what is table of contents research paper

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How to Structure the Table of Contents for a Research Paper

4-minute read

• 16th July 2023

So you’ve made it to the important step of writing the table of contents for your paper. Congratulations on making it this far! Whether you’re writing a research paper or a dissertation , the table of contents not only provides the reader with guidance on where to find the sections of your paper, but it also signals that a quality piece of research is to follow. Here, we will provide detailed instructions on how to structure the table of contents for your research paper.

Steps to Create a Table of Contents

• Insert the table of contents after the title page.

Within the structure of your research paper , you should place the table of contents after the title page but before the introduction or the beginning of the content. If your research paper includes an abstract or an acknowledgements section , place the table of contents after it.

• List all the paper’s sections and subsections in chronological order.

Depending on the complexity of your paper, this list will include chapters (first-level headings), chapter sections (second-level headings), and perhaps subsections (third-level headings). If you have a chapter outline , it will come in handy during this step. You should include the bibliography and all appendices in your table of contents. If you have more than a few charts and figures (more often the case in a dissertation than in a research paper), you should add them to a separate list of charts and figures that immediately follows the table of contents. (Check out our FAQs below for additional guidance on items that should not be in your table of contents.)

• Paginate each section.

Label each section and subsection with the page number it begins on. Be sure to do a check after you’ve made your final edits to ensure that you don’t need to update the page numbers.

• Format your table of contents.

The way you format your table of contents will depend on the style guide you use for the rest of your paper. For example, there are table of contents formatting guidelines for Turabian/Chicago and MLA styles, and although the APA recommends checking with your instructor for formatting instructions (always a good rule of thumb), you can also create a table of contents for a research paper that follows APA style .

• Add hyperlinks if you like.

Depending on the word processing software you’re using, you may also be able to hyperlink the sections of your table of contents for easier navigation through your paper. (Instructions for this feature are available for both Microsoft Word and Google Docs .)

To summarize, the following steps will help you create a clear and concise table of contents to guide readers through your research paper:

1. Insert the table of contents after the title page.

2. List all the sections and subsections in chronological order.

3. Paginate each section.

4. Format the table of contents according to your style guide.

5. Add optional hyperlinks.

If you’d like help formatting and proofreading your research paper , check out some of our services. You can even submit a sample for free . Best of luck writing your research paper table of contents!

What is a table of contents?

A table of contents is a listing of each section of a document in chronological order, accompanied by the page number where the section begins. A table of contents gives the reader an overview of the contents of a document, as well as providing guidance on where to find each section.

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What should I include in my table of contents?

If your paper contains any of the following sections, they should be included in your table of contents:

●  Chapters, chapter sections, and subsections

●  Introduction

●  Conclusion

●  Appendices

●  Bibliography

Although recommendations may differ among institutions, you generally should not include the following in your table of contents:

●  Title page

●  Abstract

●  Acknowledgements

●  Forward or preface

If you have several charts, figures, or tables, consider creating a separate list for them that will immediately follow the table of contents. Also, you don’t need to include the table of contents itself in your table of contents.

Is there more than one way to format a table of contents?

Yes! In addition to following any recommendations from your instructor or institution, you should follow the stipulations of your style guide .

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Table of contents

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Today we are going to learn how to make a proper APA table of contents. However, let’s start with some backstory to understand the formatting standards according to the latest  APA 7th edition .

In an  APA style paper , a table of contents is commonly used in longer research papers or dissertations to provide an organized outline of the document's structure. It helps to increase readability and navigation greatly. Even though a table of contents is not officially required by the APA guide, you may be asked by the instructor to include one. That’s why we compiled this guide on how to format a table of contents in APA style. Read our detailed instructions to arrange a contents page. Or you can always ask StudyCrumb to " write my paper for me " and get comprehensive help with your work, including assistance with formatting.

Table of Contents APA: Basics

In the present APA table of contents guide, we will show the most convenient and recommendable format for an APA paper. The first thing that you need to remember — it can not exceed two pages in size. So if the table is a must according to the instructor, you may have to exclude some section headings to fit in. It is good to optimize your paper with subheadings, but don’t get obsessed with it. Here are some of the major formatting rules according to APA Style:  

• Include at least 2 levels of headings — level 1 and level 2.
• Use up to 5 levels of headings if it fits the structure.
• Apply indents to highlight different levels of headings.
• Locate it right after the abstract, before the intro part. (Read more information if you still wonder on how to write an abstract APA .)
• Use a 12 pt Times New Roman font.
• Keep the headings in the table left-aligned.
• Capitalize all the headlines.
• Make sure that margins from all sides are 1 inch long.

In all other regards, your formatting sticks to the plain text format. Don’t include any unnecessary formatting or highlighting. And don't be afraid to ask your instructor about it if you have any doubts or questions. At any time, you can  buy essay  quickly, remember about it.

APA Table of Contents Example

Nevertheless, there is nothing more representative than a proper APA table of contents sample. Pay attention to the length of indents for different heading levels. Check out our sample right below.

Note, there is no fixed standard for the length of indents that you make to highlight every level of headlines. Make sure that your headlines look readable and easy to distinguish.

Looking for annotated bibliography example APA ? We have got you covered! Open one more of our blogs.

How to Make APA Table of Contents in Word

Microsoft Word is the most likely software for formatting APA style tables of content. That’s why right now, we will learn how to generate automated ones. It is a very simple operation, and you only have to remember easy 3 steps:

• Format the headings first
• Apply an APA style format
• Keep your table updated.

And now, look closer at each individual step, so it will be much easier to remember. So, let’s go! Buy APA format paper entirely from scratch if you have troubles at this point.

Format Your Headings

Before starting working with headings, make sure that all of them are in line with the general formatting style. Normally, the table of contents is generated after the text is finished and proofread. So don’t be in a hurry, even though the contents are located in the very beginning of the text. Make sure that your piece is flawless and doesn’t contain misspellings. Try an  online typing test  to hone your typing skills quickly. Formatting headings is easy — just highlight the heading first. Then, find a top panel featuring heading styles and make a right click on the one you want to choose. After it, select Please update Heading X to match selection. Do it with every heading that you have. Assign each one with Heading 1 — Heading 5 roles.  

Create Table of Contents in APA Formats

One more step and our APA paper with table of contents is as good as ready. From the very beginning, type the page name, keep it centered and aligned to the top. Remember about 1-inch long indents. Make the heading bold to increase readability and navigation. Then choose the “ Table of Contents ” option from the “References” menu that is located on the top panel. In the new window, choose the number of heading levels that will be displayed. As you remember, you need at least 2 and not more than 5 levels of headings.  

Keep Table of Contents Consistent

From this point, all the highlighted headings will be automatically synchronized with your table of contents. In case if you make changes to the actual heading, you may also change it in your list in one click. Just make a right click on it and choose the “Update Field” option. In Microsoft Word, you can choose to update either one element or all elements at a time. We recommend updating all the elements to keep your paper consistent and good-looking. Hiring a bibliography writer to work on your table of contents might be helpful as well.

We hope our blog explained all those formatting tricks in a most understandable way. Check out other articles if you have any other questions about academic writing. Good luck with your writing!

Whether it is an APA-style paper or an opinion essay, be sure it will be delivered timely and composed with skill and diligence. Check out the writing service and give yourself a little break from writing! Contact us when you are ready. 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. is there a size limit for a table of contents in apa style.

Yes, your table of contents should not be bigger than two pages long. If it is larger, consider deleting it entirely or some of the headlines to fit in.

2. Where in the text is the table of contents located in APA style paper?

The table of contents is located after the Acknowledgment but before the Introduction paragraph.

3. How many heading levels is it required to have in a table of contents?

You need to include at least 2 levels and not more than 5 levels of headings. Just analyze the text and come up with the right format for your paper.

Emma Flores knows all about formatting standards. She shares with StudyCrumb readers tips on creating academic papers that will meet high-quality standards.

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A Table of Contents in APA Format

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Adah Chung is a fact checker, writer, researcher, and occupational therapist. 

General Guidelines

• Table of Contents

APA style does not require a table of contents, but there are cases where you may need to include one. For example, your instructor may specify that your paper must be submitted with a table of contents. A table of contents can be particularly helpful in cases where your paper is lengthy or covers a lot of material, such as a thesis paper or dissertation. Research papers, in particular, may benefit from the addition of a table of contents.

APA style is the official publication style of the American Psychological Association. APA style is used in psychology courses as well as other social science classes including those in social science, behavioral sciences, and education.

The table of contents serves as a basic roadmap of your paper. It should list all of the major headings and subheadings within the body of your paper. For a standard psychology paper, it might include listings for the introduction, method, results, and discussion sections of your paper.

