autism essay writing

165 Autism Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Struggle with writing a research paper topics on autism? We’ve got your back covered! Below, you will find a list of 147 topics about autism as well as autism research paper examples!

🏆 Best Research Autism Topics & Essay Examples

👍 good autism essay topics, 💡 psychology research autism topics to write about, ⭐ simple & easy autism essay titles, ❓ research questions about autism.

• Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) Autism is a serious disorder that has the potential to disrupt the success of people living with it. This is to mean that the theory of causation regarding autism is not complete as yet.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder in a Child At the moment, M.is more verbal with his parents and siblings and reacts adequately to them, especially in repeated day-to-day situations.
• How Christopher’s Autism Affect His Life In spite of the fact that the issue of autism is not clearly explained in the story, the condition of the narrator is referred to as high-functioning autism or Aspersers Syndrome on the cover of […]
• Analysis of Children Autism in “The Black Balloon” It is imperative to note that Charlie’s emotions are not regulated and as such, manifest in immature behaviors such as flapping of his hands.
• Autism and Educational Process Owing to these adverse effects that can stem from autism and the shear prevalence of the condition in the country’s population, a lot of research effort has been dedicated to the early diagnosis and treatment […]
• “Let Me Hear Your Voice: A Family’s Triumph Over Autism” by Catherine Maurice The book was published in 1994, and it was a success as parents of autistic children were waiting for someone to prove that autism was not an incurable disorder.
• Exploring Autism in the Drama Film Rain Man Charlie Babbitt, the brother to Raymond, is the actor who portrays Raymond’s autism on the way to Los Angeles to secure his fair share in the Babbitt’s $3 million fortunes in form of inheritance.
• Autism. Sensory Integration. Tactile Desensitization The poor development that is recorded at the early stages in life is likely to affect the development of different skills by the individuals even in the adult stages The signs that are associated with […]
• Reducing Off-Task Behaviors Using a Token Economy System in Children With Autism Token economy is a strategy of positive reinforcement that can be provided to children in the form of tokens for completing the assigned tasks.
• Inclusion Curriculum for Children With Autism In the given paper, the issue of children autism, the developmental issues that autism triggers and the educational prospects for children with autism are going to be considered.
• Impact of Autism Disorder on Adolescents This essay discusses the impact of autism disorder on adolescents in the community and a nursing intervention that can be used to assist adolescents in becoming prominent society members.
• Progression of Reading Ability in a Child Diagnosed With Autism The battery of assessments and interviews with parents on the participant’s socialization and early reading ability indicates the study applied the Psychometric and Social Contextual approaches.
• Analysis of Behavior of Preschool Age Child With Autism The child’s behavior in the video differs from that of a mentally healthy child, and these differences lie in the child’s other emotional state and degree of interest in talking to people.
• Autism and Disability Advocacy People with autism can contribute to the diversity of disability culture by expanding understanding of what disability is and how it can be accepted.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder Diagnosis According to DSM-5, to fit the diagnostic criteria for ASD, a child must have evident deficits in three major areas of social communication as well as 2 out of the 4 restricted or repetitive behaviors.
• Thinking in Pictures: Autism and Sensory Problems The chapter “The Squeeze Machine: Sensory Problems in Autism” in Grandin’s Thinking in Pictures presents a series of life perspectives of various individuals, including her own, regarding the sensory problems they experienced. They postulated that […]
• Therapeutic Programs for Children With Autism in K-12 Institutions In the paper, the gaps in the research of effective treatments for children with ASD are explored, after which the efficacy of a multi-system aquatic therapy and standardized equine-assisted therapy program is argued.
• Societal Issue Research Project: Autism Spectrum Disorder The first factor is the significant risk that the genetics of siblings who had ASD diagnosis will increase the chance of the disorder.
• Child-Centered Play Therapy and Autism The purpose of the discussed research was to investigate the effects of CCPT on the sample of children with autism, establishing and describing the connection between CCPT and social and emotional growth.
• Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder: The Training Program for Caregivers The latter means that many caregivers take care of children with ASD, hence the importance of equipping them with the necessary skills for effective and smooth parenting and coping with various difficulties.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder’s Impact on Child’s Learning In regards to the public-school setting, standardized testing demands youngsters to grasp and react to spoken as well as written communication at an anticipated pace and level.
• Laboratory Diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorders The purpose of my study is to discover which of these methods is more accurate, with the reason being the importance of early diagnosis of ASD, which leads to better treatment outcomes.
• Autism and Related Cognitive Concepts It has been suggested that children with autism show a general deficit of cognitive skills in multilevel planning and in the regulation of behavior.
• Bullying and Autism Spectrum Disorder In fact, bullying as a social phenomenon can be characterized as a social and interaction issue; therefore, it is possible to analyze the connection between autism and acts of bullying and inappropriate behavior.
• Aspects of Autism Spectrum Disorder Overall, for children with autism spectrum disorder, it is quite complicated to learn the norms within society around them, as they are having difficulties comprehending other people’s emotions and behavior.
• Face Emotion Recognition in Autism Phenotype One critical aspect of social communication is the capability to apprehend the emotions and intentions of another person. In conclusion, Autism Spectrum Disorder makes the interpretation of facial expressions difficult.
• How Does Having a Child With Autism Affects Parents’ Lifestyle? The creation of a system of psychological, pedagogical and social support can reduce the risk of a complete family life dedication to a child with autism.
• Misrepresentation of Autism in the ‘Music’ Film While the film was not centered on the topic of autism as its message, the stereotype-heavy portrayal and a lack of research make it a harmful piece of media.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder Prevalence and Impact in Society It has therefore been impossible to determine the level of increase in autism cases that is as a result of improved diagnostic measures and that which can be attributed to the real increase in autism […]
• Autism Spectrum Disorder: Diagnosis, Impact, Treatment The main diagnostic element for ASD is the evidence of difficulties, either in the present or past, which are different across the age groups.
• Autism and Vaccination Refusal Management Among Somalian Parents Somalian parents in their community in Minnesota refuse from their children being vaccinated, as they believe that vaccination causes autism.
• Everyone Has the Power to Effect Positive Change Within the Autism Community This paper presents what is autism, how every one reacts to the problem, what is the difference between the rich and the poor in their response towards the problem.”Autism is one of five developmental disorders […]
• Autism Spectrum Disorder: Key Points The requirement to meet these needs is supported by the fact that the rate of students with ASD is high: according to the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, more than 83 per cent of […]
• “Theoretical Aspects of Autism” by Helen Ratajczak On the whole, it is possible to say that the standards set by Austin Hill cannot be always met, in part because the physiological aspects of this disease have not been fully investigated.
• Dr. Temple Grandin’s Argument on Visual Thinking and Autism A more in-depth analysis of visual activities can reveal the all imagery can be mentally processed and modified by children so that images are rotated and analyzed to make the brain map expand.
• Intellectual Disability: Autism In their adulthood, and because of the communication issues that most individuals with autism tend to have, they will naturally have difficulty in finding and keeping jobs.
• Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy for Children With Autism On the positive side, it fastens the production of different types of reactive oxygen used in the body. It is arguable that the size of the samples used in the study was small.
• Occupational Therapy for Children With Autism The main reason for the appearance of autism is the disturbance of the development of the patients brain which results in the appearance of various symptoms.
• The Mitochondria and Autism – Results and Main Function The results are important in health because children with autism were more probable to have dysfunctions and abnormalities of the mitochondria such as over replication and deletion of mitochondrial DNA compared to those without the […]
• Autism Etiology, Symptoms, Beliefs, and Management To date, debate on the cause or etiology of autism still remains divided, with extant literature demonstrating that “although many hypotheses have been proposed, a singular or specific combination of causes has yet to be […]
• Quantitative Assessment of Neuromotor Function in Adolescents With High Functioning Autism: Critique The study authors did not give the benefits and/or risks associated with the study participation. The authors indicated that the ZNA was appropriate for collecting the data because it could measure the 11 parameters of […]
• Critical Appraisal on the Impact of Autism Spectrum Disorders on the Family: A Qualitative Study of Mothers’ Perspectives The study researchers established the significance of the study by outlining the social and financial implications of taking care of children with ASD.
• Autism: External Forces, Causes and Treatment The increasing prevalence of Autism in the United States and across the world is attracting great attention from the healthcare sector to design critical programs tailored to stem the disorder in terms of prevention, treatment, […]
• The Importance of Services for Children With Autism The plea of the majority of Americans for the reverse of healthcare budget allocation is well because it is wrong to interfere with services offered to children with autism. With childcare initiative in place, the […]
• Autism: General Information and Treatment She argues that the treatment of autism is through scientific proven medication that aids in controlling aggressive behaviors and that Trisperidone is the commonly used antipsychotic.
• The Issue of Autism: Task-Group Project The role of B.N.in the meeting can be seen as a summarizer, providing a summary of the minutes of the previous meeting.
• Concepts of Autism and Williams Syndrome The disorder manifests itself in the early years of a child’s life, with long-lasting effects that are not curable but controllable and easy to deal with on condition that, the concerned parties take the necessary […]
• Autism Programs to Enhance Students’ Outcomes In addition to social and behavioral challenges, ASD typically hinders a learner’s ability to gain and process the necessary academic information.
• Autism Program’s Impact Across Contexts In other words, a detailed overview of the issues that administrators face when designing the program and which the teachers have to deal with when addressing the needs of children with autism must be carried […]
• Autism: Teaching Plan for Taking All the Features Into Account For the first child, caregiver training was done at child’s bedroom, and for the second child it was done at living room, and for the third child with severe mental retardation it was carried out […]
• Education Considerations for Students With Autism Two articles under consideration consider the opposite views regarding the education of students with autism; on the basis of the information obtained from these articles, it can be stated that none of the perspectives is […]
• Autism Spectrum Disorders: Diagnostic Procedure In general, this journal is very interesting and it is an important contribution to the development of appropriate screening and identification procedures for children with ASD.
• Developmental Psychology: Autism and Vaccination Vaccination of infants is widely used today as the pattern of endemic diseases can be explained in terms of interplay of social, physical and biological factors in an area that is conducive to a continuous […]
• Social Work Methods to Treat the Child Who Is Suffering From Autism This is a clear indicator that alcohol intake by the family is costing the members and it is an issue that needs to be looked into.
• Proposal for the Organization of the Concert in Autism Support The paper will be focused on the organizational aspects of the autism support concert and the people to be invited to this meeting attendance.
• The Development of Autism Analysis The paper will disclose the interviews of this famous and significant person whom managed to give all her efforts to the development of autism charitable programs and contribute to autism support all over the world. […]
• Autism and Immunization: Vaccines and the Changing Epidemiology The interest and attention invoked by this paper were largely due to the fact that it appeared to provide a biological means through which MMR vaccine resulted in autism.
• Do Vaccinations Cause Autism in Children? Autism is defined by the Autism Society of America as ” a complex developmental disability that typically appears during the first 3 years of life and is the result of a neurological disorder that affects […]
• Autism. Child and Family Assessment The other common disorder associated with autism is that of mutism whereby it also lies under the category of speech disorder and in many cases it is difficult to be diagnosed and at the same […]
• Autism and False Belief in Psychology The theories are found to be covering the deficits of an individuals’ mind and factors relating to autism, research further indicates that a child’s behavior may be influenced by the executive functions this, therefore, brings […]
• Autism Spectrum Disorder and Interventions However, the negative side of it is that such an intervention is limited to those patients who are verbal and have limited vocabulary.
• Autism: Methods of Diagnosing and Treatment Analysis A malfunction in the neural circuitry of the brain of those with autism is the likely cause of their perceptions regarding social interaction and lack of adequate cognitive abilities.
• Autism: Symptoms, Forms, Diagnostic Instruments Autism is basically a developmental disorder of the human brain that its first symptoms are initially manifested in infancy and it follows a steady cause without relapse.
• Mercury, Vaccines and Autism: One Controversy, Three Histories In due course of time, the emergence of organomercurials as effective agents in combating bacterial contamination of vaccines slowly resulted in the research on and inclusion of thimerosal, a white crystalline powder in the form […]
• Autism Spectrum Disorder Features in Children One of the causes for the appearance of these issues is an inborn disability that might presuppose the need for specific methods to educate a child and guarantee a chance for integration with society.
• Autism Occurrence by Measles Vaccine Status The organization of information in the text follows a logical format by introducing the background for the vaccine, incorporating the issue of ASD connection, and leading up to the primary research question.
• Parental Report of Vaccine Receipt in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder In the introduction, which is the first section, the study’s research problems and their significance to nursing are stated. The discussion section covers how the authors relate the findings to the research objective and the […]
• Teenagers With Autism Disorder Autism is seen as a spectrum disorder since its severity and symptoms vary greatly among affected individuals – from mild and occasional to persistent and interfering with all aspects of life.
• Impact of Autism Spectrum Disorders on Life However, between the ages of two and three, his lack of verbal activity and inability to “echo” simple sounds and syllables were found to be very concerning by the family.
• Risperidone in Children With Autism: ANOVA Article The variables used in the article are sufficient for the investigation, and they would not be changed. The study authors assume that risperidone and placebo treatments would have significant variations in the mental abilities of […]
• Autism Should Not Be Viewed as a Disability A good example is that the treatment of autism as a mental disorder makes it possible for pharmaceutical companies and clinics to invent new health systems or procedures that will meet the needs of the […]
• Autism Spectrum and Features of Health Conditions Nevertheless, the manifestations of the autism spectrum also depend on the intellectual abilities of the person and his or her age.
• Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder For instance, the researchers have reviewed the findings by the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention and the Government Accountability Office to present the statistics on children with ASD and the increase in the number […]
• Autism: Main Symptoms and Research Major symptoms of the disorder are repetitive behavior, abnormal communication development, and motor skills development. Major symptoms of autism are repetitive behavior, abnormal motor skills, and communication development.
• Autist Student’s Behavior and Remedial Plan In the process of reading, I would pay attention to the student’s concentration and ability to integrate what she was reading. She also took long in doing this and did not want to stop the […]
• Autism Treatment, Its Methods and Results It was appropriate to focus on the use of the DSE intervention and examine if addressed most of the challenges facing many ASD patients.
• The Physiological Impact of Autism on Children and Parents It is possible to speak about the physiological impact of ASD on children and their parents in the UK, and the detailed examination of this issue is required. To review the literature on possible barriers […]
• Autism Spectrum Disorder: Programs Effectiveness The purpose of this PE, therefore, is to evaluate and analyze the efficiency of the programs implemented by the Day Support Services.
• Autism: Characteristics, Prevalence and Interventions The symptoms of autism are noticeable in the early years of childhood. Occupational therapy is one of the non-educational interventions used to assist kids with autism.
• Students With Autism Spectrum Disorders The main goal of this paper is to present a review of relevant literature addressing the issue of helping college students with ASD prepare for workforce readiness and job placement.
• Autism Treatment Network in the PEACE Program In order to use these resources in PEACE, it is necessary to establish a budget that will cover expenditures on training courses for specialists involved in the program, educational materials, seminars, and individual counseling.
• Association Between Vaccination and Autism The study examined whether there is a link between the toxic effects of exposure to thimerosal-containing vaccines and the risk of developing ASD.
• Olfaction and Autism Spectrum Disorder Relationship These findings reveal that the sniff test can reveal both the presence and severity of ASD in young children. The link between ASD and olfaction can be used in diagnosing young children with autism.
• Vaccination Contrubution to Autism Development This anxiety has led to a civic health dispute about the civil liberties of parents to decide whether to vaccinate their children, along with the state regulation on vaccinations to guard the wellbeing of its […]
• Abu Dhabi Autism Center The Abu Dhabi Autism Center has to operate within the laws and regulations of the Zayed Higher Organization for Humanitarian Care and Special Needs.
• Applied Behavior Analysis Treatment for Autism It is the most commonly applied autism treatment remedy in the United States and several other countries in the world and the major method that schools and therapists embrace and use.
• Involving Adults With Autism Plus Learning Disability Since the method is interviewing, a particular aspect of the study that should be addressed with attention is the researchers’ perspective.
• Inclusive Education: Child With Autism and Spina Bifida It is worth mentioning that Ted’s mother is willing to cooperate with teachers, and her participation can be of great assistance to the teacher.
• Bright Not Broken: Gifted Kids, ADHD, and Autism It is possible to state that the book provides rather a high-quality review of the issues about the identification, education, and upbringing of the 2e children.
• Case Law and Case Study of a Student With Autism On reviewing the evaluation results in the presence of the student’s mother, an agreement was reached on the general education placement for the student.
• Children With Autism’ Communication in Saudi Arabia Parents of children with autism in Saudi Arabia have complained that the government has neglected the needs of autistic children by failing to finance their education and research to detect the effectiveness of the digital […]
• Autism Spectrum Disorders: Testing and Measurement It will begin with the rationale that explain why the issues are critical, followed by the reasons for unavailability of the solutions to the issues and the consequences of the issues.
• Autism Spectrum Disorders and Educational Interventions From this point, this paper aims to discuss the definition of Autism Spectrum Disorders, examine the etiology and incidence of the disorder, focus on the prevalence of autism, and analyze the effectiveness of the DTT […]
• Autism Expressed: Branding Strategy and Marketing The promise that the brand offers to the public should be in line with the desires of the clients. This firm will need to prepare this branding strategy in a way that will meet its […]
• Vaccines and Autism: Separating Facts From Fiction The advocacy groups say that thimerosal, a preservative used in vaccines, is toxic to the central nervous system and responsible for an alarming rise in rates of autism among children in the United States and […]
• Self-Injury in Autism: Applied Behavior Analysis Applied behavior analysis incorporates the utilization of direct perception, estimation, and useful investigation of the relations in the middle of the environment and conduct.
• Lesson for Learners With Autism: Reflection Observation The essay identifies the instructional methods used by the teacher during the exercise. The teacher also guided the learners to solve the mathematical problems using different visual objects.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder Concept Besides, Temple often explores her own experiences and attempts to understand the feelings of others that are unavailable to her by visualizing herself as other creatures people and animals.
• Dubai Autism Center’ Quality Management TQM employs strategies and effective communication within the organization to incorporate the quality principles into the culture and activities of the organization to ensure that all the activities are geared towards satisfying the customers.
• Vaccination and Autism in Children The problem with this case is that while it may be true that the cause for the development of autism in children have yet to be fully determined, the fact remains that there have been […]
• Video Modeling for Individuals With Autism The video model will be developed according to the needs of autistic children, with the focus on the role of visual and auditory stimuli in the teaching process.
• The Effects of Vaccines on Autism From their study, the findings demonstrate that the presence of thimerosal is one of the causes of the disorder. It is imperative to state that they have used many studies that have indicated that there […]
• Vaccination as a Cause Autism This paper borrows on the arguments of Monica Prasad and Washington and Haydn when they argue that the belief about vaccinations as a primary cause of autism stems from emotional, psychological, and behavioral barriers, as […]
• Youth With Autism Disorder: Education and Employment This includes the communication patterns of the teenager, the extent of social relations and the unusual behavioral characteristics of the teenager in the environment.
• Autism Children Education Inclusion Policy in Private Schools: Compulsory Enrollment Policy 2011 The following are the main areas will be addressed by the policy: Prohibited Private schools will be prohibited from ignoring the needs of children suffering from autism; they will be compelled by the act to […]
• Autism: Pathogenesis and Intervention Similarly, a person with autism has to be trained on the process of communicating normally and forming a relationship with objects, events and people in their lives.
• The Real Causes of Autism However, the main problem is that this association or correlation does not imply that autism is triggered by a vaccine. This is the main argument that can be put forward.
• Applied Behavior Analysis and Autism The primary subject of this study is applied behavior analysis while the secondary subject is applied behavior analysis and its effects on autism in children.
• Autism Effect on Children It is crucial to understand the behavior of children with autism in the school set up in order to understand how autism affects children and their social interactions. It is up to the teacher to […]
• Autism and Its Effects on Social Interaction The article “Social Impairment in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder” identifies the major challenges facing many people with autism. The authors wanted to examine the social problems and difficulties encountered by individuals with Autism Spectrum […]
• Older Dads More Likely to Have Kids With Autism The author highlights autism as one of the main outcomes of late fatherhood following the release of the results of a study involving the counting of the mutations corresponding to a father’s age at the […]
• Evidenced-Based Practice: Autism Management in Children Autism largely is connected to communication abilities of a child, a situation that later results into the child experiencing disability problems in effectively encoding and decoding communicative messages.
• Miami Dance Project for Autistic Children For me, what the Miami dance project represents is in line with what is known as the concept of confidence building wherein through the development of certain talents children with autism will begin to have […]
• Autism Spectrum Disorders and Family Impact One of the greatest fears of a parent with such a child is the fact that such a child would be taken care of until the advanced stages of their lives.
• Program Models in Autism The DTT technique has been designed in such a way as to target the individual behavior of an autistic child using the available curriculum.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder in Relation to Education Attending to students having ASD in the regular classrooms requires specialized teachers and supplementary staff in order to aid in the realization of the needs of the students having ASD.
• Critical Analysis of Published Articles: Autism It was therefore the goal of the research to find out if the negative attitude of people towards autistic children can be altered to the benefit of the parents.
• Autism in Saudi Arabia This support may come in the form of modification of the curriculum to cater for the special needs of the autistic children.
• Analysis of Autism Disorder This disorder affects the brain of the child during growth so that it does not develop in the right way thus affecting the social and communication skills of the child. This is especially to the […]
• One-To-One Programs: Supporting Autistic Children The purpose of conducting this essay will be to examine the educational intervention of one-to-one support programs during normal school times within a mainstream classroom and also to discuss the challenges faced by teachers and […]
• Psychological Disorders and Their Treatment: An Overview of the Recent Progress and the Current Challenges in Treating Autism in Children In the given paper, the issue of psychological disorders is being addressed in reference to the ideas expressed in Chapter 11 “Psychological Disorders” in Carole Wade and Carol Tavris’s Invitation to Psychology.
• Early Intervention for Young Adults With Autism This is due to unavailability of information on children development stages and the importance of early detection and intervention in the case of autism.
• Different Behaviors in Children With Autism The purpose is to find out whether the co morbidity changes with the environment, and assess the influence that the environment has on the behavior of an autistic child.
• Diagnosis and Treatment for Autism Disorder Children with autism are therefore able to reason and even interpret the feelings of other people but the challenge is to communicate the response to other people.
• Autism: Qualitative Research Design Golafshani continues to argue that the use of the term “dependability” in qualitative studies is a close match to the idea of “reliability” in quantitative research.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder However, the reality is that the number of children with autism and having high intelligence is insignificant. It is apparent that, in autism, a disorder is found in the structure of the brain.
• Treatment of Autism With the Use of the Picture Exchange Communication System There are lots of types of this communication system that may be used with children, who have autism, and one of them is the Picture Exchange Communication System that is characterized by a proper picture […]
• Vaccines and Autism: A Critical Analysis of Thimerosal in Relation to Measles, Mumps, and Rubella The safety and efficacy of vaccines has been the subject of many studies in the medical field. The disorder was observed in one participant from each of the cohorts in the experiment.
• How to Recognize and Teach Students With Autism If these groups of students have to be given directions that are more than three steps, the directions have to be written down due to their inability to remember sequences.
• Autism and Visual Thought Suprisingly the quality of visual thinking according to Bogdashina is dependent on other factors like time and the state the autistic person is in.
• Do Vaccines Cause Autism? Thimerosal is alleged to increase the exposure of mercury in the vaccine to a substantiated high amount. In fact, the amount of antigens between children with autism and without is the same irrespective of the […]
• Language Development Problems in Children: An Indicative Characteristic of Autism This is because it is a time when it is expected that a majority of the kids should be able to talk.
• The Disease of Autism Origin The disorder is one of the new diagnoses of the autism. Other effects of the disorder are constipation and growth failures that may be a problem to the lives of the individual.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder in Children and Its Impact on the Family Manning, Wainwright and Bennet argue that children with autism are faced with a big challenge because of the nature of the symptoms the disorder.
• Autism’s Teaching Tips for Children and Adults The present description is concerned with the role of teacher in the better management of Autism in children. Further, assessment of the interactive and developmental skills is on of the important component in the teacher […]
• What Are Autism Spectrum Disorders?
• How Does Autism Affect the Person With It and Those Around Them?
• What Are the Barriers of Learning for a Learner With Autism/Aspergers in Performing Arts?
• Does Gluten Effect Children With Autism?
• What Are the Causes of Autism?
• How Does Autism Affect a Child’s Educational Performance?
• What Can Autism Look Like and Things You Can Do to Spot It?
• Can Children With Autism Develop a Theory of Mind?
• Which Interventions Reduce Anxiety in Autistic People?
• What Influence Has the Development of Autism Had on a Diagnosed Individual?
• How Does Autism Affect the Development of a Child?
• Are Huddles the Missing Piece of the Puzzle in Implementing Clinical Innovation for the Eating Disorder and Autism Comorbidity?
• How Does Autism Start?
• Can Mouse Imaging Studies Bring Order to Autism Connectivity Chaos?
• How Does ‘Fake News’ Affect Autism Policy?
• Are There Any Relationships Between Latent Toxoplasma Gondii Infection, Testosterone Elevation, and Risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder?
• How Do People With Autism Experience the World?
• Can Robotic Systems Promote Self-Disclosure in Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorder?
• How Did the Media Perpetuate the Autism-Vaccine Scare?
• Are There Cultural Differences in Parental Interest in Early Diagnosis and Genetic Risk Assessment for Autism Spectrum Disorder?
• How Can the Therapist Help Autism Children?
• Can Vaccinations Cause Autism?
• Does Autism Spectrum Disorder Affect People All Around the World?
• Is There a Correlation Between Epigenetics and Autism Spectrum Disorder?
• How Does Autism Affect Regular Brain Functions as Well as Socialization Skills?
• What Can Responses to Music in Autism Tell Us About the Nature of Musical Emotions?
• Why Has the Incidence Rate of Autism Increased?
• What Are the Most Effective Ways to Support/Provide Social Care For Autistic Adults?
• Which Interventions Are Effective in the Development of Communication/Language Skills in Autism?
• How Can Parents and Family Members Be Supported/Educated to Care For and Better Understand an Autistic Relative?
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Autism - List of Essay Samples And Topic Ideas

