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Research Methods Key Term Glossary
Last updated 22 Mar 2021
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This key term glossary provides brief definitions for the core terms and concepts covered in Research Methods for A Level Psychology.
Don't forget to also make full use of our research methods study notes and revision quizzes to support your studies and exam revision.
The researcher’s area of interest – what they are looking at (e.g. to investigate helping behaviour).
A graph that shows the data in the form of categories (e.g. behaviours observed) that the researcher wishes to compare.
Behavioural categories
Key behaviours or, collections of behaviour, that the researcher conducting the observation will pay attention to and record
In-depth investigation of a single person, group or event, where data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g. observations & interviews).
Closed questions
Questions where there are fixed choices of responses e.g. yes/no. They generate quantitative data
Co-variables
The variables investigated in a correlation
Concurrent validity
Comparing a new test with another test of the same thing to see if they produce similar results. If they do then the new test has concurrent validity
Confidentiality
Unless agreed beforehand, participants have the right to expect that all data collected during a research study will remain confidential and anonymous.
Confounding variable
An extraneous variable that varies systematically with the IV so we cannot be sure of the true source of the change to the DV
Content analysis
Technique used to analyse qualitative data which involves coding the written data into categories – converting qualitative data into quantitative data.
Control group
A group that is treated normally and gives us a measure of how people behave when they are not exposed to the experimental treatment (e.g. allowed to sleep normally).
Controlled observation
An observation study where the researchers control some variables - often takes place in laboratory setting
Correlational analysis
A mathematical technique where the researcher looks to see whether scores for two covariables are related
Counterbalancing
A way of trying to control for order effects in a repeated measures design, e.g. half the participants do condition A followed by B and the other half do B followed by A
Covert observation
Also known as an undisclosed observation as the participants do not know their behaviour is being observed
Critical value
The value that a test statistic must reach in order for the hypothesis to be accepted.
After completing the research, the true aim is revealed to the participant. Aim of debriefing = to return the person to the state s/he was in before they took part.
Involves misleading participants about the purpose of s study.
Demand characteristics
Occur when participants try to make sense of the research situation they are in and try to guess the purpose of the research or try to present themselves in a good way.
Dependent variable
The variable that is measured to tell you the outcome.
Descriptive statistics
Analysis of data that helps describe, show or summarize data in a meaningful way
Directional hypothesis
A one-tailed hypothesis that states the direction of the difference or relationship (e.g. boys are more helpful than girls).
Dispersion measure
A dispersion measure shows how a set of data is spread out, examples are the range and the standard deviation
Double blind control
Participants are not told the true purpose of the research and the experimenter is also blind to at least some aspects of the research design.
Ecological validity
The extent to which the findings of a research study are able to be generalized to real-life settings
Ethical guidelines
These are provided by the BPS - they are the ‘rules’ by which all psychologists should operate, including those carrying out research.
Ethical issues
There are 3 main ethical issues that occur in psychological research – deception, lack of informed consent and lack of protection of participants.
Evaluation apprehension
Participants’ behaviour is distorted as they fear being judged by observers
Event sampling
A target behaviour is identified and the observer records it every time it occurs
Experimental group
The group that received the experimental treatment (e.g. sleep deprivation)
External validity
Whether it is possible to generalise the results beyond the experimental setting.
Extraneous variable
Variables that if not controlled may affect the DV and provide a false impression than an IV has produced changes when it hasn’t.
Face validity
Simple way of assessing whether a test measures what it claims to measure which is concerned with face value – e.g. does an IQ test look like it tests intelligence.
Field experiment
An experiment that takes place in a natural setting where the experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV
A graph that is used for continuous data (e.g. test scores). There should be no space between the bars, because the data is continuous.
This is a formal statement or prediction of what the researcher expects to find. It needs to be testable.
Independent groups design
An experimental design where each participants only takes part in one condition of the IV
Independent variable
The variable that the experimenter manipulates (changes).
Inferential statistics
Inferential statistics are ways of analyzing data using statistical tests that allow the researcher to make conclusions about whether a hypothesis was supported by the results.
Informed consent
Psychologists should ensure that all participants are helped to understand fully all aspects of the research before they agree (give consent) to take part
Inter-observer reliability
The extent to which two or more observers are observing and recording behaviour in the same way
Internal validity
In relation to experiments, whether the results were due to the manipulation of the IV rather than other factors such as extraneous variables or demand characteristics.