While the APA may not specify guidelines for a table of contents, you should use the basic APA format for formatting your table of contents:

• Use one-inch margins on all sides
• Use 12-point Times New Roman font
• Double-space

Since APA does not require a table of contents, you should always refer to your instructor’s guidelines when deciding whether or not to include one.

It is also important to note that the 7th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association was published in 2020, and included updated guidelines on many topics.

For example, while the previous edition of the style manual required a running head on each page of a paper, the 7th edition has eliminated that requirement on student papers unless your instructor specifies to include it. Always ask first.

If you are using a standard APA paper format, your table of contents should include the following sections:

• Introduction

The above format may work well for a standard lab report or research paper. However, your table of contents will look much different if you are writing something such as a critique, essay, or case study.

Notice, that the table of contents does not include the abstract or acknowledgments pages. When applicable, it should list the appendices and the lists of tables and figures.

The exact order of your paper depends largely on the type of paper you are writing. In general, your paper should be presented in the following order:

• Main Body of Paper

Table of Contents Format

Because there is no standard format for a table of contents in APA style, you should always defer to the provided guidelines for your assignment.

If your instructor does not have a preferred format, consider using the following:

• Title the page “Table of Contents” and center the title at the top of the page.
• Most papers should include at least two levels of headings, up to five levels.
• Level one headings will be for main topics, such as chapter titles like "Chapter One; Name of Chapter," or research sections like "Method," "Results," and "Discussion."
• All level-one headings should be flush-left and sub-headings should be indented five spaces deeper than the last. 
• All heading levels should be in title case, capitalizing the first letter of each word. The font type, style, and size stay the same for each level.
• The page number for each heading is formatted flush-right. Include dot leaders between the headings and the page number to improve readability.

While you might not think that following APA format is important, it is one of those areas where students can lose points for making small errors. It pays to spend a little extra time and attention making sure that your paper is formatted in proper APA style.

• If you need help, you can get assistance from your school's writing lab.
• Getting your own copy of the latest edition of the APA publication manual can be very helpful.
• Always refer to any instructions or guidelines that were provided by your course instructor.
• There is a helpful feature in most word processors that you can use to pre-format your paper in APA style. It takes a little effort to set it up, but well worth it in the end, especially for longer documents. You can save the style to apply to your future papers saving you the effort next time.

For those writing a paper to submit for publication, check with the publisher for any specific formatting requirements that they may have.

American Psychological Association. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.) ; 2020.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Table of Contents

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A guide to the table of contents page

Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 Definition: Table of Contents
• 3 Everything for Your Thesis
• 5 Create in Microsoft Word
• 6 In a Nutshell

Definition: Table of Contents

The table of contents is an organized listing of your document’s chapters, sections and, often, figures, clearly labelled by page number. Readers should be able to look at your table of contents page and understand immediately how your paper is organized, enabling them to skip to any relevant section or sub-section. The table of contents should list all front matter, main content and back matter, including the headings and page numbers of all chapters and the bibliography . A good table of contents should be easy to read, accurately formatted and completed last so that it is 100% accurate. Although you can complete a table of contents manually, many word processing tools like Microsoft Word enable you to format your table of contents automatically.

When adding the finishing touches to your dissertation, the table of contents is one of the most crucial elements. It helps the reader navigate (like a map) through your argument and topic points. Adding a table of contents is simple and it can be inserted easily after you have finished writing your paper. In this guide, we look at the do’s and don’ts of a table of contents; this will help you process and format your dissertation in a professional way.

When adding the finishing touches to your dissertation, the table of contents is one of the most crucial elements. It helps the reader navigate (like a map) through your argument and topic points. Adding a table of contents is simple and can be inserted easily after you have finished writing your paper. In this guide, we look at the do’s and don’ts of a table of contents; this will help you process and format your dissertation in a professional way.

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What is a table of contents?

A table of contents is a list, usually on a page at the beginning of a piece of academic writing , which outlines the chapters or sections names with their corresponding page numbers. In addition to chapter names, it includes bullet points of the sub-chapter headings or subsection headings. It usually comes right after the title page of a research paper.

How do you write a table of contents

To write a table of contents, you first write the title or chapter names of your research paper in chronological order. Secondly, you write the subheadings or subtitles, if you have them in your paper. After that, you write the page numbers for the corresponding headings and subheadings. You can also very easily set up a table of contents in Microsoft Word.

Where do you put a table of contents?

The table of contents is found on a page right at the beginning of an academic writing project. It comes specifically after the title page and acknowledgements, but before the introductory page of a writing project. This position at the beginning of an academic piece of writing is universal for all academic projects.

What to include in a table of contents?

A sample table of contents includes the title of the paper at the very top, followed by the chapter names and subtitles in chronological order. At the end of each line, is the page number of the corresponding headings. Examples of chapter names can be: executive summary,  introduction, project description, marketing plan, summary and conclusion. The abstract and acknowledgments are usually not included in the table of contents, however this could depend on the formatting that is required by your institution. Scroll down to see some examples.

How important is a table of contents?

A table of contents is very important at the beginning of a writing project for two important reasons. Firstly, it helps the reader easily locate contents of particular topics itemized as chapters or subtitles. Secondly, it helps the writer arrange their work and organize their thoughts so that important sections of an academic project are not left out. This has the extra effect of helping to manage the reader’s expectation of any academic essay or thesis right from the beginning.

Everything for Your Thesis

A table of contents is a crucial component of an academic thesis. Whether you’re completing a Bachelor’s or a postgraduate degree, the table of contents is a requirement for dissertation submissions. As a rule of thumb, your table of contents will usually come after your title page , abstract, acknowledgement or preface. Although it’s not necessary to include a reference to this front matter in your table of contents, different universities have different policies and guidelines.

Although the table of contents is best completed after you have finished your thesis, it’s a good idea to draw up a mock table of contents in the early stages of writing. This allows you to formulate a structure and think through your topic and how you are going to research, answer and make your argument. Think of this as a form of “reverse engineering”. Knowing how your chapters are going to be ordered and what topics or research questions are included in each will help immensely when it comes to your writing.

The table of contents is not just an academic formality, it allows your examiner to quickly get a feel for your topic and understand how your dissertation will be presented. An unclear or sloppy table of contents may even have an adverse effect on your grade because the dissertation is difficult to follow.

Examiners are readers, after all, and a dissertation is an exercise in producing an argument. A clear table of contents will give both a good impression and provide an accurate roadmap to make the examiner’s job easier and your argument more persuasive.

Your table of contents section will come after your acknowledgements and before your introduction. It includes a list of all your headers and their respective pages and will also contain a sub-section listing your tables, figures or illustrations (if you are using them). In general, your thesis can be ordered like this:

1. Title Page 2. Copyright / Statement of Originality 3. Abstract 4. Acknowledgement, Dedication and Preface (optional) 5. Table of Contents 6. List of Figures/Tables/Illustrations 7. Chapters 8. Appendices 9. Endnotes (depending on your formatting) 10. Bibliography / References

The formatting of your table of contents will depend on your academic field and thesis length. Some disciplines, like the sciences, have a methodical structure which includes recommended subheadings on methodology, data results, discussion and conclusion. Humanities subjects, on the other hand, are far more varied. Whichever discipline you are working in, you need to create an organized list of all chapters in their order of appearance, with chapter subheadings clearly labelled.

Sample table of contents for a short dissertation:

Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. ii Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. iii Dedication ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. iv List of Tables ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. x List of Figures ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. xi Chapter 1: Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1 Chapter 2: Literature Survey ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 13 Chapter 3: Methodology ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 42 Chapter 4: Analysis ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 100 Chapter 5: Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 129 Appendices ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 169 References ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 172

When producing a more significant and longer dissertation, say for a Master’s degree or even a PhD, your chapter descriptions should contain all subheadings. These are listed with the chapter number, followed by a decimal point and the subheading number.

Sample table of contents for a PhD dissertation:

Chapter 1 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Literature Review 1.3 Data 1.4 Findings 1.5 Conclusion

Chapter 2, and so on.

The key to writing a good table of contents is consistency and accuracy. You cannot list subheadings for one chapter and forget them for another. Subheadings are not always required but they can be very helpful if you are dealing with a detailed topic. The page numbers in the table of contents must match with the respective pages in your thesis or manuscript.

What’s more, chapter titles and subheading titles must match their corresponding pages. If your first chapter is called “Chapter 1: The Beginning”, it must be written as such on both the table of contents and first chapter page. So long as you remain both accurate and consistent, your table of contents will be perfect.

