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Americans are divided on whether society overlooks racial discrimination or sees it where it doesn’t exist.

Ahead of the 60th anniversary of the March on Washington for Black Americans’ civil rights, we asked U.S. adults what they think is the bigger problem when it comes to racial discrimination in the country today.

Pew Research Center conducted this analysis to explore how Americans view racial discrimination in the United States today compared with previous years. This question is a part of a broader study that asked Americans about their views on the Black Lives Matter movement and Martin Luther King Jr.’s legacy .

This analysis is based on a survey of 5,073 U.S. adults conducted April 10-16, 2023. Everyone who took part is a member of the Center’s American Trends Panel (ATP), an online survey panel that is recruited through national, random sampling of residential addresses. Address-based sampling ensures that nearly all U.S. adults have a chance of selection. The survey is weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, race, ethnicity, partisan affiliation, education and other categories. Read more about the ATP’s methodology .

Here are the questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and the survey methodology .

• 53% say people not seeing racial discrimination where it really does exist is the bigger problem.
• 45% point to people seeing racial discrimination where it really doesn’t exist as the larger issue.

Views on this have changed in recent years, according to Pew Research Center surveys. In 2019, 57% said people overlooking racial discrimination was the bigger problem, while 42% pointed to people seeing it where it really didn’t exist. That gap has narrowed from 15 to 8 percentage points.

Americans’ current views on this question differ greatly by:

• Race and ethnicity: 88% of Black adults say people overlooking discrimination is the bigger problem. Smaller majorities of Asian (66%) and Hispanic (58%) adults say the same, as do 45% of White adults.

• Partisanship: 80% of Democrats and Democratic-leaning independents say people not seeing racial discrimination where it does exist is the larger issue. About three-quarters (74%) of Republicans and Republican leaners give the opposite answer.

How views on racial discrimination differ within political parties

Majorities of Republicans across age groups say people seeing racial discrimination where it doesn’t exist is the larger issue. But Republicans ages 50 and older are more likely than those under 50 to say this (78% vs. 68%).

Among Democrats, age differences aren’t as large, but there are differences by race and ethnicity. Hispanic Democrats are the most likely to say people seeing discrimination where it doesn’t exist is the bigger problem. Some 29% say this, compared with 20% of Asian Democrats, 19% of White Democrats and 8% of Black Democrats.

Note: Here are the questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and the survey methodology .

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About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts .

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The Sociology of Discrimination: Racial Discrimination in Employment, Housing, Credit, and Consumer Markets

Persistent racial inequality in employment, housing, and a wide range of other social domains has renewed interest in the possible role of discrimination. And yet, unlike in the pre–civil rights era, when racial prejudice and discrimination were overt and widespread, today discrimination is less readily identifiable, posing problems for social scientific conceptualization and measurement. This article reviews the relevant literature on discrimination, with an emphasis on racial discrimination in employment, housing, credit markets, and consumer interactions. We begin by defining discrimination and discussing relevant methods of measurement. We then provide an overview of major findings from studies of discrimination in each of the four domains; and, finally, we turn to a discussion of the individual, organizational, and structural mechanisms that may underlie contemporary forms of discrimination. This discussion seeks to orient readers to some of the key debates in the study of discrimination and to provide a roadmap for those interested in building upon this long and important line of research.

Persistent racial inequality in employment, housing, and other social domains has renewed interest in the possible role of discrimination. Contemporary forms of discrimination, however, are often subtle and covert, posing problems for social scientific conceptualization and measurement. This article reviews the relevant literature on racial discrimination, providing a roadmap for scholars who wish to build on this rich and important tradition. The charge for this article was a focus on racial discrimination in employment, housing, credit markets, and consumer interactions, but many of the arguments reviewed here may also extend to other domains (e.g., education, health care, the criminal justice system) and to other types of discrimination (e.g., gender, age, sexual orientation). We begin this discussion by defining discrimination and discussing methods for measuring discrimination. We then provide an overview of major findings from studies of discrimination in employment, housing, and credit and consumer markets. Finally, we turn to a discussion of the individual, organizational, and structural mechanisms that may underlie contemporary forms of discrimination.

WHAT IS DISCRIMINATION?

According to its most simple definition, racial discrimination refers to unequal treatment of persons or groups on the basis of their race or ethnicity. In defining racial discrimination, many scholars and legal advocates distinguish between differential treatment and disparate impact, creating a two-part definition: Differential treatment occurs when individuals are treated unequally because of their race. Disparate impact occurs when individuals are treated equally according to a given set of rules and procedures but when the latter are constructed in ways that favor members of one group over another ( Reskin 1998 , p. 32; National Research Council 2004 , pp. 39–40). The second component of this definition broadens its scope to include decisions and processes that may not themselves have any explicit racial content but that have the consequence of producing or reinforcing racial disadvantage. Beyond more conventional forms of individual discrimination, institutional processes such as these are important to consider in assessing how valued opportunities are structured by race.

A key feature of any definition of discrimination is its focus on behavior. Discrimination is distinct from racial prejudice (attitudes), racial stereotypes (beliefs), and racism (ideologies) that may also be associated with racial disadvantage (see Quillian 2006 ). Discrimination may be motivated by prejudice, stereotypes, or racism, but the definition of discrimination does not presume any unique underlying cause.

HOW CAN WE MEASURE DISCRIMINATION?

More than a century of social science interest in the question of discrimination has resulted in numerous techniques to isolate and identify its presence and to document its effects ( National Research Council 2004 ). Although no method is without its limitations, together these techniques provide a range of perspectives that can help to inform our understanding of whether, how, and to what degree discrimination matters in the lives of contemporary American racial minorities.

Perceptions of Discrimination

Numerous surveys have asked African Americans and other racial minorities about their experiences with discrimination in the workplace, in their search for housing, and in other everyday social settings ( Schuman et al. 2001 ). One startling conclusion from this line of research is the frequency with which discrimination is reported. A 2001 survey, for example, found that more than one-third of blacks and nearly 20% of Hispanics and Asians reported that they had personally been passed over for a job or promotion because of their race or ethnicity ( Schiller 2004 ). A 1997 Gallup poll found that nearly half of all black respondents reported having experienced discrimination at least once in one of five common situations in the past month ( Gallup Organ. 1997 ). Further, the frequency with which discrimination is reported does not decline among those higher in the social hierarchy; in fact, middle-class blacks are as likely to perceive discrimination as are working-class blacks, if not more ( Feagin & Sikes 1994 , Kessler et al. 1990 ). Patterns of perceived discrimination are important findings in their own right, as research shows that those who perceive high levels of discrimination are more likely to experience depression, anxiety, and other negative health outcomes ( Kessler et al. 1990 ). Furthermore, perceived discrimination may lead to diminished effort or performance in education or the labor market, which itself gives rise to negative outcomes ( Ogbu 1991 ; Steele 1997 ; Loury 2002 , pp. 26–33). What remains unclear from this line of research, however, is to what extent perceptions of discrimination correspond to some reliable depiction of reality. Because events may be misperceived or overlooked, perceptions of discrimination may over- or underestimate the actual incidence of discrimination.

Reports by Potential Discriminators

Another line of social science research focuses on the attitudes and actions of dominant groups for insights into when and how racial considerations come into play. In addition to the long tradition of survey research on racial attitudes and stereotypes among the general population (cf. Schuman et al. 2001 , Farley et al. 1994 ), a number of researchers have developed interview techniques aimed at gauging propensities toward discrimination among employers and other gatekeepers. Harry Holzer has conducted a number of employer surveys in which employers are asked a series of questions about “the last worker hired for a noncollege job,” thereby grounding employers’ responses in a concrete recent experience (e.g., Holzer 1996 ). In this format, race is asked about as only one incidental characteristic in a larger series of questions concerning this recent employee, thereby reducing the social desirability bias often triggered when the subject of race is highlighted. Likewise, by focusing on a completed action, the researcher is able to document revealed preferences rather than expressed ones and to examine the range of employer, job, and labor market characteristics that may be associated with hiring decisions.

A second prominent approach to investigating racial discrimination in employment has relied on in-depth, in-person interviews, which can be effective in eliciting candid discussions about sensitive hiring issues. Kirschenman & Neckerman (1991) , for example, describe employers’ blatant admission of their avoidance of young, inner-city black men in their search for workers. Attributing characteristics such as “lazy” and “unreliable” to this group, the employers included in their study were candid in their expressions of strong racial preferences in considering low wage workers (p. 213; see also Wilson 1996 , Moss & Tilly 2001 ). These in-depth studies have been invaluable in providing detailed accounts of what goes through the minds of employers—at least consciously— as they evaluate members of different groups. However, we must keep in mind that racial attitudes are not always predictive of corresponding behavior ( LaPiere 1934 , Allport 1954 , Pager & Quillian 2005 ). Indeed, Moss & Tilly (2001) report the puzzling finding that “businesses where a plurality of managers complained about black motivation are more likely to hire black men” (p. 151). Hiring decisions (as with decisions to rent a home or approve a mortgage) are influenced by a complex range of factors, racial attitudes being only one. Where understanding persistent racial prejudice and stereotypes is surely an important goal in and of itself, this approach will not necessarily reveal the extent of discrimination in action.

Statistical Analyses

Perhaps the most common approach to studying discrimination is by investigating inequality in outcomes between groups. Rather than focusing on the attitudes or perceptions of actors that may be correlated with acts of discrimination, this approach looks to the possible consequences of discrimination in the unequal distribution of employment, housing, or other social and economic resources. Using large-scale datasets, researchers can identify systematic disparities between groups and chart their direction over time. Important patterns can also be detected through detailed and systematic case studies of individual firms, which often provide a richer array of indicators with which to assess patterns of discrimination (e.g., Castilla 2008 , Petersen & Saporta 2004 , Fernandez & Friedrich 2007 ).

Discrimination in statistical models is often measured as the residual race gap in any outcome that remains after controlling for all other race-related influences. Differences may be identified through the main effect of race, suggesting a direct effect of race on an outcome of interest, or through an interaction between race and one or more human capital characteristics, suggesting differential returns to human capital investments on the basis of race ( Oaxaca 1973 ; National Research Council 2004 , chapter 7). The main liability of this approach is that it is difficult to effectively account for the multitude of factors relevant to unequal outcomes, leaving open the possibility that the disparities we attribute to discrimination may in fact be explained by some other unmeasured cause(s). In statistical analyses of labor market outcomes, for example, even after controlling for standard human capital variables (e.g., education, work experience), a whole host of employment-related characteristics typically remain unaccounted for. Characteristics such as reliability, motivation, interpersonal skills, and punctuality, for example, are each important to finding and keeping a job, but these are characteristics that are often difficult to capture with survey data (see, for example, Farkas & Vicknair 1996 , Farkas 2003 ). Complicating matters further, some potential control variables may themselves be endogenous to the process under investigation. Models estimating credit discrimination, for example, typically include controls for asset accumulation and credit history, which may themselves be in part the byproduct of discrimination ( Yinger 1998 , pp. 26–27). Likewise, controls for work experience or firm tenure may be endogenous to the process of employment discrimination if minorities are excluded from those opportunities necessary to building stable work histories (see Tomaskovic-Devey et al. 2005 ). While statistical models represent an extremely important approach to the study of race differentials, researchers should use caution in making causal interpretations of the indirect measures of discrimination derived from residual estimates. For a more detailed discussion of the challenges and possibilities of statistical approaches to measuring discrimination, see the National Research Council (2004 , chapter 7).

Experimental Approaches to Measuring Discrimination

Experimental approaches to measuring discrimination excel in exactly those areas in which statistical analyses flounder. Experiments allow researchers to measure causal effects more directly by presenting carefully constructed and controlled comparisons. In a laboratory experiment by Dovidio & Gaertner (2000) , for example, subjects (undergraduate psychology students) took part in a simulated hiring experiment in which they were asked to evaluate the application materials for black and white job applicants of varying qualification levels. When applicants were either highly qualified or poorly qualified for the position, there was no evidence of discrimination. When applicants had acceptable but ambiguous qualifications, however, participants were nearly 70% more likely to recommend the white applicant than the black applicant (see also Biernat & Kobrynowicz’s 1997 discussion of shifting standards). 1

Although laboratory experiments offer some of the strongest evidence of causal relationships, we do not know the extent to which their findings relate to the kinds of decisions made in their social contexts—to hire, to rent, to move, for example—that are most relevant to understanding the forms of discrimination that produce meaningful social disparities. Seeking to bring more realism to the investigation, some researchers have moved experiments out of the laboratory and into the field. Field experiments offer a direct measure of discrimination in real-world contexts. In these experiments, typically referred to as audit studies, researchers carefully select, match, and train individuals (called testers) to play the part of a job/apartment-seeker or consumer. By presenting equally qualified individuals who differ only by race or ethnicity, researchers can assess the degree to which racial considerations affect access to opportunities. Audit studies have documented strong evidence of discrimination in the context of employment (for a review, see Pager 2007a ), housing searches ( Yinger 1995 ), car sales ( Ayres & Siegelman 1995 ), applications for insurance ( Wissoker et al. 1998 ), home mortgages ( Turner & Skidmore 1999 ), the provision of medical care ( Schulman et al. 1999 ), and even in hailing taxis ( Ridley et al. 1989 ).

Although experimental methods are appealing in their ability to isolate causal effects, they nevertheless suffer from some important limitations. Critiques of the audit methodology have focused on questions of internal validity (e.g., experimenter effects, the problems of effective tester matching), generalizability (e.g., the use of overqualified testers, the limited sampling frame for the selection of firms to be audited), and the ethics of audit research (see Heckman 1998 , Pager 2007a for a more extensive discussion of these issues). In addition, audit studies are often costly and difficult to implement and can only be used for selective decision points (e.g., hiring decisions but not training, promotion, termination, etc.).

Studies of Law and Legal Records

Since the civil rights era, legal definitions and accounts of discrimination have been central to both popular and scholarly understandings of discrimination. Accordingly, an additional window into the dynamics of discrimination involves the use of legal records from formal discrimination claims. Whether derived from claims to the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), the courts, or state-level Fair Employment/Fair Housing Bureaus, official records documenting claims of discrimination can provide unique insight into the patterns of discrimination and antidiscrimination enforcement in particular contexts and over time.

Roscigno (2007) , for example, analyzed thousands of “serious claims” filed with the Civil Rights Commission of Ohio related to both employment and housing discrimination. These claims document a range of discriminatory behaviors, from harassment, to exclusion, to more subtle forms of racial bias. [See also Harris et al. (2005) for a similar research design focusing on federal court claims of consumer discrimination.] Although studies relying on formal discrimination claims necessarily overlook those incidents that go unnoticed or unreported, these records provide a rare opportunity to witness detailed descriptions of discrimination events across a wide range of social domains not typically observed in conventional research designs.

Other studies use discrimination claims, not to assess patterns of discrimination, but to investigate trends in the application of antidiscrimination law. Nielsen & Nelson (2005) provide an overview of research in this area, examining the pathways by which potential claims (or perceived discrimination) develop into formal legal action, or conversely the many points at which potential claims are deflected from legal action. Hirsh & Kornrich (2008) examine how characteristics of the workplace and institutional environment affect variation in the incidence of discrimination claims and their verification by EEOC investigators. Donohue & Siegelman (1991 , 2005 ) analyze discrimination claims from 1970 through 1997 to chart changes in the nature of antidiscrimination enforcement over time. The overall volume of discrimination claims increased substantially over this period, though the composition of claims shifted away from an emphasis on racial discrimination toward a greater emphasis on gender and disability discrimination. Likewise, the types of employment discrimination claims have shifted from an emphasis on hiring discrimination to an overwhelming emphasis on wrongful termination, and class action suits have become increasingly rare. The authors interpret these trends not as indicators of changes in the actual distribution of discrimination events, but rather as reflections of the changing legal environment in which discrimination cases are pursued (including, for example, changes to civil rights law and changes in the receptivity of the courts to various types of discrimination claims), which themselves may have implications for the expression of discrimination ( Donohue & Siegelman 1991 , 2005 ).

Finally, a number of researchers have exploited changes in civil rights and antidiscrimination laws as a source of exogenous variation through which to measure changes in discrimination (see Holzer & Ludwig 2003 ). Freeman (1973 , see table 6 therein), for example, investigates the effectiveness of federal EEO laws by comparing the black-white income gap before and after passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Heckman & Payner (1989) use microdata from textile plants in South Carolina to study the effects of race on employment between 1940 and 1980, concluding that federal antidiscrimination policy resulted in a significant improvement in black economic status between 1965 and 1975. More recent studies exploiting changes in the legal context include Kelly & Dobbin (1998) , who examine the effects of changing enforcement regimes on employers’ implementation of diversity initiatives; Kalev & Dobbin (2006) , who examine the relative impact of compliance reviews and lawsuits on the representation of women and minorities in management positions; and a volume edited by Skrentny (2001) , which examines many of the complex and unexpected facets related to the rise, expansion, and impact of affirmative action and diversity policies in the United States and internationally.

Although no research method is without flaws, careful consideration of the range of methods available helps to match one’s research question with the appropriate empirical strategy. Comparisons across studies can help to shed light on the relative strengths and weaknesses of existing methodological approaches (see National Research Council 2004 ). At the same time, one must keep in mind that the nature of discrimination may itself be a moving target, with the forms and patterns of discrimination shifting over time and across domains (see Massey 2005 , p. 148). These complexities challenge our traditional modes of operationalization and encourage us to continue to update and refine our measures to allow for an adequate accounting of contemporary forms of racial discrimination.

IS DISCRIMINATION STILL A PROBLEM?

Simple as it may be, one basic question that preoccupies the contemporary literature on discrimination centers around its continuing relevance. Whereas 50 years ago acts of discrimination were overt and widespread, today it is harder to assess the degree to which everyday experiences and opportunities may be shaped by ongoing forms of discrimination. Indeed, the majority of white Americans believe that a black person today has the same chance at getting a job as an equally qualified white person, and only a third believe that discrimination is an important explanation for why blacks do worse than whites in income, housing, and jobs ( Pager 2007a ). Academic literature has likewise questioned the relevance of discrimination for modern-day outcomes, with the rising importance of skill, structural changes in the economy, and other nonracial factors accounting for increasing amounts of variance in individual outcomes ( Heckman 1998 , Wilson 1978 ). Indeed, discrimination is not the only nor even the most important factor shaping contemporary opportunities. Nevertheless, it is important to understand when and how discrimination does play a role in the allocation of resources and opportunities. In the following discussion, we examine the evidence of discrimination in four domains: employment, housing, credit markets, and consumer markets. Although not an exhaustive review of the literature, this discussion aims to identify the major findings and debates within each of these areas of research.

Although there have been some remarkable gains in the labor force status of racial minorities, significant disparities remain. African Americans are twice as likely to be unemployed as whites (Hispanics are only marginally so), and the wages of both blacks and Hispanics continue to lag well behind those of whites (author’s analysis of Current Population Survey, 2006). A long line of research has examined the degree to which discrimination plays a role in shaping contemporary labor market disparities.

Experimental audit studies focusing on hiring decisions have consistently found strong evidence of racial discrimination, with estimates of white preference ranging from 50% to 240% ( Cross et al. 1989 , Turner et al. 1991 , Fix & Struyk 1993 , Bendick et al. 1994 ; see Pager 2007a for a review). For example, in a study by Bertrand & Mullainathan (2004) , the researchers mailed equivalent resumes to employers in Boston and Chicago using racially identifiable names to signal race (for example, names like Jamal and Lakisha signaled African Americans, while Brad and Emily were associated with whites). 2 White names triggered a callback rate that was 50% higher than that of equally qualified black applicants. Further, their study indicated that improving the qualifications of applicants benefited white applicants but not blacks, thus leading to a wider racial gap in response rates for those with higher skill.

Statistical studies of employment outcomes likewise reveal large racial disparities unaccounted for by observed human capital characteristics. Tomaskovic-Devey et al. (2005) present evidence from a fixed-effects model indicating that black men spend significantly more time searching for work, acquire less work experience, and experience less stable employment than do whites with otherwise equivalent characteristics. Wilson et al. (1995) find that, controlling for age, education, urban location, and occupation, black male high school graduates are 70% more likely to experience involuntary unemployment than whites with similar characteristics and that this disparity increases among those with higher levels of education. At more aggregate levels, research points to the persistence of occupational segregation, with racial minorities concentrated in jobs with lower levels of stability and authority and with fewer opportunities for advancement ( Parcel & Mueller 1983 , Smith 2002 ). Of course, these residual estimates cannot control for all relevant factors, such as motivation, effort, access to useful social networks, and other factors that may produce disparities in the absence of direct discrimination. Nevertheless, these estimates suggest that blacks and whites with observably similar human capital characteristics experience markedly different employment outcomes.

Unlike the cases of hiring and employment, research on wage disparities comes to more mixed conclusions. An audit study by Bendick et al. (1994) finds that, among those testers who were given job offers, whites were offered wages that were on average 15 cents/hour higher than their equally qualified black test partners; audit studies in general, however, provide limited information on wages, as many testers never make it to the wage setting stage of the employment process. Some statistical evidence comes to similar conclusions. Cancio et al. (1996) , for example, find that, controlling for parental background, education, work experience, tenure, and training, white men earn roughly 15% more than comparable blacks (white women earned 6% more than comparable black women). Farkas & Vicknair (1996) , however, using a different dataset, find that the addition of controls for cognitive ability eliminates the racial wage gap for young black and white full-time workers. According to the authors, these findings suggest that racial differences in labor market outcomes are due more to factors that precede labor market entry (e.g., skill acquisition) rather than discrimination within the labor market (see also Neal & Johnson 1996 ).

Overall, then, the literature points toward consistent evidence of discrimination in access to employment, but less consistent evidence of discrimination in wages. Differing methodologies and/or model specification may account for some of the divergent results. But there is also reason to believe that the processes affecting access to employment (e.g., the influence of first impressions, the absence of more reliable information on prospective employees, and minimal legal oversight) may be more subject to discriminatory decision making than those affecting wages. Further, the findings regarding employment and wages may be in part causally related, as barriers to labor market entry will lead to a more select sample of black wage earners, reducing measured racial disparities (e.g., Western & Pettit 2005 ). These findings point to the importance of modeling discrimination as a process rather than a single-point outcome, with disparities in premarket skills acquisition, barriers to labor market entry, and wage differentials each part of a larger employment trajectory and shaped to differing degrees by discrimination.

Residential segregation by race remains a salient feature of contemporary American cities. Indeed, African Americans were as segregated from whites in 1990 as they had been at the start of the twentieth century, and levels of segregation appear unaffected by rising socioeconomic status ( Massey & Denton 1993 ). Although segregation appears to have modestly decreased between 1980 and 2000 ( Logan et al. 2004 ), blacks (and to a lesser extent other minority groups) continue to experience patterns of residential placement markedly different from whites. The degree to which discrimination contributes to racial disparities in housing has been a major preoccupation of social scientists and federal housing agents ( Charles 2003 ).