Autism, or Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), refers to a broad range of conditions characterized by challenges with social skills, repetitive behaviors, speech, and nonverbal communication. Essays could explore the causes, symptoms, and treatment of autism, the experiences of individuals with autism, and societal understanding and acceptance of autism. We’ve gathered an extensive assortment of free essay samples on the topic of Autism you can find at Papersowl. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

Rain Man and Autism

The film Rain man was released into theaters in 1988 and was awarded many awards along with an Academy Award. The movie starts off by showing Charlie who works as a car salesman, attempting to close on a deal involving four Lamborghinis. Charlie decides to drive with his girlfriend Susanna to ensure that this deal goes through. On the drive over Charlie receives a call telling him that his father has just passed away. Charlie and his girlfriend go his […]

Applied Behavior Analysis and its Effects on Autism

Abstract During my research i have found several studies that have been done to support the fact that Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA) does in fact make a positive impact on children with Autism through discrete trials. It is based on the thought that when a child is rewarded for a positive behavior or correct social interaction the process will want to be repeated. Eventually one would phase out the reward. Dr Lovaas, who invented this method, has spent his career […]

The Unique Parenting Challenges are Faced by the Parents of Special Children

Introduction For typical children, parenting experiences are shared by other parents whereas the unique parenting challenges are faced by the parents of special children. Mobility and Inclusion of the parents as well as children are affected many a times. Even though careful analysis often reveals abilities, habitual tendency to perceive the disabilities from society’s part often hinders effective normalization and proper rehabilitation. All impose severe identity crisis and role restrictions even in knowledgeable parents.. In some conditions, as in the […]

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Autism in Japanese Manga and its Significance on Current Progression in J-pop Culture

Abstract In this paper I will explore and examine Autism in Manga, the social and cultural context of Autism in Manga, its movement, and importance of Tobe Keiko’s, “With the Light.” Manga is a huge part of Japanese culture and can be appreciated by so many different people. There are different types of Manga that have been specifically produced for that type of audience. In this paper, I will address the less talked about, women’s Manga or also known as […]

Speech Therapist for Autism

Abstract Autism Spectrum Disorder is a condition that consists of various challenges to an individual such as social skills, nonverbal communication, repetitive behaviors and difficulties with speech. So far doctors have not been able to find out what causes autism although it is believed that it involves both environmental and genetic factors. Autism can usually be detected at an early age, therefore giving the patient and therapist an early start to improve their verbal skills. Speech language pathologists also known […]

Virtual Reality in Regards to Health and how it Can be Life-Changing

        Exploring Virtual Reality in Health Diego Leon Professor Ron Frazier October 29, 2018, Introduction When most individuals think of technology involving computers, they think it can solely involve two of the five senses we humans have – vision (sight) and hearing (audition). But what if we could interact with more than two sensorial channels? Virtual reality deals with just that. Virtual reality is defined as a “high-end user interface that involves real-time simulation and interaction through […]

Growing up with Autism

Autism is a profound spectrum disorder; symptoms, as well as severity, range. It is one of the fastest-growing developmental disorders in America. For every 68 children born in the United States, 1 is diagnosed with a neurological development disorder that impairs their ability to interact and communicate on what we constitute as normal levels. Autism is multifaceted; it affects the brain development of millions worldwide. Not only are those diagnosed on the Autism Spectrum facing difficulties, but the family members […]

Kids with Autism

In this earth we have many different lifeforms. Animals, plants, insects, and people. Humans have populated the earth all throughout it. Some people are born healthy and some are born will disorders and illnesses and diseases. One of the disorders is Autism. Autism is constantly affecting the people who have it and the people around them all over the world. So what is Autism? Autism is a disorder that impairs the ability for social interaction and communication. It is very […]

My Personal Experience of Getting to Know Asperger’s Syndrome

The beginning of this paper covers the history of Asperger’s Syndrome, followed by an explanation of what Asperger’s is. The history provides detailed insights into Hans Asperger and Leo Kanner, and their relationship to each other. Their work has significantly enriched our understanding of the research surrounding Autism and Asperger’s Syndrome. The paper also discusses the process leading to Asperger’s becoming a recognized diagnosis, including the contributions of Lorna Wing and Ulta Frita. Furthermore, it traces Asperger’s entry into the […]

Cultural Stereotypes and Autism Disorder

“It’s the fastest growing developmental disability, autism” (Murray, 2008, p.2). “It is a complex neurological disorder that impedes or prevents effective verbal communication, effective social interaction, and appropriate behavior” (Ennis-Cole, Durodoye, & Harris, 2013). “Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a lifelong disorder that may have comorbid conditions like attention deficit disorder (ADD)/attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), anxiety disorder, stereotypical and self-stimulatory behaviors, insomnia, intellectual disabilities, obsessive compulsive disorder, seizure disorder/epilepsy, Tourette syndrome, Tic disorders, gastrointestinal problems, and other conditions. Another certainty, […]

Understanding Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a cognitive disability that affects a person’s “communication, social, verbal, and motor skills” . The umbrella term of ASD created in 2013 by the American Psychiatric Association that covered 5 separate autism diagnosis and combined them into one umbrella term, the previous terms being Autistic Disorder, Rett syndrome, Asperger’s Disorder, Childhood disintegrative Disorder, and Pervasive Developmental Disorders. The word spectrum in the diagnosis refers to the fact that the disability does not manifest itself in […]

Defining Altruism Issue

In current society, it can be justified that the level of autonomy directly influences the amount of altruism an autistic adolescent implements. Defining Altruism: When it comes to the comprehension of socialization within the development of behaviors in adolescents, altruism is vital. Although there is no true altruism, more or less altruism can be determined based upon the involuntary actions and behaviors of an individual. In the absence of motivation, altruism cannot transpire. An altruist must have the inherent belief […]

911 Telecommunicators Response to Autism

Autism is becoming more prevalent every day. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention released new statistics in 2018. Nationally, 1 in 59 children have autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and boys are 4 (four) times more likely to have autism than girls. 1 in 37 boys and 1 in 151 girls were found to have autism. These are incredibly high statistics that will affect our communities across the United States We, as Telecommunicators, need to know how to understand and […]

Representation of Autism in the Netflix TV Show “Atypical”

In the first season of the TV show “Atypical”, the viewer meets the Gardner family, a seemingly normal family with an autistic teenage son, Sam, as the focus. This show failed initially to deviate from typical portrayals of autistic people on screens, as a white male, intellectually gifted, and seemingly unrelatable, although it seemed to try. Sam acts in ways that seem almost unbelievable for even someone with autism to, such as when he declares his love for someone else […]

Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a group of developmental disorders that challenges a child’s skills in social interaction, communication, and behavior. ASD’s collective signs and symptoms may include: making little eye contact, repetitive behaviors, parallel play, unexplainable temper tantrums, misunderstanding of nonverbal cues, focused interests, and/or sensory overload. Positive symptoms of ASD may reflect above-average intelligence, excellence in math, science, or art, and the ability to learn things in detail. A question that many parent has is whAlthough an individual […]

The Complexity of Autism

Autism spectrum disorder is a complex disease that affects the developmental and speech capabilities of adolescents that carries with them to adulthood. It is distinctly apparent when the child is still very young and able to be diagnosed from about a year and a half old onwards. Although the disease cannot be pinpointed to one specific area of the brain, it is believed to stem from a glitchy gene that makes the child more susceptible to developing autism, oxygen deprivation […]

An Overview of the Five Deadly Diseases that Affect the Human Brain

There are hundreds of diseases that affect the brain. Every day, we fight these diseases just as vehemently as they afflict their carriers. Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's, depression, autism, and strokes are just five of the most lethal and debilitating diseases that afflict human brains. Parkinson's disease alone claims up to 18,000 lives a year (Hagerman 1). But what is it? Parkinson's disease occurs when a brain chemical called dopamine begins to die in a region that facilitates muscle movement. Consequently, […]

Autism Genes: Unveiling the Complexities

“Autism is a brain disorder that typically affects a person’s ability to communicate, form relationships with others and respond appropriately to the environment (www.childdevelopmentinfo.com).” There are different levels of autism. “There is the autistic disorder, Asperger's syndrome and pervasive developmental syndrome (www.asws.org).” According to (www.everydayhealth.com/autism/types), “Each situation is unique as there are many levels and severities of it. Many cases also include sensory difficulties. These can range from imaginary sights and sounds to other sensations.” There are many different characteristics […]

Autism and Assistive Technology for Autistic Children

Autism is a complex neurobehavioral condition that is found in a person from early childhood days where the person faces difficulty in communicating with another person. It is also known as ASD or Autism Spectrum Disorder. It is a spectrum disorder because its effect varies from person to person. This is caused due to some changes that happen during early brain development. It is suggested that it may arise from abnormalities in parts of the brain that interpret sensory input […]

The Evolution of Autism Diagnosis: from Misunderstanding to Scientific Approach

Autism has come a long way from the early 1980s when it was rarely diagnosed to today where 100 out 10,000 kids are diagnosed. Autism is defined as a developmental disorder that affects communication and behavior (NIMH 2018). There are many aspects surrounding Autism and the underlying effects that play a role in Autism. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, people with Autism have “Difficulty with communication and interaction with other people Restricted interests and repetitive […]

Do Vaccines Cause Autism

In a world of medicines and “mommy bloggers”, there is a controversy between pro-vaxxers and anti-vaxxers. The vaccination controversy cause an uproar for many people, understandably, it’s very polarized- you strongly believe in them or you strongly do not. For me, at the age of 15, I strongly believe in the Pro-Vaccine movement and I have data that can back me up. For starters, you may wonder ‘what is a vaccine’ or ‘how to do they work’. For a general […]

Autism: Characteristics, Diagnosis, and Understanding

The prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder has nearly doubled in recent years, and the numbers are staggering: nearly 1 in every 59 children are diagnosed with autism in the United States alone. Yet, there are so many questions surrounding the complexity and increase in diagnoses of this condition that affects so many in such diverse ways. (Autism Speaks) How autism originates in the first place and its impact on communication, both verbal and nonverbal, are questions that need to be […]