Create in Microsoft Word

Fortunately, the days of manually writing a contents page are over. You can still produce a contents page manually with Microsoft Word, but consider using their automatic feature to guarantee accuracy and save time.

To produce an automatically-generated table of contents, you must first work with heading styles. These can be found in the home tab under “Styles”. Select top-level headings (your chapter titles) and apply the Heading 1 style. This ensures that they will be formatted as main headings. Second-level headings (subheadings) can be applied with the Heading 2 style. This will place them underneath and within each main heading.

Once you have worked with heading styles, simply click on the “References” tab and select “Table of Contents”. This option will allow you to automatically produce a page with accurate page links to your document. To customize the format and style applied to your table of contents, select “Custom Table of Contents” at the bottom of the tab. Remember to update your table of contents by selecting the table and choosing “Update” from the drop-down menu. This will ensure that your headings, sub-headings and page numbers all add up.

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In a Nutshell

• The table of contents is a vital part of any academic thesis or extensive paper.
• It is an accurate map of your manuscript’s content – its headings, sub-headings and page numbers.
• It shows how you have divided your thesis into more manageable chunks through the use of chapters.
• By breaking apart your thesis into discrete sections, you make your argument both more persuasive and easier to follow.
• What’s more, your contents page should produce an accurate map of your thesis’ references, bibliography, illustrations and figures.
• It is an accurate map of the chapters, references, bibliography, illustrations and figures in your thesis.

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Thesis / dissertation formatting manual (2024).

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Table of Contents

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The Table of Contents should follow these guidelines:

• ​All sections of the manuscript are listed in the Table of Contents except the Title Page, the Copyright Page, the Dedication Page, and the Table of Contents.
• You may list subsections within chapters
• Creative works are not exempt from the requirement to include a Table of Contents

Table of Contents Example

Here is an example of a Table of Contents page from the Template. Please note that your table of contents may be longer than one page.

• << Previous: Dedication Page
• Next: List of Figures (etc.) >>
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Table of Contents Format

For Academic Papers

This table of contents is an essential part of writing a long academic paper, especially theoretical papers.

This article is a part of the guide:

• Outline Examples
• Example of a Paper
• Write a Hypothesis
• Introduction

Browse Full Outline

• 1 Write a Research Paper
• 2 Writing a Paper
• 3.1 Write an Outline
• 3.2 Outline Examples
• 4.1 Thesis Statement
• 4.2 Write a Hypothesis
• 5.2 Abstract
• 5.3 Introduction
• 5.4 Methods
• 5.5 Results
• 5.6 Discussion
• 5.7 Conclusion
• 5.8 Bibliography
• 6.1 Table of Contents
• 6.2 Acknowledgements
• 6.3 Appendix
• 7.1 In Text Citations
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• 7.4 Example of a Paper
• 7.5 Example of a Paper 2
• 7.6.1 Citations
• 7.7.1 Writing Style
• 7.7.2 Citations
• 8.1.1 Sham Peer Review
• 8.1.2 Advantages
• 8.1.3 Disadvantages
• 8.2 Publication Bias
• 8.3.1 Journal Rejection
• 9.1 Article Writing
• 9.2 Ideas for Topics

It is usually not present in shorter research articles, since most empirical papers have similar structure .

A well laid out table of contents allows readers to easily navigate your paper and find the information that they need. Making a table of contents used to be a very long and complicated process, but the vast majority of word-processing programs, such as Microsoft WordTM and Open Office , do all of the hard work for you.

This saves hours of painstaking labor looking through your paper and makes sure that you have picked up on every subsection. If you have been using an outline as a basis for the paper, then you have a head start and the work on the table of contents formatting is already half done.

Whilst going into the exact details of how to make a table of contents in the program lies outside the scope of this article, the Help section included with the word-processing programs gives a useful series of tutorials and trouble-shooting guides.

That said, there are a few easy tips that you can adopt to make the whole process a little easier.

The Importance of Headings

In the word processing programs, there is the option of automatically creating headings and subheadings, using heading 1, heading 2, heading 3 etc on the formatting bar. You should make sure that you get into the habit of doing this as you write the paper, instead of manually changing the font size or using the bold format.

Once you have done this, you can click a button, and the program will do everything for you, laying out the table of contents formatting automatically, based upon all of the headings and subheadings.

In Word, to insert a table of contents, first ensure that the cursor is where you want the table of contents to appear. Once you are happy with this, click 'Insert' on the drop down menu, scroll down to 'Reference,' and then across to 'Index and Tables'.

Click on the 'Table of Contents' tab and you are ready to click OK and go. OpenOffice is a very similar process but, after clicking 'Insert,' you follow 'Indexes and Tables' and 'Indexes and Tables' again.

The table of contents should appear after the title page and after the abstract and keywords, if you use them. As with all academic papers, there may be slight variations from department to department and even from supervisor to supervisor.

Check the preferred table of contents format before you start writing the paper , because changing things retrospectively can be a little more time consuming.

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• Dissertation Table of Contents in Word | Instructions & Examples

Dissertation Table of Contents in Word | Instructions & Examples

Published on 15 May 2022 by Tegan George .

The table of contents is where you list the chapters and major sections of your thesis, dissertation, or research paper, alongside their page numbers. A clear and well-formatted table of contents is essential, as it demonstrates to your reader that a quality paper will follow.

The table of contents (TOC) should be placed between the abstract and the introduction. The maximum length should be two pages. Depending on the nature of your thesis, dissertation, or paper, there are a few formatting options you can choose from.

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Table of contents

What to include in your table of contents, what not to include in your table of contents, creating a table of contents in microsoft word, table of contents examples, updating a table of contents in microsoft word, other lists in your thesis, dissertation, or research paper, frequently asked questions about the table of contents.

Depending on the length of your document, you can choose between a single-level, subdivided, or multi-level table of contents.

• A single-level table of contents only includes ‘level 1’ headings, or chapters. This is the simplest option, but it may be too broad for a long document like a dissertation.
• A subdivided table of contents includes chapters as well as ‘level 2’ headings, or sections. These show your reader what each chapter contains.
• A multi-level table of contents also further divides sections into ‘level 3’ headings. This option can get messy quickly, so proceed with caution. Remember your table of contents should not be longer than 2 pages. A multi-level table is often a good choice for a shorter document like a research paper.

Examples of level 1 headings are Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology, and Bibliography. Subsections of each of these would be level 2 headings, further describing the contents of each chapter or large section. Any further subsections would be level 3.

In these introductory sections, less is often more. As you decide which sections to include, narrow it down to only the most essential.

Including appendices and tables

You should include all appendices in your table of contents. Whether or not you include tables and figures depends largely on how many there are in your document.

If there are more than three figures and tables, you might consider listing them on a separate page. Otherwise, you can include each one in the table of contents.

• Theses and dissertations often have a separate list of figures and tables.
• Research papers generally don’t have a separate list of figures and tables.

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All level 1 and level 2 headings should be included in your table of contents, with level 3 headings used very sparingly.

The following things should never be included in a table of contents:

• Your acknowledgements page
• Your abstract
• The table of contents itself

The acknowledgements and abstract always precede the table of contents, so there’s no need to include them. This goes for any sections that precede the table of contents.

To automatically insert a table of contents in Microsoft Word, be sure to first apply the correct heading styles throughout the document, as shown below.

• Choose which headings are heading 1 and which are heading 2 (or 3!
• For example, if all level 1 headings should be Times New Roman, 12-point font, and bold, add this formatting to the first level 1 heading.
• Highlight the level 1 heading.
• Right-click the style that says ‘Heading 1’.
• Select ‘Update Heading 1 to Match Selection’.
• Allocate the formatting for each heading throughout your document by highlighting the heading in question and clicking the style you wish to apply.

Once that’s all set, follow these steps:

• Add a title to your table of contents. Be sure to check if your citation style or university has guidelines for this.
• Place your cursor where you would like your table of contents to go.
• In the ‘References’ section at the top, locate the Table of Contents group.
• Here, you can select which levels of headings you would like to include. You can also make manual adjustments to each level by clicking the Modify button.
• When you are ready to insert the table of contents, click ‘OK’ and it will be automatically generated, as shown below.

The key features of a table of contents are:

• Clear headings and subheadings
• Corresponding page numbers

Check with your educational institution to see if they have any specific formatting or design requirements.

Write yourself a reminder to update your table of contents as one of your final tasks before submitting your dissertation or paper. It’s normal for your text to shift a bit as you input your final edits, and it’s crucial that your page numbers correspond correctly.

It’s easy to update your page numbers automatically in Microsoft Word. Simply right-click the table of contents and select ‘Update Field’. You can choose either to update page numbers only or to update all information in your table of contents.