The vast majority of the work on discrimination in housing utilizes experimental audit data. For example, between 2000 and 2002 the Department of Housing and Urban Development conducted an extensive series of audits measuring housing discrimination against blacks, Latinos, Asians, and Native Americans, including nearly 5500 paired tests in nearly 30 metropolitan areas [see Turner et al. (2002) , Turner & Ross (2003a) ; see also Hakken (1979) , Feins & Bratt (1983) , Yinger (1986) , Roychoudhury & Goodman (1992 , 1996 ) for additional, single-city audits of housing discrimination]. The study results reveal bias across multiple dimensions, with blacks experiencing consistent adverse treatment in roughly one in five housing searches and Hispanics experiencing consistent adverse treatment in roughly one out of four housing searches (both rental and sales). 3 Measured discrimination took the form of less information offered about units, fewer opportunities to view units, and, in the case of home buyers, less assistance with financing and steering into less wealthy communities and neighborhoods with a higher proportion of minority residents.

Generally, the results of the 2000 Housing Discrimination Study indicate that aggregate levels of discrimination against blacks declined modestly in both rentals and sales since 1989 (although levels of racial steering increased). Discrimination against Hispanics in housing sales declined, although Hispanics experienced increasing levels of discrimination in rental markets.

Other research using telephone audits further points to a gender and class dimension of racial discrimination in which black women and/or blacks who speak in a manner associated with a lower-class upbringing suffer greater discrimination than black men and/or those signaling a middle-class upbringing ( Massey & Lundy 2001 , Purnell et al. 1999 ). Context also matters in the distribution of discrimination events ( Fischer & Massey 2004 ). Turner & Ross (2005) report that segregation and class steering of blacks occurs most often when either the housing or the office of the real estate agent is in a predominantly white neighborhood. Multi-city audits likewise suggest that the incidence of discrimination varies substantially across metropolitan contexts ( Turner et al. 2002 ).

Moving beyond evidence of exclusionary treatment, Roscigno and colleagues (2007) provide evidence of the various forms of housing discrimination that can extend well beyond the point of purchase (or rental agreement). Examples from a sample of discrimination claims filed with the Civil Rights Commission of Ohio point to the failure of landlords to provide adequate maintenance for housing units, to harassment or physical threats by managers or neighbors, and to the unequal enforcement of a residential association’s rules.

Overall, the available evidence suggests that discrimination in rental and housing markets remains pervasive. Although there are some promising signs of change, the frequency with which racial minorities experience differential treatment in housing searches suggests that discrimination remains an important barrier to residential opportunities. The implications of these trends for other forms of inequality (health, employment, wealth, and inheritance) are discussed below.

Credit Markets

Whites possess roughly 12 times the wealth of African Americans; in fact, whites near the bottom of the income distribution possess more wealth than blacks near the top of the income distribution ( Oliver & Shapiro 1997 , p. 86). Given that home ownership is one of the most significant sources of wealth accumulation, patterns that affect the value and viability of home ownership will have an impact on wealth disparities overall. Accordingly, the majority of work on discrimination in credit markets focuses on the specific case of mortgages.

Available evidence suggests that blacks and Hispanics face higher rejection rates and less favorable terms in securing mortgages than do whites with similar credit characteristics ( Ross & Yinger 1999 ). Oliver & Shapiro (1997 , p. 142) report that blacks pay more than 0.5% higher interest rates on home mortgages than do whites and that this difference persists with controls for income level, date of purchase, and age of buyer.

The most prominent study of the effect of race on rejection rates for mortgage loans is by Munnell et al. (1996) , which uses 1991 Home Mortgage Disclosure Act data supplemented by data from the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, including individual applicants’ financial, employment, and property background variables that lenders use to calculate the applicants’ probability of default. Accounting for a range of variables linked to risk of default, cost of default, loan characteristics, and personal and neighborhood characteristics, they find that black and Hispanic applications were 82% more likely to be rejected than were those from similar whites. Critics argued that the study was flawed on the basis of the quality of the data collected ( Horne 1994 ), model specification problems ( Glennon & Stengel 1994 ), omitted variables ( Zandi 1993 , Liebowitz 1993 , Horne 1994 , Day & Liebowitz 1996 ), and endogenous explanatory variables (see Ross & Yinger 1999 for a full explication of the opposition), although rejoinders suggest that the race results are affected little by these modifications ( Ross & Yinger 1999 ; S.L. Ross & G.M.B. Tootell, unpublished manuscript).

Audit research corroborates evidence of mortgage discrimination, finding that black testers are less likely to receive a quote for a loan than are white testers and that they are given less time with the loan officer, are quoted higher interest rates, and are given less coaching and less information than are comparable white applicants (for a review, see Ross & Yinger 2002 ).

In addition to investigating the race of the applicant, researchers have investigated the extent to which the race of the neighborhood affects lending decisions, otherwise known as redlining. Although redlining is a well-documented factor in the origins of contemporary racial residential segregation (see Massey & Denton 1993 ), studies after the 1974 Equal Credit Opportunity Act, which outlawed redlining, and since the 1977 Community Reinvestment Act, which made illegal having a smaller pool of mortgage funds available in minority neighborhoods than in similar white neighborhoods, find little evidence of its persistence ( Benston & Horsky 1991 , Schafer & Ladd 1981 , Munnell et al. 1996 ). This conclusion depends in part, however, on one’s definition of neighborhood-based discrimination. Ross & Yinger (1999) distinguish between process-based and outcome-based redlining, with process-based redlining referring to “whether the probability that a loan application is denied is higher in minority neighborhoods than in white neighborhoods, all else equal” whereas outcome-based redlining refers to smaller amounts of mortgage funding available to minority neighborhoods relative to comparable white neighborhoods. Although evidence on both types of redlining is mixed, several studies indicate that, controlling for demand, poor and/or minority neighborhoods have reduced access to mortgage funding, particularly from mainstream lenders ( Phillips-Patrick & Rossi 1996 , Siskin & Cupingood 1996 ; see also Ladd 1998 for methodological issues in measuring redlining).

As a final concern, competition and deregulation of the banking industry have led to greater variability in conditions of loans, prompting the label of the “new inequality” in lending ( Williams et al. 2005 , Holloway 1998 ). Rather than focusing on rejection rates, these researchers focus on the terms and conditions of loans, in particular whether a loan is favorable or subprime ( Williams et al. 2005 , Apgar & Calder 2005 , Squires 2003 ). Immergluck & Wiles (1999) have called this the “dual-mortgage market” in which prime lending is given to higher income and white areas, while subprime and predatory lending is concentrated in lower-income and minority communities (see also Dymski 2006 , pp. 232–36). Williams et al. (2005) , examining changes between 1993 and 2000, find rapid gains in loans to under-served markets from specialized lenders: 78% of the increase in lending to minority neighborhoods was from subprime lenders, and 72% of the increase in refinance lending to blacks was from subprime lenders. Further, the authors find that “even at the highest income level, blacks are almost three times as likely to get their loans from a subprime lender as are others” (p. 197; see also Calem et al. 2004 ). Although the disproportionate rise of subprime lending in minority communities is not solely the result of discrimination, some evidence suggests that in certain cases explicit racial targeting may be at work. In two audit studies in which creditworthy testers approached sub-prime lenders, whites were more likely to be referred to the lenders’ prime borrowing division than were similar black applicants (see Williams et al. 2005 ). Further, subprime lenders quoted the black applicants very high rates, fees, and closing costs that were not correlated with risk ( Williams et al. 2005 ). 4

Not all evidence associated with credit market discrimination is bad news. Indeed, between 1989 and 2000 the number of mortgage loans to blacks and Hispanics nationwide increased 60%, compared with 16% for whites, suggesting that some convergence is taking place ( Turner et al. 2002 ). Nevertheless, the evidence indicates that blacks and Hispanics continue to face higher rejection rates and receive less favorable terms than whites of equal credit risk. At the time of this writing, the U.S. housing market is witnessing high rates of loan defaults and foreclosures, resulting in large part from the rise in unregulated subprime lending; the consequences of these trends for deepening racial inequalities have yet to be fully explored.

Consumer Markets

Relative to employment, housing, and credit markets, far less research focuses on discrimination in consumer transactions. Nevertheless, there are some salient disparities. A 2005 report by New Jersey Citizen Action using data from two New Jersey lawsuits found that, between 1993 and 2000, blacks and Hispanics were disproportionately subject to financing markup charges at car dealerships, with minority customers paying an average of $339 more than whites with similar credit histories. Harris et al. (2005) analyze federal court cases of consumer discrimination filed from 1990 to 2002, examining the dimensions of subtle and overt degradation (including extended waiting periods, prepay requirements, and higher prices, as well as increased surveillance and verbal and/or physical attacks) and subtle and overt denial of goods and services. They report cases filed in hotels, restaurants, gas stations, grocery/food stores, clothing stores, department stores, home improvement stores, and office equipment stores filed by members of many racial minority groups. Likewise, Feagin & Sikes (1994) document the myriad circumstances in which their middle-class African American respondents report experiences of discrimination, ranging from poor service in restaurants to heightened surveillance in department stores to outright harassment in public accommodations. Together, these studies suggest that discrimination in consumer markets continues to impose both psychic and financial costs on minority consumers.

Much of the empirical work on discrimination in consumer markets has focused specifically on the case of car purchases, which, aside from housing, represent one of the most significant forms of personal consumption expenditures ( Council of Economic Advisers 1997 , table B-14). 5 Ayres & Siegelman (1995) conducted an audit study in Chicago in which testers posed as customers seeking to purchase a new car, approaching dealers with identical rehearsed bargaining strategies. The results show that dealers were less flexible in their negotiations with blacks, resulting in a significant disparity in the ultimate distribution of prices (relative to white men, black men and black women paid on average $1132 and $446 more, respectively) ( Ayres 1995 ). Although analyses using microdata have come to more mixed conclusions about the relevance of race in actual car purchase prices (see Goldberg 1996 , Morton et al. 2003 ), the audit evidence suggests that simply equating information, strategy, and credit background is insufficient to eliminate the effects of race on a customer’s bargaining position.

Although much of the literature on consumer discrimination focuses on the race of the individual customer, a few studies have also investigated the effects of community characteristics on the pricing of goods and services. Graddy (1997) , for example, investigated discrimination in pricing among fast food chains on the basis of the race and income characteristics of a local area. Using information about prices from over 400 fast food restaurants, matched with 1990 census data for zip code–level income, race, crime, and population density, and controlling for a host of neighborhood, business, and state-level characteristics, the author finds that a 50% increase in a zip code’s percent black is associated with a 5% increase in the price of a meal, corresponding to roughly 15 cents per meal. The study is a useful example of how discrimination, especially in consumer markets, might be examined as a function of segregated residential patterns, suggesting a more contextualized approach to studying discrimination (see also Moore & Roux 2006 ).

Evidence of consumer discrimination points to a range of situations in which minority customers receive poorer service or pay more than their white counterparts. Although few individual incidents represent debilitating experiences in and of themselves, the accumulation of such experiences over a lifetime may represent an important source of chronic stress ( Kessler et al. 1990 ) or distrust of mainstream institutions ( Feagin & Sikes 1994 , Bobo & Thompson 2006 ). Indeed, the cumulative costs of racial discrimination are likely to be far higher than any single study can document.

WHAT CAUSES DISCRIMINATION?

Measuring the prevalence of discrimination is difficult; identifying its causes is far more so. Patterns of discrimination can be shaped by influences at many different levels, and the specific mechanisms at work are often difficult to observe. Following Reskin (2003) , in this discussion we consider influences that operate at the individual, organizational, and societal level. Each level of analysis contains its own range of dynamics that may instigate or mediate expressions of discrimination. Although by no means an exhaustive catalog, this discussion provides some insight into the range of factors that may underlie various forms of discriminatory behavior.

Intrapsychic Factors

Much of the theoretical work on discrimination aims to understand what motivates actors to discriminate along racial lines. Although internal motivations are difficult to measure empirically ( Reskin 2003 ), their relevance to the understanding and conceptualization of discrimination has been central ( Quillian 2006 ). Classical works in this area emphasized the role of prejudice or racial animus as key underpinnings of discrimination, with feelings and beliefs about the inferiority or undesirability of certain racial groups associated with subsequent disadvantaging behavior ( Allport 1954 , Pettigrew 1982 ). Conceptualizations of prejudice range from individual-level factors, such as an authoritarian personality ( Adorno et al. 1950 ) or a “taste for discrimination” ( Becker 1957 ), to more instrumental concerns over group competition and status closure ( Blumer 1958 , Blalock 1956 , Jackman 1994 , Tilly 1998 ).

Scholars have characterized changes in the nature of racial prejudice over the past 50 years—as expressed through racial attitudes— as shifting toward the endorsement of equal treatment by race and a repudiation of overt forms of prejudice and discrimination ( Schuman et al. 2001 ). Some, however, question the degree to which these visible changes reflect the true underlying sentiments of white Americans or rather a more superficial commitment to racial equality. Theories of “symbolic racism” ( Kinder & Sears 1981 ), “modern racism” ( McConahay 1986 ), and “laissez-faire racism” ( Bobo et al. 1997 ), for example, each point to the disconnect between attitudes of principle (e.g., racial equality as an ideal) and policy attitudes (e.g., government action to achieve those ideals) as indicative of limited change in underlying racial attitudes (but see Sniderman et al. 1991 for a countervailing view). These new formulations of prejudice include a blending of negative affect and beliefs about members of certain groups with more abstract political ideologies that reinforce the status quo.

Whereas sociological research on prejudice is based largely on explicit attitudes measured through large-scale surveys, psychologists have increasingly turned to measures of implicit prejudice, or forms of racial bias that operate without conscious awareness yet can influence cognition, affect, and behavior ( Greenwald & Banaji 1995 , Fazio & Olson 2003 ). Experiments in which subjects are unconsciously primed with words or images associated with African Americans reveal strong negative racial associations, even among those who consciously repudiate prejudicial beliefs. Whereas the links between explicit and implicit forms of prejudice and between implicit prejudice and behavior remain less well understood, the presence of widespread unconscious racial biases has been firmly established across a multitude of contexts (see Lane et al. 2007 ).

Parallel to the study of racial prejudice (the more affective component of racial attitudes) is a rich history of research on racial stereotypes (a more cognitive component). Whereas many general racial attitudes have shifted toward more egalitarian beliefs, the content and valence of racial stereotypes appears to have changed little over time ( Devine & Elliot 1995 , Lane et al. 2007 ). 6 White Americans continue to associate African Americans with characteristics such as lazy, violence-prone, and welfare-dependent and Hispanics with characteristics such as poor, unintelligent, and unpatriotic ( Smith 1991 , Bobo & Kluegel 1997 ). Culturally embedded stereotypes about racial differences are reflected in both conscious and unconscious evaluations ( Greenwald & Banaji 1995 ) and may set the stage for various forms of discriminatory treatment ( Farley et al. 1994 ).

Researchers differ in perspectives regarding the cognitive utility and accuracy of stereotypes. Whereas many social psychologists view stereotypes as “faulty or inflexible generalization[s]” ( Allport 1954 ), economic theories of statistical discrimination emphasize the cognitive utility of group estimates as a means of dealing with the problems of uncertainty ( Phelps 1972 , Arrow 1972 ). Group-level estimates of difficult-to-observe characteristics (such as average productivity levels or risk of loan default) may provide useful information in the screening of individual applicants. Although some important research questions the accuracy of group-level estimates (e.g., Bielby & Baron 1986 ), the mechanism proposed in models of statistical discrimination—rational actors operating under conditions of uncertainty—differ substantially from those based on racial prejudice. Indeed, much of the literature across the various domains discussed above attempts to discern whether discrimination stems primarily from racial animus or from these more instrumental adaptations to information shortages (e.g., Ayres & Siegelman 1995 ).

The various factors discussed here, including prejudice, group competition, modern racism, stereotypes, and statistical discrimination, represent just a few of the varied intrapsychic influences that may affect discrimination. It is important to emphasize, however, that the behavioral manifestation of discrimination does not allow one readily to assume any particular underlying intrapsychic motivation, just as a lack of discrimination does not presume the absence of prejudice (see Merton 1970 ). Continued efforts to measure the processes by which internal states translate into discriminatory action [or what Reskin (2003) calls a shift from “motives” to “mechanisms”] will help to illuminate the underlying causes of contemporary racial discrimination.

Organizational Factors

Beyond the range of interpersonal and intrapsychic factors that may influence discrimination, a large body of work directs our attention toward the organizational contexts in which individual actors operate. Baron & Bielby’s (1980) classic article established a central role for organizations in stratification research, arguing for a framework that links “the ‘macro’ and ‘micro’ dimensions of work organization and inequality” (p. 738). More recent theoretical and empirical advances in the field of discrimination have maintained a strong interest in the role of organizations as a key structural context shaping inequality.

Tilly’s (1998) analysis of durable inequality emphasizes the importance of organizational dynamics in creating and maintaining group boundaries. “Durable inequality arises because people who control access to value-producing resources solve pressing organizational problems by means of categorical distinctions” (p. 8). Although actors “rarely set out to manufacture inequality as such,” their efforts to secure access to valued resources by distinguishing between insiders and outsiders, ensuring solidarity and loyalty, and monopolizing important knowledge often make use of (and thereby reinforce the salience of) established categories in the service of facilitating organizational goals (p. 11). Tilly’s analysis places organizational structure at the center stage, arguing that “the reduction or intensification of racist, sexist, or xenophobic attitudes will have relatively little impact on durable inequality, whereas the introduction of new organizational forms … will have great impact” (p. 15). In line with these arguments, an important line of sociological research has sought to map the dimensions of organizational structures that may attenuate or exacerbate the use of categorical distinctions and, correspondingly, the incidence of discrimination ( Vallas 2003 ).

Much of the empirical literature exploring organizational mechanisms of discrimination has focused specifically on how organizational practices mediate the cognitive biases and stereotypes of actors ( Baron & Pfeffer 1994 ). Indeed, Reskin (2000) argues that “the proximate cause of most discrimination is whether and how personnel practices in work organizations constrain the biasing effects of… automatic cognitive processes” (p. 320). Petersen & Saporta (2004) take a bolder stance, starting with the assumption that “discrimination is widespread, and employers discriminate if they can get away with it” (p. 856). Rather than asking why employers discriminate, then, these authors look to the “opportunity structure for discrimination” (in their case, features of job ladders within organizations) that allow or inhibit the expression of discriminatory tendencies (pp. 855–56).

In the following discussion, we briefly consider several important themes relevant to the literature on organizational mechanisms of discrimination. In particular, we examine how organizational structure and practices influence the cognitive and social psychological processes of decision makers (the role of formalized organizational procedures and diversity initiatives), how organizational practices create disparate outcomes that may be independent of decision makers (the role of networks), and how organizations respond to their broader environment.

The role of formalization

One important debate in this literature focuses on the degree to which formalized organizational procedures can mitigate discrimination by limiting individual discretion. The case of the military ( Moskos & Butler 1996 ), for example, and the public sector more generally ( DiPrete & Soule 1986 , Moulton 1990 ) provide examples in which highly rationalized systems of hiring, promotion, and remuneration are associated with an increasing representation of minorities, greater racial diversity in positions of authority, and a smaller racial wage gap. Likewise, in the private sector, formal and systematic protocols for personnel management decisions are associated with increases in the representation of racial minorities ( Reskin et al. 1999 , Szafran 1982 , Mittman 1992 ), and the use of concrete performance indicators and formalized evaluation systems has been associated with reductions in racial bias in performance evaluations ( Krieger 1995 , Reskin 2000 ).

Individual discretion has been associated with the incidence of discrimination in credit markets as well. For example, Squires (1994) finds that credit history irregularities on policy applications were often selectively overlooked in the case of white applicants. Conversely, Gates et al. (2002) report that the use of automated underwriting systems (removing lender discretion) was associated with a nearly 30% increase in the approval rate for minority and low-income clients and at the same time more accurately predicted default than traditional methods. These findings suggest that formalized procedures can help to reduce racial bias in ways that are consistent with goals of organizational efficiency.

At the same time, increased bureaucratization does not necessarily mitigate discriminatory effects. According to Bielby (2000) , rules and procedures are themselves subject to the influence of groups inside and outside the organization who “mobilize resources in a way that advances their interests,” with competition between groups potentially undermining the neutrality of bureaucratic procedures ( Bielby 2000 , p. 123; see also Ross & Yinger 2002 , Acker 1989 ). Additionally, there is evidence that formalized criteria are often selectively enforced, with greater flexibility or leeway applied in the case of majority groups ( Wilson et al. 1999 , Squires 1994 ). Likewise, indications of racial bias in performance evaluations cast doubt on the degree to which even formalized assessments of work quality can escape the influence of race ( McKay & McDaniel 2006 ). The degree to which formalization can reduce or eliminate discrimination, thus, remains open to debate, with effects depending on the specific context of implementation.

Diversity initiatives

Since the passage of Title VII in the 1964 Civil Rights Act, most large organizations have taken active steps to signal compliance with antidiscrimination laws. Deliberate organizational efforts to address issues of discrimination (or the perception thereof), either in disparate treatment or disparate impact, often are labeled as diversity initiatives, and these practices are widespread. Winterle (1992) cites a 1991 survey of organizations demonstrating that roughly two-thirds provided diversity training for managers, half provided a statement on diversity from top management, and roughly one-third provided diversity training for employees and/or had a diversity task force (see also Wheeler 1995 , Edelman et al. 2001 ). Not all such initiatives, however, have any proven relationship to actual diversity outcomes. Kalev et al. (2006) examine the efficacy of active organizational efforts to promote diversity, focusing specifically on three of the most common organizational practices: the implementation of organizational accountability by creating new positions or taskforces designed specifically to address diversity issues, managerial bias training, and mentoring and network practices. They find that practices designed to increase organizational authority and accountability are the most effective in increasing the number of women and minorities in management positions. Networking and mentoring programs appear somewhat useful, whereas programs focused on reducing bias (e.g., diversity training) have little effect. These results suggest that organizational initiatives to reduce racial disparities can be effective, but primarily when implemented with concrete goals to which organizational leadership is held accountable. 7

Taking a broader look at race-targeted employment policies, Holzer & Neumark (2000) investigate the effects of affirmative action on the recruitment and employment of minorities and women. They find that affirmative action is associated with increases in the number of recruitment and screening practices used by employers, increases in the number of minority applicants and employees, and increases in employers’ tendencies to provide training and formal evaluations of employees. Although the use of affirmative action in hiring is associated with somewhat weaker credentials among minority hires, actual job performance appears unaffected.

The role of networks

In addition to examining how organizational policies and practices shape the behavior of decision makers and gatekeepers, researchers must acknowledge that some mechanisms relevant to the perpetuation of categorical inequality might operate independently of the actions of individuals. Indeed, many organizational policies or procedures can impose disparate impact along racial lines with little direct influence from individual decision makers. The case of networks represents one important example. The role of networks in hiring practices is extremely well documented, with networks generally viewed as an efficient strategy for matching workers to employers with advantages for both job seekers (e.g., Granovetter 1995 ) and employers (e.g., Fernandez et al. 2000 ). At the same time, given high levels of social segregation (e.g., McPherson et al. 2001 ), the use of referrals is likely to reproduce the existing racial composition of the company and to exclude members of those groups not already well represented ( Braddock & McPartland 1987 ). In an analysis of noncollege jobs, controlling for spatial segregation, occupational segregation, city, and firm size, Mouw (2002) finds that the use of employee referrals in predominantly white firms reduces the probability of a black hire by nearly 75% relative to the use of newspaper ads. 8 Petersen et al. (2000) using data on a high-technology organization over a 10-year period find that race differences in hiring are eliminated when the method of referral is considered, suggesting that the impact of social networks on hiring outcomes is strong and may be more important than any direct action taken by organization members. Irrespective of an employer’s personal racial attitudes, the use of employee referrals is likely to reproduce the existing racial composition of an organization, restricting valuable employment opportunities from excluded groups (see also Royster 2003 , Waldinger & Lichter 2003 ).