Interval level data
Data measured in fixed units with equal distance between points on the scale
Investigator effects
These result from the effects of a researcher’s behaviour and characteristics on an investigation.
Laboratory experiment
An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment where the experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV
Matched pairs design
An experimental design where pairs of participants are matched on important characteristics and one member allocated to each condition of the IV
Measure of central tendency calculated by adding all the scores in a set of data together and dividing by the total number of scores
Measures of central tendency
A measurement of data that indicates where the middle of the information lies e.g. mean, median or mode
Measure of central tendency calculated by arranging scores in a set of data from lowest to highest and finding the middle score
Meta-analysis
A technique where rather than conducting new research with participants, the researchers examine the results of several studies that have already been conducted
Measure of central tendency which is the most frequently occurring score in a set of data
Natural experiment
An experiment where the change in the IV already exists rather than being manipulated by the experimenter
Naturalistic observation
An observation study conducted in the environment where the behaviour would normally occur
Negative correlation
A relationship exists between two covariables where as one increases, the other decreases
Nominal level data
Frequency count data that consists of the number of participants falling into categories. (e.g. 7 people passed their driving test first time, 6 didn’t).
Non-directional hypothesis
A two-tailed hypothesis that does not predict the direction of the difference or relationship (e.g. girls and boys are different in terms of helpfulness).
Normal distribution
An arrangement of a data that is symmetrical and forms a bell shaped pattern where the mean, median and mode all fall in the centre at the highest peak
Observed value
The value that you have obtained from conducting your statistical test
Observer bias
Occurs when the observers know the aims of the study study or the hypotheses and allow this knowledge to influence their observations
Open questions
Questions where there is no fixed response and participants can give any answer they like. They generate qualitative data.
Operationalising variables
This means clearly describing the variables (IV and DV) in terms of how they will be manipulated (IV) or measured (DV).
Opportunity sample
A sampling technique where participants are chosen because they are easily available
Order effects
Order effects can occur in a repeated measures design and refers to how the positioning of tasks influences the outcome e.g. practice effect or boredom effect on second task
Ordinal level data
Data that is capable of being out into rank order (e.g. places in a beauty contest, or ratings for attractiveness).
Overt observation
Also known as a disclosed observation as the participants given their permission for their behaviour to be observed
Participant observation
Observation study where the researcher actually joins the group or takes part in the situation they are observing.
Peer review
Before going to publication, a research report is sent other psychologists who are knowledgeable in the research topic for them to review the study, and check for any problems
Pilot study
A small scale study conducted to ensure the method will work according to plan. If it doesn’t then amendments can be made.
Positive correlation
A relationship exists between two covariables where as one increases, so does the other
Presumptive consent
Asking a group of people from the same target population as the sample whether they would agree to take part in such a study, if yes then presume the sample would
Primary data
Information that the researcher has collected him/herself for a specific purpose e.g. data from an experiment or observation
Prior general consent
Before participants are recruited they are asked whether they are prepared to take part in research where they might be deceived about the true purpose
Probability
How likely something is to happen – can be expressed as a number (0.5) or a percentage (50% change of tossing coin and getting a head)
Protection of participants
Participants should be protected from physical or mental health, including stress - risk of harm must be no greater than that to which they are exposed in everyday life
Qualitative data
Descriptive information that is expressed in words
Quantitative data
Information that can be measured and written down with numbers.
Quasi experiment
An experiment often conducted in controlled conditions where the IV simply exists so there can be no random allocation to the conditions
Questionnaire
A set of written questions that participants fill in themselves
Random sampling
A sampling technique where everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being selected
Randomisation
Refers to the practice of using chance methods (e.g. flipping a coin' to allocate participants to the conditions of an investigation
The distance between the lowest and the highest value in a set of scores.
A measure of dispersion which involves subtracting the lowest score from the highest score in a set of data
Reliability
Whether something is consistent. In the case of a study, whether it is replicable.
Repeated measures design
An experimental design where each participants takes part in both/all conditions of the IV
Representative sample
A sample that that closely matched the target population as a whole in terms of key variables and characteristics
Retrospective consent
Once the true nature of the research has been revealed, participants should be given the right to withdraw their data if they are not happy.
Right to withdraw
Participants should be aware that they can leave the study at any time, even if they have been paid to take part.
A group of people that are drawn from the target population to take part in a research investigation
Scattergram
Used to plot correlations where each pair of values is plotted against each other to see if there is a relationship between them.
