping this firm achieve success in the market. It would be important to understand how individual element have helped this firm achieve success.

People form one of the most important elements of marketing mix within an organization. Success of a firm always depend on the activities of its employees. According to Ewbank and Foulger (2010, p. 27), employees form the most important resource within an organization. They carry the vision of an organization, and their skills, talents, and level of dedication would always determine success of an organization.

At Red Bull, the employees have played an important role in helping it achieve its current success. The firm has been on hiring competent employees with the capacity of meeting the demands of the dynamic market. The firm has been keen to ensure that its recruitment procedure is rigorous, and only passionate and talented employees are hired.

The company has various recruitment processes that ensure they get the right people for various responsibilities within the company.

Employees hired through such rigorous processes are nurtured by the company through in-service trainings and participation in relevant responsibilities in order to help them develop their careers. The company has put measures to monitor its sales team to ensure that they are working within the expectations of the firm.

This element has played a major role in the recent expansion of this firm (Lehmann 2005, p. 143). Red Bull has kept a team of highly motivated employees who are able to meet the changing needs of consumers.

Its marketing personnel has been actively conducting market research in order to gain understanding of the changing marketing forces. If this firm maintains this group of motivated employees, then chances are high that it is destined to greater success.

A firm must define a clear method that it uses to make its products reach consumers in good time and in good quality. A sound choice needs to be made on whether the company would sell its products through direct representation or strategic distributors. Red Bull has been keen on selecting the right channels of distributing its products in the global market.

Red Bull started by distributing its products to small distribution outlets like health clubs and bars during its early stages of existence. However, this distribution strategy changed when the firm started experiencing market growth. The management realized that it could no longer rely on the simpler distribution strategies that it had been using within its hometown.

The management had to define a new distribution strategy that would meet the changing market demands, especially when it went global with its products. To penetrate new markets, the management of Red Bull has been targeting strategic distributors to ensure that its products reach the global market.

One of the strategies that the firm has been using in the past is strategic alliance formation with specific wholesalers, large retailers and other distributers in different markets to ensure that its products are made available in the global market.

Strategic alliances offer a viable option for this firm to make its products available in the global market without the need to have its own employees spread across the world. In situations where strategic alliances are not viable, Red Bull has rented its own warehouses and distributed its products using various transport systems.

However, it is important to note that this method has come with increased capital investment that Red Bull must incur. Although its gives this company more autonomy in distribution of its products, the costs reduces profitability. This explains why the management of Red Bull has been seeking strategic alliances with various firms in the global market.

Red Bull has considered the use of technology to enhance the place element of the marketing mix. The firm has considered using vending machines to distribute its products, especially in gyms, clubs, and universities in selected cities. Such a move increases awareness of its products to a larger market segment enabling the company to increase its market share.

These alternative distribution channels has helped this firm to increase sales. The use of the vending machines has however, met some resistance in the market. The place element has also been enhanced through the use of internet. Red Bull has used internet to market its products globally.

The firm has also been very active in the social media as a way of increasing the geographic market for its products. Most of its major adverts have been made through social media such as Facebook, YouTube, and Tweeter. The company has adopted this strategy because most of its customers are actively on social media.

According to Kotler (2005, p. 114), consumers in the current market have become very critical of the physical appearance of the places where they make their purchases. Initially, firms ignored the importance of the physical structure they used to deliver their products to the consumers.

For instance, many firms did not bother about the appearance of the shops as long as customers were able to get the products they desired within the right time. However, this has changed over the recent years, and Red Bull is one of the firms that have realized the importance of the beautifying the facilities they use to deliver the products to their customers.

The physical attractiveness of the exterior and interior facilities that firms use have currently been used by the customers to judge the quality of products that a firm delivers, and its commitment to the customers. When a customer is exposed to a poorly designed shopping facility, they would always make a negative judgment about the firm and all its products.

The management of Red Bull has come up with elaborate programs that have changed the physical appearance of its shopping facilities. Over the past one decade, this firm has changed the design of most of its facilities (Kotler 2005, p. 115). At its production plant, the firm has ensured that employees are provided with attractive and safe working stations that offers them motivation.

This has helped improve their performance. The firm has also restricted its stores that it uses to sell its products directly to consumers. One of the issues that has been raising a lot of concern in the market is the need to have many exists at these shopping malls for the purpose of enhancing security. The management of Red Bull has responded positively to this requirements.

The firm has also constructed beautiful outlets in a number of locations within the United States and other major markets around the world. This helps in convincing its customers that it is committed to offering them products of high quality.

It is clear from the analysis of the three elements of marketing mix that Red Bull has been using that the market is getting increasingly competitive. This firm must come up with clear systems that would enable it manage the future market in order to remain competitive in the future market.

The analysis shows that Red Bull has done performed well in managing the current market forces. The firm has tried to be dynamic in order to change with the changing market forces. However, the firm should consider the following recommendations if it expects to gain competitive advantage over its rivals in this industry.

• When dealing with people as one of the elements of marketing mix, the management should try to focus on nurturing talents among its employees. The current competitive market requires innovative minds that can enable the firm to come up with new ideas of handling various activities within the firm.
• The place element of marketing mix need to involve extensive use of the modern technologies in order to reach customers. Technology has reduced the world into a small global village. It order to maximize benefits of this village, Red Bull should use modern technologies of communication to each out to the global consumers.
• Physical evidence always portrays a firm’s commitment towards delivering value to its customers. The management should make an effort to beautify most of its physical facilities, especially at its outlets. Customers will always make a judgment of the value of products they purchase from this firm by analyzing the appearance of these physical facilities.

Ewbank, A & Foulger, T 2010, ‘Red Bull, Starbucks, and the Changing Face of Teacher Education’, The Phi Delta Kappan , vol. 92. no. 2, pp. 25-28.

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• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2019, April 22). History of Red Bull Company. https://ivypanda.com/essays/red-bull-research-paper/

"History of Red Bull Company." IvyPanda , 22 Apr. 2019, ivypanda.com/essays/red-bull-research-paper/.

IvyPanda . (2019) 'History of Red Bull Company'. 22 April.

IvyPanda . 2019. "History of Red Bull Company." April 22, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/red-bull-research-paper/.

1. IvyPanda . "History of Red Bull Company." April 22, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/red-bull-research-paper/.

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• Comparative Analysis of the Promotional Strategies for Red Bull and Coca-Cola
• Marketing Planning: Red Bull Soft Drinks
• Red Bull Brand Maintaining and Enhancing
• Company Details and Business Goals
• SWOT Analysis of British Airways
• Home Depot, Inc.
• Peet’s Coffee and Tea
• History of Sourceseating International Company

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MARKETING STRATEGIES DEPLOYED BY POPULAR ENERGY DRINK CONGLOMERATIONS

• Cite This Article as
• Corresponding Author

Background: The energy drink market has been growing ever since the introduction of Red Bull in 1987 and clearly Red Bull still leads the market that it created for itself and its competitors like Monster Energy, Gatorade and many more. The huge success of these energy drink conglomerates can be owed to their out of the box marketing strategies and techniques that have left the whole world in admiration. The way these conglomerates represent themselves in the market is quite unique and distinctive and this is what makes this whole study engrossing and fascinating. These energy drink companies do not advertise the product but the idea behind and experiences attached with the drink. There is a major differentiating factor between Red Bull-Monster Energy and Gatorade. Red Bull and Monster Energy have 30 mg of caffeine in each 100 grams of the drink (Monster Zero Ultra Flavours | Zero-Sugar Energy Drinks, n.d.) (Facts & Figures - Red Bull Red Edition, n.d.) whereas Gatorade contains electrolytes, that helps in replenishing the energy lost during extensive activity.

Objective: To critically compare and analyse the marketing strategies of popular energy drink conglomerates like Red bull, Monster Energy, Gatorade. Through the detailed analysis using the survey, we shall observe how popular and successful these strategies have proven to be in India.

Methodology: This research paper lays due emphasis on the positive as well as the negative outcomes of the marketing techniques and their establishment in India. The methodology used for this paper is both qualitative, quantitative and critical discourse analysis. The data pertaining to marketing strategies has been collected from secondary sources such as reports, journals, magazines, newspaper articles and the official websites of the above mentioned energy drinks.

• Monster Energy
• Marketing Strategies

[ Mahika Bhartari and Ishana Agarwal (2022); A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MARKETING STRATEGIES DEPLOYED BY POPULAR ENERGY DRINK CONGLOMERATIONS Int. J. of Adv. Res. 10 (Sep). 476-490] (ISSN 2320-5407). www.journalijar.com

Article DOI: 10.21474/IJAR01/15380       DOI URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.21474/IJAR01/15380

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Innovation Strategy and Entrepreneurship Red Bull and its successful innovations in the soft drinks market

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