Networks and network composition may matter not only for the purposes of obtaining information and referrals for jobs, but also within jobs for the purposes of informal mentoring, contacts, and relevant information important to advancement ( Ibarra 1993 , Grodsky & Pager 2001 ). Mechanisms of homosocial reproduction, or informal preferences for members of one’s own group, can lead to network configurations of informal mentorship and sponsorship that contribute to the preservation of existing status hierarchies ( Kanter 1977 ; see also Elliot & Smith 2001 , Sturm 2001 ). The wide-ranging economic consequences that follow from segregated social networks corresponds to what Loury (2001 , p. 452) refers to as the move from “discrimination in contract” to “discrimination in contact.” According to Loury, whereas earlier forms of discrimination primarily reflected explicit differences in the treatment of racial groups, contemporary forms of discrimination are more likely to be perpetuated through informal networks of opportunity that, though ostensibly race-neutral, systematically disadvantage members of historically excluded groups.

Organizations in context

Much of the research discussed above considers the organization as a context in which decisions and procedures that affect discriminatory treatment are shaped. But organizations themselves are likewise situated within a larger context, with prevailing economic, legal, and social environments conditioning organizational responses ( Reskin 2003 ). When labor markets expand or contract, organizations shift their recruitment and termination/retention strategies in ways that adapt to these broader forces (e.g., Freeman & Rodgers 1999 ). When antidiscrimination laws are passed or amended, organizations respond in ways that signal compliance ( Dobbin et al. 1993 ), with the impact of these measures varying according to shifting levels or strategies of government enforcement ( Kalev & Dobbin 2006 , Leonard 1985 ). At the same time, organizations are not merely passive recipients of the larger economic and legal context. In the case of the legal environment, for example, organizations play an active role in interpreting and shaping the ways that laws are translated into practice. Edelman (1992) , Dobbin et al. (1993) , and Dobbin & Sutton (1998) have each demonstrated ways in which the U.S. federal government’s lack of clear guidance regarding compliance with antidiscrimination laws and regulations allowed organizations to establish and legitimate their own compliance measures. According to Edelman (1992 , p. 1542), “organizations do not simply ignore or circumvent weak law, but rather construct compliance in a way that, at least in part, fits their interests.” Organizational actors, then, can wind up playing the dual role of both defining and demonstrating compliance, with important implications for the nature, strength, and impact of antidiscrimination laws and likewise for the patterns of discrimination that emerge in these contexts.

Organizations occupy a unique position with respect to shaping patterns of discrimination. They mediate both the cognitive and attitudinal biases of actors within the organization as well as the influence of broader economic and legal pressures applied from beyond. Recognizing the specific features of organizational action that affect patterns of discrimination represents one of the most important contributions of sociological research in this area. To date, the vast majority of organizational research has focused on the context of labor markets; investigations of organizational functioning in other domains (e.g., real estate, retail sales, lending institutions) would do much to further our understanding of how collective policies and practices shape the expression of discrimination.

Structural Factors

The majority of research on discrimination focuses on dynamics between individuals or small groups. It is easiest to conceptualize discrimination in terms of the actions of specific individuals, with the attitudes, prejudices, and biases of majority group members shaping actions toward minority group members. And yet, it is important to recognize that each of these decisions takes place within a broader social context. Members of racial minority groups may be systematically disadvantaged not only by the willful acts of particular individuals, but because the prevailing system of opportunities and constraints favors the success of one group over another. In addition to the organizational factors discussed above, broader structural features of a society can contribute to unequal outcomes through the ordinary functioning of its cultural, economic, and political systems (see also National Research Council 2004 , chapter 11). The term structural discrimination has been used loosely in the literature, along with concepts such as institutional discrimination and structural or institutional racism, to refer to the range of policies and practices that contribute to the systematic disadvantage of members of certain groups. In the following discussion, we consider three distinct conceptualizations of structural discrimination, each of which draws our attention to the broader, largely invisible contexts in which group-based inequalities may be structured and reproduced.

A legacy of historical discrimination

This first conceptualization of structural discrimination stands furthest from conventional definitions of discrimination as an active and ongoing form of racial bias. By focusing on the legacies of past discrimination, this emphasis remains agnostic about the relevance of contemporary forms of discrimination that may further heighten or exacerbate existing inequalities. And yet, the emphasis on structural discrimination—as opposed to just inequality— directs our attention to the array of discriminatory actions that brought about present day inequalities. The origins of contemporary racial wealth disparities, for example, have well-established links to historical practices of redlining, housing covenants, racially targeted federal housing policies, and other forms of active discrimination within housing and lending markets (e.g., Massey & Denton 1993 ). Setting aside evidence of continuing discrimination in each of these domains, these historical practices themselves are sufficient to maintain extraordinarily high levels of wealth inequality through the intergenerational transition of advantage (the ability to invest in good neighborhoods, good schools, college, housing assistance for adult children, etc.) ( Oliver & Shapiro 1997 ). According to Conley (1999) , even if we were to eliminate all contemporary forms of discrimination, huge racial wealth disparities would persist, which in turn underlie racial inequalities in schooling, employment, and other social domains (see also Lieberson & Fuguitt 1967 ). Recent work based on formal modeling suggests that the effects of past discrimination, particularly as mediated by ongoing forms of social segregation, are likely to persist well into the future, even in the absence of ongoing discrimination (see Bowles et al. 2007 , Lundberg & Startz 1998 ).

These historical sources of discrimination may become further relevant, not only in their perpetuation of present-day inequalities, but also through their reinforcement of contemporary forms of stereotypes and discrimination. As in Myrdal’s (1944) “principle of cumulation,” structural disadvantages (e.g., poverty, joblessness, crime) come to be seen as cause, rather than consequence, of persistent racial inequality, justifying and reinforcing negative racial stereotypes (pp. 75–78). Bobo et al. (1997 , p. 23) argue that “sharp black-white economic inequality and residential segregation…provide the kernel of truth needed to regularly breathe new life into old stereotypes about putative black proclivities toward involvement in crime, violence, and welfare dependency.” The perpetuation of racial inequality through structural and institutional channels can thus be conducive to reinforcing negative racial stereotypes and shifting blame toward minorities for their own disadvantage (see also Sunstein 1991 , p. 32; Fiske et al. 2002 ).

Contemporary state policies and practices

This second conceptualization of structural discrimination accords more with conventional understandings of the term, placing its emphasis on those contemporary policies and practices that systematically disadvantage certain groups. Paradigmatic cases of structural discrimination include the caste system in India, South Africa under apartheid, or the United States during Jim Crow—each of these representing societies in which the laws and cultural institutions manufactured and enforced systematic inequalities based on group membership. Although the vestiges of Jim Crow have long since disappeared in the contemporary United States, there remain features of American society that may contribute to persistent forms of structural discrimination (see Massey 2007 , Feagin 2006 ).

One example is the provision of public education in the United States. According to Orfield & Lee (2005 , p. 18), more than 60% of black and Latino students attend high poverty schools, compared with 30% of Asians and 18% of whites. In addition to funding disparities across these schools, based on local property taxes, the broader resources of schools in poor neighborhoods are substantially limited: Teachers in poor and minority schools are likely to have less experience, shorter tenure, and emergency credentials rather than official teaching certifications ( Orfield & Lee 2005 ).At the same time, schools in high poverty neighborhoods are faced with a greater incidence of social problems, including teen pregnancy, gang involvement, and unstable households ( Massey & Denton 1993 ). With fewer resources, these schools are expected to manage a wider array of student needs. The resulting lower quality of education common in poor and minority school districts places these students at a disadvantage in competing for future opportunities ( Massey 2006 ).

A second relevant example comes from the domain of criminal justice policy. Although evidence of racial discrimination at selective decision points in the criminal justice system is weak ( Sampson & Lauritsen 1997 ), the unprecedented growth of the criminal justice system over the past 30 years has had a vastly disproportionate effect on African Americans. 9 Currently, nearly one out of three young black men will spend time in prison during his lifetime, a figure that rises to nearly 60% among young black high school dropouts ( Bonczar & Beck 1997 , Pettit & Western 2004 ). Given the wide array of outcomes negatively affected by incarceration—including family formation, housing, employment, political participation, and health—decisions about crime policy, even when race-neutral in content, represent a critical contemporary source of racial disadvantage ( Pattillo et al. 2003 , Pager 2007b , Manza & Uggen 2006 ).

These examples point to contexts in which ostensibly race-neutral policies can structure and reinforce existing social inequalities. According to Omi & Winant (1994) , “through policies which are explicitly or implicitly racial, state institutions organize and enforce the racial politics of everyday life. For example, they enforce racial (non)discrimination policies, which they administer, arbitrate, and encode in law. They organize racial identities by means of education, family law, and the procedures for punishment, treatment, and surveillance of the criminal, deviant and ill” (p. 83). Even without any willful intent, policies can play an active role in designating the beneficiaries and victims of a particular system of resource allocation, with important implications for enduring racial inequalities.

Accumulation of disadvantage

This third category of structural discrimination draws our attention to how the effects of discrimination in one domain or at one point in time may have consequences for a broader range of outcomes. Through spillover effects across domains, processes of cumulative (dis)advantage across the life course, and feedback effects, the effects of discrimination can intensify and, in some cases, become self-sustaining.

Although traditional measures of discrimination focus on individual decision points (e.g., the decision to hire, to rent, to offer a loan), the effects of these decisions may extend into other relevant domains. Discrimination in credit markets, for example, contributes to higher rates of loan default, with negative implications for minority entrepreneurship, home ownership, and wealth accumulation ( Oliver & Shapiro 1997 ). Discrimination in housing markets contributes to residential segregation, which is associated with concentrated disadvantage ( Massey & Denton 1993 ), poor health outcomes ( Williams 2004 ), and limited educational and employment opportunities ( Massey & Fischer 2006 , Fernandez & Su 2004 ). Single point estimates of discrimination within a particular domain may substantially underestimate the cumulative effects of discrimination over time and the ways in which discrimination in one domain can trigger disadvantage in many others.

In addition to linkages across domains, the effects of discrimination may likewise span forward in time, with the cumulative impact of discrimination magnifying initial effects. Blau & Ferber (1987) , for example, point to how the channeling of men and women into different job types at career entry “will virtually ensure sex differences in productivity, promotion opportunities, and pay” (p. 51). Small differences in starting points can have large effects over the life course (and across generations), even in the absence of continuing discrimination [for a rich discussion of cumulative (dis)advantage, see DiPrete & Eirich (2006) ].

Finally, anticipated or experienced discrimination can lead to adaptations that intensify initial effects. Research points to diminished effort or valuation of schooling ( Ogbu 1991 ), lower investments in skill-building ( Farmer & Terrell 1996 ), and reduced labor force participation ( Castillo 1998 ) as possible responses to perceived discrimination against oneself or members of one’s group. These adaptations can easily be coded as choices rather than constraints, as characteristics to be controlled for in estimates of discrimination rather than included as one part of that estimate. And yet, for an understanding of the full range of effects associated with discrimination, these indirect pathways and self-fulfilling prophesies should likewise be examined (see Loury 2002 , pp. 26– 33).

A focus on structural and institutional sources of discrimination encourages us to consider how opportunities may be allocated on the basis of race in the absence of direct prejudice or willful bias. It is difficult to capture the structural and cumulative consequences of discrimination using traditional research designs; advances in this area will require creative new approaches (see National Research Council 2004 , chapter 11). Nevertheless, for an accurate accounting of the impact of discrimination, we must recognize how historical practices and contemporary policies may contribute to ongoing and cumulative forms of racial discrimination.

Discrimination is not the only cause of racial disparities in the United States. Indeed, persistent inequality between racial and ethnic groups is the product of complex and multifaceted influences. Nevertheless, the weight of existing evidence suggests that discrimination does continue to affect the allocation of contemporary opportunities; and, further, given the often covert, indirect, and cumulative nature of these effects, our current estimates may in fact understate the degree to which discrimination contributes to the poor social and economic outcomes of minority groups. Although great progress has been made since the early 1960s, the problem of racial discrimination remains an important factor in shaping contemporary patterns of social and economic inequality.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank Barbara Reskin, Douglas Massey, Frank Dobbin, and Lincoln Quillian for their generous comments and suggestions. Support for this research came from grants from NSF (SES-0547810) and NIH (K01-HD053694). The second author also received support from an NSF Graduate Research Fellowship.

1 Dovidio & Gaertner (2000) also examined changes over time, comparing parallel data collected at two time points, 1989 and 1999. Although the level of self-reported prejudice declined significantly over the decade, the extent of discrimination did not change.

2 Field experiments that rely on contact by mail (rather than in person) are referred to as correspondence studies. Although these studies are typically limited to a more restricted range of job openings than are in-person audit studies, and although the signaling of race is some what more complicated (see Fryer & Levitt 2004 for a discussion of the race-class association among distinctively African American names), these studies are not vulnerable to the concerns over experimenter effects that are relevant in in-person studies (see Heckman 1998 ). For a review of correspondence studies in international contexts, including a range of ethnic groups, see Riach & Rich (2002) .

3 Asian renters and homebuyers experienced similar levels of consistent adverse treatment, though the effects were not statistically significant for renters. The highest levels of discrimination among the groups was experienced by Native American renters, for whom reduced access to information comprised the bulk of differential treatment ( Turner & Ross 2003a , b ).

4 See Stuart (2003) for a useful discussion of how economic risk became defined in the mortgage lending industry and how this approach has impacted discrimination.

5 There is also a growing literature in economics that focuses on online auctions (e.g., eBay®), allowing researchers to test theories about consumer discrimination in more highly controlled (but real-world) environments (e.g., List 2004 ).

6 Indeed, social psychological research points to the hardwired tendency toward categorization, with preferences for in-groups and the stereotyping of out–groups a natural outgrowth of human cognition ( Fiske 1998 ). Although the social context certainly shapes the boundaries of social groups and the content of stereotypes, this cognitive impulse likely contributes to the resilience of social categorization and stereotypes ( Massey 2007 ).

7 Note, however, that the creation of new positions for diversity management may have its own disadvantages, inadvertently diverting minority employees away from more desirable management trajectories. Collins (1989 , 1993 ), for example, finds that upwardly mobile blacks are frequently tracked into racialized management jobs or into jobs that specifically deal with diversity issues, with black customers, or with relations with the black community. According to Collins, these jobs are also characterized by greater vulnerability to downsizing and fewer opportunities for advancement.

8 Mouw (2002) does not find evidence that this sorting process affects aggregate employment rates, although the segregation of job opportunities is itself associated with racial differences in job quality and stability ( Parcel & Mueller 1983 ).

9 The case of drug policy and enforcement is one area for which evidence of direct racial discrimination is stronger (see Beckett et al. 2005 , Tonry 1995 ).

DISCLOSURE STATEMENT

The authors are not aware of any biases that might be perceived as affecting the objectivity of this review.

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Stigma and Discrimination Research Toolkit

The Stigma and Discrimination Research toolkit is a collection of evidence and resources related to stigma and discrimination research. Health-related stigma and discrimination research has produced theories, models, frameworks, measures, methods, and interventions that can be applied across conditions and populations to help reduce the impact of stigma and discrimination.

This toolkit may be helpful for researchers, government officials looking to incorporate research into policy, community agencies, and various other stakeholders across disciplines and sectors. This toolkit includes a special emphasis for those looking to address stigma and discrimination issues related to the coronavirus (COVID-19)  pandemic.

This toolkit was developed by NIMH, in partnership with the Fogarty International Center (FIC), the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), and the NIH Stigma Scientific Interest Group.

Note: These resources are provided for informational purposes only. These are not comprehensive lists and do not constitute an endorsement by NIMH, FIC, NIDA, the National Institutes of Health, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, or the U.S. government.

About Stigma

Stigma is a social phenomenon that involves negative attitudes (prejudices) or beliefs (stereotypes) about others typically (but not always) based on defining characteristics such as sexuality or health conditions (e.g., HIV, mental illness, or substance use) that are perceived to be contagious, dangerous, or incurable. It is relational in nature as occurring in the context of power. Goffman defined stigma as “an attribute that is deeply discrediting” that reduces the individual “from a whole and usual person to a tainted, discounted one.” [1]    Stigma and the process of stigmatization consists of identifying and labeling a “difference,” linking a labeled person to undesirable characteristics, and separating “them” from “us”; thus, the stigmatized group (“them”) subsequently experiences discrimination and loss of status in the context of social, economic and political power. For example:

• Health-related stigma happens when people have or are associated with a specific health condition perceived as undesirable. As a result of this stigma, they may avoid seeking screening or treatment or are treated differently or poorly by others because of it.
• Health-related discrimination is discrimination based on a health condition, disease, or another health-related issue. It may occur in the workplace, health care, education, housing, and other settings.

There are multiple types of health-related stigma, including:  

• Internalized stigma: The individual believes they are bad or at fault for having a health condition
• Enacted stigma: The individual experiences discrimination from others because they are known or believed to have a health condition
• Anticipated stigma: The individual expects or fears future discrimination due to the health condition
• Associated stigma: Others, such as family members or healthcare workers, experience discrimination because of their proximity to those with a health condition.
• Perceived stigma: An individual’s perceptions about how stigmatized groups are treated due to a health condition.

Stigma exists at multiple levels:

• Individual level: A person’s cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses to facing or experiencing stigma, including concealment and disclosure, internalization, and stigma consciousness
• Interpersonal level: Discrimination as expressed by one person toward another, manifesting in ways such as lack of respect, devaluation, and dehumanization
• Structural level: Societal-level conditions, cultural norms, and institutional policies that constrain the opportunities, resources, and well-being of the stigmatized [ 2   ]

Stigma’s Impact on Health

Research shows that health-related stigma for any condition is not just a social problem. It can have detrimental impacts on how health care is sought, accessed, and delivered, and slow scientific progress. Stigma is also associated with poor health outcomes and reduced service utilization. For example, stigma related to conditions like HIV, tuberculosis, epilepsy, and substance use, increases the likelihood that the individual will develop a related mental disorder like depression or anxiety. In addition, research shows that stigma reduces quality of life and makes individuals less likely to seek out needed care.

Language and Stigma

The language we use to talk about health plays a crucial role in shaping opinions and beliefs about a disease or condition, and the people affected. Scientific and medical terminology typically used by the research community may inadvertently create or perpetuate stereotypes about diseases or drive fear and “othering.”

Proactively using language that empowers individuals and communities, and takes patient experience into account, can help individuals communicate about health in a non-stigmatizing way. The below language guides offer examples.

• National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) HIV Language Guide   : When scientists and administrators write or speak about HIV, the words they choose have the power to passively perpetuate ignorance and bias. Conversely, they have the power to represent people and ideas respectfully and accurately. This guide was designed to help those at NIAID communicate about their work using empowering rather than stigmatizing language, especially as it relates to HIV. This guide includes information on conditions and populations related to and affected by HIV, including tuberculosis, disability, older adults, and race, ethnic, and cultural identities.
• National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) Preferred Language for Talking About Addiction   : Addiction is a chronic but treatable health condition. Often unintentionally, many people still talk about addiction in ways that are stigmatizing—meaning they use words that can portray someone with a substance use disorder (SUD) in a shameful or negative way that may prevent individuals from seeking treatment for SUDs. With simple changes in language, stigma and negativity around SUDs can be reduced or avoided. This resource discusses what stigma is, how it affects people with SUD, and how to change language usage.

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Explaining and Comparing Ethnic and Racial Discrimination

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Racism, harassment and discrimination take a terrible toll on ethnic minority NHS staff, says researcher

by Rebecca Rhead, The Conversation

During the COVID-19 pandemic, a time filled with uncertainty and fear, ethnically minoritised NHS staff have not only had to contend with the virus but also a workplace fraught with inequalities.

Recent reports highlight concerning—and ongoing—issues for these NHS staff. For example, ethnically minoritised nurses face significant obstacles in securing promotions or new positions , and ethnically minoritised ambulance staff are twice as likely to suffer discrimination . These revelations confirm the persistent racial inequalities within the NHS, underscoring the urgent need for systemic change.

Such challenges harm not only their health and well-being but also the quality of care they provide at work. Moreover, these challenges have implications for their career progression and intentions to remain in the NHS—underfunded and overstretched as it is. Ultimately, the health of the NHS workforce has a big impact on the health of the nation.

As part of a team of researchers, I conducted a survey during the pandemic to identify inequalities in workplace experiences and to assess the health and well-being of staff. Participants included 4,622 NHS staff from across 18 NHS Trusts in England, between February and October 2021.

Our survey was developed with the Tackling Inequalities and Discrimination Experiences in Health Services (Tides) project , a national stakeholder group, as well as NHS peer researchers. It was part of the broader NHS Check study , which aimed to assess NHS staff well-being during the pandemic.

Consistently bleak picture

We found that staff from black, mixed and other ethnically minoritized groups were more likely to face difficulties accessing personal protective equipment (PPE) than their white British colleagues, and also more likely to experience harassment and discrimination from fellow staff members during the pandemic.

These findings align with similar studies such as the UK-Reach study of ethnicity and COVID-19 outcomes in health care workers, and the NHS's own staff survey . All paint a consistently bleak picture of the challenges faced by ethnically minoritised groups within the NHS.

This situation was compounded by a consistent increase in harassment and discrimination that was identified in the years preceding the pandemic.

It echoes findings from my past research, conducted in London Trusts . This study found that ethnic minority staff were more likely to experience and witness bullying and discrimination. Such experiences were associated with poor health outcomes, low job satisfaction, and increased sick leave.

The toll on NHS staff health from negative workplace experiences is significant. Our latest findings indicate a link between adverse working conditions and poorer levels of physical and mental health. The unavailability of PPE was associated with an approximately twofold increase in depression and anxiety. Harassment and discrimination were associated with a threefold increase.

Overall, 23% of our survey participants reported symptoms suggesting probable depression, while 18% appeared to have probable anxiety. And 23% experienced medium-to-severe somatic symptoms—chronic physical symptoms that coincide with emotional problems.

How to address these issues

Our study also identified that awareness of employment rights is essential to the mental health of ethnic minority staff. For example, the survey showed an association between involvement in redeployment decisions and better mental health outcomes. One recommendation is that all NHS staff should be educated on their employment rights and provided with knowledge of, and access to, available support systems.

This would ensure they are able to advocate for themselves and their colleagues. It would offer more opportunities to engage in discussions, provide feedback, and question decisions concerning their working conditions without fear of negative consequences.

Our team's previous research found that ethnically minoritised NHS staff often feel disempowered and fear the repercussions of speaking out against their working conditions. These concerns can be grave enough that affected staff transfer to different teams or quit the NHS altogether to escape these organizational inequities.

Innovative approaches to training, such as those developed through our Tides project, highlight a forward path. We have pioneered the use of virtual reality (VR) training scenarios to simulate the experiences of ethnically minoritised staff. This approach is designed to promote empathy and deeper understanding of their challenges and perspectives.