In addition to a table of contents, you might also want to include a list of figures and tables, a list of abbreviations and a glossary in your thesis or dissertation. You can use the following guides to do so:

• List of figures and tables
• List of abbreviations

It is less common to include these lists in a research paper.

All level 1 and 2 headings should be included in your table of contents . That means the titles of your chapters and the main sections within them.

The contents should also include all appendices and the lists of tables and figures, if applicable, as well as your reference list .

Do not include the acknowledgements or abstract   in the table of contents.

To automatically insert a table of contents in Microsoft Word, follow these steps:

• Apply heading styles throughout the document.
• In the references section in the ribbon, locate the Table of Contents group.
• Click the arrow next to the Table of Contents icon and select Custom Table of Contents.
• Select which levels of headings you would like to include in the table of contents.

Make sure to update your table of contents if you move text or change headings. To update, simply right click and select Update Field.

The table of contents in a thesis or dissertation always goes between your abstract and your introduction.

Cite this Scribbr article

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George, T. (2022, May 15). Dissertation Table of Contents in Word | Instructions & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 29 April 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/thesis-dissertation/contents-page/

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How to Write a Table of Contents

Last Updated: February 16, 2024 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Stephanie Wong Ken, MFA . Stephanie Wong Ken is a writer based in Canada. Stephanie's writing has appeared in Joyland, Catapult, Pithead Chapel, Cosmonaut's Avenue, and other publications. She holds an MFA in Fiction and Creative Writing from Portland State University. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 1,046,325 times.

The Table of Contents in a document acts as a map for the reader, making it easier for them to find information in the document based on title and page number. A good Table of Contents should be organized, easy to read and simple to use. You can write a Table of Contents manually on your computer or have a word processing tool create it for you. Make sure the Table of Contents is formatted properly in your final document so it is as accurate and accessible as possible.

Sample Tables of Contents

Creating the Table of Contents on a Word Processor

• The Table of Contents should be on its own page. Do not include the introduction or a dedication on the same page as the Table of Contents.

• For example, you may write down main headings like, “Introduction,” “Case Study 1,” or “Conclusion.”

• For example, under the main heading “Introduction” you may write the subheading, “Themes and Concepts.” Or under the main heading “Conclusion” you may write, “Final Analysis.”
• You can also include sub-subheadings underneath the subheadings, if applicable. For example, under the subheading “Themes and Concepts” you may have the sub-subheading, “Identity.”
• Some papers do not have subheadings at all, only main headings. If this is the case, skip this step.

• For example, if the “Introduction” section begins on page 1, you will attach “page 1” to the Introduction heading. If the “Conclusion” section begins on page 45, attach “page 45” to the Conclusion heading.

• Check that the subheadings are located underneath the correct headings, indented to the right.
• Make sure there are page numbers for the subheadings listed as well.
• You can center the content in the table using the table options if you want the content to appear a few spaces away from the lines of the table. You can also leave the content indented to the left if you'd prefer.

• You can put the title above the table or in a separate row on the top of the rest of the content.

Using a Word Processing Tool

• You should also confirm the page numbers are correct in the document. Each page should be numbered in order. Having the correct page numbers will ensure the Table of Contents is created correctly when you use the word processing tool.

• If there are subheadings in your document, label them “Heading 2.” Highlight each subheading and click on “Heading 2” in the Styles tab.
• If there are sub-subheadings in your document, label them “Heading 3.” Highlight each subheading and click on “Heading 3” in the Styles tab.
• The text and font for each main heading may change based on the settings for “Heading 1,” “Heading 2,” and “Heading 3.” You can choose your preferred text and font for each main heading so they appear as you like in the Table of Contents.

• You can choose the built-in Table of Content options, where the tool will automatically choose a font size and style for you.
• You can also go for from a list of custom Table of Contents, where you choose the font color and size based on your preferences.

Polishing the Table of Contents

• You should also check the subheadings or sub-subheadings in the Table of Contents, if applicable, to ensure they match those in the document.

• If you created the Table of Contents manually, do this by going in and adjusting the headings and/or the page numbers when they change.
• If you created the Table of Contents with a word processing tool, update it by clicking the Update option by the Table of Contents option on the Reference tab. You can side clicking on the Table of Contents and choosing “update” that way.

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• ↑ https://edu.gcfglobal.org/en/word-tips/how-to-create-a-table-of-contents-in-word/1/#
• ↑ https://examples.yourdictionary.com/reference/examples/table-of-content-examples.html
• ↑ http://bitesizebio.com/21549/using-word-to-write-your-thesis-making-a-table-of-contents-inserting-captions-and-cross-referencing/
• ↑ https://guides.lib.umich.edu/c.php?g=283073&p=1886010
• ↑ https://nsufl.libguides.com/c.php?g=413851&p=2820026

About This Article

To write a table of contents, open a new document and list the major headings, titles, or chapters of the project in chronological order. Next, insert subheadings or subtopics if your project has those. Fill in the page number where each heading starts, then format the content in a table with 2 columns. Place the headings and subheadings in order in the first column, then put the page numbers in the second column. Don't forget to add a "Table of Contents" title at the top of the document! To learn more about polishing your Table of Contents, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Microsoft Word for Dissertations

• Table of Contents
• Introduction, Template, & Resources
• Formatting for All Readers
• Applying a Style
• Modifying a Style
• Setting up a Heading 1 Example
• Images, Charts, Other Objects
• Footnotes, Endnotes, & Citations
• Cross-References
• Appendix Figures & Tables
• List of Figures/Tables
• Chapter and Section Numbering
• Page Numbers
• Landscape Pages
• Combining Chapter Files
• Commenting and Reviewing
• The Two-inch Top Margin
• Troubleshooting
• Finalizing Without Styles
• Preparing Your Final Document

Automatic Table of Contents

An automatic Table of Contents relies on Styles to keep track of page numbers and section titles for you automatically. Microsoft Word can scan your document and find everything in the Heading 1 style and put that on the first level of your table of contents, put any Heading 2’s on the second level of your table of contents, and so on.

If you want an automatic table of contents you need to apply the Heading 1 style to all of your chapter titles and front matter headings (like “Dedication” and “Acknowledgements”).  All section headings within your chapters should use the Heading 2  style.  All sub-section headings should use  Heading 3 , etc....

If you have used Heading styles in your document, creating an automatic table of contents is easy.

• Place your cursor where you want your table of contents to be.
• On the References Ribbon, in the Table of Contents Group , click on the arrow next to the Table of Contents icon, and select  Custom Table of Contents .
• We suggest that you set each level (Chapters, sections, sub-sections, aka TOC 1, TOC 2, TOC 3) to be single-spaced, with 12 points of space afterwards.  This makes each item in your ToC clump together if they're long enough to wrap to a second line, with the equivalent of a double space between each item, and makes the ToC easier to read and understand than if every line were double-spaced. See the video below for details.
• If you want to change which headings appear in your Table of Contents, you can do so by changing the number in the Show levels: field. Select "1" to just include the major sections (Acknowledgements, List of Figures, Chapters, etc...).  Select "4" to include Chapters, sections, sub-sections, and sub-sub-sections.
• Click OK to insert your table of contents.  

The table of contents is a snapshot of the headings and page numbers in your document, and does not automatically update itself as you make changes. At any time, you can update it by right-clicking on it and selecting Update field .  Notice that once the table of contents is in your document, it will turn gray if you click on it. This just reminds you that it is a special field managed by Word, and is getting information from somewhere else.

Modifying the format of your Table of Contents

The video below shows how to make your Table of Contents a little easier to read by formatting the spacing between items in your Table of Contents. You may recognize the "Modify Style" window that appears, which can serve as a reminder that you can use this window to modify more than just paragraph settings. You can modify the indent distance, or font, or tab settings for your ToC, just the same as you may have modified it for Styles. 

By default, the Table of Contents tool creates the ToC by pulling in Headings 1 through 3. If you'd like to modify that -- to only show H1's, or to show Headings 1 through 4 -- then go to the References tab and select Custom Table of Contents .  In the window that appears, set Show Levels to "1" to only show Heading 1's in the Table of Contents, or set it to "4" to show Headings 1 through 4.

Bonus tip for updating fields like the Table of Contents

You'll quickly realize that all of the automatic Lists and Tables need to be updated occasionally to reflect any changes you've made elsewhere in the document -- they do not dynamically update by themselves. Normally, this means going to each field, right-clicking on it and selecting "Update Field". 