Autism Spectrum Disorder and its Positive Effects

 What would it feel like if you were constantly ignored or treated as though you have little usefulness? Many people experience this kind of treatment their entire lives. Long has it been assumed that people with mental disabilities such as Autism, were meant to be cared for but to never expect any value from them. Evil men such as Hitler even went so far as to kill them because he thought they had no use to society. However, there is […]

Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorders and ADHD

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex lifelong neurodevelopmental disorder that affects communication and behavior, generally diagnosed within the early stages of life. No two individuals living with Autism experience the same symptoms, as the type and severity varies with each case (Holland, 2018.). Autism has been around for hundreds of years, but the definition has evolved immensely. In 1943, scientists Leo Kanner and Hans Asperger conducted research on individuals with social and emotional deficits to better refine the definition […]

Raising a Child with Autism

All impose severe identity crisis and role restrictions even in knowledgeable parents.. In some conditions, as in the case of physical challenges, the child needs physical reassurance and support from the parents against those conditions of cognitive deficits in which the demands are always parent’s constant attention and feedback. As far as autism is concerned, the child’s deficits are many namely social, emotional, communicational, sensual, as well as behavioral. Symptoms are usually identified between one and two years of age. […]

Is Autism a Kind of Brain Damage

Many people have different views about autism. Autism may be only one simple word, but with this one word comes many forms in the way it could affect people with this disability. Autism should not be looked down on as much as this disability is from others in society. It may seem as if it has more “cons” than “pros” as some call them, but if looked at from a better perspective, there could be more pros than cons and […]

Trouble with Social Aspects and People on the Autism Spectrum

Autism in childhood starts as early as age two, and symptoms will become more severe as children continue into elementary school. When a child goes to a psychiatrist, they will work on social development. Adolescence with autism struggle when attempting to project others pain. For example, my brother has Asperger's and when I have a bone graph done on my hand, he could not stop touching my hand. He needed constant reminders to not touch and remind him of when […]

Effects of Autism

When he was eight years old, the parents of Joshua Dushack learned that their son was different. He had been diagnosed with Autism. According to the doctors, Joshua would never be able to read, write, talk, or go to school on his own. This might have been the case, had his parents accepted it. But his mother saw her son as a normal boy, and treated him as such. He did need some extra help in school, but because of […]

How Different Types of Assistive Technology Can Help Children with Autism

I. Introduction An anonymous speaker once said, “some people with Autism may not be able to speak or answer to their name, but they can still hear your words and feel your kindness.” Approximately thirty percent of people diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder never learn to speak more than a few words (Forman & Rudy, 2018). Fortunately in today’s society, new technologies have made it possible for these individuals to communicate and socialize with others. Purpose The primary focus of […]

Searching Employment Autism

Over the last 20 years, there has been an alarming increase for children who have been diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in the United States. According to the Centers for Disease Control, in the year 2000 1 in 159 children would be diagnosed with ASD. In the latest version of the study, the number has been reduced to 1 in 59 children will be diagnosed with ASD (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2018). This is a subject that […]

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How To Write an Essay About Autism

Understanding autism.

Before writing an essay about autism, it's essential to understand what autism is and the spectrum of conditions it encompasses. Autism, or Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), is a complex developmental disorder that affects communication and behavior. It is characterized by challenges with social skills, repetitive behaviors, speech, and nonverbal communication. Start your essay by explaining the nature of autism, its symptoms, and the spectrum concept, which acknowledges a range of strengths and challenges experienced by individuals with autism. It's also important to discuss the causes and diagnosis of autism, as well as the common misconceptions and stereotypes surrounding it. This foundational knowledge will set the stage for a more in-depth exploration of the topic.

Developing a Focused Thesis Statement

A strong essay on autism should be centered around a clear, focused thesis statement. This statement should present a specific angle or argument about autism. For example, you might discuss the importance of early intervention and therapy, the representation of autism in media, or the challenges faced by individuals with autism in education and employment. Your thesis will guide the direction of your essay and ensure that your analysis is structured and coherent.

Gathering and Analyzing Data

To support your thesis, gather relevant data and research from credible sources. This might include scientific studies, statistics, reports from autism advocacy organizations, and personal narratives. Analyze this data critically, considering different perspectives and the quality of the evidence. Including a range of viewpoints will strengthen your argument and demonstrate a comprehensive understanding of the topic.

Discussing Implications and Interventions

A significant portion of your essay should be dedicated to discussing the broader implications of autism and potential interventions. This can include the impact of autism on individuals and families, educational strategies, therapeutic approaches, and social support systems. Evaluate the effectiveness of these interventions, drawing on case studies or research findings. Discussing both the successes and challenges in managing and understanding autism will provide a balanced view and demonstrate a comprehensive understanding of the topic.

Concluding the Essay

Conclude your essay by summarizing the key points of your discussion and restating your thesis in light of the evidence and examples provided. Your conclusion should tie together your analysis and emphasize the significance of understanding and supporting individuals with autism. You might also want to highlight areas where further research or development is needed or the potential for societal changes to improve the lives of those with autism.

Final Review and Editing

After completing your essay, it's important to review and edit your work. Ensure that your arguments are clearly articulated and supported by evidence. Check for grammatical accuracy and ensure that your essay flows logically from one point to the next. Consider seeking feedback from peers or experts in the field to refine your essay further. A well-crafted essay on autism will not only inform but also engage readers in considering the complexities of this condition and the collective efforts required to support those affected by it.

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The Great List of Autistic Essays

I’m a late-identified autistic who loves writing about autism. How much do I love it? I’ve written over 150 essays on it in the past six months alone.

How do I think of so many autistic topics to write about? I’m an art therapist who specializes in late-identified autistic adults. That means I not only have my personal experience to draw from, but also the hundreds of hours spent listening to my clients.

I share most of my essays here on Medium, which means it has now become quite the library. In an effort to make my essays more accessible to those wanting clear, relatable information about late-identified autism in adults, I’ve sorted my essays into topics below. While I wish I could provide a link to each of them for you… I’ve got to prioritize my time and energy. So if a specific essay interests you, just pop it into the search and it’ll come up

Autism in a Neurotypical World

What Would a World Designed by Autistic People Be Like

The Harm in "They're a Little Autistic"

Autism Does Not Directly Cause Socializing Problems

Please Trust My Lived Autistic Experience

Can Someone Please Create a Neurodivergent Intentional Living Community

What if I Accept that Most Neurotypicals Won't Like Me

How Neuro-Bias Shows Up in Professional Testing

Your Autistic Experience Sounds Just LIke my Neurotypical One

Neurotypical Words that Don't Work for Autistics: Overachiever

But Neurotypicals Experience That, Too!

Neurotypical Norms That Don’t Work for Autistics: Hustle Goals

The Fear of Being a Hypocritical Autistic

Neurodiversity: Us vs Them?

How to Meet an Autistic Adult Exactly Where They're At

Autism Characteristics

The Autistic Mind Loves to Take Detours

4 Reasons Why Autism Symptoms Lists are Confusing

My Autistic Brain: Sunshine and Detours

The Joys of Being Autistic: Part 1

Stop Saying Autistic People Can't Empathize

Redefining Fun for Autistic Adults

9 Reasons Why Autism Looks So Similar to CPTSD

We Need More Depictions of the Interior Experience of Autism

Clarity is What my Autistic Mind Craves

How Trauma and Autism Can be a Confusing Mix to Decipher

Why am I like This? Understanding the Autistic Brain

My Autistic Mind Does What it Wants

The Dissociated Autistic Performance State

The Joys of Being Autistic: Increased Creativity and Innovation

My Autistic Memory Is Not the Same as Others

The Firehouse Dilemma: Autism and Infodumping

The Variability of the Autistic Sensory System

5 Reasons Autistics are Especially Hard on Themselves

The Shame That Often Accompanies Autism

Knowing You’re Different as an Autistic Adult

3 Reasons Autism is Worse After You Learn You're Autistic

Disability and Internalized Ableism

I Had to Dismantle My Fear of Autistic People

Is Autism a Disability?

I’m Ok With Saying I have a Disability, Right?

Dog Training

The Difficulties of Adjusting to a New Dog When You're Autistic

Tips for Adjusting to a New Dog When You're Autistic

5 Tips to Integrate a Dog into Your Autistic Life

Defining and Explaining Autism

What I Wish Others Knew About Autism

Let’s Drop the “Disorder” From Autism Spectrum Disorder

How Low and High Autism Labels are Misleading

We Need All the Autism Theories and Models

Autism Can Be a Murky Thing To Understand

How I Explain Autism to Someone Unfamiliar With It

What is Late Identified Autism

Autistic Statistics are Not Accurate for Late-Identified Autistics

I'm Here for the Autistic Awakening

How It Helps to Know You’re Autistic

Why It Matters to Know You're Neurodivergent

What is Neurodiversity and Why Does it Matter

How Neurodivergent Acceptance Can Improve Our Lived Experiences

How Unidentified Autistics are Taught to Socially Camouflage and Mask

Is There a World Where I can Be Unmasked?

The False Dichotomy of Masked and Unmasked Autism

6 Reasons Why UnMasking Is Harder Than it Sounds

What if You have to Mask Everywhere?

My Personal Experience as an Autistic

Hating Cooking as an Autistic Adult

I Make Giant Lists About Autism for Fun

The Challenges of Writing Publically About Autism

The Risk of Sharing my Autistic Passions with Others

I'm Reclaiming Weird for My Autistic Self

I Expand and Then I Contract

I Stopped Seeing Myself As Broken When I learned I was Autistic

Respecting my Limits as an Autistic Business Owner

I Need to Lessen the Pressure on my Autistic Self

My Autistic Brain Doesn’t Want to Watch TV Right Now

Embracing Who I am as an Autistic Adult

I Used to be a Very Judgemental When I Didn’t Know I was Autistic

A Letter from An Autistic Adult to Trust

Don’t Get So Upset: A Line that Doesn’t Work for This Autist

Why This Autistic Writer Didn't Respond to Your Comment

Relationships

Is Dating Worth it as an Autistic Adult?

Is it Possible to be Happily Partnered as an Autistic Adult?

Not Liking People as an Autistic Adult

Self-Identification

So You Think You Might Be Autistic

Dearly Newly Identified Autistic Person

Am I Actually Autistic?

Dearest Smart, Weird, and Caring Autistic

I Am Deeply Unsure About Autism

How to Self Identify Autism as an Adult

When the Past Makes Sense after a Late-Identification of Autism

Where to Start When You First Learn You’re Autistic

6 Strategies to Harness the Hyperfocus Power of an Autistic Mind

Leave the Gremlin In the Cave: Self-Isolation as a Necessary Autistic Tool

No Plans Days as an Autistic Tool

Making Accommodations for Myself as an Autistic Adult

How Many Accommodations Can We Ask for as Autistic Adults?

Using Art to Help Your Autistic Mind

Dissociation as an Autistic Tool

The Power of the Home Environment for Autistics

Is It Ok to Honor My Autistic Needs?

Recognizing When It's Not Time to Make Decisions as an Autistic

Therapy for Autistics

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8 Ways Therapy Can Help With Late Identified Autism

Gaslighting the Autistic Experience

Dearest Therapist Who Knows Barely Anything About Autism

I'm an Autistic Therapist: Sometimes It's Easier Than Everyday Life

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Therapy is Not for Fixing Autism

The Harm I Caused When I Didn't Know about Autism

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Common Therapy Advice That is Counterproductive for Autistics

A Therapist Told Me Treating Autism is Like Treating Depression

Who Can Diagnose Autism in Adults?

Autistic Adults Deserve Better from the Mental Health Field

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The Correlation Between Intelligence and Undiagnosed Autism

10 Consequences of a Life with Unidentified Autism

The Gap Between “Diagnosable Autism” and a Lifetime of Unidentified Autism

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Home — Essay Samples — Nursing & Health — Neurology & Nervous System Diseases — Autism

Essays About Autism

What makes a good autism essay topics.

When it comes to writing an essay on autism, it's important to choose a topic that is not only interesting but also relevant and impactful. The topic you choose can make or break your essay, so it's crucial to select one that is both engaging and thought-provoking. Here are some recommendations on how to brainstorm and choose an essay topic, what to consider, and What Makes a Good essay topic.

When brainstorming for autism essay topics, it's important to consider the audience and the purpose of the essay. Think about what you want to achieve with your essay and who will be reading it. Consider the impact you want to make and the message you want to convey. It's also important to choose a topic that is manageable and can be effectively explored within the constraints of the essay.

A good autism essay topic should be relevant and timely. Consider current issues and debates surrounding autism and choose a topic that is both current and significant. It's also important to choose a topic that is unique and original. Avoid cliché topics and instead focus on something that has not been extensively explored or discussed. A good essay topic should also be specific and focused. Avoid broad and generic topics and instead narrow down your focus to a specific aspect or issue related to autism.

Best Autism Essay Topics

• The impact of early intervention on children with autism
• The role of sensory processing in autism
• The link between autism and genetics
• The portrayal of autism in popular media
• The challenges of parenting a child with autism
• The benefits of music therapy for individuals with autism
• The use of technology in autism interventions
• The importance of inclusive education for children with autism
• The impact of autism on the family dynamics
• The experiences of adults with autism in the workplace
• The connection between autism and co-occurring conditions
• The role of speech therapy in treating autism
• The challenges of accessing autism services in rural communities
• The intersection of race and autism diagnosis
• The potential of animal-assisted therapy for individuals with autism
• The link between autism and mental health
• The experiences of girls and women with autism
• The impact of autism on social relationships
• The role of advocacy in the autism community
• The potential of alternative therapies for individuals with autism

Autism essay topics Prompts

• Imagine a world where autism acceptance is the norm. How would society be different?
• Write a letter to a parent of a newly diagnosed child with autism, offering support and guidance.
• Create a fictional story that explores the experiences of a teenager with autism navigating high school.
• Imagine a future where a cure for autism is discovered. What are the potential implications and consequences?
• Write a reflective essay on your own experiences with autism, whether as an individual on the spectrum or as a caregiver or advocate.

Choosing a topic for an autism essay can be a daunting task, but with careful consideration and creativity, you can choose a topic that is not only engaging but also impactful. Whether you're exploring the latest research on autism interventions or delving into the personal experiences of individuals with autism, there are endless possibilities for compelling and thought-provoking essay topics. So, take your time, brainstorm, and choose a topic that will captivate your audience and leave a lasting impression.

The Reason I Jump Summary

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Behavioral Therapy and Early Intervention for Improved Outcomes

Autism spectrum disorder: symptoms, main causes and treatment, the definition and characteristics of autism spectrum disorder (asd), education of children with autism spectrum disorders (asd), let us write you an essay from scratch.

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A Boy Called Po - Story of a Boy with Autism

How different aspects of co-parenting a child with asd influence life satisfaction, apllication of cognitive theories when working with individuals with autism spectrum disorder, autism and the theory of mind, get a personalized essay in under 3 hours.

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Sensation and Perception: Autism

Applied behavioral analysis (aba): as a treatment for people diagnosed with autism, the story of a child with autism in naoki higashida's book, gluten-free and casein-free diet for children who are diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders (asd), floortime model in autism spectrum disorder treatment, body awareness difficulties of individuals with autism, autism spectrum disorder and inseparability of social networking and technology use, review on the animal assisted therapy of autism spectrum disorder (asd), coming of age in "the curious incident of the dog in the night-time", social effects of christopher's perceived disability, the father's truth or lies in "the curious incident of the dog in the night-time", instructional strategies for students with disabilities, temple grandin – a woman who has not given up, the way temple grandin saw the world, temple grandin: a woman who used autism to her advantage in the agriculture industry, temple grandin – a woman with autism who has made a change, debate on vaccination and autism, perception of facts and truth in "the curious incident of the dog in the night-time", an overview of aspergers syndrome, swimming for children with autism.

Autism spectrum disorder is a condition related to brain development that impacts how a person perceives and socializes with others, causing problems in social interaction and communication.

Trouble with social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication, and presence of restricted interests and repetitive behavior.

Autism spectrum disorder has no single known cause. Given the complexity of the disorder, and the fact that symptoms and severity vary, there are probably many causes. Both genetics and environment may play a role.

Autism is about 4 times more likely in boys than girls. Autism affects children of all racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups. Autism can be reliably diagnosed by age 2, but children may be diagnosed at earlier ages. ASD affects about 1 in 68 children Visit disclaimer page in the United States.

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Improving the Written Expression of Children with ASD

• By: Kristie Asaro-Saddler, PhD University at Albany
• January 1st, 2013
• children , students , writing
• 13110    1

Writing has become an increasingly important element across curricular areas. However, many young children, including children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), struggle with this key literacy skill. While it has […]

Writing has become an increasingly important element across curricular areas. However, many young children, including children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), struggle with this key literacy skill. While it has been well-documented that many children with ASD have handwriting deficits, difficulties in the writing process, including planning, content generation, and revising text, are also pervasive. Therefore, it is essential to examine the writing of children with ASD, determine how their characteristics impact their writing ability, and discuss how parents and teachers may foster improvement in writing outcomes.

Writing is a foundational skill that can support and extend student learning across the curriculum. It allows the sharing of opinions, the demonstration of critical thinking skills, and the display of content knowledge. Writing is critical for school success, as it is the primary means by which students demonstrate their knowledge in school, and the major instrument that teachers use to evaluate academic performance (Graham & Harris, 2005). Beyond school, students need to be able to write well to succeed in society and to obtain and maintain employment.

Writing presents a unique challenge, as it requires putting thoughts on paper in such a way as to transmit a message to another person who may not have knowledge of what you are writing. While developing these thoughts, writers must coordinate the processes of planning, text production, and revision, while also self-monitoring their work. In addition, they must consider the conventions of the language, and the constraints of the topic and the genre, along with the audience needs and perspectives.