By immersing NHS managers and senior leaders in these realistic scenarios, VR training can offer a powerful means to combat racism and discrimination.

Initial piloting of this approach indicates that it can alleviate the emotional burden on ethnic minority staff by removing the need for them to recount traumatic experiences. It also paves the way for meaningful, experiential learning.

Public health imperative

Our research underscores the importance of addressing racism and racial discrimination in the NHS not merely as a matter of ethics, but as a public health imperative.

Now is the time for structural change that addresses the systemic roots of racism within the NHS. We need clear rules that hold all levels of management accountable. Leadership within NHS trusts also needs to start taking responsibility for actively combating racism. This should involve more detailed annual reports, specific targets for improvement, and the sharing of data, strategies and outcomes with regulatory bodies such as the Care Quality Commission to ensure transparency.

We also need clear and open ways for staff to report racism without fear of backlash. Providing training for all NHS staff on how to recognize, challenge and report racism and harassment is essential. Anti-racism resources, such as those developed by the NHS's chief nursing and chief midwifery officers, can support staff and drive meaningful change.

Reflecting on the lessons learned from the pandemic, the path to recovery for the NHS lies in embracing practices that ensure equity for all its staff. This is not just about rectifying past oversights but about building a stronger, more inclusive health service that values and protects its workforce, regardless of their ethnic background.

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Stigma and Discrimination

• Although substance use disorders are chronic and treatable medical conditions, studies show people with these disorders still face discrimination and stigma (a set of negative attitudes and stereotypes) that can impact their health and well-being in numerous ways. This stigma also affects people who use drugs who do not have a substance use disorder.
• There are safe, effective, and lifesaving tools available to help people struggling with substance use. However, stigma often factors into the reasons why people who need help do not seek care.
• Research shows the language people use can contribute to stigma and discrimination against people with substance use disorders, including by healthcare professionals.

What is stigma against substance use and addiction? Why does it occur?

The stigma against people with substance use disorders is a set of negative attitudes and stereotypes that can create barriers to treatment and make these conditions worse. 1 Although substance use disorders are chronic, treatable medical conditions, studies show people who have them often face stigma and discrimination in part because others do not understand these disorders or how they can be effectively treated.

Many people do not know that a substance use disorder is the result of  changes in the brain  that make drug use compulsive (difficult or impossible to stop without adequate support). 2  Some people with severe substance use disorders may become aggressive, lie, or steal to support their drug problem or during withdrawal. These behaviors may alienate them even further from family, friends, and society and reinforce certain negative stereotypes around substance use. 1  Importantly, the compulsive behaviors and brain changes in substance use disorders are not necessarily permanent. People can and do recover, especially with the help of  treatment . 3,4

There are many reasons why a person may be more susceptible to substance use disorders, including genetic and social factors that may be beyond their control. 2  Still, many people see addiction as a personal or moral failure. 5  As a result, people may feel fear and anger toward someone with a substance use disorder, even if they are a friend or family member. 6  For many, it can be hard to see – and help – the individual behind the illness.

How do language and criminalization perpetuate stigma against people who use drugs or have substance use disorders?

Commonly used terms  referring to people with addiction often reflect the misconception that their drug use and related behaviors are a choice, rather than a compulsion, and that they are to blame for their medical condition. Studies show that terms like “junkie” and “addict” feed negative biases and dehumanize people. 7,8  Research shows that  language can even sway clinicians’ attitudes . In one study, clinicians rated a person described as a “substance abuser” as more worthy of blame and punishment than someone described as “having a substance use disorder.” 9

Treating drug use as a criminal activity may also contribute to the stereotype of people who use drugs as being dangerous and a risk to society. It can further marginalize disadvantaged groups. For example, in the United States, punitive policies disproportionately affect Black people and communities of color, who are more likely to be arrested for illegal drug use. 10,11  Black people were nearly four times more likely to be arrested for cannabis possession than white people in 2018, even though the two groups use the drug at similar rates. 12

How does stigma affect people with a substance use disorder?

• People who need care may not seek it.  People with substance use disorders may face mistreatment, stereotyping, and negative bias from society, including in healthcare settings. These challenges may lead them to avoid seeking medical help. 13  In fact, in 2021, about 10.4% of people who felt they needed substance use treatment but did not receive it in the past year said they did not seek treatment because they feared attracting negative attitudes from their communities (2021 DT 5.41B). * 14
• People fear disclosing their substance use.  If a person conceals their substance use in a medical setting due to fear of bias or mistreatment, they may miss important opportunities for care. For example, clinicians may not know to offer information about how drugs may interact with their prescribed medications or may not screen them for conditions related to substance use, like HIV, hepatitis, and mental illness. 15  Pregnant women especially may avoid talking about substance use, feeling shame and fearing social disapproval or loss of parental rights. 16
• People receive a poorer quality of care . Some health professionals also have bias toward people with addiction and may fail to provide evidence-based care as a result. A national survey of primary care providers in 2019 showed that while they generally understood opioid use disorder is a treatable condition, most also had stigmatizing attitudes against it, which affected the care they provided. 17 Racial disparities and other kinds of discrimination add an extra barrier to care for many people in health care settings. For example, Black people experience delays of up to five years in getting treatment for a substance use disorder compared to White people, and young Black people are less likely to be prescribed medication for opioid use disorder than their White peers. 18,19
• People have reduced access to health programs.  Medications for opioid use disorder , including methadone, buprenorphine, and naltrexone, are safe and effective treatments that help people recover. 20  Yet because they must be taken regularly, and because methadone and buprenorphine can produce euphoria (a “high”) in people without opioid use disorder, these medicines are often mistakenly seen as mere substitutes for illegal drugs and carry a similar stigma. 21 Similarly,  syringe services programs , also known as needle exchanges, help link people to addiction treatment and help prevent health risks associated with using drugs, including HIV, hepatitis, and endocarditis. Yet some people shy away from these programs, fearing stigma from police, friends, family, and healthcare professionals. 22  However, many cities and towns have been slow to implement these and other harm-reduction programs, due in part to stigma-related policy and funding challenges. and the misconception that they promote illicit drug use. 23,24
•  People may increase their substance use.  People with substance use disorders may already feel guilt and may blame themselves for their illness. 25  They may have self-stigma, or adopt negative attitudes towards themselves around their substance use. 26   These feelings of shame and isolation may in turn reinforce drug-seeking behavior. 27

*The COVID-19 pandemic had an impact on data collection for the 2021 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH). For more information, please see the  2021 NSDUH Frequently Asked Questions  from the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.

How can we address stigma against people with substance use disorders?

Every person in our society can play a role in reducing stigma and discrimination against people with substance use disorders—from health professionals and addiction researchers to the general public and those directly affected by drug and alcohol problems.

• Understand substance use disorders as chronic, treatable medical conditions.  To eliminate the stigma surrounding substance use disorders, we need to see these disorders for what they are: chronic, treatable medical conditions. People with substance use disorders deserve compassion and respect—not blame for their illness.  Learn more about substance use disorders. The medical community can also better train health professionals on how to treat patients with substance use disorders. This begins with ensuring clinicians approach these disorders as treatable, chronic health conditions and use appropriate language. 28   The  NIDAMED  website includes evidence-based screening tools, treatment resources, and continuing education for providers and providers-in-training.
• Replace stigmatizing language.  An important step toward eliminating stigma is replacing stigmatizing language with preferred, empowering language that doesn’t equate people with their condition or have negative connotations. 29  However, people experiencing substance use disorders or in recovery may choose to describe themselves and their own disorder with terms that work best for them, especially in certain contexts such as recovery support groups. 30,31  NIDA has developed Words Matter: Preferred Language for Talking About Addiction , a guide for the general public on non-stigmatizing language. Choosing appropriate language is of particular concern for health professionals. NIDA has developed the guide  Words Matter - Terms to Use and Avoid When Talking About Addiction  for health professionals and trainees. NIDA has also developed  Your Words Matter – Language Showing Compassion and Care for Women, Infants, Families, and Communities Impacted by Substance Use Disorder , a guide for clinicians on discussing substance use with pregnant patients and mothers.
• Address systemic discrimination.  Systemic racism, sexism, and other forms of discrimination lead to multiple layers of stigma for many people with addiction. Just the stress of feeling discriminated against can increase the likelihood that someone will use substances. 32  NIDA conducts and supports research to better understand stigma’s impact on marginalized groups, and on interventions that promote  equitable, effective treatment and services . NIDA also funds research on the effects of alternative ways of regulating and decriminalizing drugs in countries that already have these policies. 12

How does NIDA research address stigma and discrimination?

NIDA’s research on the biomedical and environmental factors around substance use and addiction contributes to an evidence-based understanding of substance use disorders. This helps bust myths and upend stereotypes and promotes appropriate treatment and services. NIDA also conducts and supports research into stigma’s causes and effects, and interventions that work to confront it.

Latest from NIDA

Overdose deaths increased in pregnant and postpartum women from early 2018 to late 2021

Still Reaching: The Syndemics that Complicate and Characterize How Drugs and HIV Intersect in People’s Lives

NIDA Releases Its 2022-2026 Strategic Plan

Find more resources on stigma and discrimination.

• See the Stigma and Discrimination Research Toolkit from the National Institute of Mental Health.
• Read more about overcoming stigma and ending discrimination from the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (PDF, 897 KB) .
• Visit Changing the Language of Addiction , a guide from the White House Office of National Drug Control Policy.
• Read Understanding Addiction to Support Recovery , a stigma reduction resource from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
• Volkow ND. Stigma and the toll of addiction . New England Journal of Medicine . 2020;382(14):1289-1290. doi:10.1056/nejmp1917360
• Volkow ND, Koob GF, McLellan AT. Neurobiologic advances from the brain disease model of addiction . New England Journal of Medicine . 2016;374(4):363-371. doi:10.1056/nejmra1511480
• Volkow ND, Chang L, Wang GJ, Fowler JS, Franceschi D, Sedler M, Gatley SJ, Miller E, Hitzemann R, Ding YS, Logan J. Loss of dopamine transporters in methamphetamine abusers recovers with protracted abstinence . J Neurosci. 21(23):9414-9418, 2001.
• Volkow ND, Boyle M. Neuroscience of Addiction: Relevance to prevention and treatment . Am J Psychiatry . 2018;175(8):729-740. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2018.17101174
• Zgierska AE, Miller MM, Rabago DP, et al. Language matters: It is time we change how we talk about addiction and its treatment . J Addict Med . 2021;15(1):10-12. doi:10.1097/ADM.0000000000000674
• Yang LH, Wong LY, Grivel MM, Hasin DS. Stigma and substance use disorders: an international phenomenon . Curr Opin Psychiatry . 2017;30(5):378-388. doi:10.1097/YCO.0000000000000351
• Muncan B, Walters SM, Ezell J, Ompad DC. "They look at us like junkies": influences of drug use stigma on the healthcare engagement of people who inject drugs in New York City . Harm Reduct J . 2020;17(1):53. Published 2020 Jul 31. doi:10.1186/s12954-020-00399-8
• Ashford, R.D., Brown, A. and Curtis, B. Expanding language choices to reduce stigma: A Delphi study of positive and negative terms in substance use and recovery. Health Education . 2019; 119(1), 51-62. doi.org/10.1108/HE-03-2018-0017
• Kelly JF, Westerhoff CM. Does it matter how we refer to individuals with substance-related conditions? A randomized study of two commonly used terms . Int J Drug Policy . 2010;21:202–7. doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2009.10.010
• Mitchell O, Caudy MS . Examining racial disparities in drug arrests . Justice Quarterly . 2013;32(2):288-313. doi:10.1080/07418825.2012.761721
• National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse, Columbia University. Behind Bars II: Substance abuse and America’s prison population . Published February 2010. Accessed June 9, 2020.
• Volkow ND. Addiction should be treated, not penalized . Neuropsychopharmacology . 2021;46(12):2048-2050. doi:10.1038/s41386-021-01087-2
• Biancarelli DL, Biello KB, Childs E, et al. Strategies used by people who inject drugs to avoid stigma in healthcare settings. Drug and Alcohol Dependence . 2019;198:80-86. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2019.01.037
• Substance Abuse Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality. Results from the  2021 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Detailed Tables, SAMHSA . Accessed January 2023.
• McCance-Katz EF, Sullivan LE, Nallani S. Drug interactions of clinical importance among the opioids, methadone and buprenorphine, and other frequently prescribed medications: a review . Am J Addict . 2010;19(1):4-16. doi:10.1111/j.1521-0391.2009.00005.x 
• Frazer Z, McConnell K, Jansson LM. Treatment for substance use disorders in pregnant women: motivators and barriers . Drug Alcohol Depend . 2019 Dec 1;205:107652. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2019.107652
• Stone EM, Kennedy-Hendricks A, Barry CL, Bachhuber MA, McGinty EE. The role of stigma in U.S. primary care physicians’ treatment of opioid use disorder . Drug and Alcohol Dependence . 2021;221:108627. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.108627
• Lewis B, Hoffman L, Garcia CC, Nixon SJ. Race and socioeconomic status in substance use progression and treatment entry . J Ethn Subst Abuse . 2018;17(2):150-166. doi:10.1080/15332640.2017.1336959
• Hadland SE, Bagley SM, Rodean J, et al. Receipt of timely addiction treatment and association of early medication treatment with retention in care among youths with opioid use disorder . JAMA Pediatr . 2018;172(11):1029-1037. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.2143
• Wakeman SE, Larochelle MR, Ameli O, et al. Comparative effectiveness of different treatment pathways for opioid use disorder . JAMA Netw Open. 2020;3(2):e1920622. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.20622
• Madden EF, Prevedel S, Light T, Sulzer SH. Intervention stigma toward medications for opioid use disorder: A systematic review. Subst Use Misuse . 2021;56(14):2181-2201. doi:10.1080/10826084.2021.1975749
• Ibragimov U, Cooper KE, Batty E, et al. Factors that influence enrollment in syringe services programs in rural areas: A qualitative study among program clients in Appalachian Kentucky . Harm Reduction Journal . 2021;18(1). doi:10.1186/s12954-021-00518-z
• Jones CM . Syringe services programs: An examination of legal, policy, and funding barriers in the midst of the evolving opioid crisis in the U.S . Int J Drug Policy . 2019;70:22-32. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2019.04.006
• National Research Council (US) and Institute of Medicine (US) Panel on Needle Exchange and Bleach Distribution Programs; Normand J, Vlahov D, Moses LE, editors. Preventing HIV transmission: The role of sterile needles and bleach . Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 1995. 7, The Effects of Needle Exchange Programs.
• Hammarlund RA, Crapanzano KA, Luce L, Mulligan LA, Ward KM Review of the effects of self-stigma and perceived social stigma on the treatment-seeking decisions of individuals with drug- and alcohol-use disorders - PubMed (nih.gov) . Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation . 2018:115-136. doi:10.2147/sar.s183256
• Volkow, N.D., Gordon, J.A. & Koob, G.F. Choosing appropriate language to reduce the stigma around mental illness and substance use disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology . 2021. doi:10.1038/s41386-021-01069-4
• Kelly JF, Wakeman SE, Saitz R. Stop talking ‘dirty’: Clinicians, language, and quality of care for the leading cause of preventable death in the United States . The American Journal of Medicine . 2014;128(1):8-9. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2014.07.043
• Kelly, JF, Saitz, R, Wakeman, S (2016). Language, substance use disorders, and policy: the need to reach consensus on an “addiction-ary” . Alcohol Treat Q. 2016;34(1), 116-123. doi:10.1080/07347324.2016.1113103
• Pivovarova E, Stein MD. In their own words: language preferences of individuals who use heroin . Addiction . 2019;114(10):1785-1790. doi:10.1111/add.14699
• Ashford RD, Brown AM, Ashford A, Curtis B. Recovery dialects: A pilot study of stigmatizing and nonstigmatizing label use by individuals in recovery from substance use disorders . Exp Clin Psychopharmacol . 2019;27(6):530-535. doi:10.1037/pha0000286
• Amaro H, Sanchez M, Bautista T, Cox R. Social vulnerabilities for substance use: Stressors, socially toxic environments, and discrimination and racism . Neuropharmacology . 2021;188:108518. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2021.108518

618 Thought-provoking Discrimination Essay Ideas & Examples

📜 history of discrimination & essay writing tips, 🏆 best discrimination topic ideas & essay examples, 🥇 most interesting discrimination topics to write about, ⚡ shocking discrimination essay examples, 🎓 good discrimination research topic ideas, 📌 discrimination speech topics and prompts, 📝 simple & easy discrimination topics for essay, ❓discrimination research paper question.

Discrimination essays are an essential part of historical and social sciences because of the influence of the practice on past and current humanity. In this article we will reveal the brief lookback to the history of discrimination and its causes, and provide a list of discrimination topics for essay, as well as paper examples on gender, disability, and racial inequality.

Past practices such as slavery were a result of discriminatory racist beliefs, and it took a long time for African Americans to be acknowledged as equal under law to other races.

Even then, the school of thought was not eradicated, and ethnic minorities as well as women would be oppressed by segregation and unequal opportunities until the emergence of the civil rights movement in the second half of the 20th century.

Even today, discriminatory practices arguably continue, and the debate around their existence draws considerable attention. You can use any of these topics to write an outstanding essay by following the guidelines below.

Discussions of slavery as a form of discrimination will usually be historic in nature, as they will discuss the practice as applied in the United States and other countries in the same region, but the notion offers discrimination essay topics for periods including modernity.

Before the Civil War, many people believed that black people were inferior to whites in some way, possibly due to the disparity between the advancement of African and European civilizations.

As such, even free black people would undergo harassment and risk being enslaved again if they did not leave for a territory that did not have the practice. The topic has been well researched, and so you can and should the wealth of information available to paint an accurate picture.

Even after the abolition of slavery, discriminatory views and practices persisted in many places. Examples included segregation practices where black people would be confined to ghettos and not allowed to visit various institutions.

The civil rights movement arose in the 1960s aimed to right that injustice, but eventually expanded to encompass more marginalized groups, such as women. Gender bias was prevalent at the time, with women being seen as housewives who could not work as well as men.

The success of the feminist message changed that perception and enabled women to choose their life freely. The various efforts and successes of the movement can provide you with ideas for an interesting work.

Ultimately, discrimination is being called out to this day, though many people hold the opinion that it has been mostly or completely eliminated in most advanced countries.

Nevertheless, many modern industries are affected by claims of faults such as gender discrimination, expressed as phenomena such as disproportionate hiring of males or a disparity in earnings between the sexes.

Other instances of modern discrimination are more concrete, such as the severe punishments for homosexuality practiced in some Muslim countries to this day. Humanity is still not entirely equal, and to progress towards that goal, we must identify and address issues.

Here are some additional tips that will improve the general quality of your essay:

• Surround your discrimination essay body with an introduction and a conclusion. The former describes the topic and provides the reader with a thesis that names the central idea of the essay. The latter sums up the essay and provides some closing words.
• Separate different sections of your paper with titles that identify their topics. This practice improves the essay’s structure and appearance, making it easier for the reader to navigate it, especially if you use well-designed discrimination essay titles.

Find excellent discrimination essay examples and other useful samples for your work on IvyPanda!