Secondary data
Information that someone else has collected e.g. the work of other psychologists or government statistics
Semi-structured interview
Interview that has some pre-determined questions, but the interviewer can develop others in response to answers given by the participant
A statistical test used to analyse the direction of differences of scores between the same or matched pairs of subjects under two experimental conditions
Significance
If the result of a statistical test is significant it is highly unlikely to have occurred by chance
Single-blind control
Participants are not told the true purpose of the research
Skewed distribution
An arrangement of data that is not symmetrical as data is clustered ro one end of the distribution
Social desirability bias
Participants’ behaviour is distorted as they modify this in order to be seen in a positive light.
Standard deviation
A measure of the average spread of scores around the mean. The greater the standard deviation the more spread out the scores are. .
Standardised instructions
The instructions given to each participant are kept identical – to help prevent experimenter bias.
Standardised procedures
In every step of the research all the participants are treated in exactly the same way and so all have the same experience.
Stratified sample
A sampling technique where groups of participants are selected in proportion to their frequency in the target population
Structured interview
Interview where the questions are fixed and the interviewer reads them out and records the responses
Structured observation
An observation study using predetermined coding scheme to record the participants' behaviour
Systematic sample
A sampling technique where every nth person in a list of the target population is selected
Target population
The group that the researchers draws the sample from and wants to be able to generalise the findings to
Temporal validity
Refers to how likely it is that the time period when a study was conducted has influenced the findings and whether they can be generalised to other periods in time
Test-retest reliability
Involves presenting the same participants with the same test or questionnaire on two separate occasions and seeing whether there is a positive correlation between the two
Thematic analysis
A method for analysing qualitative data which involves identifying, analysing and reporting patterns within the data
Time sampling
A way of sampling the behaviour that is being observed by recording what happens in a series of fixed time intervals.
Type 1 error
Is a false positive. It is where you accept the alternative/experimental hypothesis when it is false
Type 2 error
Is a false negative. It is where you accept the null hypothesis when it is false
Unstructured interview
Also know as a clinical interview, there are no fixed questions just general aims and it is more like a conversation
Unstructured observation
Observation where there is no checklist so every behaviour seen is written down in an much detail as possible
Whether something is true – measures what it sets out to measure.
Volunteer sample
A sampling technique where participants put themselves forward to take part in research, often by answering an advertisement
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Chapter 1: Introduction to Research Methods
1.4 Understanding Key Research Concepts and Terms
In this textbook you will be exposed to many terms and concepts associated with research methods, particularly as they relate to the research planning decisions you must make along the way. Figure 1.3 will help you contextualize many of these terms and understand the research process. This general chart begins with two key concepts: ontology and epistemology, advances through other concepts, and concludes with three research methodological approaches: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods.
Research does not end with making decisions about the type of methods you will use; we could argue that the work is just beginning at this point. Figure 1.3 does not represent an all-encompassing list of concepts and terms related to research methods. Keep in mind that each strategy has its own data collection and analysis approaches associated with the various methodological approaches you choose. Figure 1.3 is intentioned to provide a general overview of the research concept. You may want to keep this figure handy as you read through the various chapters.
Ontology & Epistemology
Thinking about what you know and how you know what you know involves questions of ontology and epistemology. Perhaps you have heard these concepts before in a philosophy class? These concepts are relevant to the work of sociologists as well. As sociologists (those who undertake socially-focused research), we want to understand some aspect of our social world. Usually, we are not starting with zero knowledge. In fact, we usually start with some understanding of three concepts: 1) what is; 2) what can be known about what is; and, 3) what the best mechanism happens to be for learning about what is (Saylor Academy, 2012). In the following sections, we will define these concepts and provide an example of the terms, ontology and epistemology.
Ontology is a Greek word that means the study, theory, or science of being. Ontology is concerned with the what is or the nature of reality (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2009). It can involve some very large and difficult to answer questions, such as:
- What is the purpose of life?
- What, if anything, exists beyond our universe?
- What categories does it belong to?
- Is there such a thing as objective reality?
- What does the verb “to be” mean?
Ontology is comprised of two aspects: objectivism and subjectivism. Objectivism means that social entities exist externally to the social actors who are concerned with their existence. Subjectivism means that social phenomena are created from the perceptions and actions of the social actors who are concerned with their existence (Saunders, et al., 2009). The table below provides an example of a similar research project to be undertaken by two different students. While the projects being proposed by the students are similar, they each have different research questions. Read the scenario and then answer the questions that follow.
Subjectivist and objectivist approaches (adapted from Saunders et al., 2009)
Ana is an Emergency & Security Management Studies (ESMS) student at a local college. She is just beginning her capstone research project and she plans to do research at the City of Vancouver. Her research question is: What is the role of City of Vancouver managers in the Emergency Management Department (EMD) in enabling positive community relationships? She will be collecting data related to the roles and duties of managers in enabling positive community relationships.
Robert is also an ESMS student at the same college. He, too, will be undertaking his research at the City of Vancouver. His research question is: What is the effect of the City of Vancouver’s corporate culture in enabling EMD managers to develop a positive relationship with the local community? He will be collecting data related to perceptions of corporate culture and its effect on enabling positive community-emergency management department relationships.
Before the students begin collecting data, they learn that six months ago, the long-time emergency department manager and assistance manager both retired. They have been replaced by two senior staff managers who have Bachelor’s degrees in Emergency Services Management. These new managers are considered more up-to-date and knowledgeable on emergency services management, given their specialized academic training and practical on-the-job work experience in this department. The new managers have essentially the same job duties and operate under the same procedures as the managers they replaced. When Ana and Robert approach the managers to ask them to participate in their separate studies, the new managers state that they are just new on the job and probably cannot answer the research questions; they decline to participate. Ana and Robert are worried that they will need to start all over again with a new research project. They return to their supervisors to get their opinions on what they should do.
Before reading about their supervisors’ responses, answer the following questions:
- Is Ana’s research question indicative of an objectivist or a subjectivist approach?
- Is Robert’s research question indicative of an objectivist or a subjectivist approach?
- Given your answer in question 1, which managers could Ana interview (new, old, or both) for her research study? Why?
- Given your answer in question 2, which managers could Robert interview (new, old, or both) for his research study? Why?
Ana’s supervisor tells her that her research question is set up for an objectivist approach. Her supervisor tells her that in her study the social entity (the City) exists in reality external to the social actors (the managers), i.e., there is a formal management structure at the City that has largely remained unchanged since the old managers left and the new ones started. The procedures remain the same regardless of whoever occupies those positions. As such, Ana, using an objectivist approach, could state that the new managers have job descriptions which describe their duties and that they are a part of a formal structure with a hierarchy of people reporting to them and to whom they report. She could further state that this hierarchy, which is unique to this organization, also resembles hierarchies found in other similar organizations. As such, she can argue that the new managers will be able to speak about the role they play in enabling positive community relationships. Their answers would likely be no different than those of the old managers, because the management structure and the procedures remain the same. Therefore, she could go back to the new managers and ask them to participate in her research study.
Robert’s supervisor tells him that his research is set up for a subjectivist approach. In his study, the social phenomena (the effect of corporate culture on the relationship with the community) is created from the perceptions and consequent actions of the social actors (the managers); i.e., the corporate culture at the City continually influences the process of social interaction, and these interactions influence perceptions of the relationship with the community. The relationship is in a constant state of revision. As such, Robert, using a subjectivist approach, could state that the new managers may have had few interactions with the community members to date and therefore may not be fully cognizant of how the corporate culture affects the department’s relationship with the community. While it would be important to get the new managers’ perceptions, he would also need to speak with the previous managers to get their perceptions from the time they were employed in their positions. This is because the community-department relationship is in a state of constant revision, which is influenced by the various managers’ perceptions of the corporate culture and its effect on their ability to form positive community relationships. Therefore, he could go back to the current managers and ask them to participate in his study, and also ask that the department please contact the previous managers to see if they would be willing to participate in his study.
As you can see the research question of each study guides the decision as to whether the researcher should take a subjective or an objective ontological approach. This decision, in turn, guides their approach to the research study, including whom they should interview.
Epistemology
Epistemology has to do with knowledge. Rather than dealing with questions about what is, epistemology deals with questions of how we know what is. In sociology, there are many ways to uncover knowledge. We might interview people to understand public opinion about a topic, or perhaps observe them in their natural environment. We could avoid face-to-face interaction altogether by mailing people surveys to complete on their own or by reading people’s opinions in newspaper editorials. Each method of data collection comes with its own set of epistemological assumptions about how to find things out (Saylor Academy, 2012). There are two main subsections of epistemology: positivist and interpretivist philosophies. We will examine these philosophies or paradigms in the following sections.
Research Methods for the Social Sciences: An Introduction Copyright © 2020 by Valerie Sheppard is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.
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