  Why Writing is Difficult for Children with ASD

Deficits in writing have been well-documented in ASD research. In one study (Mayes & Calhoun, 2008), for example, 63% of students diagnosed with ASD also exhibited a writing disability. It can be difficult for these students to think of ideas, organize their writing, and physically write their ideas. So what is it that makes writing so difficult for children with ASD?

Children with ASD characteristically exhibit a range of impairments that make written expression difficult. Among these characteristics are:

• An inability to use imagination, engage in abstract thinking, consider perspectives of others, and imagine future events or possible scenarios (Harbinson & Alexander, 2009; Myles, 2005; Myles & Simpson, 2001). These characteristics can lead to a literal interpretation of a writing task and an inability to comprehend or use metaphors, idioms, or rhetorical questions, and may hinder the exploration of counter-arguments and various perspectives.
• Deficits in theory of mind, or the ability to take another’s perspective or believe that others think differently from you (McCoy, 2011), which makes it difficult for students with ASD to recognize that their work will be read by someone else with different views and opinions. This unawareness of an “absent audience” may result in writings that are not well-developed, or that lack elaboration.
• Weak central coherence, or a tendency to focus on small details, which can lead to an inability to understand context or see the “big picture,” causing difficulty with distinguishing important from unimportant details.
• Deficits in the areas of language and communication, which make compiling, expressing, and recording thoughts a challenge, resulting in a composition that lacks a clear, central focus, or that is poorly organized.
• Motor/coordination issues that can contribute to difficulty with handwriting and composing, resulting in brief writings that students are unwilling to revise or elaborate because it is physically “too difficult.”
• Deficits in several executive function components, including planning, cognitive flexibility, inhibition, and self-monitoring (Hill, 2004), which directly impact an individual’s ability to maintaining his/her focus on the process of developing a main idea and details to support the topic, and to encourage engagement and continuous motivation throughout the writing process.

How Can You Help?

  There are several steps that parents and teachers can take to help students with ASD improve their writing skills and allow them to be more successful in school and in their everyday functioning. Here are five simple tips that you can use to help increase the motivation and written performance of children with ASD:

Make the environment conducive to writing. The home or classroom environment can impact a child’s willingness to write. Be sure that the lighting and noise level are acceptable for your child, given his/her sensory needs. Surround the child in a print-rich environment by posting model letters, book reviews, and other types of writing around the home or classroom. Teachers and parents may also consider providing alternatives to the typical pencil and paper. Vary writing implements to include items such as markers, stamps, stickers and magnetic letters, and allow students to work in a comfortable setting for them, as long as it is appropriate for writing (i.e. has a flat surface).

Create an audience and purpose. Since deficits in theory of mind my impact children with ASD’s ability to write for an absent audience, it is helpful to create an audience for them. It is beneficial for students to know before beginning the writing process that there will be an authentic audience, besides just their parent or teacher, viewing their writing. Different genres of writing offer different options of potential audiences. For example, persuasive letters can be written to a principal, a parent, or the head of a company, whereas fictional stories can be written and shared with younger siblings or students in younger grades. Online blogs for people with ASD provide a natural context for writing, in addition to social and emotional support, and may be used by young adults with ASD and younger students who are supervised by parents or teachers.

Use interests and fascination . In school, students must eventually learn to write in response to a prompt their teacher gives them. However, in order to increase students’ motivation and fluency with writing, it may help to allow them to start writing about things in which they are interested. These are topics in which children usually have a desire to share information, along with a great deal of background knowledge. For example, a child with ASD who has an interest in digital cameras may write a “how-to” piece about how to take a picture with a digital camera, or a child with a fascination with trains may write a persuasive piece on why trains are a better method of transportation than cars.

Provide supports. Students with ASD may require various types of supports in the classroom or at home. Graphic organizers and semantic maps (visual tools designed to organize thoughts and represent relationships between them) may aid in the planning process (Sansoti, Powell-Smith & Cohan, 2010). Framed paragraphs, which are partially completed paragraphs with a number of blanks strategically placed for the student to fill in, may also be used to scaffold students’ writing (Kluth & Chandler-Olcott, 2008), along with word banks or drawings/pictures (Hillock, 2011) and story starters, which provide a statement to start the story, such as, “I went for a walk in the woods and I found…” that the student has to continue. Siblings or other students in the class can also act as a support for children with ASD through scribing (writing down what the student says aloud) or shared writing, where students take turns making a contribution to the written product. Peers can also help students with the revising process after their first drafts have been completed.

Use technology. Sometimes the physical act of writing makes it difficult for children with ASD to create written products. Allowing the students to use a keyboard or speech-to-text software may reduce the physical burden and allow students to express themselves in another way. Technology can also be used to help children organize their writing. Software programs such as Kidspiration® and Inspiration® and iPad apps such as Popplet™ for example, can be used in the planning stages to help students organize their thoughts before beginning to write.

While writing can be a challenge for many students with ASD, providing support may prove beneficial. The basic tips offered here can help increase students’ motivation to write, resulting in more frequent writing with less resistance, and ultimately, better written products.

Kristie Asaro-Saddler, PhD is Assistant Professor of Special Education at The University at Albany. For more information, please contact Dr. Asaro-Saddler at [email protected] or visit www.albany.edu/special_education .

Graham, S., & Harris, K. R. (2005). Writing better: Teaching writing processes and self-regulation to students with learning problems . Baltimore, MD: Brookes.

Harbinson, H., & Alexander, J. (2009). Asperger Syndrome and the English curriculum: Addressing the challenges. Support for Learning, 24 , 10-17.

Hill, E. L. (2004). Evaluating the theory of executive dysfunction in autism. Developmental Review, 24 , 189-233.

Hillock, J. (2011). Written expression: Why is it difficult and what can be done? In K. McCoy (Ed). Autism from the teacher’s perspective . Denver: Love Publishing Company.

Kluth, P., & Chandler-Olcott, K. (2008). A land we can share . Baltimore: Paul H. Brooks Publishing.

Mayes, S., & Calhoun, S. L. (2008). WISC-IV and WIAT-II profiles in children with high functioning autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38 , 428–439.

McCoy, K. M. (2011). Autism from the teacher’s perspective: Strategies for classroom instruction. Denver: Love Publishing Co.

Myles, B. S. (2005). Children and youth with Asperger syndrome . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Myles, B. S., & Simpson, R. L. (2001) Effective practices for students with Asperger Syndrome. Focus on Exceptional Children, 34 , 1-14.

Sansoti, F., Powell-Smith, K., & Cohan, R. (2010). High-functioning Autism/Asperger syndrome in schools: Assessment and intervention . New York: Guilford Press

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Autism and writing: how to teach your child to write

by Jessica Millis

Research has shown that students with autism experience specific challenges regarding the learning process. Learning to write is a critical skill in order for a child to succeed in an academic environment. Writing is a challenge for many autistic students because it involves coordination, muscle strength, motor planning, language skills, organization, and sensory issues.

Autistic children may display these symptoms: • Marked deficit in communication • Complete or partial delay in spoken language • Repetition of words • Deficit in receptive language • Deficit in social language and social behavior • Self-stimulatory behavior such as finger flipping or hand flapping

Some children with autism benefit from augmentative communication devices, such as letterboards, IPADS, and Facilitated Communication (FC).

The importance of writing

Writing allows an individual to translate thoughts into text. It allows non-verbal children to communicate their needs. Writing is an important skill for graduation from high school.

Tips on how to teach children with autism to write

Many autistic children have some level of fine and gross motor difficulty which is manifested through poor handwriting and problems with coordination.

Hand Therapy

Hand therapy is recommended for those with fine motor skill deficits. The purpose of hand therapy is to help the child build muscle tone. An occupational therapists can assist with this therapy and offer professional consultation. Many schools have such therapists. In some cases, the child may be given a pencil grip which can be used to build stamina.

Other hand therapy activities may include but not limited to: • Involve vertical surfaces – you can further build the muscle tone by asking your autistic child to paint on a vertical surface. As they paint up and down the surface, they’ll develop muscles in their wrist. There is magnetic wallpaper you can purchase that allows children to write on walls.

• Squeezing – this can greatly help build muscle tone. Incorporate stress balls and play-dough until the muscles in the fingers strengthen. Start with something soft then you can increase the hardness as the therapy progresses. • Stretchy bands – you may also consider getting a stretchy rubber that will help with tension strengthening around the arms and the wrist area.

All these practices are aimed at strengthening the muscle tone which is critical to writing. If they are done correctly, in no time you should have the hand and fingers ready to start practicing.

What activities encourage writing?

Thinking outside the box is important. Get creative! Consider tag team learning where the child copies what you write. When beginning, it’s best to start with shapes. Draw a vertical line and then have your child copy it. Then do the same with a horizontal line and a circle. Create thick lines that make it easy for your child to trace over. It may be necessary to place your hand over your child’s hand. This type of hand-over-hand support can be faded as the child progresses in skills.

When learning how to write letters, big papers with lines is suggested. Again write the letters with fat lines and have your child trace them.

Since the point of all the exercises is to get your child to write, do not limit them to pencils and worksheets alone. Encourage them to write anywhere and with other tools, such as crayons and brightly-colored markers. There are some markers which are fat and shaped like animals.

Art can help with writing

Invest in watercolors and paints! Art can help develop a child’s fine-motor skills and assist with motor planning and the skills needed for writing.

Be aware of sensory issues regarding writing

Many autistic people have sensory issues. Bombardment of sights, sounds, smells and movements surrounding the activity can cause a meltdown when the child is being challenged to learn something new. Many autistic children have trouble sitting for extended periods of time. Make sure you alternate the sitting activity with movement breaks.

Be flexible

Remember writing should be fun! If your child is not in the mood, listen to her and do not push things because you may just end up risking it all.

Every child is unique in their own ways. Not everyone can fit in a cookie-cutter. Forcing a child to do something they are not comfortable with can only create more resistance. Approach a child in a positive manner while still considering their individual needs.

Jessica Millis, freelance writer, editor on EssayMama writing agency and educator at JMU writing courses. Find her on Twitter and Google+

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For my son, his writing is exponentially improved by being in a quiet, visually non-stimulating environment… Thanks for the tips!

I posted this on my Pinterest account. Penmanship is important.

My son had other sensory issues that were not immediately recognized. He didn’t like having his fingernails trimmed because he didn’t want to feel the paper on his fingertips as he wrote. He also had a hard time tolerating writing with pencils–the lead dragging across the paper gave him the chills like fingernails on a chalkboard. This is extremely important to consider since many young children are given pencils to write with in the primary grades.

Thank you for that insight. How did you resolve the sensory issues and writing?

This article is ridiculous. To the author: Your child does not need to be “taught” how to write. They don’t need fun animal toys or squeezy adaptation devices. Your child has motor planning issues and possibly dyspraxia, not stupidity! Instead of treating him like an infant, give him a computer keyboard to type and let him be free to be himself. What is this obsession with handwriting?

Dear Henny, I think u have never worked with autistic kids. Please read to understand not to reply.

She is right….why are obsessed with making a child write when they hate it and it’s hard for them. Functionally in life as adults we barely sign our name these days! However if you can not operate a keyboard or electronic device to co.minicate you are basically not employable…not at the gas station, burger joint, or Walmart will you see employees writing but using electronic devices. In an office setting you must be able to communicate by email….let’s set them up for the future not the pasture!

In some places like ours the skill of properly handling a pencil is a requirement for children even with special needs to be included in schools.

Thanks Jessica for sharing this post. This helps parents like us to be equipped with info on how to assist our children in their needs. God bless!

I agree with deepak. Please be an outside of the box thinking. Autism is not a cookie cutter experience. Each autistic child, youth, or adult especially non verbal has their own unique challenges. Computers are great tools, there is also the over stimulation component, as well as ipads etc do not have the ability to take outside or to a store to partake in social components, which many autistic non verbal teens and adults want to to. They too want to be accepted. Sometimes it has to do with the the emotions within their environment and sensitivity to change.

I know Henny personally. She is deeply autistic — AND she is a teacher, who teaches autistic children every day.

Handwriting has been shown to have a range of benefits for children, so while assistive writing techniques of various kinds may be useful, why not also find effective, innovative ways to learn handwriting? And why be so MEAN, Henny? Someone wrote a heartfelt piece on handwriting struggles and tips and you call then “ridiculous”???

I agree with deepak. Please be an outside of the box thinking. Autism is not a cookie cutter experience. Each autistic child, youth, or adult especially non verbal has their own unique challenges. Sometimes it has to do with the the emotions within their environment and sensitivity to change

In the reality world, they don’t care how good hand writing you are. They only care how fast you type .Unless hand writing is beneficial for autistic sensor or something, I would not encourage them to do hand writing.

So my child can type and does some writing she fatigues easily, but is unable to express her feelings, thoughts, and expressions. When this is mentioned she totally shuts down. Any ideas school can’t figure it out. Thanks Cindy

I have an older autistic son. We saw the autism, but back in the day many doctors didn’t understand it and refused to. He reads wonderfully and can write. His spelling isn’t the best, unless he’s typing on a computer. The processing of thinking of how the letters are formed, how the word is spelled and putting them on paper is a greater task than just typing it out. However, he is very grateful today that he was given the chance and opportunity to learn how to write as it has been useful to him during certain times in life, especially when he has to sign his name too. These kids aren’t dumb at all. They’re very brilliant. They just need to be taught in different ways and we should never deny them the access to learning everything others are taught, including writing by hand!

I have found this article very enlightening. My 8 yr. old, moderate autistic, verbal granddaughter can read very well, but will not hold a pencil, marker or other writing instruments. She can type with two fingers, but is not a great speller. I think this may be worth a try, grateful for any suggestions that may help.

My grandson is struggling to hold the pen/pencil/crayon/texta. I am looking for any tips to encourage this as he starts prep next year and will struggle as the curriculum is difficult let alone having ASD. He loves books but doesn’t want anything to do with writing!

My son is 5+ and reading in an inclusive school. He has mild autism. He know the alphabet very well and his memory is very sharp. He always used to ask about the new thing like what is it…and he never forget the name of item/people….but the problem is that still he dont want to write…

Maybe he just has a hard time leaning a bit forward. You could try playing with him airplane, where you hold his body, he is facing the floor and you imitate an airplane while you help him “fly”. Kind of like a swing but facing down. Try this but if you see he is very uncomfortable, then try to fly him in a different position and very slowly after each day try to slowly get to the “facing down” position. This will help him in leaning forward while writing. Also, you could use colored paper but not yellow. Yellow and white background might irritate him….too contrasting. These could be reasons why he doesn’t want to try writing. They need constant praise even if things don’t go well. If he is trying even for a few seconds, praise him. Good luck and I hope these suggestions help a little.

hi am amira pls my son have problem with names of people like calling me mummy , instead he will just say i want to eat or i want to pee. please how do i get to learn how to call people by their names. thanks,

Hi Amira, My suggestion is: teach him with pictures, real pictures of people you want him to recognize. Facial recognition is hard for many atypical people. Ask him: who is this? And help him answer. Use the same pictures in the beginning, then use different ones with the same people to see if he can transition. Hope this help, good luck!

Thanks Claudia Torok

My 9 year old daughter is considered to be high functioning. Her reading skills are high. She loves to draw but still lacks the skills to write. I have tried the tag team method and had little success but after reading this I see where I may have gone wrong. I am going to try the shapes first then move to actual letters. Thanks for such great ideas.

An a Therapist, I work with a mild Autistic child. He can communicate his needs and also says No to things he don’t like, he can sound all the letters well and we have even improved in the aspect of blending three letter words. He can now read but my problem is, he hate to write. I have worked on his pincer grip and is very good. His letter formation are also my concern too. When is time to write on the schedule board. He will say “I don’t want to write, I hate writhing”. Please what other thing can I do to improve his writing skills.

My 7 year old grandson is in 2nd grade and we are in tears every night by the time he finishes his homework. On top of 2-4 work sheets, they send any worksheets home that he did not finish in school. Since school only started 2 weeks ago, we have not had his IEP meeting yet. I plan to insist that they implement a keyboard into his day instead of insisting he do all thie writing these worksheets require. He has always hated writing, coloring and painting because he gets scolded when he writes too big and messy. I do not understand why these special ed teachers aS WELL AS ALL OTHERS NOT BE MADE AWARE OF the struggles these kids have trying to write. If they are going to have inclusive classes they need to attend workshops in regards to autism and these kids wellbeing.

I think there are a lot of ways make learning effective but the most effective way is to make it fun. Learner will sometimes find the topic too boring that their brain might never grasp it or it will just be forgotten right away. So to make the learning stick to the mind of the learner is to make it fun and memorable. Appealing to the emotion makes it memorable. If the teacher could find a way to make this strategy works, then the learner will really learn a lot.

I saw nothing wrong with this article. It all made sense to me , coming from a parent of a child on the spectrum.

There are even more autism-friendly aids to Handwriting then you have mentioned in this piece. I wonder if you would like to take a look at these two, both offered by National Autism Resources:

https://www.nationalautismresources.com/trion-grips-set-of-4

https://www.nationalautismresources.com/search.php?search_query=Stage%20write&section=product

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Writing Interventions for Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Research Synthesis

• Original Paper
• Published: 05 March 2019
• Volume 50 , pages 1988–2006, ( 2020 )

Cite this article

• Amy L. Accardo 1 ,
• Elizabeth G. Finnegan 2 ,
• S. Jay Kuder 3 &
• Estyr M. Bomgardner 4  

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Building on previous research in the area of written expression for individuals with ASD a research synthesis was conducted to identify (1) writing interventions that have been studied and their effect in improving writing skills of individuals with ASD, (2) intervention features that influence the writing skills of learners with ASD, and (3) the quality of the research. A total of 62 participants were represented across the 24 single case design studies meeting inclusion criteria. Nine interventions emerged with a majority focused on self-regulated strategy development. Effective interventions (PND above 70%) are reported, along with the emergent feature of “packages” using co-occurring combinations of visual, motivational, choice, technology, behavioral, peer, auditory, and tactile supports in conjunction with writing interventions.

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Written Expression in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Meta-Analysis

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Writing Self-Concept, Text Engagement, and Writing Practices Across Contexts: Comparisons Between School-Age Children on the Autism Spectrum and Their Non-Autistic Peers

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Children with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder show unique handwriting patterns

Integrative education system should consider this factor, say experts.