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• Sexism, Racism, Ableism, Ageism, Classism The absurdity and blatant sexism of this issue made me angry at how the United States is unable to resolve and overcome the lack of gender equality.
• Cause and Effect of Racial Discrimination Irrespective of massive efforts to emphasize the role of diversity and equality in society, it is still impossible to state that the United States is free from racial discrimination.
• Racism and Gender in Beyoncé’s Lemonade The album Lemonade by an American singer Beyonce is one of the brightest examples when an artist portrays the elements of her culture in her music. Along with music videos, the album features a number […]
• Prejudice and Discrimination Among Students The goal of this study is to investigate the peculiarities of prejudicial and discriminatory treatment among students and explain their correlation with anxiety and depression.
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• Racism and Inequality in Society The idea of race as a social construct is examined in the first episode of the documentary series “The Power of an Illusion”.
• Anti-Racism: Marginalization and Exclusion in Healthcare This essay examines the course’s impact and the concepts of marginalization and exclusion in healthcare. Marginalization is a concept that has profoundly influenced the understanding of race and racism in healthcare.
• Workplace Discrimination: Types and Regulations In the 1970s and the 1990s, disability rights evolved with the introduction of the Rehabilitation Act and the Americans with Disabilities Act.
• The Issue of Racism in the United States The entire history of the United States is permeated with the evolution of the ideas of racism. Turning to history, we can see that the U.S.moved from slavery to using the Black population to solve […]
• History of Racial Discrimination in Haiti and America The choice of topic, racial discrimination in Haiti and America, was influenced by beliefs, values, and assumptions emphasizing the importance of equality and justice for all races.
• Racism and History of Discrimination As a result, advocacy should be aimed at creating new models in criminal justice that will ensure the protection of all minority groups and due process.
• Racial Discrimination and Color Blindness Of the three ideologies, racial harmony is considered the most appropriate for coping with problems of racism and racial injustice due to various reasons.
• Race, Racism, and Dangers of Race Thinking While it is true that some forms of race thinking can be used to justify and perpetuate racism, it is not necessarily the case that all forms of race thinking are inherently racist. Race thinking […]
• LGBTQ+ (Queer) Military Discrimination in Healthcare Furthermore, the subject is relevant to the field of psychology as the current phenomenon examines discrimination in healthcare both from the psychological outcomes experienced by veterans as well as the perception of LGBTQ+ patients through […]
• Racial Discrimination in American Literature In this way, the author denies the difference between people of color and whites and, therefore, the concept of racism in general.
• Discrimination at Work and Persistent Poverty While discrimination remains contributing to persistent poverty, organizations may benefit from blind hiring, an inclusive and accepting culture, and visible leadership to ensure efficient diversity management on a long-term basis. In conclusion, discrimination remains a […]
• Racism in the US: Settler Imperialism They prove that colonial imperialism is a structure, not a contextual phenomenon and that, as such, it propagates the marginalization of native people.
• Why Empathy in Racism Should Be Avoided Empathy is the capacity to comprehend and experience the emotions and ideas of others. Moreover, empathic emotions are essential to social and interpersonal life since they allow individuals to adapt their cognitive processes to their […]
• Discrimination Against African-American Patients The study results are inconsistent due to the selected approach and limited sample size. The study focused on the personal experiences of a small local group of African-American patients, primarily elderly females, not allowing for […]
• Racial Discrimination in High Education This peer-reviewed scholar article was found in the JSTOR database through entering key words “race affirmative action” and marking the publication period between 2017 and 2022.
• Discrimination Against Survivors of Canada’s Indian Residential Schools According to Schwetizer, such institutions were characterized by poor conditions, heavy workloads, and the oppression of cultural attributes, through the use of which the government expected to adapt the aboriginal people to society’s standards.
• Social Sciences: Racism Through Different Lenses A thorough analysis of diversity adds value to social interactions by informing human behavior through a deeper understanding of racism and its impacts on society. Using the humanities lens leads to a better understanding of […]
• Successful Bias Lawsuits: Texas Company in Employment Discrimination Case The allegation was filed by the Department of Labor’s office in 2020, after the evidence indicated a shortfall of black and Asian employees at the company.
• Racial Discrimination in Dormitory Discrimination is considered to be behavior that restricts the rights and freedoms of the individual. Therefore, it is essential to investigate discrimination in dormitories and propose solutions to this problem, such as disseminating knowledge about […]
• Racism and Its Impact on Populations and Society The ignorance of many individuals about other people’s cultures and ethnicities is one of the causes of racism. One can examine the various components of society and how they relate to the issue of racism […]
• Eliminating Discrimination: Poems From “Counting Descent” by Clint Smith The poems illustrated how the world is passed, what the ocean said to the black boy, and what the cicada said to the black boy.
• Institutionalized Racism and Individualistic Racism Excellent examples of individualistic racism include the belief in white supremacy, racial jokes, employment discrimination, and personal prejudices against black people. Overall, institutionalized and individualistic racism is a perversive issue that affects racial relations in […]
• Community Engagement with Racism To enhance the population’s degree of involvement in racism, the study calls for collaboration; this can be seen as a community effort to foster a sense of teamwork.
• LGBT Discrimination Research Prospects: An Analysis The aim of this assignment is to summarize the research that has been done on LGBT discrimination, particularly in the workplace and during the recruiting process.
• Discrimination Against the Elderly Population in the Medical Field The first week I was preoccupied, being my first time interacting with the older patients and also the fact that it was my first week and I was just getting used to the environment.
• The Pricing Policy of Price Discrimination The equilibrium price of a commodity from the point of view of a free market is formed at the intersection of supply and demand, which fluctuates depending on many factors.
• Racism Detection with Implicit Association Test Racial bias is deeply rooted in human society and propelled by norms and stereotypic ideologies that lead to implicit bias and the unfair treatment of minority groups.
• The Age Discrimination in Employment Act The law ADEA, which stands for The Age Discrimination in Employment Act, exhausts assumptions or beliefs that age affects a person’s ability to work.
• Identity and Belonging: Racism and Ethnicity In the documentary Afro Germany – Being Black and German, several individuals share their stories of feeling mistreated and excluded because of their skin color.
• Policies to Eliminate Racial Disparities and Discrimination The solution to exclusion is to build social inclusion in the classroom and within the school by encouraging peer acceptance, cross-group friendships, and built-in prevention.
• Living With HIV: Stigma and Discrimination The mental health and emotional well-being of the population living with this virus are affected due to the humiliation and judgment they face from their fellows around them.
• Causes, Facilitators, and Solutions to Racism These theories suggest that racism serves a particular function in society, occurs due to the interactions of individuals from dominant groups, and results from a human culture of prejudice and discrimination.
• Racial Discrimination and Justice in Education An example is the complaint of the parents of one of the black students that, during the passage of civilizations, the Greeks, Romans, and Incas were discussed in the lessons, but nothing was said about […]
• Empathy and Racism in Stockett’s The Help and Li’s To Kill a Mockingbird To start with, the first approach to racism and promoting empathy is to confront prevalent discrimination and racism, which was often shown in The Help. Another solution to racism and the possibility of promoting empathy […]
• Education in Canada and Discrimination In general, the immersion in the history of the residential school system on the basis of related articles, videos, and music has left a highly oppressive feeling.
• Is Troy Maxson (Wilson’s Fences) a Victim of Racism? As a black American, Troy’s childhood experiences have been passed on to his children, making him a victim of an oppressive culture. Therefore, this makes Troy a victim of racism and culture, contributing to his […]
• Discrimination in the US Healthcare Sector More than 70% of those who buy insurance plans via the exchanges are also estimated to be entitled to tax credits, which will further lower their rates in addition to the lower premiums.
• Racism in the Healthcare Sector In 2020, the cases and instances of racism in healthcare rose by 16% from 2018; there were notable instances of racism in various spheres of health. 9% of blacks have been protected from discrimination and […]
• The Airline Industry: Sex Discrimination Although some females and males are fighting these stereotypes, there has been a culture in the airline industry to give females the flight attendant jobs and males the piloting jobs. Similarly, the roles of male […]
• Individual and Structural Discrimination Toward LGBT (Queer) Military Personnel Consequently, LGBT military personnel are potentially even more vulnerable to mental health issues due to the combined stress of being LGBT and being in the military.
• Racism in Healthcare and Education The mission should emphasize that it promotes diversity and equality of all students and seeks to eliminate racial bias. It is necessary to modify the mission to include the concept of inclusiveness and equality.
• Equal Opportunity and Discrimination Thus, if a female individual feels denied a job opportunity due to the employer’s attitude to her possible pregnancy, she can apply to the Equal employment opportunity commission and ask for an investigation. EO serves […]
• Institutional Racism in the Workplace Despite countless efforts to offer African-Americans the same rights and opportunities as Whites, the situation cannot be resolved due to the emergence of new factors and challenges.
• Racism in Education in the United States Such racial disparities in the educational workforce confirm the problem of structural racism and barrier to implementing diversity in higher medical education. Structural racism has a long history and continues to affect the growth of […]
• Individuals With Disabilities: Prejudice and Discrimination I researched that people with persistent medical or physical disorders, such as cerebral palsy or multiple sclerosis, who have speech, articulation, or communication impairments, for example, are sometimes seen as having an intellectual deficiency. Corey […]
• Rhetoric in Obama’s 2008 Speech on Racism When the audience became excited, it was Obama’s responsibility to convey his message in a more accessible form. To conclude, Obama’s speech in 2008 facilitated his election as the first African American President in history.
• How to Talk to Children About Racism The text begins by referring to recent events that were related to race-based discrimination and hatred, such as the murder of George Floyd and the protests dedicated to the matter.
• Care for Real: Racism and Food Insecurity Care for Real relies on the generosity of residents, donation campaigns, and business owners to collect and deliver these supplies. The research article discusses some of the factors that contribute to the creation of racism […]
• Racism Towards Just and Holistic Health Therefore, the critical content of the event was to determine the steps covered so far in the fight for racial equality in the provision of care and what can be done to improve the status […]
• People With Mental Illnesses: Stigma, Prejudice, and Discrimination The post raises awareness of the highly important and rarely discussed topic of stigma, prejudice, and discrimination against people with mental illnesses, which are not only harmful on their own but also make such individuals […]
• Workplace Discrimination: Impact of Family-Friendly Policies There is a reduction in the number of compulsory working hours, allowing employees more time to spend with their families and children.
• Racism and Related Issues in Canadian Society The first issue is that it does not review the systemic and structural aspects of racism and how it affects various institutions and society as a whole.
• LGBTQ+ Families: Discrimination and Challenges The family model directly affects the social status of family members and the well-being of children. LGBTQ+ families’ wealth level is lower than that of families in the neighborhood due to labor discrimination.
• Public Discrimination Based on the Status of Vaccination from COVID-19 It should be noted that COVID-19 is not a rare or exotic disease, but the rapid spread of this infection from the Chinese city of Wuhan led to the dramatic assignment of pandemic status to […]
• LGBTQ Members: Discrimination and Stigmatization What remains unclear from the reading is the notion that before the 1990s, people from the middle class expressed abiding and strong desires to be acknowledged as “the other sex”.
• Systemic Racism and Discrimination Thus, exploring the concept of race from a sociological perspective emphasizes the initial aspect of inequality in the foundation of the concept and provides valuable insight into the reasons of racial discrimination in modern society.
• The Racism Problem and Its Relevance The images demonstrate how deeply racism is rooted in our society and the role the media plays in spreading and combating racism.
• Gender Discrimination in Public Administration The subject of the dispute and the statement of claim was the vacancy of a traffic controller, which was initially offered to Johnson, but then, as part of the program, the place was given to […]
• How to Overcome Poverty and Discrimination As such, to give a chance to the “defeated” children and save their lives, as Alexie puts it, society itself must change the rules so that everyone can have access to this ticket to success. […]
• Aspects of Socio-Economic Sides of Racism And the answer is given in Dorothy Brown’s article for CNN “Whites who escape the attention of the police benefit because of slavery’s long reach”.. This shows that the problem of racism is actual in […]
• Misogyny and Sexism in Policing A solution to solving sexism and misogyny in policing is increasing the number of female police officers and educating on gender bias.
• Sexism and Internal Discrimination at Google The recommendation in the case is that the organization should provide justice to all the employees who are victims of discrimination and sexual harassment, irrespective of the perpetrator.
• Tackling Racism in the Workplace It means that reporting racism to HR does not have the expected positive effect on workplace relations, and employees may not feel secure to notify HR about the incidences of racism.
• Issue of Racism Around the World One of the instances of racism around the world is the manifestations of violence against indigenous women, which threatens the safety of this vulnerable group and should be mitigated.
• Discrimination in the United States The paper’s authors see systemic racism as a consequence of segregation in World War I migration, which resulted in distinct communities that were not understandable to white Americans.
• Causes of Discrimination Towards Immigrants Discrimination and intolerance against immigrants, and the implications of these inflammatory convictions and conduct, determine the sociocultural and economic destiny of welcoming nations and those who aspire to make these communities their new residence.
• The Racism Problem and How to Fight It Racism is one of the common problems of the modern world which might not allow several individuals to feel a valuable part of society due to their skin color, gender, or social status.
• Environmental Racism: The Water Crisis in Flint, Michigan The situation is a manifestation of environmental racism and classism since most of the city’s population is people of color and poor. Thus, the water crisis in Flint, Michigan, is a manifestation of environmental racism […]
• The “Racism and Discrimination” Documentary The documentary “Racism and Discrimination” is about an anti-racist teacher Jane Elliot who attempts to show the white people the feeling of discrimination. The central argument of the documentary is diversity training to seize the […]
• Abortion-Related Racial Discrimination in the US In spite of being a numerical minority, Black women in the U.S.resort to abortion services rather often compared to the White population.
• Canadian Society: Sexism and the Persistent Woman Question Equality of work, payments, and respect for women is on the agenda of this party, but they lack a modern look that refers to the problems of harassment and bullying in social networks.
• Social Problems Surrounding Racism, Prejudice and Discrimination This kind of discrimination makes the students lose their self-esteem and the traumas experienced affects the mental health of these students in the long term.
• Discussion of Gender Discrimination in Modern Society In the professional field, women are constantly in discriminatory positions of jeopardy due to their gender. However, women still need to compete in the work environment.
• Gender Roles, Expectations, and Discrimination Despite Isaac being the calmest boy in the school, he had a crush on Grace, a beautiful girl in the school who was from a wealthy family.
• The Unethical Practice of Racism in a Doctor’s Case The involvement of Barrett in the protest is both unethical for the university’s image and immoral for the community. However, the school would likely face tougher court fines and a direct order to reinstate Barrett’s […]
• The Problem of Racism in America One explanation of racism by feminist thinkers is that racism is a manifestation of the agency and power of people of a particular racial identity over others.
• Racism: “The Sum of Us” Article by McGhee The economic analysis and sociological findings in America have drawn a detailed picture of the cost of racism in America and how to overcome it together.
• Contemporary Sociological Theories and American Racism The central intention of this theory paper is to apply modern theoretical concepts from the humanities discipline of sociology to the topic of racism in the United States.
• Sex Workers: Discrimination and Criminalization The essay looks at the problem of discrimination against sex workers and the criminalization of sex work and highlights efforts that have been made towards decriminalization of the activity.
• A Cause-and-Effect Analysis of Racism and Discrimination As a result, it is vital to conduct a cause-and-effect analysis to determine the key immediate and hidden causes of racism to be able to address them in a proper manner.
• The Issue of Obesity in the Workplace: Discrimination and Its Prevention The critical detail is that the spread of the negative attitude to obesity in the workplace leads to the segregation of overweight people, stereotypical perceptions of their abilities, and prejudged attitudes toward them.
• Employment Discrimination Based on Religion In other words, although both elementary teachers had no formal title of a minister and limited religious training, the religious education and formation of students were the basic reason for the existence of the majority […]
• Discrimination Cases and Their Outcomes In the US, noticeable and influential cases tend to occur, and they remind the nation of the existing problem and reduce the effect of discrimination.
• Institutional Racism Through the Lenses of Housing Policy While not being allowed to buy property because of the racial covenants, the discriminated people had to house in other areas.
• The Problem of Age Discrimination Ageism includes many tendencies that change people; thus, ageism entails factors that influence people’s perception of each other, for example, in the work environment.
• Social Inequality and Discrimination Gender discrimination is when a person or a group of people is treated unfairly or unfairly because of their gender. Moreover, there is a classification of the thinking model in which a person exalts his […]
• Job Discrimination and Harassment Secondly, the strengths of the discrimination suit include the fact that he is the only white employee in his unit and one of the few men, suggesting a certain bias within the hiring department.
• Dealing With Race Discrimination: Impact of Color Blindness However, psychologists have been trying to employ racial color blindness as a strategy to manage diversity and intergroup affairs. However, in other places, such as in enduring structural racism, it serves as a device to […]
• Role of Racism in Contemporary US Public Opinion This source is useful because it defines racism, describes its forms, and presents the survey results about the prevalence of five types of racial bias.
• The Amazon Warehouse Employee Sexual Orientation Discrimination With the mismatch between the aspects of the work at the Amazon warehouse, the demand for the job, the ability to work successfully, and the wants and desires of the employees, it is worth noting […]
• The Mutation of Racism into New Subtle Forms The trend reflects the ability of racism to respond to the rising sensitivity of the people and the widespread rejection of prejudice.
• Racism: Healthcare Crisis and the Nurses Role The diminished admittance to mind is because of the impacts of fundamental bigotry, going from doubt of the medical care framework to coordinate racial segregation by medical care suppliers.
• Origins of Racial Discrimination Despite such limitations as statistical data being left out, I will use this article to support the historical evaluation of racism in the United States and add ineffective policing to the origins of racism.
• Language Discrimination in Modern Society It is necessary to let go of the fear of talking and writing on social networks in a language that is not native to you.
• Anti-discrimination Legislation and Supporting Case Law The response to this was the abolition of the quota system and the adoption in 1995 of the Act on Non-Discrimination of the Disabled and a package of additional regulations, in particular, on the education […]
• Beverly Greene Life and View of Racism The plot of the biography, identified and formed by the Ackerman Institute for the Family in the life of the heroine, consists of dynamics, personality development and its patterns.
• Historical Racism in South Africa and the US One of the major differences between the US and South Africa is the fact that in the case of the former, an African American minority was brought to the continent to serve the White majority.
• Gender Stereotypes and Sexual Discrimination In this Ted Talk, Sandberg also raises a question regarding the changes that are needed to alter the current disbalance in the number of men and women that achieve professional excellence.
• Capitalism and Racism in Past and Present Racism includes social and economic inequalities due to racial identity and is represented through dispossession, colonialism, and slavery in the past and lynching, criminalization, and incarceration in the present.
• Minstrels’ Influence on the Spread of Racism The negative caricatures and disturbing artifacts developed to portray Black people within the museum were crucial in raising awareness on the existence of racism.
• How Parents of Color Transcend Nightmare of Racism
• Bias and Discrimination: Prejudice, Discrimination, and Stereotyping
• A Problem of Racial Discrimination in the Modern World
• Beverly Tatum’s Monolog About Injustice of Racism
• Discrimination: Trans World Airlines, Inc. vs. Hardison
• Discrimination in the Bostock v. Clayton County Case
• Issue of Institutional Racism
• Discrimination: Peterson v. Wilmur Communications
• Racism in America Today: Problems of Today
• Evidence of Existence of Modern Racism
• Culture Play in Prejudices, Stereotyping, and Racism
• Latin-African Philosophical Wars on Racism in US
• Confronting Stereotypes, Racism and Microaggression
• Racial Discrimination in Dallas-Fort Worth Region
• Healthcare Call to Action: Racism in Medicine
• White Counselors Broaching Race and Racism Study
• US Federal Anti-Discrimination Laws Response
• British Colonial Racism for Aboriginal Australians
• Discrimination Against African American Nurses
• “Ocean Acidification Impairs Olfactory Discrimination…” by Munday
• American Culture and Its Racism Roots
• The Black People: Sexuality and Racial Discrimination
• Racism Evolution: Experience of African Diaspora
• The Problem of Explicit Racism
• Discrimination Against Hispanics in America
• Discrimination and Prejudice Comparison
• Racial Discrimination and Residential Segregation
• Significance of Perceived Racism:Ethnic Group Disparities in Health
• Religious Practices and Business Discrimination
• Discrimination in Canadian Society
• The Sexism Behind HB16 Bill
• Social Justice, Diversity and Workplace Discrimination
• Racism as Origin of Enslavement
• Colorblind Racism and Its Minimization
• Legacy of Racism Against African American Women and Men
• The Bill H.R.666 Anti-Racism in Public Health Act of 2021
• When Men Experience Sexism Article by Berlatsky
• Summary of the Issue About Racism
• Non-White Experience: Stereotyping and Discrimination
• How the Prison Industrial Complex Perpetuate Racism
• Social Change Project: Religious Discrimination in the Workplace
• Disability Discrimination and How to Deal With It
• Battling Racism in the Modern World
• Indian Youth Against Racism: Photo Analysis
• Racism: Do We Need More Stringent Laws?
• Free Speech vs. Anti-Discrimination Practices Conflict
• Problem of Racism in Schools Overview
• US Immigration Policy and Its Correlation to Structural Racism
• The Fashion Industry: Discrimination Case
• America: Racism, Terrorism, and Ethno-Culturalism
• Discrimination and Substance Use Disorders among Latinos’ Article Review
• Racism in Healthcare and Its Implications
• Issue of Racism in Healthcare
• Workplace Discrimination Based on Attractiveness
• Racism and Statistical & Pure Discrimination
• Solving Racial Discrimination in the US: The Best Strategies
• Popular Music at the Times of Racism and Segregation
• Religious Discrimination Against a Muslim Employee
• Temporary Aid Program: Racism in Child Welfare
• The Problem of Racism in the Police Force
• Discussion Board Post: Discrimination and Harassment
• The Discrimination of African Americans
• The Issue of Discrimination Within American Ethnicity by Aguirre and Turner
• Western Scientific Approach as a Cause of Racism
• How Does Racism Affect Health?
• Investigating the Discrimination in the Workplace
• Citizen: An American Lyric and Systemic Racism
• The Reflection of Twain’s Views on Racism in Huck Finn
• Black as a Label: Racial Discrimination
• Urban Regime Theory in Anti-Black Discrimination
• Nike: Workplace Writing and Discrimination
• Environmental Discrimination in Canada
• The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) and Racial Discrimination
• Flint Water Crisis: Environmental Racism and Racial Capitalism
• Cancer Alley and Environmental Racism
• Housing Discrimination and Federal Laws Analysis
• Cancer Alley and Environmental Racism in the US
• American Healthcare in the Context of Racism
• Discrimination and Politics of Gender and Sexuality
• Discussion of COVID-19 and Discrimination
• Origins of Modern Racism and Ancient Slavery
• Discrimination of Employees With Physical and Cognitive Impairments in the Workplace
• Contribution of Racism to Economic Recession Due to COVID-19
• What Stories Can Teach Us About Racism
• Racism in Canadian Medical System
• Profit and Racism in the Prisons of the United States
• Everyday Sexism in Relation to Everyday Disablism
• Discrimination and Health of Immigrants in Canada
• Life History Interview: Discrimination as an African American
• Discrimination. Unequal or Unfair Treatment of Individuals
• Rio Tinto: Case Study About Racism and Discrimination
• Discrimination in the Workplace: How to Solve It
• Race and Color Discrimination Against US Employees
• Discrimination Against People of Color and Queer Community
• Critical Social Problems Research: Racism and Racial Domination
• Discrimination as an External Manifestation of Societal Ills
• Business and Corporate Law: Discrimination Case Analysis
• Harassment Law – Tennie Pierce Discrimination
• Discrimination Against Women and Protecting Laws
• Criminal Justice: Racial Prejudice and Racial Discrimination
• The Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA)
• Manifestations of Gender Discrimination in Insurance
• Discrimination Against Customers With Disabilities
• Work Place Discrimination
• The History of Racial Discrimination and Its Effects on the American Races
• Protections Against Employment Discrimination
• Discrimination Complaint on a Civil Litigation Processes
• Racial Discrimination in the US Criminal Justice System
• Policing in America: The Issue of Violence and Racism
• LGBTQ Rights: Sexual Minority Members Discrimination
• Institutional and Interpersonal Racism, White Privilege
• Racism and Sexism as a Threat
• The Aspects of Discrimination
• The Development of a Measure to Assess Symbolic Racism
• Syrian Conflict and Women Rights: Way to Equality or Another Discrimination
• Racism and Tokenism in Bon Appetit: Leadership and Ethical Perspective
• Ethnic Stratification, Prejudice & Discrimination
• From “Scientific” Racism to Local Histories of Lynching
• Equal Pay Act: Pay Discrimination
• Sexism Against Women in the Military
• Subjective Assumptions and Medicine: Racism
• Anti-Discrimination Laws in the U.S.
• Discrimination Against Muslim in the USA
• Racism Experiences in the Workplace in the UK
• Race and Ethnicity, Other Minorities and Discrimination
• The History of Immigration to the United States and the Nature of Racism
• Gender and the Problem of Discrimination
• Discrimination and the Hiring Process
• Legal Process About Discrimination
• Race and Racism in the USA: The Origins and the Future
• Genetics of Sexual Orientation: Privacy, Discrimination, and Social Engineering
• Environmental Racism in the United States: Concept, Solution to the Problem
• Discrimination in Puerto Rico
• Protecting George Wallace’s Organized Racism
• How Can the World Unite to Fight Racism?
• Fighting Anti-Muslim Sentiments
• Female Workers Discrimination and Affirmative Action
• Ideological Support Arab Muslim Discrimination
• The Most Prominent Forms of Discrimination
• Discrimination of Women in IT Sphere
• Gender Discrimination in the Workplace and Better Management Skills
• Racism in America and Its Literature
• Race, Class and Gender. Racism on Practice
• Racism: Term Definition and History of Display of Racism Remarks
• Institutional Discrimination, Prejudice and Racism
• The Glass Ceiling Term: Discrimination in the Healthcare Sector
• Racism in Contemporary North America
• Racial Discrimination of Women in Modern Community
• Racial and Gender Discrimination in the Workplace and Housing
• History of Sexism: Features in the Legal System
• Racism Without Racists in Patriarchal Society
• Racism in Employment Practices
• Asians Discrimination in USA
• Discrimination in the United States of America
• Racism: Definition and Consequences
• The Problem of Racism in Canada
• The Discrimination Against Women in United Kingdom
• Exploring and Comparing Racism and Ethnocentrism
• Discrimination Against Black People
• Intraracial Discrimination: Grace Hsiang’s Article’s Analysis
• Ethics of Gender Identity Discrimination at Work
• Racism Cannot Be Unlearned Through Education
• Racism Among Students of Swinburne University
• Racism in Movies: Stereotypes and Prejudices
• Racism Concepts: Influence of Politics
• Racism: Resolving by Means of Education
• Sexual Discrimination in Astra Company
• Intersectionality Oppression and Discrimination in Latin America
• Sexism in Media: The Effect of Media on Adolescent Females
• Prejudice and Discrimination in Canada
• The Issues of Racial Discrimination in US
• Price Discrimination in Healthcare and Family Health Care Insurance
• Facing Racism: A Short Story
• Prejudice as the Root Cause of the Discrimination
• Sexual Discrimination Scandal: Astra-USA
• Astra Way: Sexual Discrimination Scandal
• Business Ethics: Discrimination Against Employees
• White Supremacy as an Extreme Racism Group
• The Impact of Catholic Views on Discrimination Against Women and Minorities in the Workplace
• Gender and Cultural Discrimination in Modern Society
• Holocaust: From Discrimination to Concentration Camps
• Muslim Discrimination in the UK After the July 7 Attacks
• American Racism: So Why Isn’t Obama White?
• Modern Racism in American Society
• Obama, the First US Black President: Is Racism Over?
• Analyzing Discrimination Against Jews
• Philosophy of Human Conduct: Institutional Racism
• Explaining Persistence of Discrimination and Privilege
• Literature on Latina Women and Sexism
• Racism and Civil Rights: Then and Now
• Employee Issues: Gender Discrimination, Sexual Harassment, Discrimination
• Primary School Teaching: Challenging Racism
• Racism and White Supremacism in the American Government
• Discrimination in Recruiting & Promotional Aspects: Tanglewood Company
• Disability Discrimination Laws: Workers’ Compensation
• Human Resource Management: US Age Discrimination Act
• “Red Lining” – A Type of Discrimination
• Social Construction of Race and Racism
• The Problem of Gender-Based Employment Discrimination
• Discrimination Against Gays in the Military
• Canada: Discrimination in British North America
• Racism Issues: Looking and Stereotype
• The Problem of Gender Discrimination
• Hurricane Katrine Exposed Racism in New Orleans
• Muslim Society, Life Meaning, and Discrimination
• Affirmative Action and Reverse Discrimination
• AIDS in a Different Culture Review: Cultural Differences, Prejudice, and Racism
• Anti-Racism Policy Statement in Australian Schools
• Racism, Minorities and Majorities Analysis
• Chicano Discrimination in Higher Education
• Racism and Ethnicity in Latin America
• Problem of Racism to Native Americans in Sport
• Veiled Sexism in the United Arab Emirates
• Racial Discrimination in Song ‘Strange Fruit’
• Discrimination in Maricopa County Sheriff’s Office
• Social Psychology: Racism in Jury Behaviour
• Sexism in Walt Disney Animation Studios’ Works
• Racism in the United States of the 21st Century
• Michael Blechman: ‘Diversity’ Looks a Lot Like Old-Fashioned Discrimination
• The Limits of Price Discrimination
• A Conduct Parameter Model of Price Discrimination
• Appiah’s Ideas of Racism, Equality, and Justice
• Discrimination Against Women and Immigrants at Work
• Consumer Welfare and Price Discrimination
• Racism in Media: Positive and Negative Impact
• Poverty, Stratification and Gender Discrimination
• Racism: World Politicians Discussion
• Racism: Once Overt, but Now Covert
• Lawsuits on Religious Discrimination
• Institutions and Gender Discrimination Issues
• Environmental Racism and Indigenous Knowledge
• Racism Effects on Criminal Justice System
• Ableism: Bias Against People With Disabilities
• Sexism: Gender, Class and Power
• Organizational Behavior: Group Size and Discrimination
• Stereotyping, Prejudice and Discrimination: Social Influence
• Rights, Equity and the State: Sexual Orientation and Discrimination
• Gender Discrimination on Birth Stage
• Scientific Racism: the Eugenics of Social Darwinism
• Racism in African American Studies and History
• Prejudice and Discrimination in Policing
• Racism vs. “Love Thy Neighbor as Thyself”
• Racism in Lesbians, Gays, Bisexuals, Transgenders
• Immigrant Employment Issues and Discrimination
• Gender Discrimination in the United States
• Price Discrimination and Psychological Techniques
• Robert Senske vs Sybase Inc: Labor Discrimination Case
• Evian and Aquafina Waters: Stimulus Discrimination Concept
• Employment Discrimination and Law Amendment
• Bias and Discrimination in Early Childhood Care Centers
• Sexism and Presidential Elections in the USA
• Legal and Ethical Issues: Discrimination Remedy
• The Effects of Labor Market Discrimination
• Religious Discrimination in the Workplace
• Racism in Australian Football League Sporting Clubs
• Prejudice and Discrimination in Diverse Organizations
• Thomas Jefferson on Civil Rights, Slavery, Racism
• Discrimination in Admission Policies Criteria
• Racial Discrimination in Australian Society
• Heterosexism and Its Explanation
• Discrimination and Employee Performance Studies
• Workplace Gender Equality and Discrimination Laws
• Racial Discrimination Forms Against Afro-Americas
• The Equal Opportunities Approach and Discrimination
• Pressing Issues in Femininity: Gender and Racism
• Positive Discrimination of Women in Hiring and Promotion
• Racial Discrimination in Employment
• The Problem of Discrimination Against the LGBT Community
• Fair Treatment and Discrimination in the Workplace
• Racial Bias and Discrimination in Law Enforcement
• White Privilege and Racism in American Society
• Racism, Privilege and Stereotyping Concepts
• Gender Discrimination and Shared Responsibility
• Kansas State University Community’s Racism Issues
• Australian Anti-Discrimination Acts and Their Provision
• Racism Against Roma and Afro-American People
• Classism as a Complex Issue of Discrimination
• Sexism and Male Nurses
• Gender, Size Discrimination and Fatphobia
• Impact of Racism as a Social Determinant of Health
• Racism in the United States: Before and After World War II
• Race-Norming and Discrimination Issues
• Baldwin’s and Coates’ Anti-Racism Communication
• The Problem of Racism and Injustice
• Racism as the Epitome of Moral Bankruptcy
• Sports: Discrimination, Match-Fixing and Doping
• Discrimination Against Women and Men of Different Races
• Employee Discrimination and Legal Protection
• Discrimination Against Refugees in a New Country
• Weight Discrimination and Beauty Prejudice in the HRM
• Hate Groups as Drivers of Discrimination
• Racism and Society: Different Perspectives
• Racism in Trump’s and Clinton’s Campaigns
• Obama’s Presidency and Racism in the USA
• Colin Powell and the Fight Against Structural Racism
• Workplace Discrimination and Legislation in the US
• Discrimination During the Recruitment Process
• Direct, Intentional, Institutional Discrimination
• Age Discrimination and Workplace Segregation
• Hate Crimes and Anti-Discrimination Laws
• Sexism and the Founding Fathers
• White Police’s Discrimination Against Black People
• Discrimination in Lending Practices
• Racial Discrimination in Employment in the US
• Racism in Media and Objective Coverage
• California Real Estate Discrimination
• Diversity and Discrimination in Hiring Process
• Workplace Discrimination Complaints
• Racism Elimination and Sociological Strategies
• Discrimination and Profiling in “Crash” Movie
• Employment Discrimination and Equal Opportunities
• Ableism in Education, Workplace and Community
• Social and Cultural Diversity and Racism
• Stereotyping and Discrimination in Advertising
• Does Unconscious Racism Exist by Lincoln Quillian
• Muslims in the US: Prejudice and Discrimination
• Sexual Orientation Discrimination Issue at the Workplace
• Racism and Discrimination in Religion Context
• Women’s Difference: Sex Discrimination
• Workplace Discrimination: Data Collection Methods
• US Teachers’ Rights, Dismissal, and Discrimination
• Sexual Orientation Discrimination at the Workplace
• Colorblindness as a Reason for Workplace Discrimination
• Discrimination in the USA: Cases and Policies
• Racism: Theoretical Perspectives and Research Methods
• Racism in the Setting the Rising Sun Postcard
• Car Pricing and Discrimination in Chicago
• The Effects of Racism on Learners Academic Outcomes
• Darwin’s and Galton’s Scientific Racism
• Eli Lilly & Company’s Discrimination Class Action
• The Voting Rights Act and Racial Discrimination
• English Literature Impact on Racism Among Africans
• Discrimination Complaint and the Litigation Process
• Price Discrimination Concept in Economics
• Jerrell Shofner’s Views on the Racial Discrimination
• Prejudice and Discrimination Reduction Prospects
• People with Disabilities: The Systemic Ableism
• The US Government and Discrimination With Muslims
• Asian American Communities and Racism in the USA
• Racial Discrimination and Its Effects on Employees
• Racism in the USA: Causes, Consequences and Solutions
• Discrimination of Women and Minorities in Firms
• Negative Aspects of Discrimination at the Workplace
• Sexism as Perceived by the Young Men
• Racial Discrimination in Social Institutions
• Effects of Discrimination in the Workplace
• King’s and Obama’s Views on Racism in America
• Lanning v. SEPTA: Employment Discrimination and Testing Practices
• Girls Discrimination in the Modern Educational System
• Racism Manifests in the Contemporary Society
• Racism in USA: Virginia Laws on Slavery
• Racism as a Reality of Modern American Society
• Homosexual Discrimination in Our Society: Causes and Effects
• Ethnicity and Issues of Racism in the United States
• Rodney King’s Case of Racial Discrimination
• Discrimination by Appearance in the USA
• Educational Attainment and Racial Discrimination
• Racial Discrimination Against Asian American Students
• Racism Issue and Solutions
• Addressing Discrimination at Workplace
• On Language Grounds: Discrimination of International Students
• Intersectionality and Gendered Racism
• International Students Discrimination in the USA
• Racism and Education in the United States
• Discrimination Due to Language Differences
• Racism in Michigan University
• Gender Discrimination in Russian Workplaces
• Racial Discrimination at the Workplace
• Racism and Sexism Ethical Problem
• Conflict and Racial Hostility
• “Going for the Look, but Risking Discrimination” by Steven Greenhouse
• Racism as a Case of Ignorance and Prejudice
• Racism and Segregation in American History
• Discrimination Definition and Characteristics
• Humanism, Racism, and Speciesism
• Discrimination Definition, Its Causes and Effects
• Racism in American Schools
• Racist America: Current Realities and Future Prospects
• Sexism in the English Language
• Racism: Impact on Minorities in American Society
• Discrimination in the Workplace: Denial of Promotion
• Asian-Americans Workplace Discrimination
• Self-Interest and Discrimination in Sociology
• Civil Movements: Discrimination and Its Consequences
• Racism Against Native Americans
• The Recruitment of Employees and Discrimination
• Gender Discrimination in the Workplace: Resolving Glass Ceiling Issue
• Obama’s First Election and Racism
• Adolf Hitler: From Patriotism to Racism
• Discrimination and Affirmative Action
• Problems of Environmental Racism
• How Obama’s First Election Has Been Affected by Racism?
• Race Discrimination in the USA
• How Different Young Australians Experience Racism?
• Racial Discrimination in Organizations
• Understanding Race and Racism
• In Australia, Are Cultural Rights a Form of Racism?
• Racism, Stigma, and Eexism – Sociology
• African Americans: Race and Ethnic Discrimination
• Racism and Ethnicity in United States
• Ethnic Stratification, Prejudice, Discrimination: Hispanics
• Problems of Ethnic Discrimination in US
• ‘Animal Rights’ Activists and Racism
• Diversity and Discrimination in the Workplace: The Role in Activities of an Organization
• Price Discrimination Economics
• Sex Discrimination at Wal-Mart
• Religious and Racal Discrimination in Eboo Patel’s “Acts of Faith”
• The Racial Discrimination Among Employers
• The Discrimination Against Women Employees in the Telecommunication Industry
• Theories of Cultural Diversity: Anthropological Theory and Discrimination
• Psychological Impact: Stereotyping, Prejudice and Racism
• Discrimination and Affirmative Action: New Haven Firefighter’s Case
• Multicultural Psychology: Cultural Identity and Racism
• Employing Individuals to Fill in Vacancies in the Company
• How Fake News Use Satire as a Medium to Address Issues on Racism?
• Young Australians and Racism
• Price Discrimination and Monopolistic Competition
• Relationship Between Institutionalized Racism and Marxism
• Statelessness and Discrimination
• Discrimination Against Black Women
• Democratic Racism in Canada
• Social Construction of “Race” and “Racism” and Its Relationship to Democratic Racism in Canada
• Ethnicity: Oppression and Racism
• The Impact of Prejudice and Discrimination
• Age discrimination in Employment
• Discrimination in the Labor Market
• Racism in Family Therapy by Laszloffy and Hardy
• Racial Discrimination in the US
• The ‘Peopling’ Process of Australia Since 1788 With Influence of Racism
• Is Racism and Anti-Semitism Still a Problem in the United States?
• Does Competition Eliminate Discrimination?
• Are HIV/AIDS Carriers Suffering From Discrimination?
• Does Ethnic Discrimination Vary Across Minority Groups?
• Can Competition Among Employers Reduce Governmental Discrimination?
• Does Gender Discrimination Contribute to India’s Population Imbalance?
• Are Racial Profiling and Police Discrimination an Issue?
• Does Health Predict the Reporting of Racial Discrimination or Do Reports of Discrimination Predict Health?
• Can Gender-Fair Language Reduce Gender Stereotyping and Discrimination?
• Does Market Liberalisation Reduce Gender Discrimination?
• Are Spatial Frequency Cues Used for Whisker-Based Active Discrimination?
• Does Political Competition Lessen Ethnic Discrimination?
• Can Social Contact Reduce Prejudice and Discrimination?
• Does Protecting Older Workers From Discrimination Make It Harder to Get Hired?
• Are the Processes Underlying Discrimination the Same for Women and Men?
• Does Racial Discrimination Exist Within the NBA?
• Can Social Media Lead to Labor Market Discrimination?
• Does Religious Discrimination Really Exist in Todays America?
• Did Fredy Villanueva Face Racial Discrimination?
• Does the Stimulus Type Influence Horses Performance in a Quantity Discrimination Task?
• Can the Government Deter Discrimination?
• Do Anti-discrimination Laws Alleviate Labor Market Duality?
• Can the One-Drop Rule Tell Us Anything About Racial Discrimination?
• Does Banning Price Discrimination Promote Entry and Increase Welfare?
• Have Anti-discrimination Housing Laws Worked?
• How Does Discrimination Affect People With Mental Illness?
• What Exactly Does Racial Discrimination Mean?
• Should the Racial Discrimination Act Be Reformed?
• What Are the Causes of Discrimination?
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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477 Discrimination Essay Topics