Alternatively, to update all fields throughout your document (Figure/Table numbers & Lists, cross-references, Table of Contents, etc...), just select "Print". This will cause Word to update everything in anticipation of printing. Once the print preview window appears, just cancel.

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What are Scholarly Sources and Where Can You Find Them? 

Scholarly or academic sources of information are typically intended for academic audiences and are primarily based on scientific, evidence-based research and well thought out ideas and theories. They differ from popular or general sources in terms of their formal structure, authority, rigor, and purpose. Scholarly sources are authored by experts whose main purpose is to present research findings. Researchers and academicians typically use scholarly sources as they offer access to a wide array of past work that can be used as references and cited in manuscripts. This is especially crucial given the high level of dependability that scholarly sources provide given that they are peer reviewed in a rigorous manner.  

Table of Contents

6 types of scholarly sources and its importance in academic writing .

• 9 ways to identify and access scholarly sources 
• Where can you find scholarly sources? 
• How to cite scholarly sources in research with Paperpal? 

On the other hand, popular or general sources of information such as magazines and news articles are written for wider and more general audiences. They are mainly written to provide information and to keep readers up to date with current news and developments, to entertain and so on. There is an aspect of research involved but they do not necessarily provide links to citations or sources. Popular sources offer a cross section of views and usually conform to specific ideologies and ways of thinking. 

Common types of scholarly sources include the following: 

• Scholarly books: These are published by a university press or an academic publisher. They also include monographs that synthesize existing research or present new insights and perspectives on a specific subject. 
• Journal articles: These are published in recognized journals after rigorous peer-reviews. 
• Conference publications: These consist of papers presented at a conference or seminar. They focus on cutting edge research and are authored and presented by scholars and researchers. Conference proceedings are a good source to understand about new research in the field even before they are published.   
• Publications issued by government agencies: These include white papers, reports and policy documents issued by research institutions that are tasked with providing the government with accurate data, statistics, and analysis on a wide range of topics. 
• Websites: Some websites are also considered scholarly sources. To determine if it is a scholarly source it is important to check the domain of the page, and see if the contact information of the author or publisher is provided. It is also a good idea to evaluate the recency of the information provided and assess if there is any possible bias. 
• Doctoral theses: Written by PhD students as part of their degree requirements, these scholarly sources provide in-depth research on specific topics, and often contribute new ideas and knowledge to different disciplines. 

Scholarly sources are important in academic writing as it provides academicians and researchers the required stamp of rigor and reliability when writing manuscripts. When you submit your manuscript or article for publishing with adequate scholarly sources, it instantly gives your work much needed credibility and trustworthiness. Similarly, when one cites relevant, important experts or scholarly sources, it provides a certain authority to one’s submission.  

Confirmation bias can be prevented when a researcher or author quotes from scholarly sources. Publications look for papers that cite scholarly sources as they have a legacy that is trusted and also offer views on research topics that are unbiased and original. 

9 ways to identify and access scholarly sources

Academicians and researchers should carefully evaluate the sources to identify whether these are scholarly or popular sources. There are some distinct features that differentiate scholarly sources that help academics identify them, as listed below. 

• Evidence based: Scholarly sources contain data and arguments based on evidence and the information can be verified. A list of references or bibliography is provided in a scholarly publication from which the sources used in it can be verified. 
• Author credentials: For every scholarly source the name of the author or authors with their institutional affiliations are provided together with their qualifications. 
• Publisher: Are academic institutions, university presses or commercial publishers. 
• Target audience: Scholarly publications are intended for academicians, experts, students, researchers, and faculty in the specific or inter-related field. 
• Language: Scholarly sources follow the academic style of writing with the use of discipline specific terminology and academic terms. The language is specialized and not simple.  
• Purpose: The purpose of scholarly sources is to communicate findings of original research studies and advance knowledge in the field of study. 
• Bias: As scholarly publications base their information on evidence and facts, it strives to be free from bias. 
• Structure: Scholarly publications are well structured with an abstract, introduction, literature review, sections on methodology, results, and conclusion. They also contain in-text citations and a list of references or a comprehensive bibliography at the end. 
• Peer review: Scholarly sources generally undergo a strict peer review process. The peer review is conducted by different experts in the field. However, there may be some articles that may be considered scholarly even when these are not peer reviewed.  

Where can you find scholarly sources?

While writing academic and research papers, it is vital to use and cite scholarly sources. In order to access scholarly sources, researchers can use the following ways: 

• Institution’s library: an ideal place to access scholarly sources is your institution’s library. Find out the books, journals, databases that your institution’s library provides access to. 
• Database: you can consult credible research databases. Your institution library may provide access to reliable databases. You can also browse through digital libraries. 
• Reputed publisher: Identify books that are published by press associated with universities and reputed publishing companies as these are considered credible and trustworthy.  
• Peer reviewed articles: Browsing through peer reviewed articles in reputed and high impact journals is also another way to access scholarly sources.  

How to cite scholarly sources in research with Paperpal?  

Researchers typically write by searching for existing information and then conduct their study. They then write their paper, but often discover something new they want to explore. This means going back to find more information to make sure their ideas are well-supported. 

Doing research this way involves looking in many places for information, choosing the best sources, and checking if they are trustworthy. It can be slow and tricky to know what information to trust. On top of that, researchers often need to dig deeper while they write to find opposing viewpoints that make their arguments stronger.  

Paperpal’s new Research feature addresses this challenge head-on and helps writers find answers to their research questions while they write. It gives them clear summaries of scientific information from 250 million research articles and integrates the sources they use to their references. This saves them time and makes sure their work is well-supported by facts.  

When using Paperpal, here’s how you can cite scholarly sources: 

• Research Feature: Once you sign up/log in , you’ll notice that the Research feature in Paperpal has two parts: Search and Citation Library.  
• Search: You can submit your query and get accurate insights from over 250 million research articles with verified sources. 
• Citation Library: Below the AI response, you’ll find references. You can add these references to your Citation Library to keep track of new sources.  
• Citing Sources: You can cite a source using numbers, where each number corresponds to a particular source in the list of references in your text. Alternatively, you can cite using the first/last author of the source mentioned in the list of references. 

Now that you’ve explored what scholarly sources are and where to find them, you’re well on your way to strengthening your research and writing. Remember, using credible sources adds weight to your arguments and demonstrates the depth of your knowledge. 

Don’t be discouraged if navigating scholarly resources feels overwhelming at first. Many universities offer research assistance and librarians who can guide you. Additionally, AI academic writing tools like Paperpal can streamline the process of finding and citing relevant sources. 

Paperpal is a comprehensive AI writing toolkit that helps students and researchers achieve 2x the writing in half the time. It leverages 21+ years of STM experience and insights from millions of research articles to provide in-depth academic writing, language editing, and submission readiness support to help you write better, faster.  

Get accurate academic translations, rewriting support, grammar checks, vocabulary suggestions, and generative AI assistance that delivers human precision at machine speed. Try for free or upgrade to Paperpal Prime starting at US$19 a month to access premium features, including consistency, plagiarism, and 30+ submission readiness checks to help you succeed.  

Experience the future of academic writing – Sign up to Paperpal and start writing for free!  

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Home » Tables in Research Paper – Types, Creating Guide and Examples

Tables in Research Paper – Types, Creating Guide and Examples

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Tables in Research Paper

Definition:

In Research Papers , Tables are a way of presenting data and information in a structured format. Tables can be used to summarize large amounts of data or to highlight important findings. They are often used in scientific or technical papers to display experimental results, statistical analyses, or other quantitative information.

Importance of Tables in Research Paper

Tables are an important component of a research paper as they provide a clear and concise presentation of data, statistics, and other information that support the research findings . Here are some reasons why tables are important in a research paper:

• Visual Representation : Tables provide a visual representation of data that is easy to understand and interpret. They help readers to quickly grasp the main points of the research findings and draw their own conclusions.
• Organize Data : Tables help to organize large amounts of data in a systematic and structured manner. This makes it easier for readers to identify patterns and trends in the data.
• Clarity and Accuracy : Tables allow researchers to present data in a clear and accurate manner. They can include precise numbers, percentages, and other information that may be difficult to convey in written form.
• Comparison: Tables allow for easy comparison between different data sets or groups. This makes it easier to identify similarities and differences, and to draw meaningful conclusions from the data.
• Efficiency: Tables allow for a more efficient use of space in the research paper. They can convey a large amount of information in a compact and concise format, which saves space and makes the research paper more readable.

Types of Tables in Research Paper

Most common Types of Tables in Research Paper are as follows:

• Descriptive tables : These tables provide a summary of the data collected in the study. They are usually used to present basic descriptive statistics such as means, medians, standard deviations, and frequencies.
• Comparative tables : These tables are used to compare the results of different groups or variables. They may be used to show the differences between two or more groups or to compare the results of different variables.
• Correlation tables: These tables are used to show the relationships between variables. They may show the correlation coefficients between variables, or they may show the results of regression analyses.
• Longitudinal tables : These tables are used to show changes in variables over time. They may show the results of repeated measures analyses or longitudinal regression analyses.
• Qualitative tables: These tables are used to summarize qualitative data such as interview transcripts or open-ended survey responses. They may present themes or categories that emerged from the data.

How to Create Tables in Research Paper

Here are the steps to create tables in a research paper:

• Plan your table: Determine the purpose of the table and the type of information you want to include. Consider the layout and format that will best convey your information.
• Choose a table format : Decide on the type of table you want to create. Common table formats include basic tables, summary tables, comparison tables, and correlation tables.
• Choose a software program : Use a spreadsheet program like Microsoft Excel or Google Sheets to create your table. These programs allow you to easily enter and manipulate data, format the table, and export it for use in your research paper.
• Input data: Enter your data into the spreadsheet program. Make sure to label each row and column clearly.
• Format the table : Apply formatting options such as font, font size, font color, cell borders, and shading to make your table more visually appealing and easier to read.
• Insert the table into your paper: Copy and paste the table into your research paper. Make sure to place the table in the appropriate location and refer to it in the text of your paper.
• Label the table: Give the table a descriptive title that clearly and accurately summarizes the contents of the table. Also, include a number and a caption that explains the table in more detail.
• Check for accuracy: Review the table for accuracy and make any necessary changes before submitting your research paper.

Examples of Tables in Research Paper

Examples of Tables in the Research Paper are as follows:

Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of Study Participants

This table shows the demographic characteristics of 200 participants in a research study. The table includes information about age, gender, and education level. The mean age of the participants was 35.2 years with a standard deviation of 8.6 years, and the age range was between 21 and 57 years. The table also shows that 46% of the participants were male and 54% were female. In terms of education, 10% of the participants had less than a high school education, 30% were high school graduates, 35% had some college education, and 25% had a bachelor’s degree or higher.

Table 2: Summary of Key Findings

This table summarizes the key findings of a study comparing three different groups on a particular variable. The table shows the mean score, standard deviation, t-value, and p-value for each group. The asterisk next to the t-value for Group 1 indicates that the difference between Group 1 and the other groups was statistically significant at p < 0.01, while the differences between Group 2 and Group 3 were not statistically significant.

Purpose of Tables in Research Paper

The primary purposes of including tables in a research paper are:

• To present data: Tables are an effective way to present large amounts of data in a clear and organized manner. Researchers can use tables to present numerical data, survey results, or other types of data that are difficult to represent in text.
• To summarize data: Tables can be used to summarize large amounts of data into a concise and easy-to-read format. Researchers can use tables to summarize the key findings of their research, such as descriptive statistics or the results of regression analyses.
• To compare data : Tables can be used to compare data across different variables or groups. Researchers can use tables to compare the characteristics of different study populations or to compare the results of different studies on the same topic.
• To enhance the readability of the paper: Tables can help to break up long sections of text and make the paper more visually appealing. By presenting data in a table, researchers can help readers to quickly identify the most important information and understand the key findings of the study.

Advantages of Tables in Research Paper

Some of the advantages of using tables in research papers include:

• Clarity : Tables can present data in a way that is easy to read and understand. They can help readers to quickly and easily identify patterns, trends, and relationships in the data.
• Efficiency: Tables can save space and reduce the need for lengthy explanations or descriptions of the data in the main body of the paper. This can make the paper more concise and easier to read.
• Organization: Tables can help to organize large amounts of data in a logical and meaningful way. This can help to reduce confusion and make it easier for readers to navigate the data.
• Comparison : Tables can be useful for comparing data across different groups, variables, or time periods. This can help to highlight similarities, differences, and changes over time.
• Visualization : Tables can also be used to visually represent data, making it easier for readers to see patterns and trends. This can be particularly useful when the data is complex or difficult to understand.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

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This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 29.4.2024 in Vol 8 (2024)

Attributes, Quality, and Downloads of Dementia-Related Mobile Apps for Patients With Dementia and Their Caregivers: App Review and Evaluation Study

Authors of this article:

Original Paper

• Tzu Han Chen 1   ; 
• Shin-Da Lee 2 , PhD   ; 
• Wei-Fen Ma 3, 4 , PhD  

1 PhD Program for Health Science and Industry, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan

2 PhD Program in Healthcare Science, Department of Physical Therapy, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan

3 PhD Program in Healthcare Science, School of Nursing, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan

4 Department of Nursing, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan

Corresponding Author:

Wei-Fen Ma, PhD

PhD Program in Healthcare Science

School of Nursing

China Medical University

No 100, Sec 1, Jingmao Road

Beitun District

Taichung, 406040

Phone: 886 4 22053366 ext 7107

Fax:886 4 22053748

Email: [email protected]

Background: The adoption of mobile health (mHealth) apps among older adults (>65 years) is rapidly increasing. However, use of such apps has not been fully effective in supporting people with dementia and their caregivers in their daily lives. This is mainly attributed to the heterogeneous quality of mHealth apps, highlighting the need for improved app quality in the development of dementia-related mHealth apps.

Objective: The aims of this study were (1) to assess the quality and content of mobile apps for dementia management and (2) to investigate the relationship between app quality and download numbers.

Methods: We reviewed dementia-related mHealth apps available in the Google Play Store and Apple App Store in Taiwan. The identified mobile apps were stratified according to a random sampling approach and evaluated by five independent reviewers with sufficient training and proficiency in the field of mHealth and the related health care sector. App quality was scored according to the user version of the Mobile Application Rating Scale. A correlation analysis was then performed between the app quality score and number of app downloads.

Results: Among the 17 apps that were evaluated, only one was specifically designed to provide dementia-related education. The mean score for the overall app quality was 3.35 (SD 0.56), with the engagement (mean 3.04, SD 0.82) and information (mean 3.14, SD 0.88) sections of the scale receiving the lowest ratings. Our analyses showed clear differences between the top three– and bottom three–rated apps, particularly in the entertainment and interest subsections of the engagement category where the ratings ranged from 1.4 to 5. The top three apps had a common feature in their interface, which included memory, attention, focus, calculation, and speed-training games, whereas the apps that received lower ratings were found to be deficient in providing adequate information. Although there was a correlation between the number of downloads (5000 or more) and app quality (t 15 =4.087, P <.001), this may not be a significant determinant of the app’s perceived impact.

Conclusions: The quality of dementia-related mHealth apps is highly variable. In particular, our results show that the top three quality apps performed well in terms of engagement and information, and they all received more than 5000 downloads. The findings of this study are limited due to the small sample size and possibility of disregarding exceptional occurrences. Publicly available expert ratings of mobile apps could help people with dementia and their caregivers choose a quality mHealth app.

Introduction

The global aging population is experiencing an astonishing surge, which will inevitably result in a significant rise in the prevalence of dementia [ 1 ]. Consequently, it has become crucial to identify efficacious strategies to support people affected by dementia and enhance the well-being of their caregivers [ 2 ]. In addition, numerous studies have shown that mobile health (mHealth) apps can effectively reduce medical costs and improve quality of life for middle-aged and older adults, especially after COVID-19 [ 3 , 4 ].

The use of technology among older adults (aged >65 years) has triggered noteworthy transformations in health care provision [ 5 ]. An area where technology has proven especially valuable is in the realm of dementia management, with mHealth apps dominating the forefront of this field [ 6 ]. In addition, the UK government has shown support for the advancement of intelligent assistive technology for individuals with dementia [ 7 ]. This includes endorsing the development of mHealth apps specifically tailored to patients with early-stage dementia and their caregivers [ 8 ]. These apps are believed to have significant potential in aiding cognitive function and facilitating self-care among those living with dementia [ 9 ].

However, the constant emergence of mHealth apps has made it challenging for both patients with dementia and their caregivers to differentiate, evaluate, and use mHealth apps that promote healthy behaviors [ 10 , 11 ]. Therefore, information pertaining to dementia-related mHealth apps and their functionalities should be effectively evaluated and made publicly available.

There is significant heterogeneity in the quality of dementia-related mHealth apps [ 12 ], and most studies assessing app quality have used criteria that focused on general characteristics that could be assessed without downloading or using the app itself [ 13 , 14 ]. Therefore, there is a need for a human-centered, multidimensional measure that includes usability components and relatively more domains to identify high-quality mHealth apps [ 15 ]. Ideally, better features and functionality would drive high-quality apps; however, efforts to identify the differences between high- and low-quality apps have been hampered by scarce research.

Moreover, the factors that contribute to the popularity of specific mHealth apps remain largely unknown, although there is some evidence of a relationship between an app’s star rating and its number of downloads [ 16 ]. However, few studies have evaluated dementia-related mHealth apps to date. Therefore, the specific metrics of app quality that are likely to be associated with a higher number of downloads remain to be identified.

This study had several goals. The first goal was to analyze the content of mobile apps for people with dementia and their caregivers across different categories. The second goal was to assess the quality of individual apps using the user version of the Mobile Application Rating Scale (uMARS). The third objective was to perform a comparative analysis of the highest- and lowest-quality dementia-related mHealth apps, with the broader goal of establishing guidelines to facilitate future app development. Finally, the study aimed to explore the correlation between app quality and downloads. This was done to help identify the gaps in the currently available dementia-related mHealth apps and to provide recommendations for patients with dementia and their caregivers on how to select high-quality apps.

Search Strategy and Inclusion Criteria

Apps were identified from the Taiwan Apple App Store and Google Play Store. Between July 2022 and November 2022, the following search terms (in Mandarin and English) were used in the app stores: dementia, cognitive dysfunction, dementia caregiver, Alzheimer disease, dementia care, cognitive games, and memory games. The screening criteria and process are illustrated in Figure 1 .

Apps were included if they met all of the following inclusion criteria: (1) exists in the Google Play Store for Android mobile devices and the App Store for Apple mobile devices; (2) addresses daily-life topics related to neurocognitive disorders [ 17 ], and (3) was purposefully developed with the primary goal of supporting patients or caregivers (including health care workers) with the topic of mild cognitive impairment; (4) can be downloaded and used for free; (5) mainly uses Mandarin or the English version can be translated into Mandarin and is easy to understand; and (6) has been updated within the last 5 years.

Stratified Random Sampling of Apps by Average Download Numbers

In November 2022, searches were conducted on the two platforms to find apps that met the above criteria. Of the 407 apps found, 332 were deemed ineligible after screening ( Figure 1 ). The remaining 75 apps were thoroughly screened, resulting in 52 apps included for preliminary evaluation. Since the length of time an app has been available on a platform can affect its number of downloads, we calculated the ratio of download numbers with respect to time on the platform. Additionally, to consider uneven allocation and lack of continuity in stratification, the apps were sorted according to the ratio of downloads relative to the number of days since the release date on the platform. Thus, the average number of downloads was calculated as the total number of downloads/number of days on platform since the release date. The apps were then ranked according to the average number of downloads in ascending order, and we randomly selected 1 out of every 3 apps for a total of 17 apps that were subject to detailed quality assessment and review.

General Characteristics and Classification

Each app was used by two authors (THC and WFM) independently. According to their content subcategory, the selected apps were categorized into four different types using the guidelines provided by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence and the National Health Service in the United Kingdom [ 18 , 19 ]. Any conflicts in app classification were adjudicated by discussion between the two reviewers regarding each domain within the extraction form to reach consensus. Details on the main characteristics and comments of the included apps are provided in Multimedia Appendix 1 .

mHealth App Quality Evaluation

The uMARS is a tool that can be used to evaluate the quality of mHealth apps, including four objective subdomains: engagement, functionality, esthetics, and information. There is also a domain for subjective quality and another for perceived impact. Stoyanov et al [ 20 ] developed the uMARS in 2016, which showed excellent internal consistency (Cronbach α=0.90). The uMARS scores are rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (“strongly disagree”) to 5 (“strongly agree”).

The objective quality score is calculated as the average of the scores of the four dimensions. Engagement is defined as fun, interesting, customizable, interactive, and has prompts (eg, sends alerts, messages, reminders, feedback, allows sharing). Functionality refers to overall app functioning, easy to learn, navigation, flow logic, and gestural design of the app. Esthetics refers to the graphic design, overall visual appeal, color scheme, and stylistic consistency. Finally, the information domain assesses whether the app contains high-quality information (eg, text, feedback, measures, and references from a credible source). The subjective quality score reflects the rater’s personal interest in the app. The final uMARS subscale includes 6 items designed to assess the perceived impact of the app on the user’s awareness, knowledge, attitude, intention to change, help-seeking, and likelihood to change the target health behavior.

Reviewer Recruitment and Selection

Reviewers recruited for this study were required to have a professional background in clinical treatment, the health care industry, or information engineering. Additionally, they were required to have at least 3 years of work experience in elderly health care or health technology–related fields, as well as experience using digital mobile devices. Exclusion criteria included no relevant work experience in elderly health care or health technology–related fields in the past 5 years.

Five reviewers were recruited as an interdisciplinary group of experts. The initial reviewer possessed knowledge and had experience in creating a content management system for a dementia management app. The second reviewer was a health informatics researcher with sufficient training and expertise in the relevant health care technology fields focused on dementia. The third reviewer also had extensive experience in dementia and in the mHealth industry. The fourth reviewer was a psychiatric nurse with experience in caring for older adults along with clinical experience in dementia. The final reviewer was a nurse practitioner who has been providing care for older adults and patients with dementia for over a decade.

Evaluation Process

Each of the apps was assessed by the five reviewers and the evaluation process was conducted between December 17, 2022, and January 3, 2023. All 17 apps can be found on the Android platform; hence, the apps were reviewed when running on the same Android tablet. The experts were blinded to the download numbers, year, and country of development of the apps, and they were not allowed to discuss their assessments with each other to ensure independence in their ratings. We ensured an equal distribution of app assessments in each round by applying a ratio that took into account the download-to-time axis. Furthermore, each reviewer allocated a minimum of 30 minutes and a maximum of 1 hour to thoroughly evaluate the included apps.

Ethical Considerations

The study received ethical approval from the ethics committee of China Medical Hospital, Taiwan, on November 8, 2022 (approval number: CMUH111-REC2-151) and was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki.

The experts in this study were not compelled to take part and had the freedom to determine their involvement. Additionally, they possessed the ability to discontinue their participation at any juncture, without being required to supply a justification for their decision.

This study utilized legally obtained publicly available information, and it was ensured that the use of information aligns with its intended public knowledge purpose. Furthermore, data collected from research and expert evaluations are stored on a hard drive and encrypted. The evaluation process was fully anonymous, with no face-to-face interactions among experts, and the evaluation of the app was a non-nominal, noninteractive, and noninvasive study. Relevant original data regarding this research will be preserved for at least 3 years after the execution period, securely locked in the principal investigator’s office cabinet.

The clinical trial protocol developed by the research institute stipulates that in the event of adverse reactions resulting in damages, China Medical University Hospital is responsible for providing compensation. Nonetheless, adverse reactions explicitly disclosed in the informed consent form signed by the experts are not eligible for compensation. This study was not covered by liability insurance and the per-expert evaluation cost was US $170.

Statistical Analysis

The number and proportion of information displayed in the apps, including the country of app development, download number, and app type, were summarized using descriptive statistics. The uMARS scores, along with the scores for each domain and subscale, are presented as the mean and SD. The t test was used to examine the association between downloads and each domain of the uMARS. Statistical analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics v28 (IBM Corp). We considered P <.05 to indicate statistical significance in all analyses.

App Attributes

The apps were primarily developed in the United States, and 11 out of the 17 dementia-related mobile apps were downloaded less than 5000 times. Among the 17 apps, 8 were classified as those designed to improve clinical outcomes from established treatment pathways through behavior change, and for enhancement of patient adherence and compliance with treatment; 5 were designed as standalone digital game therapeutics; 3 were classified for supporting clinical diagnosis and/or decision-making; and 1 app was primarily designed to provide disease-related education ( Table 1 ).

App Quality Assessment by Interdisciplinary Experts

There was a notable level of agreement or correlation among the reviewers in their app evaluations, as indicated by the Kendall W statistic of 0.143, which was significant at P =.05.

Overall, the mean app quality score was 3.35 (SD 0.56), which ranged from 2.25 (worst-rated app) to 4.07 (best-rated app). For engagement, the mean score was 3.04 (SD 0.81). Furthermore, functionality had the highest mean score of 3.76 (SD 0.38) and showed the smallest variation in minimum and maximum scores among the apps evaluated. In other words, these apps were considered to have relatively high levels of functionality and usability by the interdisciplinary expert reviewers. The esthetic quality of the interface received a mean score of 3.45 (SD 0.65), indicating that visual design elements such as button size, icon clarity, and content arrangement were perceived as being well organized. Additionally, the information domain received a mean score of 3.14 (SD 0.88), suggesting that the presentation and accessibility of information on the screen could be improved. Multimedia Appendix 2 provides the complete details of app quality scores.

Top Three and Bottom Three Performers in App Quality Score

The apps ranked in the top three positions according to app quality scores included Memorado Brain Games, NeuroNation-Brain Training & Brain Games, and Brain Track. The common characteristic among these apps is that their interface consists of training games focused on memory, attention, concentration, calculation, and speed. Conversely, Alz Test, American Caregiver Association, and Dementia and Me ranked in the bottom three; these three apps performed poorly on both engagement and information.

The overall scores for each item for the top three and bottom three apps are provided in Table 2 . The functionality domain received the highest average ratings, particularly for gestural design, navigation, and performance. The largest discrepancies in app quality ratings between the top three and bottom three apps were found in the areas of entertainment and interest, where the scores ranged from 1.4 (worst-rated app) to 5 (best-rated app). Similarly, in the subscale of perceived impact, there was a significant difference in attitude, with ratings ranging from 1.2 (worst-rated app) to 4.2 (best-rated app).

a N/A: not applicable.

Association Between Downloads and Quality of Mobile Apps

The Connectivity in Digital Health survey of global mHealth apps reported that 55% of the apps available on the Google Play store, Apple App Store, Windows Phone Store, Amazon Appstore, and Blackberry World had fewer than 5000 total downloads [ 21 ]. Therefore, the 17 apps included in our study were divided into two subgroups based on the total number of downloads. The first subset consisted of 6 apps with more than 5000 total downloads, representing 35.3% of all apps. The mean app quality score for this subgroup was significantly higher than that of the group of apps with less than 5000 downloads ( Table 3 ). In addition, apps with more than 5000 downloads generally had higher scores for each domain. However, neither information nor perceived impact scores were significantly correlated with the number of downloads ( Table 3 ).

a uMARS: user version of the Mobile Application Rating Scale.

Principal Findings

According to our results, there was only one included app that primarily focused on delivering dementia-related education. Furthermore, the top three quality apps were all classified as the main app type, as they all served as standalone digital game therapeutics. In general, the dementia-related mHealth apps were of moderate quality with a common characteristic of high functionality. Nonetheless, these apps exhibited poor performance in engagement and the credibility of information domain. Although we found a correlation between the number of downloads and app quality, this may not be a significant determinant of the information provided and the app’s perceived impact.

Comparison With Prior Work

mHealth apps offer a new way to support people with dementia and their caregivers [ 22 ]. However, previous studies have pointed out that the scientific literature on the design and evaluation of web- and mobile-based health apps remains scarce [ 23 , 24 ]. To address this issue, our study directly assessed the app type in a practical setting and found the lack of a dementia management app that delivers disease-related education. A randomized controlled trial indicated that mHealth apps can be of educational value to patients by providing structured disease and treatment-related education; therefore, future app developers can focus on increasing the availability of this app type with educational value [ 25 ].

A previous study suggested that research collaboration between health care and software engineering experts could help advance our knowledge of app functionality and effectiveness [ 16 ]. Therefore, we established a panel of experts to obtain accurate results on the quality of currently available dementia-related mHealth apps and further identified their subjective quality and perceived impact. The pattern of high functionality and low information quality is in accordance with the findings of other studies on mobile apps designed for older adults [ 26 ]. Additionally, the inadequacy of credibility was associated with several risks, particularly in the areas of self-diagnosis, prevention, and health promotion [ 27 ].

High-quality mHealth apps offer self-management features, relaxation, recreation, and trustworthy information [ 28 , 29 ]. The uMARS consists of elements of usability and a broader range of areas that are used in the assessment of mHealth apps with superior quality. Notably, a consensus was reached among the reviewers in both the engagement and esthetics domains. However, there was no correlation or similarity among reviewers with respect to assessments on functionality and information of the apps. This discrepancy may be due to the different backgrounds of the reviewers [ 30 ]; health care providers may perceive the app’s information as inadequate, whereas experienced developers of dementia apps may find its functionality to be lacking.

Currently, little is known about why some health apps become popular and others do not, and researchers have demonstrated that the number of downloads on app marketplaces does not correlate with clinical utility or validity for mental health apps [ 31 ]. A study from the Netherlands and Portugal identified the predictors that might influence the number of downloads for urology apps [ 32 ]. However, there is little research on the predictors of app downloads for dementia-related mHealth apps in the PubMed database. Hence, to gain a more comprehensive understanding, the apps were stratified using a random sampling approach. Due to the different themes of mHealth apps, our study found a positive relationship between app quality and number of downloads. Finally, the download number does only seem to be a limited orientation aid for the selection of an mHealth app, and future studies should consider this aspect.

Limitations

This study has several limitations. Initially, the search for mobile apps was conducted within a limited time frame and focused on apps that had been updated within the last 5 years. As such, the study fell short with respect to establishing causal relationships. In addition, rapidly expanding and ever-changing mobile app marketplaces are facing significant challenges in keeping pace with the dynamic landscape; hence, some of the apps evaluated in this study may have since changed or new alternatives may have been developed. Furthermore, the search for mobile apps was confined to app stores in Taiwan, which may not accurately represent app offerings in other countries due to regional disparities in developers’ decisions regarding app availability.

Previous research indicated that the cost associated with using mHealth apps acts as a major obstacle for older individuals when it comes to embracing mobile technologies [ 9 , 33 ]. Furthermore, a recent study discovered that 96% of mHealth apps that are accessible on the Chinese market can be downloaded without cost [ 34 ]. Consequently, one-quarter of the apps would have been overlooked if they required payment. Nonetheless, it is possible that within this group of paid apps, there may have been some high-quality apps that were unintentionally excluded from consideration.

Additionally, the stratification method represents both less popular and highly downloaded apps, mirroring real-world data [ 21 ]. However, this method resulted in a smaller sample size, which could potentially lead to some superior apps being overlooked by chance. With only 17 apps remaining for evaluation, it is possible that there may not have been sufficient statistical power to establish a significant relationship between app quality and download frequency.

Finally, to ensure a rigorous evaluation of the app content, experts from different fields were recruited to review the apps. However, the limited number of reviewers could potentially influence the results of the study, and the degree of agreement may not be strong given that the reviewers are from different disciplines and the time they allocated to evaluate each app could potentially impact the reliability of agreement.

Despite these limitations, this study helps to fill the gap in the evaluation of dementia-related mobile apps. The results can still be used to guide the selection of such apps in Taiwan and possibly other regions with similar app marketplaces, while also highlighting the need for ongoing evaluation of mobile apps for dementia care.

Conclusions

This study set out to gain a better understanding of the characteristics, quality, and downloads of dementia-related mHealth apps. In particular, the top three quality apps were all offered as standalone digital game therapeutics, which scored well on both engagement and information quality, and received more than 5000 total downloads. Nevertheless, the findings of our investigation do not offer a comprehensive solution due to the restricted scale of the sample and the potential for overlooking extraordinary instances. Consequently, annual reviews and publicly available expert ratings of mobile apps could help people with dementia and their caregivers choose a high-quality mobile app.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge all staff and participants for their contributions to the study. This study was supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST 110-2314-B-039-041-MY2; NSTC112-2314-B-039-015) and China Medical University (CMU111-MF-108), Taiwan. The funders reviewed the study as part of the grant application but had no further role in study design; data collection, analysis, and interpretation; manuscript preparation; and paper publication.

Data Availability

The study data are identified participant data. The data that support the findings of this study will be available beginning 12 months and ending 36 months following the article publication from the corresponding author (WFM) upon reasonable request.

Authors' Contributions

THC and WFM designed the study and were responsible for data collection and analysis. THC, SDL, and WFM all contributed to manuscript preparation and critical revisions.

Conflicts of Interest

None declared.

Description, classification, and overall comments of reviewers after using the selected dementia-related mobile health apps.

User version of Mobile App Rating Scale scoring of the dementia-related mHealth apps.

CONSORT-EHEALTH checklist (V 1.6.1).

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Abbreviations

Edited by A Mavragani, H LaMonica; submitted 24.07.23; peer-reviewed by A Kaplin, A Ranerup; comments to author 10.10.23; revised version received 09.11.23; accepted 03.04.24; published 29.04.24.

©Tzu Han Chen, Shin-Da Lee, Wei-Fen Ma. Originally published in JMIR Formative Research (https://formative.jmir.org), 29.04.2024.

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Published on 30.4.2024 in Vol 26 (2024)

Economic Evaluations of Digital Health Interventions for Patients With Heart Failure: Systematic Review

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