The handwriting performance of children with high-functioning autism differs from that of children without autism. Accordingly, the education system should consider the types and formats of tasks given to these children when they are integrated in regular schools. This conclusion emerges from a new study undertaken at the University of Haifa. "The typical process of handwriting performance among children with high-functioning autism is unique, but while the education system addresses reading skills, it pays almost no attention to handwriting skills," explains Prof. Sara Rosenblum, the author of the study.

Children with high-functioning autism experience difficulties in the social, sensory, and movement fields, but differ from other children on the autism spectrum in terms of their linguistic and cognitive development. Among other differences, these children are usually integrated in regular schools where they are required to perform routine activities such as reading and writing. Writing tasks play an important part in academic progress: writing-related activities account for 30-60 percent of daily activity time in schools. Despite this, the education system places a strong emphasis on reading, whereas skills development, monitoring, and assistance in handwriting performance are much less frequent. There is also a lack of teacher training in this important area.

The present study is unique and the first of its kind in the world. The study was undertaken as part of the thesis prepared by Hemda Amit Ben Simhon of the Neuro-developmental Center at Maccabi HMO, supervised by Prof. Rosenblum, and in consultation with Dr. Eynat Gal, an autism specialist, both from the Department of Occupational Therapy at the University of Haifa. The study included 60 children aged 9-12 from the 3rd through 6th grades at various schools. Half the subjects were children with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder with IQs above 80, while the other half were children with normal development. The children were asked to complete three writing tasks: writing the first name and family name; copying a paragraph; and writing a story describing a picture that was shown to them.

The writing tasks were completed using a special system developed by Prof. Rosenblum that provides objective, computerized data relating not only to the rhythm and speed of handwriting, but also to the degree of pressure applied on the page by the writer, the length of time the pen is in the air, the degree of slant of the pen during handwriting, and so forth.

The study findings show that in 91.5 percent of the instances, the objective indicators provided by the computerized system enabled the identification of children with high-functioning autism as distinct from children with normal development. In other words, the handwriting performances of the two groups showed statistically significant differences. The children with high-functioning autism produced taller and broader letters; waiting times on paper and in the air were longer; and the degree of slant of the pen was smaller.

It also emerged that the differences between the children with high-functioning autism and those with normal development were particularly prominent in the copying task, and less so in the free writing task. The text copying task required significantly more time. The researchers suggest that the need to invest a long period of time in the handwriting task may exacerbate fatigue, impair concentration, and even hamper the ability to produce handwritten content. This investment in the handwriting task may come at the expense of availability for other academic tasks the children receive, as well as their availability for social challenges in the classroom. "When a child has difficulty writing, they effectively have to cope with this difficulty over many hours a day, making it harder for them to cope with the additional challenges they face (social, cognitive, and functional). For example, if a child has to stay behind in recess to copy text from the board, they will have less time to practice social skills," the researchers explained.

The researchers added that the study findings are particularly important in light of the trend to integrate children with different disabilities in the regular education system, in accordance with the Special Education Law. "Since children with high-functioning autism are integrated in classes together with children with normal development, it is important to be careful not to pressure them during the performance of handwriting tasks. They should be given sufficient time, because time pressure creates cognitive stress and may impair the content of their handwriting. Given the central role of writing throughout the academic process, including in academic studies, improving handwriting skills with the assistance of an occupational therapist may improve academic abilities and contribute to an improvement in achievements and in self-confidence," concluded the study authors Ben Simhon and Prof.

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It’s Time to Treat Sugar Like Cigarettes

T he food we eat impacts every aspect of our lives and our bodies: our hormones, brain chemistry, immune system, microbiome; the list goes on. As consumers, we deserve the right to easily understand our foods’ nutritional value in order to make informed decisions about what we consume and how that will impact our health and well being. This is especially important when it comes to ingredients that are detrimental when eaten in excess, such as sugar. As researchers in functional medicine, longevity, AI, and nutrition, as well as inventors of health-enhancing and life-saving solutions, we have dedicated our professional lives to improving the health and well-being of millions everywhere. And while we applaud the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) taking important strides to pass mandatory front-of-package labeling for packaged foods in the U.S., this is a change that cannot come soon enough. Everyone’s health depends on it. 

The FDA recommends adults consume no more than 50 grams of added sugar per day (based on a 2,000 calorie diet), but the average American consumes closer to one-third of a pound of sugar daily, more than three times the recommended amount. To put that into perspective, the average American consumes over 100 pounds of sugar per person per year. With that much sugar consumption, it is no wonder that 49% of American adults are diabetic or pre-diabetic. What’s worse is that much of the sugar we consume occurs without our even realizing it. There are over 60 different ways sugar is identified on nutrition labels, making a consumer’s attempt to regulate their sugar intake unfairly complicated.

Extensive academic research published in medical peer-reviewed journals backs common knowledge that excess sugar consumption can lead to serious chronic conditions , as well as fatigue , anxiety , memory loss , ADHD , and even to a shorter life .

Seventy four percent of packaged foods in the U.S. contain added sugar, including seemingly healthy foods, such as salad dressing, coleslaw, and even baked beans, marinades, and yogurt; some sweetened yogurts contain more sugar than a can of soda. The fact that sugar is so biologically addictive — studies indicate it is eight times more addictive than cocaine — makes the reality that it’s hidden in so many foods even more harmful. Most of us are addicted to sugar and we don’t even know it.

This cycle of addiction is relentless and hard to break: we eat food with sugar, which then triggers a blood sugar spike, which lights up the pleasure center in our brain. When the inevitable sugar crash comes, we seek that spike again in the form of craving more sugar. Without easily discernible food labeling, shoppers unknowingly create this cycle inside their own bodies, even while they erroneously think the food they’re buying is healthy.

Read More: How the World Got Hooked on Sugar

In many countries, labels on packaged foods serve a similar function to labels on cigarette cartons: to warn consumers of risk. In Chile , a policy of “high in” labels on the front of sugary drinks dramatically reduced the consumption of those beverages. In Israel, a front-of-package labelling system , wherein a red label indicates an item high in sugar, has led to significant positive changes in 76% of the population’s food buying habits. We’re excited to see what a similar program in the U.S. would yield.

Those in the U.S. lobbying against this front-of-package change, unsurprisingly, have an interest in the continued popularity of their products. In a February 2023 joint filing , the nation’s largest cereal producers threatened a lawsuit after proposed changes would not allow them to label products as “healthy” if they didn’t meet nutritional standards. The front-of-package suggested change would rightfully prevent many cereals on the market with excess sugar from calling themselves “healthy.”

This dynamic is similar to changes made in cigarette advertising in the 20th century. In the 1940s, a famous Camel cigarettes campaign featured the slogan , “More doctors smoke Camels.” By 1969, a mandatory warning label was added to cigarettes, giving consumers clearer access to information about risks, allowing them to make more informed choices about their health. Today the percentage of Americans who smoke is 11% compared to nearly 50% back in the day when “more doctors smoked Camels”. Life expectancy rose nearly 11 years in that span of time too, and the decrease in smoking certainly contributed.

While front-of-package labeling on packaged foods is a crucial first step towards a healthier society, education and awareness alone will only get us so far. To drive even more significant change in the way most Americans eat, a change that will lead to a healthier population, we must also incentivize the production and widespread distribution of healthier alternatives. These alternatives—a packaged cookie with healthier ingredients, for instance—must be just as delicious, and readily available as those loaded with sugar. The recently announced new standards by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) that will limit added sugars in school meals can greatly help with the availability of healthier alternatives, especially when children form their eating habits. For the rest of us, though, front-of-package labeling is an important step one in this journey towards national wellness and it will also encourage producers to create healthier options for consumers; readily available healthier alternatives is step two.

FDA leadership ensuring labeling of high contents of sugar in packaged foods could increase awareness and reduce the negative impacts of sugar and help millions live healthier longer lives. This change would help us make more informed choices about our food and our health. We believe it is our right, and every American’s right, to have clear and visible information about the sugar content of the foods we are eating in order to make more informed decisions.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Reading and writing skills in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder without intellectual disability.

• 1 Occupational Sciences, Speech Language Therapy, Developmental and Educational Psychology Department, Catholic University of Valencia, Campus Capacitas, Valencia, Spain
• 2 Developmental and Educational Psychology, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
• 3 Neuropediatrics Section, Hospital la Fe de Valencia, Valencia, Spain

The purpose of this study is to extend the knowledge about academic achievement in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). To this end, first, we analyzed differences in a wide range of reading and writing skills in adolescents with ASD without intellectual disability (ASD-WID) and adolescents with typical development (TD). Second, these two groups were compared on academic outcomes in core subjects and indicators of successful transition to secondary school. Third, the potential contribution of literacy skills to academic outcomes was examined in the two groups. Participants were 56 adolescents between 12 and 14 years old, 30 with ASD-WID and 26 with TD. Results showed no significant differences between the two groups on measures of reading fluency or literal and inferential comprehension. However, the performance of the group with ASD was significantly lower on reading comprehension processes that assess cognitive flexibility. Regarding their written expression skills, significant differences were observed between the group with ASD and the group with TD on most of the indicators analyzed as: productivity, lexical diversity, and overall coherence (resolution component). In addition, findings showed that the deficits in reading and writing observed in the adolescents with ASD significantly affected their academic achievement, which was lower than that of their peers with TD and below what would be expected based on their intellectual capacity. Moreover, their families’ perceptions of the transition to high school reflected worse adjustment and lower self-esteem, confidence, and motivation.

Introduction

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by persistent difficulties in communication and social interactions, along with restricted interests and the presence of repetitive behaviors ( American Psychiatric Association, 2013 ). A key factor in the development of people with ASD is academic achievement, which undoubtedly contributes to access to employment opportunities and independent living. The inclusion of students with ASD in regular classrooms is a growing reality, and so it is necessary to analyze the factors that influence their educational performance.

Despite the relevance of this topic, research on the academic profile of students with ASD is limited, particularly in the adolescent stage or during the transition to secondary school. This is a complex period when important developmental changes occur, and it is characterized by greater academic and social demands. The inherent characteristics of ASD, such as difficulties in social communication, resistance to change, sensory hypersensitivity, or intolerance to uncertainty, make these students a particularly vulnerable population in this developmental period. In fact, anxiety, social pressure, and bullying have been found to be significant challenges for adolescents with ASD ( Nuske et al., 2018 ), who report negative experiences in this academic transition phase ( Makin et al., 2017 ). Therefore, identifying the variables that influence school performance and contribute to successful transition to secondary school should be a major research objective.

To date, studies that have attempted to analyze the academic performance of students with ASD have generally referred a variable performance, which is consistent with the disorder’s heterogeneity ( Keen et al., 2016 ). To account for this variability, studies have tried to establish different performance profiles in children and adolescents with diverse cognitive abilities. Thus, Wei et al. (2014) identified four distinct profiles based on five measures of academic achievement (word identification, rapid letter naming, passage comprehension, applied problems, and calculation). These profiles were the following: higher-achieving (39%, who have scored around the national average on most of the measures), hyperlexia (9%, who do well on decoding but with poor comprehension), hypercalculia (20%, with scores close to the national average on calculation skills, but significantly below average on the other four dimensions), and lower-achieving (32%, children who scored about two standard deviations below the mean on all five indicators). The higher-achieving and hyperlexia subgroups had significantly better functional cognitive skills and came from higher socioeconomic backgrounds.

Following a similar approach, Chen et al. (2019) , in a sample 7–14 years old participants with ASD with varied intelligence levels, could determine two distinct groups, low-achievement ASD and high-achievement ASD, based on their performance on four measures taken from the WIAT-II ( Weschler, 2001 ): numerical operations, mathematical reasoning, word reading, and reading comprehension. These differences were especially pronounced in the area of mathematics. As in the study by Wei et al. (2014) , the low-achievement subgroup scores were consistent with the intellectual capacity and other cognitive processes, such as working memory.

However, despite the expected relationship between cognitive ability and academic performance, other studies have identified discrepancies in this regard. Jones et al. (2009) found that approximately 70% of adolescents with ASD from 14 to 16 years old with different cognitive levels had a significant divergence between intellectual ability and one or more achievement domains. They described four subgroups in which either word reading (“reading peak” and “reading dip”) or arithmetic (“arithmetic peak” and “arithmetic dip”) was higher or lower than the WASI Full Scale Intelligence Quotient (IQ; Wechsler, 1999 ). Estes et al. (2011) identified these same differences in a sample of 30 children with ASD without intellectual disabilities. In 60% of them, a significantly lower achievement was found than what was predicted by their cognitive ability, in at least one of the domains analyzed (spelling, word reading, or basic number skills).

In conclusion, students with ASD present an irregular performance profile where intelligence plays an important role, although the research is not consistent in this regard. However, it is clear that many children and adolescents with ASD perform below what would be expected based on their intellectual capacity. Therefore, it is necessary to determine the areas of vulnerability and the factors involved in this low performance, in order to plan more appropriate and effective interventions. Certainly, in the school context, reading and writing are crucial instrumental skills and the basis for success in different curricular areas, and they have important implications throughout life, not only academically, but also socially and occupationally.

Reading Difficulties in ASD

Reading is a complex skill involving the orchestration of different components. From an overall perspective, two major processes may be distinguished as: decoding and comprehension. Decoding refers to the transformation of written words (graphemes) into phonological representations. Comprehension processes refer to the extraction of meaning from the written text. Specifically, and according to one of the most known models of reading, the Simple View of Reading Model ( Hoover and Gough, 1990 ), reading comprehension is the product of decoding skills and linguistic comprehension.

Many studies have found that people with ASD without intellectual disabilities (ASD-WID) have strengths in decoding skills, compared to their reading comprehension performance. Thus, in general, students with ASD-WID seem to master mechanisms involved in automatic word recognition, in contrast to their reading comprehension performance ( Jones et al., 2009 ; Norbury and Nation, 2011 ; Solari et al., 2017 ), which is below expectations for their chronological age or reading accuracy level ( Brown et al., 2013 ). To explain this discrepancy, good memory skills have been cited, as well as phonological and visual processing skills, which would contribute to adequate recognition of the written word.

As in the case of academic performance, the variability in reading skills has led studies to identify reading profiles in samples of children and adolescents with ASD. In a longitudinal and retrospective study, Åsberg et al. (2019) were able to determine three subgroups. A first subgroup, with “low reading performance,” which was the most frequent profile (approximately 50% of the participants), had below-average scores on both word reading and text comprehension. A second subgroup, made up of “skilled readers,” performed above average on both reading processes. Finally, the third subgroup was the least common (20%), and it was composed of “hyperlexical/low understanding” participants. Following a similar approach, namely latent profile analysis, McIntyre et al. (2017) found four different profiles in a sample of students with high-functioning autism from 8 to 16 years old: (1) readers with overall disturbance (32.2%), i.e., alterations in the decoding and comprehension processes; (2) readers with severe overall disturbance (14.1%); (3) readers with comprehension problems (20.6%); and (4) average readers (32.1%). In other words, approximately 70% of the participants experienced reading impairments, and of them, the majority had comprehension problems. Other studies using a cluster analysis methodology have also found lower reading comprehension scores than word reading scores, even in high-achieving subgroups of students with ASD ( Chen et al., 2019 ).

To determine the factors moderating reading comprehension performance in students with ASD, Brown et al. (2013) conducted a meta-analysis of 36 studies comparing ASD and control groups. The strongest individual predictors of reading comprehension were semantic knowledge and decoding skills. The study results highlight the contribution of oral language to reading comprehension, as well as the content of the texts, because individuals with ASD were significantly worse at comprehending highly social texts than less social texts.

In sum, decoding skills, language level, and text characteristics and content are variables to take into account when analyzing the reading comprehension difficulties of students with ASD. Other factors to consider are the development of comprehension strategies during reading ( Williamson et al., 2012 ) or the type of comprehension assessed (literal versus inferential) because students with ASD have shown greater difficulty with inferential comprehension processes ( Tirado and Saldaña, 2016 ). In addition to classical predictors, other cognitive factors may help us understand why students with ASD struggle with reading comprehension. Research in typical children has suggested that cognitive flexibility is positively associated with reading ( Yeniad et al., 2013 ). Cognitive flexibility requires the interaction of several mechanisms (attention shifting, conflict monitoring, and perception) that respond to specific environmental demands, such as rule changes, in order to achieve flexible behavior and to solve the problem in a new way ( Ionescu, 2012 ). Precisely, cognitive flexibility is one of the most significant affected executive function in the majority of children and adolescents with high-functioning ASD ( Lai et al., 2017 ). Therefore, it seems logical to expect that they have difficulties in deploying flexible strategies for accomplishing reading tasks.

Writing Difficulties in ASD

Similar to reading ability, good writing skills are crucial to academic and professional success. In addition, with the growing prevalence of online communication and social networks, the written expression has become a common means of daily interaction between people. Writing represents a major challenge for students with ASD. According to data provided by Mayes and Calhoun (2006) , -in a study with children and adolescents with heterogeneous IQ levels-, approximately 60% of students with ASD present some type of specific difficulty in learning to write.

Most of our understanding of the writing process has been based on the recursive and multi-layered model developed by Hayes and Flower (1980) and Hayes (2006) , which is composed of three main processes: (1) the planning process , directed to prepare the content of the text by retrieving ideas from memory and organizing them; (2) the translation process , which includes the grammatical and orthographical encoding, and the motor execution actions involved in handwriting; and (3) the revision process that allows writers to compare the written product with their mental representation of the intended text. Research on writing difficulties in ASD has mainly focused on the planning and translation processes. A meta-analysis found significantly worse performance of ASD students on several components of writing, related to the translation process (length, legibility, size, speed, and spelling) and to some indicators of the planning process, such as text structure ( Finnegan and Accardo, 2018 ). Likewise, a more recent study has demonstrated that children with ASD-WID write personal narrative texts that obtain lower ratings in holistic assessments of coherence, structure, and content, and have less lexical and syntactic complexity, in comparison with children with TD ( Hilvert et al., 2020 ). Moreover, fine motor and visuomotor speed problems ( Kushki et al., 2011 ) may often result in illegible or brief writing ( Fuentes et al., 2009 ).

Written expression difficulties of students with ASD have been found not only in narrative discourse, but also in expository and persuasive texts ( Brown et al., 2014 ; Price et al., 2020 ). In addition, their essays contain more grammatical errors and present less syntactic diversity and complexity, although they can achieve a lexical richness and coherence comparable to their peers with TD ( Hilvert et al., 2019 ).

In summary, variability is the trait that characterizes the academic performance and reading and writing abilities of students with ASD, which is linked to variables, such as intellectual ability, language level, the type of processes involved, and the characteristics of the tasks used to assess reading and writing. In any case, as students progress through the education system, there is a greater emphasis upon reading comprehension and writing expression which gives students access to school curriculum with more autonomy. The transition from primary to secondary school is one important and educational challenge. Research about the experience of young people with autism has identified a number of areas in which they may experience particular concerns compared to their TD peers, including structural/organizational and social demands. Secondary schools tend to be large, with different teachers for different subjects that students need to adapt to Maras and Aveling, (2006) . Furthermore, social complexity about forming relationships with a new peer group increases anxieties as well as academic demands of independence ( Tobin et al., 2012 ; Mandy et al., 2016 ). Our research focuses on the period of adolescence, a stage less studied in the literature, in particular, in the transition from primary to secondary school, an especially demanding challenge for individuals with ASD. Therefore, a measure of transition to secondary education of individuals with ASD without ID was included.

Consequently, the present study seeks to advance the knowledge about the reading and writing performance of students with ASD in several ways. First, there is a paucity of research on studying the relationships between reading and skills and school achievement in individuals with ASD. Second, it is carried out in Spanish, a language with a transparent spelling characterized by a series of phonological and orthographical specificities that can impact psycholinguistic processing. Third, different comprehension processes (literal and inferential) are considered, using, in addition, a reading-specific measure that requires cognitive flexibility. To the best of our knowledge, this measure has not been employed in the previous investigations assessing reading comprehension in ASD. Based on these considerations, the following objectives were addressed as follows:

1. to analyze differences in a wide range of reading and writing skills between adolescents with ASD-WID and adolescents with TD;

2. to analyze differences in academic outcomes in core subjects and on indicators of successful transition to secondary school between adolescents with ASD-WID and adolescents with TD; and

3. to explore the potential contribution of reading and writing skills to academic outcomes in both groups, adolescents with ASD-WID and TD.

According to the literature review, it is expected to find similar results in both groups in reading accuracy and fluency. However, significant lower results are hypothesized in participants with ASD-WID regarding indicators of written expression and reading comprehension tasks tapping inferential and cognitive flexibility processes. Likewise, it is predicted that participants with ASD will obtain lower academic outcomes, as well as worse results in indicators of successful transition to secondary education. Given the prominent role that reading and writing play on school outcomes, it is anticipated that both instrumental skills will have a considerable weight in academic performance, both in the group with TD and in the group with ASD-WID.

Materials and Methods

Participants.

The present study included 56 adolescents between 12 and 14 years old, of whom 30 were adolescents with ASD-WID (28 males) and 26 were adolescents with typical development (TD; 17 males). The participants had an intellectual functioning within the limits of normality on the K-BIT ( Kaufman and Kaufman, 2000 ).

The group of adolescents with ASD-WID had received a previous clinical diagnosis of an autism spectrum condition by the Psychiatry and Child Neurology services in hospitals and medical centers in the Valencian community at ages ranging between 2 years and 11 months and 6 years old. According to the protocol for the ASD diagnosis, the criteria for ASD from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders fourth edition (DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, 1994 ), the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R; Rutter et al., 2006 ), and/or the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-WPS (ADOS-WPS; Lord et al., 1999 ) were administered by a multidisciplinary team. In order to confirm the ASD diagnosis for the present study, the Social Communication Questionnaire ( Rutter et al., 2003 ) and the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R; Rutter et al., 2006 ) were administered, taking into account the recommended cutoff points. The results appear in Table 1 . These two instruments were administered to the parents by a clinical psychologist from the research team who had been accredited in their application. Likewise, all the adolescents met the strict diagnostic criteria for ASD from the fifth edition of the DSM-5 ( American Psychiatric Association, 2013 ), based on information provided by teachers and parents. Both informants, in interviews with a clinical psychologist, rated the severity of the criteria in the two ASD dimensions on scales ranging from 0 to 3 points (0 represents “almost never,” 1 represents “sometimes,” 2 represents “often,” and 3 represents “many times”).

Table 1 . Socio-demographic characteristics.

The majority of the adolescents with ASD had educational support at school. Specifically, seven adolescents with ASD (23.33%) were attending school in regular classrooms full time without educational support; nine adolescents (30.00%) attended regular classrooms but received educational support for their specific needs in the high school; and finally, 14 adolescents (46.66%) were placed in the communication and language classroom modality. Furthermore, 11 (36.66%) adolescents with ASD were taking antipsychotic medication (mostly risperidone) for behavioral problems.

The typically developing adolescents had no history of psychopathology or referral to pediatric mental health units (USMI), according to the information found in the school records, and they did not meet DSM-5 criteria for ASD on the screening carried out before beginning the evaluation. None of them were taking any psychoactive medication.

The exclusion criteria for the adolescents who participated in this study were evaluated through an extensive anamnesis carried out with the families. They included neurological or genetic diseases, brain lesions, sensory, auditory, or motor deficits, and an IQ below 80 (see Table 1 ).

The assessment measures were selected based on the objectives of this study. In addition, criteria, such as the psychometric properties of the measures, were taken into account, as well as their translation and adaptation to Spanish.

Reading Skills

The assessment of lexical and semantic reading processes was carried out through two tasks from the PROLEC-SE battery ( Evaluation of Reading Processes for Secondary Education Students ; Ramos and Cuetos, 1999 ). Furthermore, a subtest of the TLC Test ( Leer para Comprender; Reading for understanding ) was also administered ( Abusamra et al., 2010 ).

Lexical Processes Measures

Reading accuracy and reading fluency were assessed through the reading of 40 Spanish words that vary in length, frequency of use, and the complexity of their syllabic structure (i.e., high and low frequency, short and long words). The total accuracy score is obtained by adding up the words read correctly. To obtain the reading speed score, the time spent reading the complete list of 40 words is recorded. In our study reliability index of this measure, Cronbach’s alpha is 0.74.

Reading Comprehension Measures

Semantic processes were assessed using one of the tasks proposed in the semantic block of the PROLEC-SE battery. The task required silently reading two expository texts: “The Eskimos” and “The Australian Papuans.” After each text is read silently, the text is removed, and the participant has to answer 10 questions. Five questions are literal and can be answered from memory and five questions are inferential; that is, they can only be answered if the participant has understood the text and can make the appropriate inferences. Each correct answer receives 1 point. The total score is obtained by adding up the total number of correct answers on each text.

In this research, we use the direct scores. High direct scores on reading accuracy and comprehension and low scores on reading speed indicate better reading performance. The psychometric properties of the PROLEC-SE battery are adequate. For the reliability index, Cronbach’s alpha is 0.84 ( Ramos and Cuetos, 1999 ). In this study, α coefficients for the subscales used were 0.63 (literal comprehension), 0.68 (inferential comprehension), and 0.73 (total comprehension).

Moreover, to assess cognitive flexibility in the reading comprehension process, the “Mental flexibility” subtest from the Read to Understand Test (TLC) was administered ( Abusamra et al., 2010 ). In this subtest, instructions are given that involve different ways to approach the reading of a text, and, subsequently, the reader’s awareness of the strategies used is evaluated. Therefore, part of the evaluation is declarative because the student “tells what s/he does” to solve the task. This test assesses, for example, whether the student knows that, in some cases, a superficial understanding of the text is possible (specifically, on tasks, such as searching for five nouns in a paragraph), whereas in other cases, a deeper understanding is necessary. That is, it is not always necessary to pay attention to the meaning of words, sentences, and paragraphs in order to perform certain activities that focus exclusively on grammatical, syntactic, or stylistic aspects, or when searching for a specific piece of information. This test evaluates this type of metacognitive process, which is related to cognitive flexibility, that is, the ability to focus on the reading comprehension process by selecting appropriate strategies. This aspect of metacognition is defined as the ability to cope with a task by selecting the right strategies and modifying cognitive processes in response to changes: to shift attentional focus, select information to guide and choose necessary responses, form plans, and generate monitoring ( Abusamra et al., 2010 ). The test has psychometric properties, such as concurrent validity and internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha of 0.79). α coefficient for this test in our sample is 0.66.

Written Expression

To obtain the spontaneous writing sample, the “Birthday” sheet from the Test of Written Language, fourth edition, was used (TOWL-4; Hammill and Larsen, 2009 ). The participants were given a blank sheet of paper and a pen and the following instruction: “Write a story about the events and activities shown in the picture.” They were given as much time as necessary to complete the written compositions, which were then transcribed using the Systematic Analysis of Language Transcripts (SALT; Miller and Iglesias, 2010 ). All the texts were coded on variables that assessed productivity, syntactic complexity, and overall coherence. An independent research assistant was trained in the measures coding during two sessions in a seminar of 5 h. In these sessions, the variables considered were defined and explained and the analysis was practiced on written samples. The research assistant was blind to the goal of the study and did not know the membership group of the texts (ASD or TD). For the reliability check, after the training sessions, the evaluators analyzed approximately 80% of the writings from each group (40 in all), which were randomly selected.

Productivity

Children’s productivity, or fluency, was measured as the total number of words in the text. Automated SALT analyses provided information about this variable.

Syntactic Complexity

Syntactic complexity was measured as the diversity of complex syntax ( Hilvert et al., 2019 ). This variable was determined by counting the number of different types of complex syntactic devices employed within the text: substantive subordinate clauses, adverbial subordinate clauses, relative subordinate clauses, and coordinated clauses. For the presence of each type of syntactic relationship, 1 point was awarded, with a maximum score of 4. In order to calculate inter-rater reliability, the formula proposed by Sackett (1978) was used (number of agreements divided by the number of agreements plus disagreements, x 100). The agreement was 90% for the substantive subordinate clauses, 100% for the adverbial subordinate clauses, 100% for the relative subordinate clauses, and 100% for the coordinated clauses. All disagreements were resolved by discussion.

Global Coherence

To assess the overall coherence of the compositions, the coding system proposed by Barnes and Baron-Cohen (2012) was followed. This system is specially addressed to capture how the story components are included. In this way, it can be identified if there is a cognitive style focused on details at the expense of globality, as the weak central coherence theory states. Thus, the texts were coded on a scale from 0 to 2 for each of the four different elements of the story: (1) setting (where the story takes place); (2) character (who the story is about); (3) conflict (what the story is about); and (4) resolution (how the story ends).

A score of 0 indicates that no information is provided about the element in question; a score of 1 indicates that the composition provides one or more details about the element, but the overall idea of the scene is not captured; and a score of 2 indicates that the narrative provides a well-founded and fully developed view of the corresponding element. With regard to the characters, a score of 0 is awarded if either of the story’s characters is not mentioned, and 1 point if the characters are mentioned, but without defining their relationship to each other or their role in the scene. For conflict, a score of 0 is assigned if the character’s desires or goals are not identified; a score of 1 if a character is defined as wanting something, but without mentioning an obstacle to that goal; and a score of 2 if both a goal and an obstacle to the character achieving that goal are established. Finally, in relation to the resolution component, 0 points are assigned when what happened at the end of the conflict is not mentioned; 1 point if an action that took place at the end of the scene is mentioned; and 2 points if an ending action is described and that action is linked to the overall theme of the scene.

According to the formula proposed by Sackett (1978) , the inter-rater reliability of these measures was as follows: in the case of the setting, 100% agreement was reached; for character, 100% agreement; for conflict, 97% agreement; and for resolution, 98% agreement. All disagreements were resolved by discussion.

Academic Results

Academic results were reported by parents and/or primary caregivers from the last math, language, and social science evaluation. The numerical range used in the Spanish educational system is from 0 to 10, where 0 is the minimum academic grade and 10 is the maximum.

Transition to Secondary Education

Parents filled out a questionnaire derived from a large scale, national transitions study, the Effective Preschool, Primary, and Secondary Education (EPPSE) transitions substudy ( Evangelou et al., 2008 ), used in Makin et al. (2017) to provide an index of “transition success.” Evangelou et al. (2008) defined “successful transition” as a multidimensional construct composed of five underlying factors: developing friendships and confidence, settling into school life, showing a growing interest in school and work, getting used to new routines, and experiencing curriculum continuity.

Parents had to answer six questions related to three of the five factors. Regarding the “developing friendships and confidence” dimension, parents were asked whether, compared to the last year in primary school, their child has more (3 points), the same number (2 points), or fewer (1 point) school friends, as well as more, the same, or less self-esteem, confidence, and motivation. The same scoring system was used in the “experiencing curriculum continuity” dimension, which was assessed by asking parents whether, compared to the last year in primary school, their child shows more, the same, or less interest in school and schoolwork. Regarding the adaptation to school life, parents were asked how they thought their child had settled in (very well, 4 points; quite well, 3 points; not very well, 2 points; and not well at all, 1 point). They were also asked how satisfied they were with the whole process of their child’s transition to secondary school (from very satisfied, 4 points and to not at all satisfied, 1 point), how they felt when their child first moved on to secondary school, and how they feel now (from not at all concerned, 4 points and to very concerned, 1 point). The index of internal consistency Cronbach’s alpha for this questionnaire in our sample is 0.91.

This research was performed in accordance with the ethical standards of the Research Ethics Committee of the University of Valencia, which is regulated by the Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects (Declaration of Helsinki 1964; World Medical Association General Assembly, 2013 ). Likewise, the authors received authorization from the Board of Education of the Valencian Government to access the schools and locate the participants.

The evaluation was carried out in the high schools where the adolescents were enrolled, in specially prepared spaces that met optimal conditions for psychoeducational assessment. The informed oral and written consent of the parents of all the participants was also obtained after informing them about the research proposal. The different measures were administered to all the adolescents individually by trained examiners. The parents (mostly mothers) provided information about the adolescent’s transition to secondary education, ASD symptoms, and socio-demographic data.

Data Analyses

This paper presents a descriptive cross-sectional study of comparison between a group of adolescents with ASD and a group of adolescents with typical development.

The statistical analyses were performed with the statistical program for the social sciences SPSS v 26.0 (SPSS). Preliminary analyses checked all data for multicollinearity and multivariate outliers. The asymmetry and kurtosis data indicate that most of the variables followed a normal distribution (all values between −1 and 1). Variables that did not show a normal distribution were transformed using square-root transformation (coherence setting and coherence character). To compare the reading/writing skill, academic results, and successful transition to secondary school of ASD-WID and TD, Multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was used. The data set was examined for violations of essential assumptions associated with the application of MANCOVA. Pearson correlations between all dependent variables pairs and dependent variable-covariate pairs suggested statistically significant linear relationships.

Adolescents’ IQ, vocabulary, and parents’ educational level were included as covariates due to its potential effect on reading and writing abilities and academic outcomes in general. Likewise, the differences between math, language, and social sciences academic outcomes were explored, as well as the differences regarding the transition to secondary education in adolescents with TD and with ASD-WID. Both academic outcomes and parents perceptions about the successful adaptation to secondary education form part of the academic curriculum, which encompasses different interrelated dimensions.

For the ANCOVAs, Bonferroni correction was applied to establish the significance level. The proportion of total variance accounted for by the independent variables was calculated using partial eta squared (according to Cohen (1988) : eta squared, 0.06 = small; 0.06–0.14 = medium; and 0.14 = large). To compare academic results and successful transition to secondary school of ASD-WID and TD, t -student was used. Moreover, two partial correlations, controlling for parents’ educational level and adolescents’ IQ and vocabulary, were conducted to examine the relationships between reading and writing skills and academic outcomes in both groups. Finally, multiple linear regression analyses were conducted to test the effect of reading and writing skills on the transition to secondary school and academic outcomes in adolescents with ASD-WID.

Differences in Reading and Writing Skills Between Adolescents With ASD-WID and Adolescents With TD

The MANCOVA between the ASD-WID and TD groups with the different reading skill scores (accuracy, speed, reading comprehension, and reading comprehension related to mental flexibility), controlling for parents’ educational level, IQ, and vocabulary, was statistically significant [Wilks’ Lambda (Λ) = 0.70, F 6,46 = 3.21, p = 0.01, η p 2 = 0.30 ]. Likewise, to calculate the additional ANCOVAs, a significance level of p < 0.008 was established, after applying the Bonferroni correction, and the value of η p 2 was calculated to check the strength of the association. Specifically, statistically significant differences were found on the reading comprehension “Mental flexibility” subtest (F 1,51 = 14.6; p < 0.01; η p 2 = 0.22 ). In addition, scores for accuracy (word reading), speed, and reading comprehension did not reach the required level of statistical significance between the group with TD and the group with ASD-ID ( Table 2 ).

Table 2 . Means, standard deviations (SD) of reading and writing skills, and statistically significant differences between ASD and TD adolescents.

The MANCOVA between the ASD-WID and TD groups with the different writing skill scores (productivity, syntactic complexity, and coherence), controlling for parents’ educational level, IQ, and vocabulary, was statistically significant [Wilks’ Lambda (Λ) = 0.71, F 6,46 = 3.02, p = 0.014, η p 2 = 0.28 ]. Likewise, to calculate the additional ANCOVAs, a significance level of p < 0.008 was established, after applying the Bonferroni correction, and the value of η p 2 was calculated to check the strength of the association. Specifically, statistically significant differences were found in word productivity (F 1,51 = 7.78; p = 0.007; η p 2 = 0.23 ), Syntactic complexity (F 1,51 = 13.4; p = 0.001; η p 2 = 0.21 ), and Coherence (conflict resolution component; F 1,51 = 7.63; p = 0.007; η p 2 = 0.13 ; see Table 2 ).

Differences in Academic Outcomes and Transition to Secondary School Between Adolescents With ASD-WID and Adolescents With TD

The MANCOVA between the ASD-WID and TD groups with the different academic outcome scores (language, math, and social sciences) and the transition to the secondary stage was statistically significant [Wilks’ Lambda (Λ) = 0.71, F 6,46 = 3.02, p = 0.014, η p 2 = 0.28 ]. Statistically significant differences were found in language (F 1,51 = 7.78; p = 0.007; η p 2 = 0.23 ), mathematics (F 1,51 = 13.4; p = 0.001; η p 2 = 0.21 ), social sciences (F 1,51 = 7.63; p = 0.007; η p 2 = 0.13 ), and the index of successful transition to secondary education (F 1,51 = 7.63; p = 0.007; η p 2 = 0.13 ; see Table 3 ).

Table 3 . Means, standard deviations (SD) of academic results and successful transition to secondary, and statistically significant differences between ASD and TD adolescents.

Contribution of Reading and Writing Skills to the Academic Outcomes of Adolescents With ASD-ID and Adolescents With TD

Likewise, two partial correlations were performed, using the covariates of parents’ vocabulary, IQ, and educational level, to analyze the association between the reading and writing variables that showed significant differences between the ASD-WID and TD groups and the learning outcomes in the subjects of the Spanish language, mathematics, and social sciences in the ASD-WID and TD groups.

In the group of children with TD, significant positive correlations were observed between the reading comprehension score related to mental flexibility and the scores on language ( r = 0.45; p = 0.029), mathematics ( r = 0.56; p = 0.006), and social sciences ( r = 0.40; p = 0.050). Similarly, significant positive correlations were observed between the productivity subscale and the scores on language ( r = 0.51; p = 0.013) and mathematics ( r = 0.44; p = 0.035).

In the group of children with ASD-WID, significant positive correlations were observed between the reading comprehension score related to mental flexibility and the scores on language ( r = 0.37; p = 0.050) and mathematics ( r = 0.37; p = 0.050). Likewise, significant positive correlations were observed between the social sciences scores and productivity ( r = 0.46; p = 0.015), syntactic complexity ( r = 0.61; p < 0.001), and coherence ( r = 0.42; p = 0.029; see Table 4 ).

Table 4 . Partial correlations between reading/writing skill and academic outcomes.

Finally, multiple regression analyses were carried out in each group in order to evaluate the contribution of reading comprehension related to mental flexibility and writing skills of productivity, syntactic complexity, and coherence to academic outcomes in the core subjects of language, mathematics, and social sciences (see Table 5 ). The regressions carried out with the TD group indicated that the predictors that explained the highest percentage of variance in Spanish language were reading comprehension related to mental flexibility, productivity, and coherence, explaining 51% of the total variance. As for the mathematics outcomes, the results showed that reading comprehension related to mental flexibility and productivity were the significant individual predictors, together explaining 55% of the variance. In social sciences, there were no significant individual or collective predictors.

Table 5 . Multiple regression analysis of reading and writing skills that predict academic outcomes in TD and ASD groups.

The regressions performed with the ASD-WID group indicated that, on the one hand, reading comprehension related to mental flexibility was the single most significant predictor of language and mathematics outcomes, explaining 31 and 24% of the variance, respectively. On the other hand, the predictors that explained the highest percentage of variance in social sciences were syntactic complexity and coherence, explaining 57% of the total variance.

The purpose of this study was to extend the knowledge about academic achievement in adolescents with ASD by addressing various objectives. First, this study analyzed differences in reading and writing performance between adolescents with ASD-WID and adolescents with TD. In terms of reading, no significant differences were found between the two groups on measures of reading fluency (accuracy and speed), which is consistent with most of the research on the topic in languages with opaque orthographies, such as English ( Jones et al., 2009 ).

However, contrary to expectations, our study data failed to show significant differences between participants with ASD-WID and their peers with TD on either literal or inferential reading comprehension. These results contrast with what is commonly reported in the literature, which generally indicates lower reading comprehension competence in individuals with ASD (see meta-analysis by Brown et al., 2013 ). This discrepancy in the findings could be explained by different factors. Firstly, both groups were matched according to vocabulary knowledge which following the Simple View of Reading Model ( Hoover and Gough, 1990 ) is a fundamental factor for reading comprehension. Numerous investigations with children with ASD have exemplified the strong association between reading comprehension and language (see the meta-analysis by Brown et al., 2013 ), which emerges even as one of the strongest predictors of the reading comprehension abilities of these students ( Davidson et al., 2018 ). A second important factor is the type of texts employed in our study. We used two expository texts with little social content that do not require the student to display inferential skills related to Theory of Mind, which is clearly affected in ASD ( Bora and Pantelis, 2016 ). In other words, the reader would not have to apply skills that require taking the perspective of the characters, which, in contrast, would be necessary to understand narrative texts ( Dore et al., 2018 ). In fact, studies have shown that individuals with ASD are significantly worse at comprehending highly social texts than less social texts, such as those employed in this study ( Brown et al., 2013 ). Moreover, and in line with our results on inferential comprehension, experimental studies using eye-tracking techniques have shown that adolescents with ASD are capable of developing inferential comprehension skills that are activated automatically ( Saldaña and Frith, 2007 ; Micai et al., 2017 ), although they may have difficulties on tasks that require them to answer questions that rate this same process ( Tirado and Saldaña, 2016 ). Likewise, another explanation for our discordant results could be found in the composition of the sample, which might consist of students with ASD who have shown strengths in reading performance, both in decoding and comprehension. These profiles have been described in the literature as “skilled readers” ( Åsberg et al., 2019 ) or “average readers” ( McIntyre et al., 2017 ).

However, the results of our study allowed us to identify certain deficient reading comprehension processes in adolescents with ASD, specifically those that require the activation of cognitive flexibility skills and, in particular, metacognitive skills, such as explicitly describing the strategies used when summarizing, detecting the main idea, or giving a title to a text. Thus, significantly lower performance was observed on the reading-specific measure used in this study that requires cognitive flexibility. These results are congruent with the alterations in cognitive flexibility described in ASD. These disturbances have been considered one of its neuropsychological manifestations, although with mixed findings ( Leung and Zakzanis, 2014 ). These outcomes also coincide with the difficulties identified in students with ASD in adapting reading strategies to various reading materials and task demands ( Micai et al., 2019 ). A competent reader must be able to change strategies while reading a text and adapt them to the different objectives and/or requirements presented. Adequate mental flexibility ensures the reader’s active participation in the comprehension process, and its proper functioning facilitates independent learning, which has a great impact on academic performance. Thus, we can see the importance of mastering these processes involved in comprehension and the need to consider this specific area when designing reading intervention programs for individuals with ASD.

In terms of writing skills, as it was hypothesized, the data revealed significant differences between the group with ASD-WID and the group with TD on all the indicators analyzed as: productivity, syntactic diversity, and overall coherence (in the latter case, only in the resolution component). Adolescents with ASD wrote shorter texts with less varied syntactic structures, which is consistent with the results of the previous studies and reviews on the topic ( Dockrell et al., 2014 ; Finnegan and Accardo, 2018 ; Hilvert et al., 2019 ). Unexpectedly, both groups performed similarly on most of the variables used to assess overall coherence (setting, character, and conflict). However, significant differences could be identified in the resolution component; that is, the students with ASD failed to mention what happened at the end of the conflict presented in their stories. These difficulties may affect the overall coherence of the written composition, which is consistent with the tenets of the Weak Central Coherence Theory ( Happé and Frith, 2006 ). According to this theory, people with ASD tend to focus on local or marginal aspects of the information and fail to integrate them into meaningful global representations, in this case, by providing an ending related to the conflict narrated. This cognitive style has also been shown in different studies on written expression in ASD, both in children and adolescents ( Brown et al., 2014 ), as well as in the adult population ( Barnes and Baron-Cohen, 2012 ).

The second objective of this study was to analyze the differences in academic outcomes and the transition to secondary school between adolescents with ASD-WID and adolescents with TD. As it was expected, the results showed statistically significant differences in the academic grades reported by parents and teachers in the language arts, mathematics, and social science subjects, and in the families’ perceptions of the transition to high school. These findings reinforce the idea of a significant gap between cognitive ability and school performance, taking into account that the participants in our study did not present intellectual limitations. This means that students with ASD are not displaying their full academic potential, which is being undermined by various factors, including deficits in certain reading comprehension and written performance measures, as discussed below.

Furthermore, according to parents’ perceptions, a less successful transition process to high school and generally worse adaptation were observed in adolescents with ASD compared to their peers with TD. Families report fewer friends and lower self-esteem, confidence, and motivation. They are less satisfied with the transition process and are concerned about it. These results are consistent with the negative experiences described by parents of children with ASD in this period of educational change, referring to social isolation, bullying, and anxiety in their children ( Humphrey and Lewis, 2008 ). Families experience challenges and stress beyond what would typically be expected ( Dillon and Underwood, 2012 ; Mandy et al., 2016 ; Peters and Brooks, 2016 ). Therefore, as parents also point out, it is essential for secondary schools to understand the nature of autism and the impact it can have on the child and implement the assistance or support students need for a successful transition, optimal academic performance, and social adjustment ( Cremin et al., 2017 ; Tso and Strnadová, 2017 ).

Finally, the third objective of this study was to examine the contribution of reading and writing skills to the academic outcomes of adolescents with ASD-WID. As expected, a significant positive relationship was found (in both the ASD-WID and the TD groups) between the two variables being analyzed. Specifically, in the group with ASD-WID, significant positive associations were observed between the reading comprehension measure specifically tapping cognitive flexibility and the grades earned in the language and mathematics subjects. A similar relationship was found between the grades obtained in social sciences and the written expression indicators considered (productivity, syntactic diversity, and coherence). This association highlights the importance of instrumental skills, such as reading and writing, which have a clear influence on school performance. Specifically, on the one hand, our study data indicate that the reading comprehension task involving cognitive flexibility turned out to be the only significant predictor of the grades obtained in language and mathematics. On the other hand, the predictors that explained the highest percentage of social sciences grades were syntactic complexity and coherence.

The difficulties of these students exhibit in certain processes of reading comprehension and written expression have an impact on their academic outcomes, which should lead to designing interventions that fit their profile of strengths and weaknesses. Several research syntheses have supported the use of strategy instruction in the form of question generation, use of graphic organizers, or making predictions ( El Zein et al., 2014 ; Finnegan and Mazin, 2016 ). More recently, Singh et al. (2020) , in a systematic review of case studies, analyzed the effectiveness of a series of instructional procedures that contributed to improving the reading comprehension performance of students with ASD. They highlighted the use of comprehension-enhancing supports in the form of graphic organizers or visual diagrams, metacognitive strategies, collaborative strategies, such as peer tutoring, and computer-assisted instruction. In terms of writing skills, a recent research synthesis carried out by Accardo et al. (2020) identified several effective instructional practices: self-regulated strategy development, sentence frames, video modeling, Handwriting Without Tears®, and analytic task instruction with systematic prompting and graphic organizers. Some of the variables that improved with the application of these techniques were the number of elements in the text structure and the number of words and sentences. It should be noted that, as in the reading comprehension intervention, the studies reviewed were single case studies, and so research using experimental or quasi-experimental group designs is necessary in order to improve the levels of scientific evidence currently available. Apart from these teaching strategies, education professionals may also consider to adjust the assessment criteria or the mode of assessment for adolescents with ASD.

Likewise, parents’ perspectives on the transition process to secondary school suggest the need for tailored assistance at the time of the student’s move to secondary school. In this regard, Peters and Brooks (2016) show that parents describe a more positive transition when both pre-transition support and ongoing support in the learning and social environments of secondary school are implemented. To this end, a better understanding of the difficulties and strengths of students with ASD in this educational stage, their particular style of processing information, and their strengths and weaknesses in reading and writing skills are essential, due to their strong impact on academic performance.

Limitations

Despite the contributions of these findings, our research has several limitations. First, the relatively small sample size may be hiding some possible significant relationships between the study variables and limiting the possibility to detect small effects. One second limitation, which leads the results to be interpreted with caution, is related to the moderate values of reliability coefficients of the administrated tests. Therefore, future studies should increase the number of participants on a randomized sampling basis and include, apart from psychometric tests, other reading comprehension tasks. The information from criterion-referenced measures could help to design more accurate intervention programs for students with ASD-WID. Third, the mid-range cognitive ability and the gender of the participants with ASD, mostly male, are factors that should be considered, as they may influence the results and affect their generalization to girls or to individuals with ASD with other cognitive levels. In addition, the writing skills of adolescents with ASD were only assessed on a narrative text, and it would have been appropriate to expand the information to persuasive and expository genres. Furthermore, the indicator used to reflect the academic results was the qualification marks of the last evaluation, which may not be representative of the whole academic level of achievement. Finally, our study has a cross-sectional design, and future research should analyze developmental variations in the writing and reading profiles of individuals with ASD.

This research provides an overview of the school performance of adolescents with ASD and the factors involved in it. The results show that adolescents with ASD have strengths in reading-decoding mechanisms, but their performance on reading comprehension processes involving aspects of mental flexibility and writing skills continues to be significantly below expectations. Both deficits contribute significantly to their academic achievement, which is also below that of their peers with TD and what would be expected based on their intellectual capacity, at a medium range in this study. In any case, academic difficulties should be taken into account when analyzing the parents’ opinions in the transition period to secondary school because parents of students with ASD-WID report a more difficult adaptation process compared to students with TD. Consequently, education professionals face the challenge of adapting their teaching style and employing evidence-based teaching strategies that address students’ different needs while enhancing their capabilities. This may be a promising avenue for reducing the gap between the potential and current academic performance of students with ASD.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics Statement

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the University of Valencia. Written informed consent to participate in this study was provided by the participants’ legal guardian/next of kin.

Author Contributions

IB, AM, BR, and CB contributed to the design of the work and wrote the manuscript. CB was responsible for the analysis and interpretation of data for the study. BR was responsible for the literature search and assessment of the participants. All authors participated in data interpretation and draft the manuscript and approved the version to be submitted.

This research was financed by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (PSI2016-78109; AEI/FEDER, UE) and by the Generalitat Valenciana (grant no. GV/2020/C/005). The funding body had no role in the study design, data collection, analysis, interpretation, or writing of the report or the decision to submit the paper for publication.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the adolescents, parents, and teachers who participated in this study.

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Keywords: autism, reading, writing, academic achievement, secondary school

Citation: Baixauli I, Rosello B, Berenguer C, Téllez de Meneses M and Miranda A (2021) Reading and Writing Skills in Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorder Without Intellectual Disability. Front. Psychol . 12:646849. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.646849

Received: 28 December 2020; Accepted: 07 June 2021; Published: 19 July 2021.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2021 Baixauli, Rosello, Berenguer, Téllez de Meneses and Miranda. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Belen Rosello, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Following her personal essay in Glamour , Sophia Bush reflected on her decision to share insight into her private life.

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I Was an Attorney at the D.A.’s Office. This Is What the Trump Case Is Really About.

By Rebecca Roiphe

Ms. Roiphe is a former assistant district attorney in the Manhattan District Attorney’s Office.

Now that the lawyers are laying out their respective theories of the case in the criminal prosecution of Donald Trump in New York, it would be understandable if people’s heads are spinning. The defense lawyers claimed this is a case about hush money as a legitimate tool in democratic elections, while the prosecutors insisted it is about “a criminal scheme to corrupt the 2016 presidential election.”

Yet this case is not really about election interference, nor is it a politically motivated attempt to criminalize a benign personal deal. Boring as it may sound, it is a case about business integrity.

It’s not surprising that the lawyers on both sides are trying to make this about something sexier. This is a narrative device used to make the jurors and the public side with them, but it has also created confusion. On the one hand, some legal experts claim that the conduct charged in New York was the original election interference. On the other hand, some critics think the criminal case is a witch hunt, and others claim it is trivial at best and at worst the product of selective prosecution.

As someone who worked in the Manhattan district attorney’s office and enforced the laws that Mr. Trump is accused of violating, I stand firmly in neither camp. It is an important and straightforward case, albeit workmanlike and unglamorous. In time, after the smoke created by lawyers has cleared, it will be easy to see why the prosecution is both solid and legitimate.

It would hardly make for a dramatic opening statement or cable news sound bite, but the case is about preventing wealthy people from using their businesses to commit crimes and hide from accountability. Manhattan prosecutors have long considered it their province to ensure the integrity of the financial markets. As Robert Morgenthau, a former Manhattan district attorney, liked to say , “You cannot prosecute crime in the streets without prosecuting crime in the suites.”

Lawmakers in New York, the financial capital of the world, consider access to markets and industry in New York a privilege for businesspeople. It is a felony to abuse that privilege by doctoring records to commit or conceal crimes, even if the businessman never accomplishes the goal and even if the false records never see the light of day. The idea is that an organization’s records should reflect an honest accounting. It is not a crime to make a mistake, but lying is a different story. It is easy to evade accountability by turning a business into a cover, providing a false trail for whichever regulator might care to look. The law ( falsification of business records ) deprives wealthy, powerful businessmen of the ability to do so with impunity, at least when they’re conducting business in the city.

Prosecutors and New York courts have interpreted this law generously, with its general purpose in mind. The element of intent to defraud carries a broad meaning, which is not limited to the intent of cheating someone out of money or property. Further, intent is often proved with circumstantial evidence, as is common in white-collar cases. After presenting evidence, prosecutors ask jurors to use their common sense to infer what the possible intent may be, and New York jurors frequently conclude that a defendant must have gone to the trouble of creating this false paper trail for a reason.

Mr. Trump is accused of creating 11 false invoices, 12 false ledger entries and 11 false checks and check stubs, with the intent to violate federal election laws, state election laws or state tax laws. The number of lies it took to create this false record itself helps prove intent. His defense attorneys will claim that he was merely trying to bury a false story to protect his family from embarrassment. The timing of the payments — immediately after the potentially damaging “Access Hollywood” tape was released and right before the election — makes that claim implausible.

As many have pointed out, Michael Cohen, Mr. Trump’s former lawyer and fixer, is a witness with a remarkable amount of baggage. But as with most business records cases, his testimony will largely add color to the tweets, handwritten notes, bank documents and shell corporations. Documents don’t lie.

More important, jurors are particularly good at applying common sense. Mr. Trump didn’t go to all this trouble just to protect his family members, who might have known about accusations of his involvement with the porn star Stormy Daniels or similar ones. We may never learn which crime the jurors believe Trump was seeking to commit or cover up, but they can still conclude beyond a reasonable doubt that this was his intent.

It is not unusual for lawyers to give narrative arcs to their legal theories, reasons to care about the evidence and animating thoughts that may make jurors more inclined to convict or acquit.

When the jurors deliberate, they will weigh the warring narratives in light of the evidence, and the judge will instruct them in the law. Then the narrative frames should recede into the background. The key is to offer one that is both captivating and closely tied to the facts so that when the jurors put the pieces of evidence together, it is the story they believe.

If one side promises too much, it risks losing the jurors. In their opening remarks, Mr. Trump’s lawyers insisted that he was innocent, that all the witnesses were liars. Such a sweeping theory is a dangerous strategy because if the jurors believe part of the prosecution’s case, just one or two of the witnesses, then the jurors may lose faith in the defense altogether.

For the prosecution, the elements of the crime in this case do not require a finding that Mr. Trump interfered with the 2016 election. Nor does it matter whether he had sex with Ms. Daniels. Instead, the real elements concern the way Mr. Trump used his business for a cover-up. By emphasizing the crime he was intending to conceal rather than the false business records, the prosecution also risks confusing the jury into thinking about whether the lies affected the election. It might lead them to wonder why Mr. Trump wasn’t charged with this alleged election crime by the federal government — a talking point that he has promoted publicly.

Even if the case seems simpler in this light, we are still left with the question: Is it really worth charging a former president for this? While the New York business records law is important, it is no doubt true that the conduct pales in comparison with the effort to overthrow the 2020 election, at issue in the special counsel Jack Smith’s Jan. 6 prosecution of Mr. Trump.

Taking this case on its own terms as a business records case offers a different and arguably more convincing way to defend its legitimacy. It is a simple case that is similar to hundreds of other cases brought in New York. The simplicity and run-of-the-mill nature of the prosecution make it easier to defend against claims of politicization in the following sense: Mr. Trump was a businessman for many years in New York long before he was president. If others would be prosecuted for this conduct and no man is above the law, then he should be, too.

So by all means, listen to the stories that the lawyers tell, soak up the drama of hush-money payments and the alternate universe in which Hillary Clinton won the election. But just as the jurors should ultimately consider the facts and the law, it would be wise for everyone else to focus on what the case is really about.

Rebecca Roiphe, a former assistant district attorney in the Manhattan District Attorney’s Office, is a law professor at New York Law School.

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Sophia Bush Reflects on Coming Out By Sharing Quote from Poet Maggie Smith: 'We Are All Nesting Dolls'

The actress confirmed her relationship with former soccer player Ashlyn Harris in a striking personal essay for 'Glamour'

Dia Dipasupil/WireImage

Sophia Bush is feeling freer than ever after coming to terms with her sexuality . 

In a candid essay for Glamour 's April cover, the actress, 41, reflected on her divorce from Grant Hughes and revealed her relationship with soccer player Ashlyn Harris . She also admitted that this year felt like her “very first birthday” as she wrote, “I finally feel like I can breathe.”

Bush continued to reflect on the striking piece on Instagram, revealing that poet Maggie Smith has inspired much of her revelations — and her thoughts on her birthday, in particular.

“I feel like last summer I had my very first birthday. My own,” Bush wrote in a post shared on April 28. “And last summer Maggie Smith’s words helped me begin to understand why. From afar, she helped me put myself back together.”

“She said: ‘How I picture it: We are all nesting dolls, carrying the earlier iterations of ourselves inside. We carry the past inside us. We take ourselves— all of our selves —wherever we go. Inside forty-something me is the woman I was in my thirties, the woman I was in my twenties, the teenager I was, the child I was… I still carry these versions of myself. It’s a kind of reincarnation without death: all these different lives we get to live in this one body, as ourselves,’” the One Tree Hill alum shared.

Bush continued, “This week I got to share my own words, that I wrote down from the bottom of my ever-evolving heart. When I uttered ‘I really love who I am, at this age, and in this moment’ I sort of couldn’t believe it. It just fell out of me. Simple. But profound. I’ve always wanted to feel that in my bones. Suddenly I do. It took a long time and a lot of work to get here.”

She concluded her post with a message of support to all those who have resonated with her words and her story in the days since it was published. “We are all in this together. Walking each other home. Here is to the becoming ✨.”

Paul Morigi/Getty

In the essay, Bush admitted that much of her life — including her marriage to Grant Hughes — “all came crashing down at once ” during her run on the West End’s 2:22: A Ghost Story , which she exited early due to health issues .

“It was clear that my body was screaming and I had to listen. It was hard for me to accept. I was part of a team. But I needed to go home, where my doctors (and, truthfully, my health insurance) could get a better handle on my symptoms,” she shared. “My time in London was over. So was my marriage. It all came crashing down at once.”

Now, Bush is “taking deep breaths again” and is finally feeling settled inside herself. Her relationship with Harris, 38, began in the summer of 2023 as they were both healing from separations from their respective spouses. (The former soccer player officially filed for divorce from her wife of three years, Ali Krieger , in October 2023.)

The first time Bush asked Harris to hang out sans other friends ended up being a transformative four-hour dinner that she described as one of "the most surreal experiences."

“Maybe it was all fated. Maybe it really is a version of invisible string theory. I don’t really know,” she wrote. “But I do know that for a sparkly moment I felt like maybe the universe had been conspiring for me. And that feeling that I have in my bones is one I’ll hold on to no matter where things go from here.”

Never miss a story — sign up for PEOPLE's free daily newsletter to stay up-to-date on the best of what PEOPLE has to offer​​, from celebrity news to compelling human interest stories. 

Bush and Harris' relationship began last fall, and PEOPLE confirmed that October that their romantic connection was "recent" as they were "both beginning new chapters." After her Glamour essay was published, Bush made her red carpet debut with Harris at the 2024 White House Correspondents' Dinner in Washington, D.C. on April 27.

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The Last Thing This Supreme Court Could Do to Shock Us

There will be no more self-soothing after this..

For three long years, Supreme Court watchers mollified themselves (and others) with vague promises that when the rubber hit the road, even the ultraconservative Federalist Society justices of the Roberts court would put democracy before party whenever they were finally confronted with the legal effort to hold Donald Trump accountable for Jan. 6. There were promising signs: They had, after all, refused to wade into the Trumpian efforts to set aside the election results in 2020. They had, after all, hewed to a kind of sanity in batting away Trumpist claims about presidential records (with the lone exception of Clarence Thomas, too long marinated in the Ginni-scented Kool-Aid to be capable of surprising us, but he was just one vote). We promised ourselves that there would be cool heads and grand bargains and that even though the court might sometimes help Trump in small ways, it would privilege the country in the end. We kept thinking that at least for Justices Brett Kavanaugh and Neil Gorsuch and Chief Justice John Roberts , the voice of reasoned never-Trumpers might still penetrate the Fox News fog. We told ourselves that at least six justices, and maybe even seven, of the most MAGA-friendly court in history would still want to ensure that this November’s elections would not be the last in history. Political hacks they may be, but they were not lawless ones.

On Thursday, during oral arguments in Trump v. United States , the Republican-appointed justices shattered those illusions. This was the case we had been waiting for, and all was made clear—brutally so. These justices donned the attitude of cynical partisans, repeatedly lending legitimacy to the former president’s outrageous claims of immunity from criminal prosecution. To at least five of the conservatives, the real threat to democracy wasn’t Trump’s attempt to overturn the election—but the Justice Department’s efforts to prosecute him for the act. These justices fear that it is Trump’s prosecution for election subversion that will “destabilize” democracy, requiring them to read a brand-new principle of presidential immunity into a Constitution that guarantees nothing of the sort. They evinced virtually no concern for our ability to continue holding free and fair elections that culminate in a peaceful transfer of power. They instead offered endless solicitude for the former president who fought that transfer of power.

However the court disposes of Trump v. U.S. , the result will almost certainly be precisely what the former president craves: more delays, more hearings, more appeals—more of everything but justice . This was not a legitimate claim from the start, but a wild attempt by Trump’s attorneys to use his former role as chief executive of the United States to shield himself from the consequences of trying to turn the presidency into a dictatorship. After so much speculation that these reasonable, rational jurists would surely dispose of this ridiculous case quickly and easily, Thursday delivered a morass of bad-faith hand-wringing on the right about the apparently unbearable possibility that a president might no longer be allowed to wield his powers of office in pursuit of illegal ends. Just as bad, we heard a constant minimization of Jan. 6, for the second week in a row , as if the insurrection were ancient history, and history that has since been dramatically overblown, presumably for Democrats’ partisan aims.

We got an early taste of this minimization in Trump v. Anderson , the Colorado case about removing Trump from the ballot. The court didn’t have the stomach to discuss the violence at the Capitol in its sharply divided decision, which found for Trump ; indeed, the majority barely mentioned the events of Jan. 6 at all when rejecting Colorado’s effort to bar from the ballot an insurrectionist who tried to steal our democracy. But we let that one be, because we figured special counsel Jack Smith would ride to the rescue. Smith has indicted Trump on election subversion charges related to Jan. 6, and the biggest obstacle standing between the special counsel and a trial has been the former president’s outlandish claim that he has absolute immunity from criminal charges as a result of his having been president at the time. Specifically, Trump alleges that his crusade to overturn the election constituted “official acts” that are immune from criminal liability under a heretofore unknown constitutional principle that the chief executive is quite literally above the law.

The U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit held in February that the president does not have blanket or absolute immunity for all actions taken in office, including “official” acts performed under the guise of executing the law (for example, Trump’s attempt to weaponize the DOJ against election results under the pretense of investigating fraud). The D.C. Circuit’s emphatic, cross-ideological decision should have been summarily affirmed by SCOTUS within days. Instead, the justices set it for arguments two months down the road—a bad omen, to put it mildly . Even then, many court watchers held out hope that Thursday morning’s oral arguments were to be the moment for the nine justices of the Supreme Court to finally indicate their readiness to take on Trump, Trumpism, illiberalism, and slouching fascism.

It was not to be. Justice Samuel Alito best captured the spirit of arguments when he asked gravely “what is required for the functioning of a stable democratic society” (good start!), then answered his own question: total immunity for criminal presidents (oh, dear). Indeed, anything but immunity would, he suggested, encourage presidents to commit more crimes to stay in office: “Now, if an incumbent who loses a very close, hotly contested election knows that a real possibility after leaving office is not that the president is going to be able to go off into a peaceful retirement but that the president may be criminally prosecuted by a bitter political opponent, will that not lead us into a cycle that destabilizes the functioning of our country as a democracy?” Never mind that the president in question did not leave office peacefully and is not sitting quietly in retirement but is instead running for presidential office once again. No, if we want criminal presidents to leave office when they lose, we have to let them commit crimes scot-free. If ever a better articulation of the legal principle “Don’t make me hit you again” has been proffered at an oral argument, it’s hard to imagine it.

Justice Sonia Sotomayor spoke to this absurdity when she responded in what could only be heard as a cri de coeur: “Stable democratic society needs good faith of public officials,” she said. “That good faith assumes that they will follow the law.” The justice noted that despite all the protections in place, a democracy can sometimes “potentially fail.” She concluded: “In the end, if it fails completely, it’s because we destroyed our democracy on our own, isn’t it?”

But it was probably too late to make this plea, because by that point we had heard both Alito and Gorsuch opine that presidents must be protected at all costs from the whims of overzealous deep state prosecutors brandishing “vague” criminal statutes. We heard Kavanaugh opine mindlessly on the independent counsel statute and how mean it is to presidents, reading extensively from Justice Antonin Scalia’s dissent in a case arguing that independent counsels are unconstitutional. (Yes, Kavanaugh worked for Ken Starr , the independent counsel.) If you’re clocking a trend here, it’s gender. Just as was the case in Anderson , it’s the women justices doing the second-shift work here: both probing the thorny constitutional and criminal questions and signaling a refusal to tank democracy over abstractions and deflections. As was the case in the EMTALA arguments, it’s the women who understand what it looks like to cheat death.

Is the president, Sotomayor asked, immune from prosecution if he orders the military to assassinate a political rival? Yes, said John Sauer, who represented Trump—though it “depends on the circumstances.” Could the president, Justice Elena Kagan asked, order the military to stage a coup? Yes, Sauer said again, depending on the circumstances. To which Kagan tartly replied that Sauer’s insistence on specifying the “circumstances” boiled down to “Under my test, it’s an official act, but that sure sounds bad, doesn’t it?” (Cue polite laughter in the chamber.)

This shameless, maximalist approach should have drawn anger from the conservative justices—indignation, at least, that Sauer took them for such easy marks. But it turns out that he calibrated his terrible arguments just right. The cynicism on display was truly breathtaking: Alito winkingly implied to Michael Dreeben, representing Smith, that we all know that Justice Department lawyers are political hacks, right? Roberts mocked Dreeben for saying “There’s no reason to worry because the prosecutor will act in good faith.”

The conservative justices are so in love with their own voices and so convinced of their own rectitude that they monologued about how improper it was for Dreeben to keep talking about the facts of this case, as opposed to the “abstract” principles at play. “I’m talking about the future!” Kavanaugh declared at one point to Dreeben, pitching himself not as Trump’s human shield but as a principled defender of the treasured constitutional right of all presidents to do crime. (We’re sure whatever rule he cooks up will apply equally to Democratic presidents, right?) Kavanaugh eventually landed on the proposition that prosecutors may charge presidents only under criminal statutes that explicitly state they can be applied to the president. Which, as Sotomayor pointed out, would mean no charges everywhere, because just a tiny handful of statutes are stamped with the label “CAN BE APPLIED TO PRESIDENT.”

The words bold and fearless action were repeated on a loop today, as a kind of mantra of how effective presidents must be free to act quickly and decisively to save democracy from the many unanticipated threats it faces. And yet the court—which has been asked to take bold and fearless action to deter the person who called Georgia’s secretary of state to demand that he alter the vote count, and threatened to fire DOJ officials who would not help steal an election—is backing away from its own duty. The prospect of a criminal trial for a criminal president shocked and appalled five men: Thomas, Alito, Kavanaugh, and Gorsuch suggested that Smith’s entire prosecution is unconstitutional; meanwhile, Roberts sounded eager at times to handle the case just a hair more gracefully: by cutting out its heart by preventing the jury from hearing about “official acts” (which lie at the center of the alleged conspiracy). Justice Amy Coney Barrett was far more measured, teasing out a compromise with Dreeben that would compel the trial court to tell the jury it could not impose criminal liability for these “official” acts, only “private ones.” Remember, drawing that line would require months of hearings and appeals, pushing any trial into 2025 or beyond. The president who tried to steal the most recent election is running in the next one, which is happening in mere months.

The liberal justices tried their best to make the case that justice required denying Trump’s sweeping immunity claim, permitting the trial to move forward, and sorting out lingering constitutional issues afterward, as virtually all other criminal defendants must do. They got little traction. Everyone on that bench was well aware that the entire nation was listening to arguments; that the whole nation wants to understand whether Trump’s refusal to concede the 2020 election was an existential threat to democracy or a lark. Five justices sent the message, loud and clear, that they are far more worried about Trump’s prosecution at the hands of the deep-state DOJ than about his alleged crimes, which were barely mentioned. This trial will almost certainly face yet more delays. These delays might mean that its subject could win back the presidency in the meantime and render the trial moot. But the court has now signaled that nothing he did was all that serious and that the danger he may pose is not worth reining in. The real threats they see are the ones Trump himself shouts from the rooftops: witch hunts and partisan Biden prosecutors. These men have picked their team. The rest hardly matters.

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She’s still standing — and doing stand-up.

The world’s oldest working woman comic is sharing wild details about her career on the comedy circuit, saying she’s often hit on by amorous audience members who are decades younger than her.

New Yorker D’yan Forest, 89, shared her story in an essay for The Guardian , writing: “One thing that has surprised me is the number of young men who hit on me after a show.

“I might make a joke about being a cougar and they’ll stand outside afterwards, waiting to talk to me,” she cheekily added. “They often ask me out, and it’s not my brain they’re after.”

Forest, who was born in the mid-1930s, spent decades as a singer and actress but didn’t start telling jokes until 2003.

The Manhattanite was inspired to make her fellow New Yorkers laugh again in the wake of the Sept. 11, 2001, terror attacks, which she saw happen from her apartment window.

“For a year afterwards, nobody wanted to go out or be entertained,” Forest recalled. “It was then that I started to think about comedy. I realized people needed to laugh, to enjoy themselves again, and thought that with a little training I could do it.”

“I took a few classes, tried to work out a routine, and finally plucked up the courage to get up on stage [at the age of 68]. That first time was terrifying. I had no idea what the audience would make of me.”

However, audiences were immediately tickled by the senior citizen, who soon became famed for her naughty brand of humor.

“I talk about ‘not having the energy for 69s,'” the frisky funny woman quipped. “People are surprised to hear an older person talk about sex. I’m more of a puritan in real life, but I have an onstage persona.”

Forest has even appeared at shows alongside comedy legends such as Joan Rivers and Jerry Seinfeld.

And, as she nears the age of 90, her career is still thriving.

In recent years, Forest has headlined an all-woman show at Gotham Comedy Club and appeared on “The Drew Barrymore Show,” where she was presented with the Guinness World Record for Oldest Working Female Comedian in the World.

Meanwhile, Forest still has a similar zest for life off-stage.

Earlier this year she was profiled by The Post after revealing she’s active on the dating app Tinder, where she’s looking for “fun, company and sex.”

“After a show, people young and old come up to me, saying what an inspiration I am,” she enthused in her essay for The Guardian. “They say they want to be as active as me when they reach my age.

“I’m pleased I can show that as an older person, you don’t need to take a back seat in life,” she added.

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