🏆 best essay topics on discrimination, ✍️ discrimination essay topics for college, 👍 good discrimination research topics & essay examples, 🌶️ hot discrimination ideas to write about, 📌 easy discrimination essay topics, 💡 simple discrimination essay ideas, 🎓 most interesting discrimination research titles, ❓ research questions about discrimination.

• Portrayal of Racism in Forster’s ‘a Passage to India’
• Gender Discrimination in Society and Social Media: Solutions
• Racism: “Born a Crime” by Trevor Noah
• Discrimination in School and Its Effects on Students
• Gender Discrimination Issues and Interventions
• Examples of Racism in The Great Gatsby
• Gender Discrimination and Performance in the Workplace
• Racism and Its Effects on Our Society Racism can be defined as a belief that an individual’s traits and abilities are somehow dependent on their racial group and biological characteristics.
• Reducing Stereotype, Prejudice, and Discrimination The strategy societies choose should address both individual and institutional sources of discrimination and prejudice in the context of where individuals work, live, and learn.
• Racism in Margaret Laurence`s Story ” The Loons” The main theme in ‘The Loons’ is racism gainst the minority sections of the society and its consequences on them.
• Racism in Ken Liu’s “The Paper Menagerie” The pain of discrimination is portrayed within a blended background. Through the representation of a diverse household, “The Paper Menagerie” weaves the issue of racism.
• Sociological Perspectives on Racism The sociological perspective allows people to trace the association between the patterns and the events of their own and those of the community in general.
• Racism in Nivea’s “White Is Purity” Ad Campaign In its recent international marketing campaign, Nivea used an advertisement to promote an antiperspirant. The slogan “White is purity” was regarded by the public as rather racist.
• Racism and Injustice in “Monster” Novel by Myers “Monster” takes several steps further to examine the courtroom events to explore the social underpinnings of how African American people are tried and treated.
• Discrimination in White’s “Charlotte’s Web” and Levine’s “Hana’s Suitcase” The theme of discrimination stands out clearly in “Charlotte’s Web” – a classic fictitious children’s novel by E. B. White and “Hana’s Suitcase” – a non-fiction story by Karen Levine.
• Social Classes and Discrimination in “A Rose for Emily” “A Rose for Emily” demonstrates Emily’s social class and biases through Emily’s bravery and arrogant and dignified attitudes towards community members from lower social classes.
• Racism: “The White Man’s Burden” by Rudyard Kipling The main consequence of Kipling’s “The White Man’s Burden” is that it promotes and spreads the paradigm of White racism and prejudices through a literary approach.
• Ableism in Schools of Georgia State In 2015, the state of Georgia was found to segregate children with behavioral problems and disabilities from their school peers.
• Orientalism, Prejudice, and Discrimination The people living in the Middle East in countries like Saudi Arabia, UAE, etc are known as Arabs. The word is somewhat ethnic.
• Discrimination and Inequality in the Education System Despite the fact that the war against various types of discrimination recently became rather successful, a significant number of people still face inequality.
• Argument Against LGBTQ Discrimination LGBTQ discrimination is the unfair treatment of people who identify themselves as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or queer.
• Language Discrimination in the USA Language discrimination is a severe problem in the USA, and it refers to both foreigners and people who use regional variations of English.
• Age Discrimination in the Work Place The phenomenon of discrimination should be considered to be a peril of the employment. In this age of cultural diversity the age discrimination is a stigma to the corporate world.
• Discrimination Problem in the Workplace Discrimination in the workplace is still a critical problem because it can affect a person’s life in the long-term if a company does not consider preventive measures.
• Social Inequality, Discrimination, and Solution Social inequality is one of the primary drivers of racial discrimination. At the micro-level, unequal distribution of wealth contributes to racial segregation.
• Gender, Racial Discrimination, and Exclusion in Toni Morrison’s “Paradise” “Paradise” addresses the issue of racism by narrating a story about African Americans who move to the town of Ruby, in which people repeat certain mistakes.
• Racism in the Poem “Black Judgment” by Giovanni, Nikki The article analyzes the poem “Black Judgment” written by Giovanni, Nikki, which is devoted to the problems of racism and the influence of the environment on the writer’s work.
• Sexism in “Trifles” by Susan Glaspell The feeble behavior of the females in the story hinges on men’s aggressiveness and oppressive nature, which underscores sexism in the story.
• “A Class Divided” Film on Discrimination The movie “A Class Divided” describes an experiment performed by Jane Elliot, a grade three teacher concerned by discrimination that existed at the time of Martin Luther King.
• Gender Discrimination in “Disgrace” by J.M Coetzee J.M Coetzee’s book “Disgrace” that has been examined in this paper explores the nature of gender discrimination meted on women in South Africa.
• Racism and Masculinity in the Film “A Soldier’s Story” In this paper, we will discuss “A Soldier’s Story,” and see how racial prejudice and the ideas of dominating masculinity lead to a disaster to a number of its characters.
• Stereotypes, Prejudice and Discrimination This work explores why stereotypes are difficult to change, describes Devine’s two-step model of cognitive processing, and defines prejudice and its difference from discrimination.
• Racism and Pessimism in Wilson’s Play “Fences” August Wilson’s play “Fences” exemplifies the detrimental impacts of racial discrimination on the well-being of ethnic and racial minorities.
• Contingent Workers and Discrimination Prohibiting Laws In terms of hiring contingent workers, there is a range of problems that might arise, and it is crucial to watch out for red flags to anticipate possible losses to the company.
• The Trauma of Enduring Racism and Ethnic Hatred: They Called Us Enemy This essay aims to discuss the effects of racism and ethnic hatred, as illustrated in the story They Called Us Enemy by George Takei.
• Classism and Discrimination in Tennis Clubs The social classes have diverse ideas reflected in their sporting interests. Classism can be viewed as a form of discrimination within a private membership tennis club atmosphere.
• The Uber Firm’s Price Discrimination and Other Issues Uber’s business model can be characterized by innovation in the taxi market. On the other hand, it caused many problems for the company.
• Sexism and Gender Inequality in Sport The paper reviews an example of sexism and gender inequality and academic scholarship on the topic. Women athletes have faced gender inequality and sexism.
• Price Segmentation Versus Price Discrimination Some many valuable techniques and tactics markets widely accept when deciding how to charge prices for their goods or services.
• The Impact of Racism on Globalization Racism is a great impediment to globalization, the bad blood between the said people of color and those of no color has dealt a big blow to development.
• Discrimination in Dubus’ “House of Sand and Fog” In “House of Sand and Fog” novel, Dubus provides a thought-provoking commentary on the nature of racism and discrimination in the U.S., depicting the life of an Iranian refugee.
• Racial Discrimination in The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass In this story, Douglass narrates the experiences he had as a slave before escaping to New York. He was born in slavery and remembered the name of his mother as Harriet Bailey.
• Racism: A Party Down at the Square Ellison’s narrative, A party down at the square, depicts public lynching at Southern point. It gives the reasons we must all stand for equality and eradicate racism.
• Racism and Social Injustice in Warriors Don’t Cry The book under consideration illustrates some of the strategies African Americans used to address racism in the United States in the first part of the twentieth century
• Gender Discrimination as an Ethical Issue Society is related to discrimination, inequality, and ethical injustice due to the increasing rates of incompetence incidence based on racial, gender, or ethnic affiliation.
• Racial and Cultural Discrimination of Native Americans Native Americans have to face racial and cultural discrimination and the fact that they had lived here long before this land was first discovered by Europeans.
• Racism in the “Devil in a Blue Dress” Film The film Devil in a Blue Dress introduces many topics for discussion, including the racial problem in the United States.
• Social Class and Discrimination Practices This paper examines the concept of social class and the influence of history on the formation of stereotypical perceptions and the emergence of discrimination experiences.
• Religious Discrimination in Different Countries The problem of discrimination is relevant in modern society since, to this day, due to the existence of various confessions, interreligious conflicts occur.
• Racism in “Being Brought From Africa to America” and “A Letter From Phyllis Wheatley” Both poems “Being Brought From Africa to America” and “A Letter From Phyllis Wheatley” are great reflections on the racism issue, and even now, their demand is not decreasing.
• Discrimination at Workplace Workers often face employment discrimination based on race. Thus, the issue of inappropriate treatment of various groups of workers is critically important and relevant.
• Ableism and Student Segregation in Georgia Schools The US Department of Justice’s investigation showed that the state of Georgia was illegally segregating students with disabilities.
• Gender Discrimination Topic for Research Gender discrimination is a social phenomenon based on cultural practices that set a glass ceiling to women in many aspects of life.
• Colorblind Racism in “The Help” Film The Help, a film based on a novel of the same name, can be employed to exemplify multiple patterns, including colorblindness, although not all of them are criticized in the work.
• Descriptive Research of Internal Discrimination Among African Americans In this study, the survey method is chosen as the best alternative as it provides an opportunity to evaluate a diverse and significantly large population sample.
• Racial Injustice, Racial Discrimination, and Racism Racial injustice is a serious issue in today’s society. It has negative effects on a multitude of people’s personal and social development.
• Discrimination in the Workplace: A Case Study Case study analysis of John being humiliated and groundlessly insulted by his supervisor, apparently because of his supervisor’s racist tendencies.
• Women: Gender Inequality and Discrimination This paper explains whether innate gender differences exist and how they determine the abilities, choices, and aptitudes that differentiate men from women.
• Organizational Change Against Discrimination: The Case of Amazon The paper discusses the Amazon lawsuits, examining the external and internal factors prompting the need for change, and organizational issues.
• Discrimination Against Women in Atwood’s “The Handmaid’s Tale” Atwood’s “The Handmaid’s Tale” demonstrates discrimination among women displaying how the new regime deprives them of the human rights to hold property, be financially independent.
• Problem of Price Discrimination Price discrimination is the process by which a firm charges different prices to different groups of people for the same good.
• Racism in Foster’s “Elegy of Color”, Hurston’s “Sweat,” and Wilson’s “Fences” This research focuses on Foster’s poem “Elegy of Color,” Hurston’s book “Sweat,” and Wilson’s play “Fences” which provide a historical context for the understanding of racism.
• Discrimination: Resume Screening One of the discriminatory practices can be seen in the hiring process during the resume review stages, where an act of discrimination is done on the basis of a candidate’s name.
• Institutional Racism Against Native Americans: The Killers of the Flower Moon David Grann published The Killers of the Flower Moon about the murders in Oklahoma in the 1920s and contributed to the creation of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).
• Discrimination of Women in Rock and Roll The purpose of this paper is to analyze and dwell upon manifestations of women’s discrimination that can be traced in rock and roll lyrics.
• Impact of Kendrick Lamar Music on Racism The essay hypothesizes that Lamar’s music has conducted to a progress in abolishing racism by cultivating tolerant attitude in the society towards Afro-American population.
• Gentrification as Another Form of Discrimination Gentrification is the process of renewal and revitalization of urban neighborhoods that bring in new, wealthier residents while displacing low-income residents and businesses.
• Language, Identity, and Discrimination The linguistic identity is similar in the sense that discrimination frequently occurs due to the difference in languages that people speak.
• The Term “Oriental” as Discrimination Against Asian People The current paper states that the term “oriental” is used to speak about violent and discriminative policies related to Asian people or culture.
• Racial Disparities in Healthcare Through the Lens of Systemic Racism Racism and inequality in healthcare are serious and complex issues of today’s society that must be widely addressed for them to be acknowledged and finally changed.
• Influence of Gender on Life and Sexism Sexism is a negative phenomenon meaning that individuals face various opportunities and attitudes based on their genders.
• Is Racism a Natural Condition of Human Society? The discussion around the new wave of the “Black Lives Matter” movement in the United States, for instance, proves that it stays the burning issue of most communities even today.
• Color-Blind Racism as a New Face of Racism in Contemporary Society This paper aims to describe color-blind racism, its’ four mainframes, each proposing different ideological arguments and reports the ideology of racism
• Price Discrimination in “Naked Economics” by Wheelan The book Naked Economics introduces the concept of price discrimination. The paper will provide additional examples that can be observed in real life.
• Racial Discrimination in the “Selma” Film The “Selma” film has shown how the mass media provoked the White American population to stand for the rights of Black people despite the common negative perceptions.
• Naked Economics: Adverse Selection and Discrimination Charles Wheelan in “Naked Economics” considers the importance of economic information and the consequences of its imbalance, which brings along the sensitive issue of discrimination.
• Housing Discrimination in the United States In the United States, housing discrimination refers to historical as well as present policies and biases that act as barriers towards equitable access to housing.
• “Miles of Aisles of Sexism” by Hoffman The article Miles of Aisles of Sexism by Hoffman demonstrates how toy stores are entrenched within the sex-role stereotypes and the bold adoration of war.
• Racism and Oppression in “Native Son” by Wright The book Native Son is an engaging book by Wright that gives astonishing accounts relating to racism, segregation, and oppression.
• Employment Law Paper: Workplace Discrimination Discrimination in the workplace is a severe issue because it implies that people are deprived of some rights or inadequately treated based on their ethnicity.
• Perkin-Gilman’s Feminist Theory and View on Gender Discrimination In “The Yellow Wallpaper”, Gilman depicts in novel structure how the house turns into a women’s jail and how being shut in could lead to mental distress in women.
• Policing Racism as a Solvable Problem: A TED Talk Goff’s TED talk video “How We Can Make Racism a Solvable Problem and Improve Policing” triggers feelings of sympathy, surprise, and disgust.
• Racism in Campus of the Montclair State University Effect Depending on the student’s high school and neighborhood segregation, the level of diverse thinking and acknowledgment is seriously determined by these factors.
• Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: An Etiquette Without Gender Discrimination Terms The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis reverses the common perception regarding communications and reality, in which the language reflects the realities of the world and the surroundings.
• Fredrickson’s Racism: A Short History This book covers the many aspects of racism, the history behind the phenomenon, and how the world now views racism, whether it takes it seriously.
• Racism in “Native Son” by Richard Wright Racism does not vanish when Whites are able to convince themselves that they are no longer villains, consciously promoting negative attitude about minorities.
• Racism in the Music Video: Locked Up and Styles P Using the music video Locked Up by Akon featuring Styles P, this paper discusses the significance of race and racial representation in the media.
• Racism & Sexism: Black Women’s Experiences in Tennis Research suggests that exclusion and discrimination strategies are still being used to limit the chances and advancement accessible to colored minority groups.
• Experiences of Institutional Racism at an Early Age The paper examines how experiences of institutional racism at an early age translate to orientations towards activism in the black community.
• Solving Ethical Dilemma of Discrimination This paper discusses one of the frequent ethical dilemmas in workplaces, which is discrimination, based on religion, gender, ethnicity, or nationality.
• Racial Discrimination and Poverty Racial discrimination and poverty have resulted in health disparities and low living standards among African Americans in the United States.
• The Problem of Sexism in the Workplace Sexism in the workplace is often an invisible and unspoken phenomenon that is often overlooked. Manifestations of sexism occur at all stages of a career.
• The Indirect Price Discrimination The indirect price discrimination implies charging a different price for different quantities such as giving customers quantity discounts for bulk buying.
• Causes of Racism and Racial Discrimination Racism refers to the institution of prejudice against other people based on a particular racial or ethnic group membership. Racial bias causes low self-esteem.
• Ethnocentrism and Racism in Child Development The case of a 14-year-old biracial girl will be analyzed to investigate the effects of ethnocentrism and racism in child development, especially during the adolescent period.
• Racism Against Afro-Americans in Wilson’s “Fences” Play Fences is a play by August Wilson, an American playwright, a Pulitzer’s laureate, who wrote about the life of African Americans in different periods of the 20th century.
• Price Discrimination: Principles and Applications Price discrimination is a practice where different customers are charged different prices on goods and services that are identical.
• Racism Issue in the Play “A Raisin in the Sun” by Bill Duke The renowned play A Raisin in the Sun, directed by Bill Duke, depicts the challenges and biases endured by black families in America.
• Gender Intersectionality: Fighting Discrimination This essay explored how gender intersectionality protects the interests of disadvantaged groups of the population.
• Discrimination and Inequality in Society Countering discrimination and a meaningful debate about ethnic and racial equality requires a mature society with well-developed legal institutions.
• Hooters, Inc. Discrimination Case Disparate impact arises when seemingly neutral laws, practices, norms, or other systems have a disproportionately negative impact on a protected group.
• School Dress and Grooming Codes as Agents of Racial Discrimination The thesis of this author was school dress and grooming codes as agents of racial discrimination against Blacks.
• Imperialism and Racism During the Colonial Period This analysis of primary sources aims to demonstrate how various historical actors interpreted imperialism during different periods.
• Indigenous Women Discrimination in Canada The struggle for the rights of the Indigenous people of Canada only truly began in the 21st century, and so far, the situation of this population group cannot be called favorable.
• Individual and Systemic Racism No law applies only to one race and does not apply to another. If there is a violation of the law, there is a judicial system to deal with the problem.
• Stop and Search Policy and Race Discrimination This research aims to identify the reasons for police violence against ethnic backgrounds and outline possible ways to solve this problem.
• Racial Discrimination as a Social Justice Issue Racial discrimination is more pronounced in other US regions than others, and that is why the respective states need to work harmoniously to avert social evil.
• Discrimination of the Indians in the Boarding Schools The paper discusses the problem of orphanages for Indian children, and its essence lies in the separation of families and violence.
• Racism and White Supremacy in the USA Approximately 38% of Latinos/Hispanics in the US have noted experiencing some level of harassment, discrimination, or public criticism for their ethnicity.
• Stigma and Discrimination in Children Living With HIV-AIDS The paper aims to conduct a literature review to establish the contributing factors of prejudice among and against children victims of HIV/AIDS.
• Sexism & Gender Wage Gap: Deconstructing the Myths A recent Harvard study reveals that the gender earnings gap is primarily associated with the amount of time one works.
• Mass Incarceration and Racial Discrimination In order to draw a parallel between the alleged racial discrimination and mass incarceration, it may be important to examine the concept of symbolic interactionism.
• Carl Hart’s Talk on Racism, Poverty, and Drugs In his TED Talk, Carl Hart, a professor of neuroscience at Columbia University who studies drug addiction, exposes a relationship between racism, poverty, and drugs.
• Wal-Mart Scenario: Sex Discrimination The paper discusses sex discrimination. It is evident that at any given time, the organization will have a workforce that is diverse in several ways.
• Environmental Racism and Environmental Justice One should not tolerate that a certain percentage of city residents live in much worse environmental conditions than all others – it is necessary to modernize the industry.
• Overcoming Racism in Environmental Decision Making Building a city for humans to live requires the construction of many industrial sites, living next to which is unsafe, thus ethnic minorities would be the ones predominately living there.
• Institutional Discrimination Related to Ageism Negative ageist attitudes are manifested in stereotypical behaviors at a personal level and discriminatory institutional policies that sustain inequities between groups.
• Sexual Harassment and Discrimination in the Workplace Sexual harassment and discrimination in the workplace are important modern problems. They lead to health deterioration and also influence an individual’s habits and attitudes.
• Equal Employment Opportunity: The Issue of Unlawful Discrimination The law ensures that individuals are protected against discrimination regardless of their skin color, age, gender, ethnicity, nationality or religion.
• Racism and Ethnicity in the US Race and ethnicity in the United States are not based on any spelled out criteria and consequently, various people may label a certain group of people variously.
• Racial Discrimination Within the Educational Setting From the three articles discussed, we learn that there is a high rate of racial discrimination between whites and African American people.
• Rasism in the USA: Personal Experience The fight against ethnicity and racism still has a long way to go and not unless everyone develops a new mentality, the world will remain a venue filled with racism.
• Racism Against African Americans as a Social Construct The relationship between African Americans and whites in the US demonstrates that racism is perpetuated by individuals through their actions and interactions.
• American Racism in “Men We Reaped” by Jesmyn Ward Men We Reaped is Jesmyn Ward’s account of the economic realities of her DeLisle hometown illustrate the poor historical race relations in America.
• Misogyny and Sexism: The Key Differences This research paper will explore how misogyny and sexism differ based on their definition, nature, and gender.
• The Portrayal of Racism in Literary Works Each work reveals different aspects of racism in America, from social discrimination and segregation to economic exploitation.
• Racism in the USA: Organizational Behavior In the USA, there still exists widespread racism despite campaigns against the vice. People are subjected to discrimination because of differences in factors such as gender.
• Racial Discrimination and Economic Revival The prevalence of discrimination against non-Caucasians in America shows the contradictions between the treatment of minorities and American ideals of equality.
• Racism Against African Americans and Its Effects Racism has significantly affected African-Americans’ social status due to negative perceptions and biases held concerning them.
• Housing Discrimination: Redlining Continuing Affects The current paper states that redlining serves as evidence of the long-term harm caused by government involvement in the housing market.
• The Issue of Employment Discrimination The paper states that employment discrimination is a problem that needs to be solved. The reasons are cognitive distortions and peculiarities of the psychology.
• Racism in Modern Canada: Taking Action as a Helping Professional Cases of racial and ethnic discrimination, xenophobia, and related intolerance, which occur daily, impede the improvement of the lives of millions of people around the world.
• Shifting Disease Burden and Age Discrimination The disease burden is exacerbated by social and economic disparities affecting healthcare access. Age discrimination and challenges caused by multimorbidity should be addressed.
• Analysis of Discrimination in Recruitment Discrimination in the workplace has become a major challenge facing an increasingly diversified world, especially in recruitment and selection of workers.
• Health Care Policy: Eliminating Systemic Racism The paper states that the policy can be considered a stepping stone for meaningful change in eliminating systemic racism from the healthcare industry.
• Racism Against the Blacks in the UK The UK is one of the most ethnically diversified countries, with residents from different parts of the world and various cultural backgrounds.
• The Intragroup Discrimination Theory Development The Intragroup Discrimination Theory is based on how a person is perceived immediately after birth and what traits may affect them in the future.
• Employment Discrimination: Diversity Still Matters Applicants need to find the right place of work to ensure their well-being, and organizations require competent people to succeed.
• On White Privilege, Colorblindness, and Racism Critical Race Theory (CRT) is one of the approaches that attempt to address the issue of racism by identifying and investigating perpetual racial injustices.
• Discrimination in the American Society In American society, myriad forms of discrimination are now established, notably against people based on their nationality, color, religious doctrine, sexuality, and gender.
• Racism, Social-Economic Status, and the Dominant Story Disparities in the distribution of social benefits such as education, healthcare, and employment are among the dominant stories in the United States (US).
• Racism in Toni Morrison’s “Recitatif” Like Morrison’s other work, Recitatif focuses on the issue of prejudice and racial identity. However, in the short story, the races of the main characters are concealed.
• Racism, Ethnoviolence, and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder The paper states that experiencing racism can induce post-traumatic stress disorder. Most people do not draw a link between racism and PTSD.
• The Effects of Discrimination That LGBT Persons Encounter The paper focuses on the effects of discrimination that LGBT persons encounter. They never interfere with the lives of people who do not relate to the LGBT community.
• The Ideas and Perspectives of Literary Works About Slavery and Racism The essay aims to provide insights into opinions about the ideas and perspectives of literary works about slavery, racism, and the oppression of African-Americans.
• Sexism Rates in Modern Society Modern society has seen more sexism rates than in the past. Unfortunately, sexism has unexpectedly established itself at different levels, ages, and beliefs.
• Human Rights and Discrimination Discrimination is against human rights and should be condemned because it has negative effects such as reduced productivity, feelings of anger, and anxiety.
• Racism as a Crime Racism is one of the oldest and most reprehensible forms of crime, which manifests itself in discrimination against people based on their racial or national origin. It is expressed through statements, actions, or policies that divide people. Racism creates prejudices and demonizes others, leading to a lack of access to…
• Equal Employment Opportunity Laws: The Pregnancy Discrimination Act The paper discusses one of the most interesting and surprising equal employment opportunity laws. It is the Pregnancy Discrimination Act.
• Researching of Structural Racism Structural racism presents an issue that includes several institutions. Moreover, the interconnectedness between these institutions represents a major problem for people of color.
• Racism as a Modern-Day Societal Challenge This essay analyzes racism as a modern-day societal challenge and proposes policies and measures that may help curb the issue.
• So Cal’s Water Agency: Racism, Sexual Harassment, and Retaliation So Cal’s Water Agency has reported racial discrimination, sexual harassment, and retaliation cases. Practices of unequal hiring have been experienced by employees in this agency.
• Doping: Racism and Discrimination of Athletes The issue of discrimination is linked to the point of doping by athletes, which significantly amplifies the implications for the fundamental values of sport.
• Color-Blind Society and Racism Individuals would be seen as individuals without regard to race. This concept has been gaining traction recently.
• The Issues of Collusion and Discrimination The current paper states that firm collusion and price discrimination represent practices detrimental to consumers and a free market.
• Employee’s Retirement and Age Discrimination Laws The case study examines a situation where an HR director is faced with a dilemma regarding an employee’s retirement and the violation of age discrimination laws.
• Asian and Latin Americans’ Experience of Racism The article discusses the similarities and differences in the experience of racism faced by Asian and Latin Americans and highlights issues such as discrimination.
• World War II: Holocaust and Discrimination of the Jews The research paper aims to review several primary and secondary sources discussing the World War II and specifically the discrimination faced by the Jews.
• Systemic Racism in the US: Systemic Racism and America Today Discrimination in the US is an issue that has been dealt with for decades; however, there are no signs of it ending.
• Prejudice and Discrimination Against Muslim Americans American perceptions of Muslims in society are influenced by the discourse that pits Islam and Western ideals against one another.
• Price and Behavioral Discrimination Discrimination of various kinds is always harmful and destructive action, whether it considers more narrow or broader aspects.
• Racism: How Bigotry and Hate Runs Through History Courtesy of racial distinctions, the Europeans considered themselves more concrete in terms of reasoning and used racism as a convenient exploitation justification.
• Racism in Modern American Society Racism is one of the common social problems within the American community, thus incorporating competent solutions through policies.
• Zero Discrimination for People Who Use Drugs From all of the above, it follows that HIV-infected prisoners should have the same access to timely and high-quality medical care as the population.
• The Discrimination, Prejudice, and Racism Concepts This paper discusses the concepts of discrimination, prejudice, and racism, their relationship with each other, and how they affect society.
• Resolving Discrimination Against Queer (LGBTQ) Community The article focuses on practical measures that can be governed to ensure that LGBTQ people are not discriminated against and violated.
• Discrimination Against Disabled Employees This paper discusses discrimination against disabled employees in the workplace, using the example of an autistic employee who was unlawfully fired by a Subway sandwich shop.
• Discrimination Against Addicts in Recovery
• Racial Discrimination Cases: Federal Hate Crime Charges in Black Jogger’s
• Racism and Biases Based on Social Issues and Attitudes
• Critical Thinking and Racism in Modern Times
• Categories of Price Discrimination
• American Church’s Complicity in Racism
• Transgender People: Prejudice and Discrimination
• Employment Discrimination in Recruitment
• The Problem of Discrimination in the Workplace
• The Cross-Generational Discrimination
• Decolonization as a Response to Racism and Discrimination
• Researching of House Discrimination
• Changing Social World and Addressing Discrimination
• Housing Discrimination Across Race, Gender, and Felony History
• Employment Discrimination and Security Regulations
• Overcoming Racism in the United States in the 1960s
• The Issue of Gender Discrimination Related to Business and Society
• Overcoming Racism in “The Blood of Jesus” Film
• New World Slavery and Racism in Society
• Defining Race in Brazil and Racism Reducing
• Native Americans in Schools: Effects of Racism
• Psychological Perspectives on Racism
• Reconstruction in the United States: The Structural Racism
• House Discrimination: Analysis of the Issue
• “The Costs of Racism to White People” by P. Kivel
• The Color of Compromise: The Truth About the American Church’s Complicity in Racism
• Criminal Justice System and the Problem of Racism
• Diversity, Racism, and Identity in the United States
• Environmental Racism as Rights Infringement
• How Diversity Has Influenced Discrimination in the Society
• Cause and Effect of Queer (LGBTQ+) Discrimination
• “Interrogating Racism: Toward an Antiracist Anthropology” and “Economics”
• Causes to Eradicate Homophobia and Sexism
• Discussion of LGBT Discrimination in Modern Society
• Asian Discrimination in America
• Researching the History of Racism
• Racial Discrimination in the Industry of Face Masks During the COVID-19 Pandemic
• Outsourcing & Women’s Discrimination in the Workplace
• Slavery and Racism: History and Linkage
• The Issues of Racism, Sexism, and Homophobia
• Discrimination and Sexual Violence Documentaries
• The Asian Racism: Joel Best’s Constructivism
• The Theoretical Origin of the Concept of Racism
• Social Inequality and Discrimination in the US
• Federal Employment Discrimination Laws
• America Counteracting Prejudice, Discrimination, and Violence
• Racial and Class Discrimination in the History of the American South
• Issue of Racism in Colonial Haiti
• Civil Rights Movement and Construction of US Racism
• Women in Politics: Biases and Discrimination
• Racial Discrimination in the USA
• How Racism Makes Us Sick
• Discrimination of Islam in America
• Discrimination Against Black Women: “The Body Knows Its Door” by Williams
• Racism and Its Impact on Society
• Racism in Employment from Conley’s Viewpoint
• Racial and Ethnic Discrimination in “When They See Us” Film
• Researching the Racism and Race
• Approaches to Psychology. Discrimination of the Islamic Religion
• James Baldwin’s Essays on Racism and Slavery
• Racism and Prejudice: People’s Experiences
• Problem of Racial Discrimination
• Racism, Its Origins, and Evolution
• Cultural Sexism Versus Other Macro-Level Factors
• Critical Writing for Economics of Discrimination
• American Racism, Violence, and Brutality in the 21st Century
• How Black Lives Matter Movement Fights Racism
• How Structural Racism Is Addressed by Open Science
• Colorblind Racism and Race-Based Medicine
• Analysis of Structural Racism in Healthcare
• Socety’s Problem: Family and Racism
• The Persistence of White Racism in the United States
• Combating Racial Discrimination in Public Institutions
• Racism and White Privilege and Benefits
• Addressing Race Discrimination in Contemporary America
• Discrimination as a Major Cause of Sociological Issues
• Systemic Racism in the United States
• Dealing With the Issue of Medical Racism
• Racism: Scene for Screenplay Illustrating Racism
• Reflection on Racism as a Social Injustice
• Taking Joined Action to Confront Anti-Black Racism in Toronto
• Protection against Violence and Discrimination in the Clinical Setting
• The Climate of Social Justice, Racism, COVID-19, and Other Issues
• A Case Study about Work Place Discrimination
• Analysis of Environmental Racism in America
• A Form of Discrimination and Human Rights Violations
• Environmental Racism: Analyzing the Phenomenon
• Discrimination Against Women at the Workplace
• From Slavery to Racism: Historical Background
• Cultural Racism in the Current Day
• Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. Du Bois Fighting Discrimination Against African Americans
• Examining Racism in American 21st Century Society
• Diversity and Discrimination in Restaurant Industry
• Slavery and Discrimination: The Foundations of the Problem
• Settler Society and Structural Racism
• Comparative Analysis of Three Books about Racism
• Social Psychology: Race, Racism, and Discrimination
• Discrimination of Muslim American Women
• Fighting Racism Behavior Towards the Latino Community
• Discrimination Are on the Foundation of Sexual Orientation
• Ethical Considerations on Affirmative Action: Racism
• Personal Connections to Racism: A Very Short Introduction
• Environmental Justice Framework and Racism
• Racism, Racial Profiling and Bias in the War on Drugs
• Eric Williams: Slavery Was Not Born Out of Racism
• Disability Discrimination in the Workplace
• Discrimination and Harassment in the Workplace
• Religious Discrimination at the Workplace
• Prejudice and Discrimination in the Judicial System
• Workplace Discrimination Laws: Court Case
• Racism in the United States of America
• Racial Profiling: Issues Connected to Discrimination
• Police Shooting and Issue of Discrimination
• Racism: Ku Klux Klan Case Study
• The Non-recognition of Multiple Discrimination
• Understanding of Race and Ethnicity and the Components of Discrimination and Stereotyping
• Racial Discrimination in “White Fragility” and “Black Men”
• Systemic Racism and Its Impact on Development
• Discrimination of Women in the Workplace
• Racism in the 21st Century Problem Analysis
• Religious Liberties in the Face of Employment Discrimination Reforms
• The Phenomenon of Racism
• Disabled Americans in the Workplace and Discrimination
• Systemic Racism and the American Justice System
• National Origin Discrimination at Work
• The Problems of Racism in Modern Society
• Discrimination and Racial Segregation Over Time
• Segregation and Racial Discrimination in Housing
• The History of Mexican and Asian Americans’ Discrimination
• Jane Elliott’s Experiment on Discrimination
• Racism & Privilege Within the Social Work Setting
• Internal Racism in the Movie Amreeka
• Racism and Impact of Racial Discrimination
• Legal and Illegal Discrimination in the Society
• Racism, Crime and Justice and Growing-Up Bad
• Racism Against Health Care Workers
• Research Methods in Psychology. Methods against Racism
• Institutional Racism Mitigation in Criminal Justice, Education, and Health Systems
• Genetic Testing and Privacy & Discrimination Issues
• The Reality About Isms and Heterosexism
• Discrimination Definition & Meaning
• Institutional Racism Existing in the United States
• Discrimination and Racism in Cobb County
• The Color Line: Racism in Dubois’ and Zinn’s Works
• Discrimination and Harassment in Hiring a Veteran
• The Problem of Racism and Its Possible Origins
• Religious Liberties and LGBTQ Employment Discrimination Reforms
• Racism and Kingdom Ethics. Main Aspects
• “Discrimination in the Age of Algorithms” by Kleinberg
• Racial Discrimination in the Modern Society
• Defining Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination
• Racism May Be Natural in Modern Society
• “Neighborhood Racial Discrimination and the Development of Major Depression” by Russell
• Racism v Justice. “The New Jim Crow” by M. Alexander
• Racism Is the Problem of Society
• Racism: Black Lives Matter Central Idea
• Skin Color as Reason for Oppression and Discrimination
• Trump Administration and Transgender Discrimination
• How is Systemic Racism Becoming a News Spectacle?
• Ralph Ellison’s “Battle Royal”: Racism
• Does System Racism Exist in the USA?
• Persistent Racism in the United States
• Discrimination in the United States
• Racism Within the Public Health Framework
• Employment Classification and Discrimination
• Discrimination in Protecting Health Care Workers
• The African American Nurse: Discrimination Case From the Elderly Patients
• Racial Discrimination as a Public Problem
• Employment Discrimination Reforms: Religious Liberties
• American Psychological Association and Racism
• Discrimination and Affirmative Action
• Sexual Discrimination in Olympic Speed Skating
• Discrimination and Affirmative Action in Wal-Mart
• Australian Aborigines and Racial Discrimination
• Discrimination in Prison Problem
• South Africa’s Handling of Racism and Ethnic Relations: How They Compare With Those of the USA
• Racial Profiling: Necessary Evil or Discrimination?
• Negro Kids: Racism in American Schools
• Modern Racism Concepts and Types
• Heterosexism as an Act of Discrimination
• Discrimination of Women Entrepreneurs in Getting Loans From Banks
• Leadership and Management: Discrimination in the Workplace
• Sexual Harassment Like Discrimination Form
• Homophobia and Racism and Other Issues
• Gender Construction and Heterosexism
• Research Environmental Discrimination and Environmental Justice
• The Issue of Gender Pay Discrimination in Canada
• Racial Discrimination in Analyzed Movie and Book
• The Theme of Race Discrimination in Works of Richard Rodriguez
• Racism in Breast Cancer Treatment
• Specific Racism Against Chinese Americans
• The Notion of Colorblind Racism
• Issues of Racial Discrimination: Racial Identity and Socialization
• Age Discrimination in the United States
• J. Brady’s and A. Brott’s Articles on Sexism Review
• Discrimination in the Workplace: Case Study
• Racism and Social Reform Movements in the United States
• Racial Discrimination in the US
• Racism in Minnesota in Relation to the Klu Klux Klan
• Racism in Minnesota: Archival Research Paper
• Institutionalised Racism – Myth or Reality?
• Cultural Pluralism and Sexism in Healthcare
• Employment Discrimination in the United States
• Discrimination Against Racial and Gender Minorities
• Price Discrimination in the Airline Industry
• Racism Effects in “Warriors Don’t Cry” by Melba Beals
• Adverse Selection: Is Discrimination Warranted?
• A Plan to Reduce Racism in Medicine
• The Issue of Transgender Discrimination
• Ethnical Ambiguousness as a Band-Aid for Racism
• America’s Band-Aid for Racism Is the Ethnically Ambiguous
• Ethnically Ambiguous – America’s Band-Aid for Racism
• Racism in “Get Out” Movie: Rhetorical Discussion
• Gay Community and Heterosexism in Language
• Transgender Community and Heterosexism in Language
• Gender Discrimination and Intervention Program
• Issue of Gender Discrimination in Different Societies
• Women Discrimination Impact in Telecommunication Industry
• Psychologist’s Discrimination Against Deaf Student
• Racism in American Schools: NCLB Problems
• Rethinking Sexual Harassment and Gender Discrimination
• Sexism, Democracy, and Modernization
• The Problem of Women’s Discrimination
• Racism and Its Definition Challenge
• Anti-Latinos Discrimination and Rebuttal in the US
• Healthcare System: Transgender Patients Discrimination
• Racism in the Contemporary America
• Symbolism and Racism in Lee’s “To Kill a Mockingbird”
• Laws on Pregnancy Discrimination in Workplace
• Transgender Patients Problem and the Consequences of Discrimination
• Workplace Racism in Public Service Organization
• American Racism in Coates’ The Case for Reparations
• Racism and Inequality in the United States
• Anti-Latino Discrimination in the American Society
• Malcolm X and Anne Moody on Racism in the US
• Transgender Patients: Challenges & Discrimination in Healthcare
• Gender-Based Discrimination during Surgical Training
• Dismantling Institutional Racism: Effects and Possible Solutions
• Workplace Discrimination: Analysis and Recommendations
• Problem of Racism in the Modern World
• Sexism and Gender: Culture and Conflict Reflection
• Discrimination Faced by Transgender Patients
• Dove’s Racism in Promoting New Shower Foam
• African-Americans Racism and Discrimination
• The Discrimination of Employees: Nurse’s Case
• Griggs vs Duke Power Company: Discrimination Case
• US Medical Leave, Discrimination, Disability Acts
• Racial Discrimination at the Workplace
• Transgenders Discrimination from Healthcare Providers
• Racial Discrimination in the American History
• US Workplace and Race Discrimination Court Cases
• Racism and Constructing Otherness in the US
• Transgender Discrimination in Health Care
• Divisiveness and Mismatching in Anti-Racism
• Discrimination as an Unethical Business Situation
• Income Inequality and Discrimination in the US
• Aging Workforce: Discrimination and Diversity Effects
• Problems and Cultivation of Racism
• Gender Discrimination and Equality Promotion at Work
• Ableism and Its Effects on Patient Outcomes
• Racism Problem at Institutional and Interactional Levels
• Workplace and Housing Discrimination in Canada
• Wet Seal: Employment Discrimination Law
• Discrimination, Affirmative Action, Sexual Harassment
• Racism in the United States Judicial System
• Discrimination and Human Rights Laws
• Racism in America: Discrimination and Prejudice
• Microsoft Company Employment Discrimination
• Price Discrimination and High Line Living
• Women’s Rights Movement in the Anti-Discrimination Activities
• Workplace Immigrant Discrimination: Opportunities and Challenges
• Racism Causes and Impacts in America
• The Cost of Prejudice and Discrimination
• Racism in American Schools
• Racism in America between 1783 and 1836
• Racism in American Education
• Racism and Discrimination towards African-Americans
• Racism as “The Case for Reparations” by Coates
• Social Issues: Discrimination of Black Population in USA
• Does Racism and Discrimination Still Exist Today?
• Does Religious Discrimination Exist in Today’s America?
• Should the Racial Discrimination Act Be Reformed?
• Are High School Exit Exams a By-Product of Institutionalized Discrimination?
• Are HIV/Aids Carriers Suffering From Discrimination?
• What Are the Main Four Types of Discrimination?
• What Are the Seven Areas of Discrimination?
• What Are the Examples of Direct Discrimination?
• Are Racial Profiling and Police Discrimination an Issue?
• What Is the Most Common Form of Discrimination?
• Are Spatial Frequency Cues Used for Whisker-Based Active Discrimination?
• What Are the Five Key Acts That Protect Against Discrimination?
• Are the Processes Underlying Discrimination the Same for Women and Men?
• How Do You Prove Indirect Discrimination?
• Can Competition Among Employers Reduce Governmental Discrimination?
• Can Gender-Fair Language Reduce Gender Stereotyping and Discrimination?
• What Are the Main Issues of Gender Discrimination?
• What Are Effects of Gender Inequality and Discrimination?
• What Is the Effect of Gender Discrimination in Society?
• Can Social Contact Reduce Prejudice and Discrimination?
• What Is Gender Discrimination in Education?
• Do Anti-discrimination Laws Alleviate Labor Market Duality?
• Does Banning Price Discrimination Promote Entry and Increase Welfare?
• What Would Be an Example of Discrimination in the Workplace?
• Does Ethnic Discrimination Vary Across Minority Groups?
• Has Discrimination Lessened Over Time?
• How Does Discrimination Affect People With Mental Illness?
• What Is Health Discrimination?
• What Can Life Satisfaction Data Tell Us About Discrimination Against Sexual Minorities?
• What Mediates the Relationship Between Ethnic Discrimination and Stress?

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StudyCorgi. (2021, September 9). 477 Discrimination Essay Topics. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/discrimination-essay-topics/

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StudyCorgi . "477 Discrimination Essay Topics." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/discrimination-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2021. "477 Discrimination Essay Topics." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/discrimination-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on Discrimination were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on January 8, 2024 .

Articles on Tasmanian election 2024

Displaying all articles.

Liberals will have difficulty forming government after final Tasmanian results

Adrian Beaumont , The University of Melbourne

Federal Essential poll the worst for Labor this term; SA Labor gains Dunstan at byelection

Labor drops to a 51–49 lead in Newspoll; Labor chooses to concede Tasmanian election

Tasmanians have voted in a hung parliament. What now?

Robert Hortle , University of Tasmania and Richard Eccleston , University of Tasmania

Liberals will win most seats in Tasmanian election, but be short of a majority

Liberals likely to easily win most seats in Tasmania; huge swings to LNP at Queensland byelections

From power prices to chocolate fountains, the Tasmanian election campaign has been a promise avalanche

Robert Hortle , University of Tasmania

Dire polls for Labor in Tasmania and Queensland with elections upcoming

Albanese’s ratings surge in YouGov poll; Tasmanian poll suggests difficult to form government

Labor holds Dunkley but slumps in two national polls; Liberals lead in Tasmania

Jacqui Lambie Network could win balance of power at Tasmanian election; Labor lead steady in federal polls

Related topics.

• Essential poll
• Hung parliament
• Jacqui Lambie
• Jacqui Lambie Network
• Minority government
• Morgan poll
• Redbridge poll
• Tasmanian politics
• Tasmanian State Election 2024
• YouGov poll

Top contributors

Election Analyst (Psephologist) at The Conversation; and Honorary Associate, School of Mathematics and Statistics, The University of Melbourne

Research Fellow, Tasmanian Policy Exchange, University of Tasmania

Professor of Political Science; Director, Tasmanian Policy Exchange, University of Tasmania

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• Vehicle Technologies Office
• About the Vehicle Technologies Office
• Technology Areas
• Technology Integration
• Reports and Publications

Office: Vehicle Technologies Office FOA number:  DE-FOA-0003248 Link to apply:  Apply on EERE Exchange FOA Amount: $45,800,000

Today, the Department of Energy (DOE) announced $45.8 million in new funding for projects that will advance research, development, demonstration, and deployment (RDD&D) critical to achieving net-zero greenhouse gas emissions in the transportation sector. The funding will drive innovation in equitable clean transportation and is aligned with strategies detailed in the U.S. National Blueprint for Transportation Decarbonization . 

The funding is through DOE’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE). Topic areas in the Vehicle Technologies Office (VTO) Fiscal Year (FY) 2024 R&D funding opportunity include:

• Next-generation phosphate-based cathodes.
• Advancing the state of the art for sodium-ion batteries.
• Developing concepts for decreasing greenhouse gas emissions from off-road vehicles such as construction, agriculture, mining, and forestry vehicles.
• Developing and deploying vehicle-to-everything technologies that can lead to meaningful savings at the vehicle and transportation system level.
• Developing high-performance, domestically produced electrical steels (E-steels) for use in electrified powertrains.
• Addressing critical cybersecurity needs for smart and secure electric vehicle charging.

As part of the Biden-Harris Administration’s commitment to ensuring the benefits of a clean transportation system are shared equally, the funding seeks the participation of underserved communities and underrepresented groups. Applicants are required to describe how diversity, equity, and inclusion objectives will be incorporated into their project. 

VTO provides a series of funding opportunity announcement (FOA) information session videos , which help applicants understand VTO’s FOA process and requirements. The recently released, Session 3: Tips for a Strong FOA Application, includes best practices for incorporating Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Accessibility in a project.

Learn more about this and other funding opportunities on VTO’s funding webpage . 

Topic Areas

Topic Area 1: Next-Generation Phosphate-Based Cathodes

This topic area targets the development of phosphate-based cathode materials that surpass the performance of state-of-the-art lithium iron phosphate (LFP) cathode materials, which are currently gaining traction as an alternative low-cost solution. The primary objective of this area of interest is to develop high energy density battery cells containing phosphate-based cathodes at the material and cell level.

Topic Area 2: Na-ion Battery Seedling Projects for Electric Vehicle Applications

While shifting to alternative cathode materials like LFP can alleviate the impact of nickel and cobalt, the impact of lithium has not been adequately addressed. One alternative to lithium is sodium (Na). While there is much promise for Na-ion chemistries, key issues still limit their adoption. This objective of this topic area is to advance the state of the art for Na-ion batteries by solving key challenges for the cathode, anode, or electrolyte through the development of 1 Ah full cells utilizing cell chemistries that are significant advancements over current industry state-of-the-art Na-ion technology.

Topic Area 3: Low-GHG Concepts for Off-Road Vehicles

The objective of this topic area is to develop and validate technology concepts capable of significantly decreasing greenhouse gas emissions, energy use, harmful criteria emissions, and total cost of ownership across the entire off-road vehicle sector, including construction, agriculture, mining, forestry, ports, warehouses, etc. Concepts must demonstrate they can meet the unique requirements for off-road vehicles and gain customer acceptance.

Topic Area 4: Saving Energy with Connectivity

Research has shown that vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communications can lead to meaningful energy savings at the vehicle and transportation system level by integrating interoperable vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V), vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I), and vehicle-to-pedestrian (V2P) communications. The objective of this topic area is to develop and deploy V2X technologies with a focus on the efficiency and convenience of the mobility ecosystem, while reducing transportation’s environmental impacts. Examples could include but are not limited to eco-driving along connected corridors, transit or freight priority, integrated corridor management, or passenger or freight trip-chaining optimization.

Topic Area 5: Domestically Produced Electrical Steels (E-Steels)

The US transportation sector is in a technology revolution where light-duty vehicles are rapidly transitioning from internal combustion engines to electrified powertrains. Although most of the vehicles are produced in the US, many of the powertrain components rely on imports and foreign supply chains. Of particular interest are traction motors and their components. The objective of this topic are is to develop E-Steels meeting properties including frequency, thickness, ductility, cost, and manufacturability. 

Topic Area 6: Cybersecurity for Smart and Secure Electric Vehicle Charging

This topic area is addressing critical cybersecurity needs to address through two subtopics: 

• Subtopic 6.a: Enabling Wide-scale, Cybersecure EV/EVSE Aggregation for Grid Services :  To support the integration of electric vehicles (EVs) and their charging requirements with the electric grid, both government and the private sector have made significant investments in the development of smart charge management (SCM) systems and technologies for EV charging infrastructure. The objective of this subtopic area is to research, develop, and demonstrate systems, technologies, and tools necessary for the cybersecure aggregation of EVs and charging infrastructure to provide widescale, cybersecure grid services.
• Subtopic 6.b: Tools to Assess EV/EVSE/Charging System Cybersecurity Posture and Compliance with Standards and Protocols for Communications, Controls, and Monitoring :   Testing and evaluation of Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE) by DOE national laboratories has clearly indicated a lack of compliance by many vendors with certified and/or regulated EV charging standards and protocols. In addition to creating cybersecurity vulnerabilities, this non-compliance greatly inhibits interoperability, supplier-managed SCM, and right-to-repair. The objective of this subtopic is to research, develop, and validate a suite of tools and associated procedures to comprehensively assess EV/EVSE/charging system compliance with relevant standards and protocols and cybersecurity posture.

Additional Information

• Download the full funding opportunity  on the EERE Exchange website.
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• Science and Technology Directorate
• Feature Article: New Geo-Tracking Buoys Live Test Events

Feature Article: New Geo-Tracking Buoys Make a Splash During Live Test Events

New rugged buoy technologies equipped with Automatic Identification Systems aim to help the U.S. Coast Guard mark and track objects in the water.

Recent years have seen an uptick in the use of geo-tracking technology, which has become so widespread and affordable that we are able to attach small trackers to car keys or luggage to find them with our smartphones. The Science and Technology Directorate (S&T) is working with the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) to develop buoys with improved geo-tracking technology for mission specific field use.

Instead of looking for car keys, USCG crews can use this technology to find and mark critical locations or objects in the water using buoys deployed from air or surface vessels. These could include stranded boats, contraband, or hazardous waste that are required to be reidentified after initial search and rescue or interdiction efforts are complete. The two new buoy systems, created by S&T industry partners, are moving into the final round of testing this year after successfully completing functional tests in 2023.

Building a Better Buoy

The USCG handles thousands of cases each year , each potentially involving the deployment of numerous supporting assets necessary to complete those missions. After the initial response efforts, ocean currents and associated weather conditions can carry away watercraft or other manmade materials from the original incident site. This presents a challenge for USCG crews since those materials left behind can become navigation hazards in busy shipping lanes or involve illegal goods. During a drug interdiction, for example, suspects will often throw contraband overboard while fleeing. Determining where these illegal materials are located is an essential part of gathering evidence and protecting the nation’s coasts; therefore, finding them quickly is key.

“The availability of accurate, real-time geo-position data is critical in verifying the drift and motion of items of interest and assisting in the planning of a search and rescue or other response mission,” said Edwin Thiedeman of the USCG Office of C4 & Sensors Capabilities.

“S&T is working closely with the vendors, USCG subject matter experts, and operators to deliver more capable buoys to support multiple USCG missions. These new improved buoys will provide the USCG with much improved accuracy and reliability to execute their important maritime missions,” stated Ron McNeal, S&T Silicon Valley Innovation Program (SVIP) transition director.

While the USCG currently has geo-tracking buoys, the existing systems do not have a secondary locator that is visible at sea level day and night in case of geo-tracking failure. The existing systems are not reusable or rechargeable, so they have to be replaced frequently, representing a significant cost and a potential loss in data. S&T’s SVIP put out a call to industry through the Maritime Object Tracking Technology (MOTT) solicitation for rugged geo-tracking buoys that could be quickly deployed from both air and surface vessels traveling at high speeds. The buoys needed to transmit Automatic Identification System (AIS) and Global Positioning System (GPS) data, which large ships use to share and receive location data while traversing the world’s waterways. Having AIS/GPS capabilities built into the buoy helps ensure USCG crews would be able to quickly pick up signals using their existing communications equipment.

“The ability to link small innovative businesses directly with the government to provide new technologies to fit government needs has a wide range of benefits for all parties. With all of this in mind, MOTT’s goal was to find a start-up company with a new or existing buoy system that could be tailored to the USCG’s needs, resulting in more efficient technology transition and acquisition processes,“ said CDR Rebecca Fosha, deputy of the USCG Research, Development, Test & Evaluation and Innovation Program .

Following the solicitation’s initial launch in March 2020, SVIP awarded funds to two companies: Kenautics, Inc. and Morcom International, Inc . Each business had an existing system they could adapt to the USCG’s requirements: the Kenautics Global Positioning System AIS Navigation and Tracking Buoy and the Morcom Tracking Unit for Navigational Aid. Both companies reached Phase 3 of the SVIP funding lifecycle in 2023, which required functional tests in a real-world setting.

“Startups typically don’t have the human or financial capital to champion large R&D projects,” said Melissa Oh, SVIP managing director. “Using the SVIP phased approach, we are quickly able to assess if a technology will have the ability to respond to the given need and transition the technology to the operators on a timeline that allows smaller businesses to be competitive.”

Go For Test Launch

In August and November 2023, staff from SVIP and the USCG Research, Development, Test & Evaluation and Innovation Program traveled to USCG Base Elizabeth City, North Carolina, to conduct separate test runs for each of the new MOTT buoys. The tests focused on how the buoys operated when dropped from different altitudes and velocities, which involved deploying the systems from an MH-60T helicopter and an HC-130J fixed wing aircraft traveling at various speeds and altitudes. Evaluators were interested in how the rugged designs held up upon impact, given that one version of the buoy has a parachute and the other does not.

It was also important to see whether the buoys successfully continued to function when they impacted the water, while at the same time determining whether the buoy went too deep under the surface of the water. Going too deep underwater could risk the system striking the bottom, where it might potentially get stuck or malfunction once it resurfaced. Participants conducted 10 drops over the course of four days, which provided valuable feedback on improvements that Kenautics and Morcom International can incorporate into the next version of their prototypes.

“It was important to test the buoys in a realistic, operational environment—in this case Base Elizabeth City—to evaluate the structure, functions, and software integrity. Observation from USCG personnel and the companies provided valuable feedback to modify the buoys’ performance to better fit USCG missions,” noted Jason Pharr from the Tactical/Navigation Program Office in the Engineering Support Branch of the USCG Aviation Logistics Center.

In addition to testing the buoys’ ability to withstand water impact, S&T and USCG staff also evaluated their battery life and cybersecurity. Rechargeable batteries are one of the design components that will help make the new buoys more cost effective than current models, so it was important to see how long they could operate in an open ocean environment.

Test sessions were conducted over several flights lasting approximately two hours for each sortie, which gave a realistic scenario of how long it might take USCG crews to return to an incident site once conditions were safe. During operational deployment, the buoys utilized strobe lights, radio beacons and transmitted AIS information approximately every 10 minutes so crews could pick up the signals on both visual and radio frequency scanners. Separate from the drop tests but related to the buoys’ communications capabilities, S&T also conducted Red Team testing with a third party to determine whether there were any cybersecurity issues for either system. The goal was to see whether the buoy signals could be vulnerable to detection or hacking by civilian systems, since this could represent a potential risk.

The Next Wave

Last year’s Phase 3 test sessions provided critical insight into how the MOTT buoys could be improved moving forward. The next rounds of operational evaluations are scheduled to take place later in 2024. The MOTT buoy is one of S&T’s joint projects between S&T and the USCG through SVIP, which also includes a Language Translation device that operates offline in a zero-connectivity environment. These systems could potentially join a growing list of solutions that empower our nation’s homeland security operations while promoting more efficient technology transition-to-market.

For additional information about S&T’s maritime security work and the SVIP program, contact [email protected] .

• Science and Technology
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG)