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Wetlands of International Importance: Status, Threats, and Future Protection

1 State Key Laboratory of Simulation and Regulation of Water Cycle in River Basin, China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research, Beijing 100038, China; moc.361@515009gnitux (T.X.); moc.rhwi@hdnay (D.Y.); moc.361@nukgnaw88ouggnip (K.W.); moc.361@5550nxil (X.L.); nc.ude.uhh@100010102071 (W.B.); moc.621@eelgnemil (M.L.)

Baisha Weng

Denghua yan, xiangnan li.

2 College of Hydrology and Water Resources, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, China

3 Department of Hydraulic Engineering, Institute of Water Resources and Hydrology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China

Xiangjun Cheng

4 China Highway Engineering Consultants Corporation Data Co., Ltd., Beijing 100089, China; moc.621@nujgnaix_gnehc

5 School of Geographical Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TH, UK; [email protected]

The 2303 Wetlands of International Importance distribute unevenly in different continents. Europe owns the largest number of sites, while Africa has the largest area of sites. More than half of the sites are affected by three or four impact factors (55%). The most significant impact factors are pollution (54%), biological resources use (53%), natural system modification (53%), and agriculture and aquaculture (42%). The main affected objects are land area and environment of the wetlands, occurred in 75% and 69% of the sites, respectively. The types most affected by land area occupation are river wetlands and lake wetlands, the types with the greatest impact on environment are marine/coastal wetlands and river wetlands, the type with the greatest impact on biodiversity is river wetlands, the types most affected by water resources regulation are marsh wetlands and river wetlands, and the types most affected by climate change are lake wetlands and marine/coastal wetlands. About one-third of the wetland sites have been artificially reconstructed. However, it is found that the proportions of natural wetland sites not affected or affected by only one factor are generally higher than that of wetland sites both containing natural wetlands and human-made wetlands, while the proportions of wetland sites both containing natural wetlands and human-made wetlands affected by three or four factors are generally higher than that of natural wetland sites. Wetland sites in the UK and Ireland are least affected among all countries. Wetland management plans in different regions still have large space for improvement, especially in Africa and Asia. The protection and restoration of global wetlands can be carried out in five aspects, including management and policy, monitoring, restoration, knowledge, and funding.

1. Introduction

Wetlands play an irreplaceable role in regulating the global climate, maintaining the global hydrological cycle, protecting the ecosystem diversity, and safeguarding human welfare [ 1 , 2 ]. Wetland ecosystems can not only bring indirect services to human beings, but also bring direct economic values to human beings [ 3 , 4 ]. The value per ha of wetland ecosystem services ranks first among all kinds of ecosystems, and the total values of wetland ecosystem services account for 47% of the values of the global ecosystem [ 3 ]. Therefore, it is one of the most important and productive ecosystems [ 4 , 5 ]. However, in past centuries, instead of attaching importance on wetlands, humans regarded wetlands as a harbor of mosquitoes, carriers of disease, and sources of death [ 6 , 7 ]. Therefore, settlers and early governments began to reclaim wetlands in large areas and make full potential use of the wetlands [ 7 ]. Due to the dual effects of human activities and natural factors, the wetland area in the world has been decreasing, and the wetland quality has been deteriorating [ 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ]. Davidson gave an astonishing fact that wetlands around the world had degraded by about 87% since 1700 in data existing regions, and the degradation mainly occurred in the 20th and early 21st centuries [ 11 ]. Dugan [ 14 ] and OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) [ 15 ] estimated that the world had lost 50% of its wetlands since 1900. Coincidentally, the Ramsar [ 16 ] and Mitsch et al. [ 5 ] also insisted that the world had lost more than half of the wetlands, and the loss mainly occurred in the 20th century. Ramsar Convention Secretariat reported a 35% reduction of global wetlands with data available between 1970 and 2015 [ 13 ]. Undoubtedly, this will also lead to a reduction in the value of wetland ecosystem services [ 12 ]. According to recent research of Costanza et al. [ 17 ], the value of marsh wetland ecosystem services decreased by 9.9 trillion dollars per year from 1997 to 2011, which was equivalent to 1.4 times of China’s GDP (Gross Domestic Product) in 2011 (if the exchange rate is 6.5). It is irrefutable that the degradation of wetlands will bring huge economic losses.

Since most of the services provided by wetland ecosystems have not been traded in the economic market, the value of wetland ecosystems continues to be neglected or underestimated by stakeholders, government, and public [ 18 ]. Wetlands are still facing the threat of loss or degradation [ 7 , 12 ]. Until recently, it has been recognized that wetlands not only contain the value of biodiversity and as habitats for plant animal and fish species, but also can bring many environmental services or functions [ 4 , 5 , 17 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 ]. Thus, wetland policy has begun to shift from encouraging development to protecting and rational utilization [ 24 ]. In the context of cognition transformation, the Ramsar Convention was signed in 1971 [ 4 , 24 ]. It is not only a global intergovernmental treaty of wetland conservation and wise use, but also the first environmental convention in the world [ 25 , 26 ]. Ramsar Convention aims at protecting wetland ecosystem function, maintaining wetland culture, and finally realizing sustainable socio-economic development through local, regional and national action and international cooperation [ 13 , 25 , 27 ]. Promoted by the Ramsar Convention, countries all over the world have participated in the research of wetland protection and wise use [ 13 ]. Now, the Ramsar List is the world’s largest network of protected areas [ 28 ]. By now, there are 2303 Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Sites) on the territories of 169 countries across the world, covering about 229 million ha [ 28 ], which accounts for about 19% of the global wetland area (which is recorded as 1210 million ha) [ 13 , 29 ].

Although there several positive news stories about the Ramsar Sites, they are still under threat [ 12 , 13 ]. In 2014, the NRSCC (National Remote Sensing Center of China) monitored 100 major Ramsar Sites around the world. They found that the total area of these wetlands decreased by less than 1% between 2001 to 2013, but the wetland ecosystems had degenerated [ 30 ]. According to the analysis results of Wetland Extend Trends (WET) index developed by UN WCMC (UN Environment World Conservation Monitoring Centre) [ 31 ], the indexes in the Ramsar regions all showed continuing progressive downward trends between 1970 to 2017 [ 13 , 32 ]. Moser et al. [ 33 ] showed that 84% of Ramsar’s listed wetlands had experienced or been threatened by ecological changes. Analysis of the major threats to wetlands in Asia [ 34 ] and the Neotropics [ 35 ] revealed that 85% and 81% of the wetland sites in Asia and Neotropics were mainly threatened by hunting, pollution, agricultural drainage, settlements, and urbanization [ 33 ]. A study by Kleijn et al. [ 36 ] suggested that it was unclear whether the increase of species abundance in Ramsar Sites was caused by conservation management or already existed before conservation designation. Guareschi et al. [ 37 ] analyzed 36 Ramsar Sites in southern Spain and found water-birds were not a reliable indicator of the status of wetland ecosystem health, which was consistent with the result of Kleijn et al. [ 36 ]. They also suggested that it is necessary to create a diversified and complete network to protect the wetland biodiversity. Finlayson [ 10 ] found ineffective management at a national level by analyzing the Contracting Parties` national reports. It can be concluded that the Ramsar Convention plays a positive role in wetland protection, but the protection and restoration of wetlands need to be further improved.

However, there are few studies relating to the status of the Ramsar Sites on a country or a region, and the results are mixed [ 12 ]. Little attention has been paid to the effectiveness of wetland conservation [ 38 ]. It is unknown whether these wetlands have been effectively protected after being added into the Ramsar List. In order to obtain the basic and synthesis information of the wetlands on the Ramsar List, a systematical survey on the distribution of the Ramsar Sites has been conducted. Meanwhile, the threat factors have also been analyzed to find out what are the main factors affecting the Wetlands of International Importance, distributions of different factors, and the main impact factors of different wetland types, which can indirectly reflect the status and future trends of global wetlands. In view of the continuous expansion of human-made wetlands, the impact differences between natural wetlands and wetlands containing artificial reconstruction have also been explored, which can provide some reference for wetland protection and restoration. Knowledge of the basic and synthesis information of the wetlands is very important for formulating appropriate policies and implementing priorities [ 39 ]. Finally, some suggestions for future wetland management and protection have been put forward according to the relevant information.

2. Data and Methods

According to the paper drafting time, the deadline for data acquisition is 17th April 2018. The specific information of the 2303 wetlands was obtained from the Ramsar official website [ 28 ]. In order to express data sources simply, we just provide the basic web link as the data source, because the data collection and statistics process involves multiple web interface of each country in the Ramsar official website. Specific details need to be accessed to each country`s webpage on the basis of this webpage (for details, see Reference [ 28 ]). The authors classify the data and adjust some sites according to the geographic location. Other data sources are related to government reports and papers.

2.2. Classification of Wetland Impact Factors

Ramsar Convention classifies wetland impact factors into 12 categories, which can be divided into human factors and natural factors, as listed in Table 1 [ 28 ]. According to the affected objects, the human activities factors are mainly divided into land area impact (including the land occupation of agriculture and aquaculture, natural system modifications, human settlements, and transportation and service corridors), environment impact (including the influence from pollution, human intrusions and disturbance, and energy production and mining), biodiversity impact (including overuse of biological resources use and invasive and other problematic species and genes), and water resources impact (mainly including water regulation) ( Table 1 ). The natural factors include climate change and severe weather impact and geological events impact [ 28 ].

Classification of wetland impact factors.

The data source of Table 1 is the Ramsar official website. For details, see Reference [ 28 ].

In order to further qualitatively analyze the extent to which wetlands are affected by human factors, the authors simply classify the types of wetlands affected by human factors. In this study, the authors use the number of impact factors to indirectly reflect the extent of wetland impact. Generally, the more factors affecting wetlands, the greater the threat to wetlands. Although this method cannot quantitatively reflect the extent of wetland impacts, to a certain extent, it can reflect the probability of wetland threat. Because of the data restrictions, the authors classify the wetlands simply. According to the above four human factors, wetlands that have no main human factors are divided into level 0, and wetlands that are affected by one factor are divided into level 1. By analogy, they are divided into 0 to 4 levels. The classification results are shown in Table 2 .

The levels of the wetland sites in each continent (%).

Natural means natural inland wetlands or natural marine/coastal wetlands. Non-natural means inland wetland sites both containing natural inland wetlands and human-made wetlands; or means marine/coastal wetland sites both containing natural marine/coastal wetlands and human-made wetlands. The unit of level 0 to 4 is %, which represent the wetland amount ratios of different levels.

3. Distributions of the Ramsar Sites

Ramsar Convention divides wetlands into inland wetlands, marine/coastal wetlands, and human-made wetlands [ 13 , 28 , 40 ]. The inland wetlands include natural inland wetland sites and the sites both containing natural inland wetlands and human-made wetlands. While the marine/coastal wetlands include natural marine/coastal wetland sites and the sites both containing natural marine/coastal wetlands and human-made wetlands. Ramsar Convention also classifies the above three wetland types into 43 subtypes [ 28 , 39 ]. However, it is very difficult to obtain the relevant information of these subtypes separately [ 39 ]. In order to facilitate the follow-up research of inland wetlands, this study further subdivides inland wetlands into river wetlands, lake wetlands, and marsh wetlands based on the references of the Ramsar Convention, China Forestry Bureau, and wetland researchers [ 25 , 28 , 41 ].

The 2303 Ramsar Sites distribute unevenly in different continents. Europe has the largest number of sites, the total amount is 1004, occupying 44% of all Ramsar Sites ( Figure 1 ). But the area of these sites occupies just 6% of the total area. Although the amounts of the sites in Africa (397) and South America (146) account for only 17% and 6% of the total sites, respectively. However, due to the larger area of individual wetlands, the area of these sites account for 48% (110.0 million ha) and 17% (39.6 million ha) of the total area, respectively ( Figure 1 ). The amount ratios of the sites in Asia (368) and North America (309) are 16% and 13%, respectively. And their area ratios are 12% (27.5 million ha) and 13% (28.9 million ha), respectively. Oceania has the least wetland sites, with a total of 79, occupying only 4% of the all, and the area ratio is also 4% (8.6 million ha). According to the wetland area of each continent in the latest published papers and reports, protected area of the six continents listed on the Ramsar Convention accounted for 92% (Africa), 7% (Asia), 9% (Europe), 21% (South America), 9% (North America), and 25% (Oceania) of the total wetland area on each continent, respectively [ 13 , 29 ].

The amount and area ( a ), amount ratio ( b ), and area ratio ( c ) of the Ramsar Sites in each continent. The data source of Figure 1 is the Ramsar official website. For details, see Reference [ 28 ].

Countries with the most sites are the United Kingdom (174 sites, accounting for 7.6% of the total sites) and Mexico (142 sites, accounting for 6.2% of the total sites), but the total area of them are 1.3 million ha (accounting for just 0.6% of the total area) and 8.7 million ha (accounting for 3.8% of the total area), respectively. Bolivia has the largest area under the Ramsar Convention`s protection, which is mainly distributed between 10°S and 20°S, with a total area of 14.8 million ha (accounting for 6.5% of the total area, while the amount proportion is just 0.5%); Countries with a protected area exceeding 10.0 million ha also include Congo, Canada, Chad, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and the Russian Federation, which are mainly distributed between 10°S–20°N and 40°N–60°N. The single sites with the largest protection area are the Ngiri-Tumba-Maindombe (a lake wetland from the Democratic Republic of Congo, with an area of 6.6 million ha, accounting for 2.9% of the total area) and the Queen Maud Gulf (a coastal wetland from Canada, with an area of 6.3 million ha, accounting for 2.7% of the total area). Sites with a protected area exceeding 5.0 million ha also include the Grands affluents (a river wetland from Congo, with an area of 5.9 million ha), the Sudd (a marsh wetland from South Sudan, with an area of 5.7 million ha), and the Okavango Delta System (a river wetland from Botswana, with an area of 5.5 million ha). Due to different protection purposes, four wetlands with an area of only one hectare have been added into the Ramsar List, which are the Ganghwa Maehwamareum Habitat in the Republic of Korea, the Somerset Long Bay Pond in the UK, the Ile Alcatraz in Guinea, and the Mare Aux Cochons high altitude freshwater wetlands in Seychelles.

The distribution of different types of wetlands is discrepant in the six continents. For inland wetlands, river wetlands account for the largest area proportion of 44%, and lake wetlands and marsh wetlands account for 27% and 29%, respectively. Inland wetlands mainly distribute in Africa (58% of the total area, of which 56% is river wetlands, 23% is lake wetlands, and 21% is marsh wetlands) ( Figure 2 a), which are primarily located in the Okavango Delta and the flood plain of Niger River, Zambezi River, Orange River, Nile River, etc. ( Figure 3 ). Human-made wetlands are mainly reservoirs, most of which distribute in Asia (Pakistan and India) and Europe (UK and France). Marine/coastal wetlands mainly distribute in North America (Mexico) and Africa (the countries along the Atlantic coast) ( Figure 3 ). There are 37.0% of the inland wetland sites and 28% of the marine/coastal wetland sites have been artificially reconstructed. The inland wetland sites containing human-made wetland sites mainly distribute in Europe (59.0%, primarily in the countries located in West and South Europe), Africa (15.0%, primarily in Congo, Burkina Faso, and Algeria), and Asia (13.3%, primarily along the Yangtze River). The marine/coastal wetland sites containing human-made wetland sites are mainly located in Europe (46.9%), North America (18.0%), Africa (15.4%), and Asia (11.0%) ( Figure 2 b). Noting that 414 wetland sites are distributed in high altitude areas, of which, the main types are alpine marsh wetlands (43%) and alpine lake wetlands (37%), mainly distributed in Africa (31%, the Atlas Mountains and the southern mountain region), Europe (29%, the Alps and the Iberian Peninsula), and Asia (21%, the Himalayas and the Mongolia Plateau).

The area ratio ( a ) and amount ratio ( b ) of different wetland types in each continent. The data source of Figure 2 is the Ramsar official website. For details, see Reference [ 28 ].

The distribution map of the Ramsar Sites. By referring to the free data obtained from the Ramsar’s official website, the authors use the Arcgis 10.2 software (ESRI (Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc.), Redlands, CA, USA) to draw Figure 3 . The data source is Reference [ 28 ].

4. Threats to the Ramsar Sites

Impact factors of wetland can be divided into wetland transformation and wetland destruction [ 5 ]. The degradation of most wetlands is affected by destructed factors, such as agriculture, infrastructure development, water use, pollution, etc. [ 13 , 40 , 42 , 43 ]. By 1985, it was estimated that 56% to 65% of wetlands in Europe and North America were drained for agriculture, which in Asia, South America, and Africa were 27%, 6%, and 2%, respectively [ 4 ]. Total loss of wetlands used for agriculture in the world accounted for 26% [ 15 , 44 , 45 ]. In the first 50 years of the 20th century, the loss of wetlands occurred mainly in Europe and North America. Since the 1950s, wetlands in tropical and subtropical regions have been increasingly degraded or lost, due to the conversion to agriculture use [ 15 , 46 ]. The use of water resources is another major cause of inland wetland degradation. To meet the growing demand for irrigation and hydropower, many rivers around the world are strictly controlled by dams [ 44 ]. There are 37% of the world’s 227 main rivers have been seriously affected, and 23% have been moderately affected [ 47 ]. There are still many rivers around the world threatened by large dams under construction or planned construction, especially in developing regions, such as the Yangtze River Basin in China, the La Plata Basin in South America, and the Tigris and Euphrates River Basin in the Middle East [ 47 ]. Taub [ 48 ] reported that, because of the increasing water demand, all rivers in Japan had built artificial lakes. Ironically, due to the silting problems, these lakes had lost 80% of their capacity. Pollution caused by population growth and socio-economic development is also a major factor in leading to wetland degradation and loss [ 13 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 ]. Eventually, the water resources shortage and pollution will bring about threats like wetland ecosystem degradation and species invasion [ 55 ].

A Ramsar Site means a wetland reserve. The area of a Ramsar Site and the actual area of wetland in a site are two different concepts. In general, the area of a Ramsar Site will not change unless it is expanded, adjusted, or merged with other protected areas [ 38 ]. The wetland loss mentioned here refers to the actual area loss of wetland, which can be affected by human activities and climate change [ 13 , 47 ]. Despite the concerted efforts of local, regional and national actions and international cooperation to protect these wetlands, human activities and climate change continue to have a significant influence on these wetlands as a result of economic development, population growth, and climate warming, etc. [ 12 , 13 ]. Because of the limitations of data acquisition at present, the authors use the incidence of impact factors to reflect the threats of various factors to these wetlands. Although the incidence cannot fully quantify the impact extent of each factor on wetlands, it can reflect the overall status of each factor in all wetlands to a certain extent. Here, the authors do not analyze in depth how each factor affects the wetlands and how quantitative the impact is, which will be the research directions in the future.

4.1. Threats to All the Ramsar Sites

4.1.1. distributions of the threats.

Among different factors, the impact on the land area is the most serious, occurred in 75% of the sites. The percentages of affected wetland sites in five continents (except Europe) are all over 80%, and that of Europe is as high as 65% ( Figure 4 a). The impact on the land area is mainly reflected in the occupation of wetland area by agriculture and aquaculture, natural system modifications (including vegetation clearance/land conversion and dams and water management/use), human settlements, and transportation and service corridors construction. Among them, the impact of natural system modifications is the most serious, occurred in 53% of the sites, followed by the impact of agriculture and aquaculture (42%), and human settlements (34%) ( Figure 4 b). Regions with greater impact of natural system modification land encroachment are Oceania (68%, mainly distributed in the regions along the southeast coasts and the Darling River), Africa (65%, mainly distributed in the regions along the west and southeast coasts, the Victoria Lake, the Tanganyika Lake, the Chad Lake, the Niger River, and the Zambezi River), and North America (61%, mainly distributed in the southwest coasts of Mexico). Regions with greater impact of agriculture and aquaculture land occupation are Africa (60%, mainly distributed in the regions along the north coasts and the Niger River), South Africa (51%, mainly distributed in the regions along the west coasts), North America (46%, mainly distributed in the southwest coasts of Mexico), and Asia (46%, mainly distributed in the regions along the Indus River, the Ganges River, and the northeast coasts). The regions more seriously affected by human settlement are North America (48%, mainly distributed in the southwest coasts of Mexico), Africa (44%, mainly distributed in the regions along the northwest coasts), and Asia (40%, mainly distributed in the regions along the Indus River, the south and east coasts). And the regions more seriously affected by transportation and service corridors are South America (30%, mainly distributed in the regions along the west coasts).

The amount ratios of impact factors to Ramsar Sites in each continent; ( a ) is for total impact factors; ( b ) is for land area impact; ( c ) is for environment impact; and ( d ) is for biodiversity impact; ( e ) is for water resources impact; and ( f ) is for natural factors.

The impact on the environment is also a major factor, especially in South America and North America, where 75% and 74% of the wetland sites are affected, respectively. At the same time, the amount ratios of the sites whose environment have been affected in the other four continents are all more than 60% ( Figure 4 a). The impact on the environment is mainly caused by pollutants coming from household sewage, urban waste water, garbage and solid waste, agricultural and forestry effluents, and industrial effluents, etc. The amount ratio of wetland sites affected by pollutants in all continents is about 54% (ranking the top of all impact factors), of which, North America is the largest (63%, mainly distributed in the southwest coasts of Mexico) ( Figure 4 c). The human intrusions and disturbance of recreational and tourism activities will also bring impact to the wetland environment. The most serious regions are Europe and South America, with ratios of 41% (mainly distributed in all the coastal regions and the regions along the Danube River and Rhine River) and 34% (mainly distributed in the regions along the northwest coasts), respectively. There are also some regions where energy production and mining activities have an impact on the wetland environment, mainly distributed in South America (with the amount ratio of 35%, mainly located in the regions along the west coasts).

A myriad of wetland sites is also affected by biodiversity resources overuse, especially in Africa, South America, and North America, with amount ratios of 71%, 68%, and 56%, respectively ( Figure 4 a). Invasive and other problematic species and genes is also a major impact, with 62% of the wetlands in Oceania have affected by it ( Figure 4 d).

Data analysis shows that the water resources of these wetlands in all continents have been impacted. The percentage of impacted wetlands ranges from 30% to 50% ( Figure 4 a,e), especially in Oceania (mainly distributed in the regions along the Murray River) and Europe (mainly distributed in the regions along the Rhine River, the Danube River, the Vanern Lake, and most coasts). Water resources are intercepted in 50% of the wetlands in Oceania, which may be related to the distribution pattern of water resources in Australia. Australia is the continent with the least precipitation. Although the water resources per capita in Australia is large, the total water resources of it are less. Due to the extremely uneven spatial and temporal distribution of precipitation in Australia, coupled with the increasing water consumption brought by population growth, a large number of water conservancy projects need to be built to regulate water storage [ 56 ]. As a result, the natural water source of the wetland was intercepted, and the ecological water source of the wetland was reduced. It can be noted that 40.6% of the wetland sites in Europe also suffered from water resources being impacted. The increasing water use of agriculture and tourism in Europe leads to the shortage of water resources, and the continuous over-withdrawal of water resources of rivers, lakes, and wetlands, resulting in the lack of ecological water [ 57 ].

Some wetlands are affected by climate change and extreme weather, geological disasters, etc., of which, climate change and extreme weather are the main nature factors [ 58 , 59 ]. The most affected type is marine/coastal wetlands (41%), followed by lake wetlands (24%) and marsh wetlands (23%) ( Figure 4 f). From latitude zoning, the most influential region is 40°S–50°S (56% of the wetland sites in this area have been affected by climate change and severe weather, it is mainly distributed in the southeast area of Oceania.), followed by 10°S–20°S (28%, it is mainly distributed in the north regions of Oceania and the southeast areas of Africa.), 10°N–20°N (28%, it is mainly distributed in the northeast regions of Africa and Mexico), 20°S–30°S (20%), and 30°N–40°N (19%, it is mainly distributed in Central Asia, the Tibetan Plateau regions of China and the coastal regions of Japan, and the arid desert climate zones in northern Africa). The most affected continent is Oceania, of which, 30 out of 72 wetlands are affected by climate change and extreme weather. The largest amount of wetland sites affected by climate change and severe weather is Africa (105), followed by Europe (85) and Asia (71). Wetlands affected by geological events are mainly marine/coastal wetlands (62%) and inland alpine wetlands (26%), which may be caused by seabed and mountain geological activities.

From the perspective of wetland types, the types most affected by land area occupation are river wetlands (87%) and lake wetlands (80%), the types with greatest impact on the environment are marine/coastal wetlands (72%) and river wetlands (70%), the type with the greatest impact on biodiversity is river wetlands (79%), the types most affected by water resources regulation are marsh wetlands (45%) and river wetlands (42%), and the types most affected by climate change are lake wetlands (19%) and marine/coastal wetlands (15%).

Remarkably, 63% of the sites in the United Kingdom and 44% of the sites in Ireland have not been affected, and 24% of the sites in the United Kingdom and 49% of the sites in Ireland are threatened by only one or two factors. The water regulation and pollution are the main factors affecting wetlands in the United Kingdom, while pollution and agriculture land use are the main factors affecting wetlands in Ireland. Wetlands sites in the United Kingdom and Ireland are least affected in all countries.

4.1.2. Levels of the Impacted Wetlands

From the classification results, more than half of the sites affected by three or four impact factors (55%), of which Oceania is the most serious, with level 3 and 4 accounting for 68%, followed by North America (63%) and South America (63%). The proportions of level 3 and 4 of other continents are 60% in Africa, 51% in Asia, and 50% in Europe ( Table 2 ). The unaffected sites (level 0) mainly distributed in the United Kingdom and Ireland ( Figure 5 ). The sites affected by one impact factors (level 1) mainly located in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Spain, and Denmark in Europe, Togo in Africa, China and South Korea in Asia, Canada and Mexico in North America ( Figure 5 ), and the sites affected by three or four impact factors scattered in each continent ( Figure 5 ).

The distribution of the sites with different levels. By referring to the free data obtained from the Ramsar’s official website and conducting relevant calculations and statistics, the authors use the Arcgis 10.2 software to draw Figure 5 . The data source is Reference [ 28 ].

About one-third of the wetland sites have been artificially reconstructed, which may have adverse effects on wetland ecological functions. The classification results show that the proportions of natural wetland sites not affected or affected by only one factor are generally higher than that of the sites both containing natural wetlands and human-made wetlands (11% for inland wetlands and 12% for marine/coastal wetlands). The proportion differences in each continent are 9% for inland wetlands and 11% for marine/coastal wetlands in Africa, 18% for inland wetlands and 12% for marine/coastal wetlands in Asia, 17% for inland wetlands and 16% for marine/coastal wetlands in Europe, 14% for marine/coastal wetlands in South America, 6% for inland wetlands and 16% for marine/coastal wetlands in North America, and 10% for inland wetlands in Oceania ( Table 2 ). The proportions of the sites both containing natural wetlands and human-made wetlands affected by three or four factors are generally higher than that of natural wetland sites (16% for inland wetlands, and 19% for marine/coastal wetlands). The proportion differences in each continent are 8% for inland wetlands and 25% for marine/coastal wetlands in Africa, 26% for inland wetlands and 12% for marine/coastal wetlands in Asia, 20% for inland wetlands and 22% for marine/coastal wetlands in Europe, 6% for inland wetlands and 20% for marine/coastal wetlands in South America, 11% for inland wetlands and 22% for marine/coastal wetlands in North America, and 18% for marine/coastal wetlands in Oceania ( Table 2 ).

However, it is noteworthy that wetland conservation in China is in a transitional stage, and wetland restoration and reconstruction projects have been vigorously carried out in recent years. Forty-two percent of the inland wetland sites and 38% of the marine/coastal wetland sites have been artificially reconstructed or altered (which are all higher than the global average). Among the 20 typical Ramsar Sites in China, monitored by the NRSCC, the area of human-made wetlands accounts for as much as 50%, which has significant limitations on maintaining the overall ecological function of wetlands [ 30 ].

4.2. Degradation and Threats of the Typical Ramsar Sites

Due to the limitations of data acquisition, here, the authors mainly discuss the degradation and threats of the wetlands in typical countries and typical wetland areas.

4.2.1. Asia

In 2014, the NRSCC has monitored 20 Ramsar Sites in Asia. They found that the total area of these 20 wetland sites decreased by about 1% between 2001 and 2013, the total water area and the landscape integrity also showed decreasing trends, and the wetland ecosystems had degenerated, which was closely related to insufficient water supply and climate change [ 30 ]. The Sanjiang Plain is China’s largest natural marsh wetland distribution areas [ 60 ]. From 1954 to 2015, due to agricultural reclamation, the area of wetlands in Sanjiang Plain had dropped dramatically by 79.4% (about 2.99 million ha) [ 61 ]. In the eight wetland sites in Sanjiang Plain monitored by the NRSCC, the area of these wetlands also decreased by 33,600 ha between 2001 and 2013. The main reason for the wetland loss was the transformation of natural wetlands to agricultural land and constructed wetlands, while the main reason for wetland degradation was the reduction of water supply [ 30 ]. Lake Urmia, one of the largest permanent high salinity lakes in the world, whose area decreased by 40% between 2001 and 2013, while 49% of flooded wetlands were converted to artificial surfaces or bare land [ 30 ]. The Mekong River basin includes many Ramsar Sites in South Asian countries. The lack of coordination in river basin management in these countries, especially in the wetland management of the Mekong Delta region, is a major concern. In recent years, the wetlands in the Mekong River Basin have been threatened by many factors, such as agricultural intensification, urbanization, and industrialization. The most significant factor is the construction of dams and reservoirs [ 5 ].

4.2.2. North America

Everglades National Park is the largest Ramsar Site of primitive wetland in the United States. About half of the original Everglades has disappeared, mainly due to the agriculture in the north and urban development in the east and west [ 5 ]. In recent years, a series of protection measures aiming at restoring natural water flow has been implemented in this area, and satisfying results have been achieved [ 30 ]. San Francisco Bay is recognized as one of the most important ecological estuaries in North America and one of the most altered and urbanized wetland areas in the United States. Since the first European settlers arrived, almost 95% of the wetlands have been destroyed. In order to develop agriculture and salt industry, they invaded the wetland first, then removed the vegetation, built dikes to drain the wetland, and eventually caused rapid degradation of the wetlands. Now, the deposition and erosion caused by upstream hydraulic mining are also one of the biggest threats to the wetlands [ 5 ]. However, the wetland ecosystems in Queen Maud Bay, distributed in the polar tundra with less human disturbance, have also deteriorated, suggesting that climate change is the main impact factor [ 30 ].

4.2.3. South America

In NRSCC`s research, the total wetland area of 20 Ramsar Sites in South America has decreased by 0.26 million ha between 2001 to 2013, mainly in marshes and lakes. The degeneration of the wetland ecosystems and the transformation of swamps into artificial surfaces or bare land in these wetland areas, indicating that the main impact factors are human agricultural activities and precipitation changes [ 30 ]. The Lake Mar Chiquita is one of the largest saline lakes in the world. Its area decreased by 26%, and dry land area increased more than twice between 2001 and 2013. Agricultural reclamation was the main factor and water shortage was the biggest problem [ 30 ]. Pantanal is one of the largest wetland distribution regions in the world, which contains many inland wetland types of Ramsar Sites of South America. The Pantanal Matogrossense is a part of the largest, a permanent freshwater wetland in the Western Hemisphere [ 62 ]. With the development of the upper Paraguay River, Pantanal has been threatened by many elements, including the encroachment of pastoral and agricultural land use, water pollution caused by mining activities and agriculture, and the invasion of alien toxic species. Because of Pantanal’s remoteness, it has become a place for illegal wildlife trafficking and cocaine smuggling, where wetland management is difficult and expensive [ 5 ].

4.2.4. Europe

In NRSCC`s research, the total wetland area of 10 Ramsar Sites in Europe has decreased by 3% between 2001 to 2013, mainly in marshes and lakes. Twelve percent of the reservoirs and 34% of the seasonal marshes have degraded into non-wetlands, and the interference degradation index has increased significantly, which may be related to long-term development in Europe [ 30 ]. The Lake Sevan is one of the world’s largest alpine freshwater lakes. Between 2001 to 2013, the agricultural areas in the region increased by 10%. And excessive groundwater extraction posed a huge threat to the lakes. Although the lakes have been artificially replenished since 2001, 17% of the forests and shrubs have been submerged, due to the replenishment. On the contrary, it has brought about ecological problems such as organic pollution and fish reduction [ 30 ]. The Danube Delta is one of Europe’s largest and most natural inland deltas, containing some of Europe’s inland wetland types of Ramsar Sites, which are degraded by drainage and activities related to agricultural development, gravel mining, and dumping [ 5 , 30 , 63 ]. Although major international studies on restoration have now been carried out in the delta, most of the recovery is simple, just restoring natural hydrology by dams and reconnecting waterways [ 5 ]. The Volga Delta, one of the largest inland deltas in the world, is on the edge of the Caspian Sea. The wetland is now being affected by a number of impact factors, including dam damage to the river’s natural hydrology, pollution from heavy industry and agriculture, and the decline of the Caspian Sea level [ 5 , 63 ]. The Wadden Sea, which contains many coastal wetland types of Ramsar Sites of Western Europe, is considered to be the most important coastal wetlands in Western Europe. However, a myriad of wetlands has been cultivated by local residents over the past few centuries [ 5 ].

4.2.5. Africa

In NRSCC`s research, the total wetland area of 30 Ramsar Sites in Africa has decreased just two thousand hectares, however, wetland ecosystem degeneration is more serious. Seventeen percent of the river wetlands and 20% of the inland flood wetlands have degraded into non-wetlands, and many other wetland types have also degraded. The disturbance degradation index in Africa was high and kept constantly increasing [ 30 ]. The Lake Chad, an African transnational lake, suffered a 9% drop in lake surface and an 89% drop in seasonal herbaceous swamps between 2001 to 2013, which mainly due to the drought climate and drainage irrigation [ 30 ]. The signal site with the largest area is the Ngiri-Tumba-Maindombe, located in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Africa [ 28 ]. Now, the Ngiri-Tumba-Maindombe is under apparent threat because of the pressures from the rapidly growing population and illegal activities [ 62 ]. The DRC is one of the countries with the largest area of Ramsar Sites distributed in the world [ 28 ]. The Ramsar Sites in DRC play a vital role in the conservation of rare and endangered flora and fauna of the region. These are some of the last remaining sites in the country where human intervention and exploitation of natural resources are not allowed. However, years of civil war and political unrest in the country have adversely affected these natural habitats and flora, where animals are suffering from illegal human activities. Therefore, there is a need for urgent international attention to protect these fragile habitats [ 62 ]. The Okavango Delta System is one of the largest Ramsar wetlands in the world [ 28 ]. However, Okavango faces many threats now, mainly from increased burning (Okavango’s fire is natural), as well as upstream countries` intercepting water resources, tourism threats, raw materials overuse, etc. [ 5 ]. The Mangrove Swamps in West Africa Mangrove is distributed many coastal wetland sites of Ramsar. Now, the mangrove wetlands in these areas are being eroded by desertification, due to the reduction of persistent rivers caused by drought [ 5 ]. At the same time, it is also threatened by over exploitation and conversion to rice fields [ 5 ].

4.2.6. Oceania

The NRSCC found that the wetland area changes in the two Ramsar Sites in Oceania, they monitored, were large. Between 2001 and 2013, the two wetlands reduced by 80,000 hectares, and 90% of the seasonal marshes were degraded into forest shrubs. The disturbance degradation index of Oceania was the highest among all continents [ 30 ]. The Kakadu National Park is the largest national park in Australia. Between 2001 to 2013, a large number of wetland ecosystems had degenerated, and some wetlands had been converted into artificial surfaces or bare land [ 30 ]. The Shoalwater and Corio Bays are the largest areas in east Queensland. The site is essential because of the only remaining remnant of its type, size, and condition in central Queensland. The main threats to the region include pollution, erosion, pests, and inappropriate recreational use [ 64 ]. The Whangamarino is the second largest peat bog and swamp complex on the North Island. The main threats to the peat bog are the reduction of river flooding, the deposition of silt caused by agricultural development, the increase of fire frequency, and the invasion of alien species [ 5 ].

From the above cases, we can conclude that these typical wetland sites all have suffered area loss and ecosystem degeneration. Human activities are the main impact factors, and climate change also has a certain impact on wetlands.

5. Management Plan of the Ramsar Sites

Wetland management in different regions of the world has different meanings in different periods. In the 1950s, most management decision-makers considered wetland management as wetland drainage [ 5 ]. Subsequently, with the efforts of a few supporters who deemed wetlands as habitats for wildlife, wetland management has evolved into a whole science about maintaining special hydrological conditions and optimizing fish and waterfowl populations [ 5 , 65 ]. It was not until 1975, that the concept of wetland management was added to the concept of flood control, coastal protection, and water quality improvement. Today, the meaning of wetland management is to set management objectives, which depends on the priorities of wetland managers, current environmental regulations, and the wishes of the many stakeholders [ 5 ]. The Ramsar Convention holds that wetland management implies the need to understand the past and present human use of wetlands, their current or future impacts, and ways to achieve optimal (sustainable) wetland use [ 66 ]. In the past 40 years, under the guidance of wetland management, wetlands in many developed areas have been protected or even restored. However, in some developing areas, there are few laws and restrictions on wetland protection and restoration [ 5 ]. In order to maintain the biodiversity and productivity of wetland ecosystems and allow their resources to be used wisely, centralized management actions are urgently needed to protect them [ 66 ]. A wetland management plan is indispensable for wetland conservation, including identifying the objectives of site management and the existing or potential impact factors, resolving conflicts, identifying and describing the actions needed to achieve management objectives, defining the monitoring requirements, maintaining continuity of effective management, helping obtain funding, achieving communication within sites, organizations, and stakeholders, demonstrating the effectiveness of management, and ensuring compliance with local, national, and international policies [ 66 ].

The establishment of the Ramsar Convention has brought benefits to many wetlands. However, wetland management plans in most regions are not perfect, especially in Africa and Asia ( Figure 6 ). In Africa, up to 49% of the wetland sites do not have management plans, while 20% of the sites are in preparation for management plans, and only 31% of the wetland sites have management plans. Similarly, the situation in Asia is not optimistic. Forty-five percent of the wetland sites in Asia have no management plans, 19% of Asian wetland sites are preparing management plans, and only 36% of Asian wetland sites have management plans now. More than half of wetland sites in South America and North America have yet to complete wetland management plans. The management plans in Oceania and Europe are relatively well developed. Only 15% and 19% of wetland sites have not yet formulated wetland management plans, while 10% and 22% of sites are preparing management plans, respectively.

Amount ratio of management plan available of the Ramsar Sites in each continent. The data source of Figure 6 is the Ramsar official website. For details, see Reference [ 28 ].

Despite the fact that most wetland sites in Oceania and Europe have established management plans, they are still threatened by many factors. Up to 41% of the wetland sites that have developed the management plans are threatened by more than four impact factors. Therefore, it is uncertain whether these management plans have been effective in wetland conservation and restoration [ 65 ]. The inefficiency of wetland management plans may be due to the lack of participation of government, non-governmental, or other community organizations in the formulation processes [ 4 , 65 ]. The implementation of the wetland management plans may be more effective with the assistance of management agencies or actors, including government, non-governmental, and community organizations [ 4 ].

As wetlands in the UK are the least affected, the authors have studied its wetland management and found that the characteristics of wetland management in the UK can be summarized as: Firstly, it combined the comprehensive management system of watershed water resources; secondly, it implemented the wetland nature reserve system and established the nature reserve network; thirdly, it implemented the public purchasing system to purchase the private ownership wetland for better management and protection; and fourthly, it clarified the responsibilities and obligations of wetland owners to protect wetlands in the form of management agreements system [ 67 ].

6. Recommendation for Conservation and Restoration of Global Wetlands

Over the past 40 years, wetland conservation and restoration in developed countries have been progressing, but many developing regions have no regulations or restrictions to control the continuous destruction and pollution of wetlands [ 5 ]. Wetland ecosystems in these regions failed to play an essential role in maintaining ecological security, food security, freshwater security, and climate security [ 5 ]. It is imperative for local, regional and national actions and international cooperation to work together continually to strengthen global wetland conservation and restoration. Base on the successful experiences of various countries and suggestions from relevant scientists, the protection and restoration of global wetlands can be carried out in the following five aspects [ 13 , 25 , 41 , 68 ]:

6.1. Management and Policy

Wetland management can respond to the five kinds of threats to wetlands separately. For the impact on wetland area, in order to control the total area of wetland strictly, wetland area limits can be set. As protected areas are the most effective way to protect wetland [ 38 ], in the regions, where natural wetlands are widely distributed and rare and endangered species are concentrated, nature reserves can be set up. In the areas, where wetland resources need to be both protected and rationally utilized, wetland parks can be built. In the areas, where with protection or less area of wetland elements, wetland protection zones can be established. In addition, wetlands can be protected by setting up forest parks, scenic spots, water conservancy scenic spots, water source protection zones, and coastal parks, etc. For the impact on wetland environment, the limits of the pollution can be set to strictly control the total amount of pollutants discharged into the wetland. This can be achieved by combining wetland management with river basin environmental management. The discharge of pollutants from the agriculture, industry, animal husbandry, and domestic sewage, etc. around the wetlands, rivers, lakes, and seas should be strictly controlled. For the impact on wetland biodiversity, the limits of species diversity can be set. It is important to ensure the number of rare animals does not decrease and to assist them to reproduce. For the impact on wetland water resources, the limits of wetland ecological water can be set. This can be achieved by combining wetland management with river basin water resources management. By strictly controlling water intake from rivers and lakes, the ecological water quantity of wetlands can be guaranteed. For the impact of climate change on wetlands, climate prediction studies should be done ahead of time. In view of the long-term drought climate, the ecological water quantity of wetlands should be guaranteed in advance, and the ecological water supply should be implemented in time in the water-deficient areas. In order to avoid the secondary ecological impact of long-term precipitation on wetland overflooding, wetland drainage should be implemented in time.

To ensure the smooth implementation of wetland management, more scientific laws, regulations, and policies on wetland protection should be issued quickly to crack down and punish the wetland destruction. As the national conditions of each country and region are quite different, each country and region should issue laws, regulations, and policies in accordance with the local development.

6.2. Monitoring

It should be done to establish a global wetland dynamic monitoring system to assess the global wetland status, which is essential to wetland management and conservation [ 30 , 41 ]. It can be conducted by means of remote sensing and field observation. Remote sensing has been proved to be an effective technology for monitoring global wetlands [ 46 , 69 , 70 ], which can efficiently, accurately, and objectively monitor the spatial and temporal distributions and dynamic changes of wetlands on a large scale [ 30 ]. Field observation is an important means to reveal the changes in the structure and function of wetland ecosystems [ 41 ]. For remote sensing technology, it can continuously improve the remote sensing technology of wetland monitoring, and increase the resolution of monitoring data and the speed of data updating. The experience of the NRSCC can be referenced. It is the first case in the world to monitor and analyze the status and changes of large-scale Wetlands of International Importance using remote sensing technology [ 30 ]. For field observation, it can call on countries or regions around the world to regularly carry out domestic or regional wetland resource surveys and timely grasp the dynamic changes of wetland ecosystems. The implementation of field observation mainly includes the establishment of monitoring points, monitoring stations, and monitoring centers, the construction of the monitoring database and wetland information management platform [ 41 ]. At the same time, the monitoring results should be evaluated to provide timely reference information for wetland protection and restoration.

6.3. Restoration

Wetland restoration mainly includes the restoration or reconstruction of degraded or disappeared wetlands through ecological technology and ecological engineering [ 25 ]. In the process of wetland restoration, attention should be paid to respecting the natural attributes of wetland ecosystems, avoiding excessive human interference with the primitive wetlands, so that they can take advantage of their self-recovery ability [ 5 , 25 ]. In view of the different main impact factors of different wetland types, it is necessary to formulate corresponding restoration strategies according to the specific conditions of different wetland types. For river wetlands, they are greatly influenced by four kinds of factors of human activities. Measures that can be implemented include dredging the rivers, reducing pollution sources, increasing pollutant purification zones, controlling biodiversity, increasing ecological water quantity, etc. For lake wetlands, they are greatly affected by land occupation and climate change. Measures that can be implemented include returning farmland to the lakes, water diversion projects to ensure ecological water quantity, etc. For marsh wetlands, their biodiversity is most affected. The measures that can be implemented are to strictly prohibit the harvesting of biological resources, and priority should be given to the restoration of wetlands with important ecological protection objectives, such as migratory bird habitats, rare and endangered bird habitats. For marine/coastal wetlands, they are greatly impacted by pollution and climate change. Projects that can be implemented include controlling pollution sources, migrating eutrophic sediments, etc.

In recent years, China has implemented a large number of wetland restoration projects throughout the country, especially in the Source Regions of Three Rivers. After implementing a series of projects of ecological water replenishment, the ecological restoration effect is remarkable. The area of most lakes has increased, and the quality of most rivers has improved significantly. As the Qianhu wetland, at the source of the Yellow River, began to recover, the ecological characteristics and functional integration of the wetland have been enhanced obviously.

6.4. Knowledge

It is necessary to strengthen the public’s awareness of wetland resources protection and resource distress by education and enhance the awareness of wetland protection of global citizens, and expand wetland protection to the global scope [ 41 ]. It can be carried out in the following aspects: Launch wetland protection activities on World Wetland Day, Bird Week, and Wildlife Protection Month, etc.; publicize wetland protection awareness through the media; establish a wetland science education base in the wetland reserve; and add relevant knowledge of wetland protection to primary school textbooks. At the same time, it is indispensable to carry out wetland related scientific research. Scientific researches related to wetland protection and restoration should be encouraged and developed, as scientific research can improve wetland management and protection to a higher level. Scientific research on key technologies of wetland protection and restoration should be carried out to serve large-scale ecological restoration projects of wetlands. Finally, a new science, Wetland Science, can be developed in universities or scientific research institutions in the regions where wetland science research is relatively backward or lacking, attracting more scholars to participate in wetland conservation research.

6.5. Funding

Ensuring the source of funding for wetland conservation and restoration is the precondition for the above work to proceed successfully. The funding sources can be the support of the government or public welfare organizations, the ecological compensation from the surrounding areas for the impact of wetlands, and the public donations, etc. At the same time, without damaging wetlands, financial channels can be developed to guide communities towards organic agriculture and ecotourism. For example, eco-pastures in degraded wetlands can be planted with aquatic plants with higher economic value, such as water chestnut, water lily canopy, and so on. They can not only purify water quality, but also obtain economic sources, thus ensuring the financial chain of wetland conservation and restoration.

7. Conclusions

Although each continent has a certain number of wetlands signed with the Ramsar Convention, the total area of these wetlands accounts for less than 19% of global wetlands. Therefore, the Ramsar Convention calls for more wetlands around the world to join in the protection of it.

Among different factors, the impact on the land area is the most serious, mainly comes from the land occupation of natural system modification and agriculture. The most seriously impacted regions are mainly located along the coasts, major inland rivers, and lakes of Oceania and Africa. The impact on the environment is also a major factor, especially along the west coasts of South America and the southeastern coasts of Mexico. Sites with the greatest impact on water resources are located along major rivers, lakes, and coasts in Oceania and Europe. Sites affected by climate change and extreme weather are mainly marine/coastal wetlands, followed by lake wetlands and marsh wetlands, mainly located in the southeast area of Oceania and the northwest area of Africa. From different types, river wetlands are susceptible to the land occupation, environmental pollution, species invasion, and excessive regulation of water resources, which may be related to people’s preference for living near rivers since ancient times. Lake wetlands are vulnerable to land occupation and climate change, which may be due to the geographical environment of the lake and precipitation as the main source of the water supply of lakes. Biological resources of marsh wetlands are most affected, which may be due to the most abundant biological resources in marsh wetlands have attracted over-exploitation by human beings. Marine/coastal wetlands are most affected by pollution and climate change, which may be due to the economic development of coastal cities and sea level rise caused by climate warming.

According to the level classification results, wetland sites both containing natural wetlands and human-made wetlands are more susceptible to multiple factors. We can generally draw the conclusion that wetlands artificially reconstructed are more vulnerable, humans must follow the natural law in the process of wetland protection and restoration. More than one-third of the sites in China have been artificially reconstructed or altered, and the area of human-made wetlands at 20 monitoring points of the NRSCC`s research in China accounted for more than 50%. Whether it will bring adverse effects is worth further investigation.

Wetland management plans in each continent are not perfect, especially in Africa and Asia. Despite most wetland sites in Oceania and Europe have established management plans, they are still threatened by many factors. It is imperative for local, regional and national actions and international cooperation to work together continually to strengthen global wetland conservation and restoration, so that the implementation of the wetland management plans may be more effective. It can be carried out in five aspects, including management and policy, monitoring, restoration, knowledge, and funding.

Because of the data restrictions, this study only makes a simple assessment and analysis of the status of the Ramsar Sites, and the level classification of affected wetland sites is also relatively simple. In future research, it is necessary to continue to accumulate effective data, so as to classify the levels more scientifically and conduct more accurate and in-depth research on how these factors affect wetlands.

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to the Ramsar Convention Secretariat for sharing the data and information of the Ramsar Sites. The authors thank Pierre Do for his language polishing service. The authors also thank the editors and anonymous reviewers.

Author Contributions

T.X., B.W., and D.Y. designed the research idea. T.X. analyzed the data and drafted the manuscript. B.W. and D.Y. provided overall guidance. T.X., K.W., and X.C. contributed to the data and materials collection. W.B. and Y.L. contributed to the improvement of the writing. X.L. and M.L. contributed to the errors checking. All authors finalized and reviewed the manuscript.

This work was supported by the National Key Research and Development Project [grant number 2016YFA0601503] and the National Natural Science Foundation of China [grant number 91547209].

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest in any aspect of the data collection, analysis or the preparation of this paper. The funding sponsor has no role in the study design.

Impact of climate change on wetland ecosystems: A critical review of experimental wetlands

Affiliations.

• 1 Division of Water Resources Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Lund University, P.O. Box 118, 221 00, Lund, Sweden. Electronic address: [email protected].
• 2 Division of Water Resources Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Lund University, P.O. Box 118, 221 00, Lund, Sweden; Department of Architectural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, The University of Basrah, Al Basrah, Iraq. Electronic address: [email protected].
• 3 Division of Water Resources Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Lund University, P.O. Box 118, 221 00, Lund, Sweden; Department of Civil Engineering Science, School of Civil Engineering and the Built Environment, University of Johannesburg, Kingsway Campus, PO Box 524, Aukland Park 2006, Johannesburg, South Africa; Department of Town Planning, Engineering Networks and Systems, South Ural State University (National Research University), 76, Lenin prospekt, Chelyabinsk, 454080, Russian Federation. Electronic address: [email protected].
• PMID: 33611067
• DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112160

Climate change is identified as a major threat to wetlands. Altered hydrology and rising temperature can change the biogeochemistry and function of a wetland to the degree that some important services might be turned into disservices. This means that they will, for example, no longer provide a water purification service and adversely they may start to decompose and release nutrients to the surface water. Moreover, a higher rate of decomposition than primary production (photosynthesis) may lead to a shift of their function from being a sink of carbon to a source. This review paper assesses the potential response of natural wetlands (peatlands) and constructed wetlands to climate change in terms of gas emission and nutrients release. In addition, the impact of key climatic factors such as temperature and water availability on wetlands has been reviewed. The authors identified the methodological gaps and weaknesses in the literature and then introduced a new framework for conducting a comprehensive mesocosm experiment to address the existing gaps in literature to support future climate change research on wetland ecosystems. In the future, higher temperatures resulting in drought might shift the role of both constructed wetland and peatland from a sink to a source of carbon. However, higher temperatures accompanied by more precipitation can promote photosynthesis to a degree that might exceed the respiration and maintain the carbon sink role of the wetland. There might be a critical water level at which the wetland can preserve most of its services. In order to find that level, a study of the key factors of climate change and their interactions using an appropriate experimental method is necessary. Some contradictory results of past experiments can be associated with different methodologies, designs, time periods, climates, and natural variability. Hence a long-term simulation of climate change for wetlands according to the proposed framework is recommended. This framework provides relatively more accurate and realistic simulations, valid comparative results, comprehensive understanding and supports coordination between researchers. This can help to find a sustainable management strategy for wetlands to be resilient to climate change.

Keywords: Climate chamber; Constructed wetland; Greenhouse gases; Mesocosm experiment; Peatland; Wetland management.

Copyright © 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.

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• Carbon Sequestration
• Climate Change*

Stakeholders’ perceptions of wetland conservation and restoration in Wakiso District, Uganda

• Open access
• Published: 26 October 2023

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• Anthony Kadoma   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4294-1496 1 ,
• Mia Perry 2 &
• Fabrice G. Renaud 1  

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Natural wetlands are critically important to the lives and livelihoods of many people. Human activities result in the degradation of wetlands globally, and more so in developing countries prioritizing fast economic growth and development. With an increasing population in their immediate surroundings, wetlands in Wakiso District, Uganda, have become over-exploited to meet human needs. Policies, plans and projects have been put in place aiming at wetland conservation and restoration, but with limited stakeholder participation, have achieved limited success. Our research objective was to identify stakeholders, their perceptions, and understand the role these perceptions play in wetland conservation and restoration activities. To achieve these objectives, we used the ecosystem services concept within a qualitative, multi-site case study research approach. Findings show that stakeholders hold divergent perceptions on wetland ecosystem services, perceiving them as source of materials, fertile places for farming, cheap to buy and own, as well as being “God-given”. Furthermore, wetlands as habitats are perceived as not prioritized by central government. Implications for conservation and restoration vary with stakeholders advocating for (1) over-use, wise-use or  not-use of wetlands and their resources, (2) educating and sensitization as well as (3) the implementation of the available laws and policies. This paper explores the findings and important implications for the conservation and restoration of wetlands in Wakiso District, Uganda.

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1 Introduction

Natural wetlands are among the most biodiverse ecosystems on earth, the most productive environments and vital for human survival (Xu et al., 2020 ). In article 1.1 of the Ramsar Convention, wetlands are defined as “areas of marsh, fen, peat, or water whether natural or artificial, permanent, or temporary with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish, or salty including areas of marine water, the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres” (Ramsar Convention Secretariat, 2005 , page 1). In Uganda, wetlands are defined as areas permanently or seasonally flooded by water, with plants and animals specifically adapted to this environment (National Environment Act, 2019 ). Wetlands are integral to supporting the achievement of the 2030 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) through contributing to clean water and sanitation (SDG 6)and life on land (SDG 15) (Kakuba & Kanyamurwa, 2021 ).

The ecosystem services obtained and provided by wetlands support the well-being and survival of many communities through the provisioning of water, food and construction materials (Namaalwa et al., 2013 ; Xu et al., 2020 ). Papyrus swamps comprise the highest percentage of inland wetlands in East Africa (Namaalwa et al., 2013 ; Ministry of Water and Environment (MWE), 2016 , 2019 ). Over the years, papyrus wetlands have been subjected to drainage in favour of agriculture (Schuyt, 2005 ); over-harvesting (Kakuru et al., 2013 ; Mengesha, 2017 ; Wamala, 2021 ; Zhang, 2019 ) through ineffective management (Hartter & Ryan, 2010 ); destruction by large mammals (Morrison et al., 2012 ); and the effects of climate change. Wetlands are generator areas of life as many species reproduce, spread and populate other locations from there (Zsuffa et al., 2016 ). The importance of wetlands as outlined justifies the call and need for their conservation and restoration in Uganda and elsewhere in the world.

Uganda is experiencing a high level of inland wetland conversion and degradation. According to the Ministry of Water and Environment ( 2019 ), the wetland area reduced from 15% in 1994 to less than 9% by 2018. The same is happening on a global scale (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA), 2005 ; UNFCCC, 2018 ; Pueyo-Ros et al., 2019 ; Chanda, 1996 ; Choudri et al., 2016 ; Meyer, 2018 ). About 35% of the global wetland is reported to be lost since the 1970 (Ramsar Convention, 2018 ). Humans in their pursuit to improve agricultural production and industrialization have for many decades converted wetlands to other uses (Sandhu & Sandhu, 2014 ), leading to their degradation. There is a strong human nature interdependence (Constanza et al., 1997 ; De Groot et al., 2012 ; McInnes, 2013 ; MEA 2005 ; Zhao et al., 2016 ) and development as we know it affects and depends on natural ecosystems such as wetlands (Ranganathan et al., 2008 ).

Many factors explain why wetland areas are shrinking in Uganda including population increase, rural to urban migration, informal settlements, agricultural activities, poverty, animal grazing, industrialization and other infrastructural developments. The wetlands around Lake Victoria where this study was carried out have been subjected to high levels of conversion. For example, between the years 2008–2014, 53.8% of the wetlands were lost (Government of Uganda, 2016 ) and the conversion is perceived to be increasing to date. Since 1995, Uganda has put in place several laws and guidelines to help and support conservation and restoration of wetlands with negligible success partly because the implementation of such laws lacks backing and support from government. The government is in a dilemma as it wants to develop and create wealth for the citizens through conversion of natural resources yet at the same time it is mandated to ensure the wise-use of such resources. With more people struggling with poverty, it is quite challenging today and in the foreseeable future to conserve wetlands in Uganda unless alternative sources of livelihoods are put in place and equally accessed by the citizens. Indeed, Mafabi ( 2018 ) observed that in many communities of Uganda, wetlands cannot be conserved without other economically viable livelihood options, incentives and benefits given to those that depend on the wetland. Thus, finding options for their survival for those that entirely depend on wetlands as well as those who use them for business is a challenge for the government.

There are many calls to conserve and restore the world wetlands (Simaika et al., 2021 ; Ministry of Water and Environment, 2019 ). Conservation and restoration of wetlands necessitate the intervention, collaboration and participation of many stakeholders. The importance of stakeholder involvement in conservation has been emphasized (Dick et al., 2018 ; Sowińska-Świerkosz & García, 2021 ; Ramsar Convention Secretariat, 2010 ). When stakeholders from various disciplines and sectors are involved in the planning and implementation of a wetland conservation project, it raises awareness and appreciation of the intervention (Dick et al., 2018 ) and thereby favours sustainable wetland management (Bosma et al., 2017 ). Also, it enables policy makers to base their decisions on local knowledges and the felt needs of those that are affected and benefit from such policies (Grimble & Chan, 1995 ; Hopkins et al., 2012 ; Jiang et al., 2015 ). Stakeholders are characterized by divergent degrees of influence and importance when it comes to making decisions regarding wetland conservation and restoration in their respective areas of work (Namaalwa et al., 2013 ) and such power is exhibited when there is an engagement in differing phases of designing, planning, implementing, monitoring and maintaining a given conservation project (Zingraff-Hamed et al., 2020 ). Failure to involve stakeholders in wetland conservation presents the possibility of non-cooperation or outright opposition (Grimble & Chan, 1995 ), thus increasing the probability of failure to conserve and restore wetlands.

A wealth of existing research points to the fact that to achieve success in conservation, wetland management should involve the most concerned stakeholders (DeCaro & Stokes, 2008 ; Miller & Montalto, 2019 ; Omoding et al., 2020 ) . In addition, deliberate efforts are required to create awareness aimed at changing popular negative perceptions associated with wetlands to realize their sustainability. Different perceptions and attitudes create unique relations with the environment, and local priorities and tradeoffs are embedded therein (Curșeu & Schruijer, 2017 ; Miller & Montalto, 2019 ). Stakeholder inclusion and active participation in ecosystem management interventions has been elaborated by many scholars (Ambrose-Oji et al., 2017 ; Ruiz-Frau et al., 2018 ; Spangenberg et al., 2015 ). In Uganda, there are several interventions geared towards wetland conservation and restoration, but available literature points to their failure (Isunju et al., 2016 ; Kalanzi, 2015 ; Mafabi, 2018 ), and one of the reasons is inadequate stakeholder participation (Nakiyemba et al., 2020 ). In the research reported here, we focus on understanding and explaining the role human perceptions play in influencing their actions in wetland conservation and restoration. We place particular emphasis on stakeholders at the community level by looking at two separate wetlands in Uganda, one recognized as of international importance (Ramsar site), and the other, a small and locally managed wetland. We wanted to find out whether community-level stakeholder perceptions are indeed included or considered when designing or implementing policies and interventions aimed at wetland conservation.

Conceptually, the study adopted the ecosystem services framework. Ecosystem services are the benefits humans obtain from ecosystems (Costanza et al., 1997 ; de Groot et al., 2002a , 2002b ; MEA 2005 ; Sandhu et al., 2012 ; Wratten, 2013 ). Studies on ecosystem services have focused on the benefits that people derive from the wetland ecosystem (Barakagira & de Wit, 2019 ; Bikangaga et al., 2007 ; Constanza, 2000 ; Costanza et al., 2014 ; Finlayson, 2015 ; Horwitz et al., 2012 ). According to Asah et al ( 2014 ), the focus on benefits has led to a limited understanding of how values for wetlands as ecosystems are shaped by the way stakeholders perceive, depend and use them. According to MEA ( 2005 ), there are four categories of ecosystem services, namely provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting. Several ecosystem services are obtained and provided by Lutembe and Nabaziza wetlands including provisioning (provision of water (drinking, construction and irrigation), provision of raw materials (sand, clay, papyrus, grass for thatching), herbs, clean air, firewood, grazing land for animals, farming grounds for (rice, yams, vegetables), fish, hunting and source of income through selling of fish and agricultural produce. Regulating services include reducing water runoff, soil erosion, flood control and mitigation, water storage, purification and weather regulation. There are also cultural/nonmaterial benefits such as tourism, leisure, birdwatching, venue for cultural practices especially those of spiritual nature, place for education and research. Finally, supporting services are necessary to produce other services such as soil formation, soil fertility, habitat for wildlife, breeding areas for fish and other terrestrial and aquatic species.

We investigated the nature and role of stakeholder perceptions on the restoration and conservation of Lutembe Bay and Nabaziza wetlands in Wakiso. The assumption was that if majority of stakeholders appreciated the values and benefits obtained from wetlands, they would want to participate in, and support their conservation. As proposed by Gosling et al ( 2017 ), Dlamini et al. ( 2020 ) and Sinthumule ( 2021 ), successful wetland conservation and management requires a positive mind and willingness to participate across stakeholder groups including those at community level. We build on a growing body of work on stakeholders perceptions on wetland ecosystems (e.g. Ainscough et al., 2019 ; McNally et al., 2016 ) and wetland functioning (Bosma et al., 2017 ). There are, however, limited studies that have specifically focused on the role played by stakeholder perceptions in influencing actions towards wetland conservation in Wakiso District. It is not yet clear as to why with all the knowledge about climate change and its effects, resources invested in the conservation and restoration of natural resources by national and international organizations as well as the studies done globally the conversion of wetlands continues at an increasing rate. Thus, this study sought to fill that gap through identifying, documenting and analysing perceptions stakeholders have on wetland ecosystem services and their effect on conservation and restoration related activities.

2 Study area

Wakiso District Local Government (DLG) is in Central Uganda and part of the greater Kampala Metropolitan Area. The district has 2807.75 km 2 of the land of which 384 km 2 are wetlands and by 2016 this comprised of slightly over 13% of its land covered by wetlands. Unfortunately, there have been consistent and increasing reports of the disappearance of wetlands in the district due to developments that are taking place (Kariuki et al., 2016 ; Tumusiime, 2013 ; Wakiso, 2017 ). In Wakiso, there are two wetlands of international importance (Lutembe Bay and Mabamba wetlands). Given its geographical location, Wakiso District is experiencing a high rate of urbanization with a diversity of population in terms of social and economic class, level of education, employment status, different cultures and tribes that live and work there (Wakiso, 2017 ). There are also many upcoming commercial farms growing flowers, vegetables or fish farming, targeted to benefit from the ready market available in the communities and district because of the high population.

Wetlands in Wakiso District play a significant role in sheltering Lake Victoria by cleansing the water runoff from Kampala and the neighbouring districts. Lake Victoria is locally known as Nalubaale and is the world’s second-largest freshwater lake and the largest in Africa. The lake shares boarders with Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania. It is the only source of fresh water for both domestic and industrial use in Kampala city, Wakiso, Mukono and Mpigi districts and other surrounding areas. According to Tumuhimbise ( 2017 ), most of the permanent wetlands in Wakiso District are found in Entebbe Municipality and Busiro County along the shores of Lake Victoria. With the ever-increasing rural to urban migration in the country, coupled with the ever-rising cost of living in Kampala and surrounding areas, many of the people who have migrated to the city from other areas of Uganda find it easy and relatively affordable to live in Wakiso, where the cost of living is still considered relatively low compared to living in Kampala city. Undoubtedly, this increases the pressure on the available resources in the district and calls for proper planning, including how to conserve the remaining natural wetlands (Muwanguzi, 2018 ).

Lutembe Bay is a lacustrine type of wetland as per the Ramsar Convention Secretariat classification. It covers the areas of Katabi, Kajjansi and Makindye Ssabagabo Town Councils of Wakiso District. It is along the Kampala–Entebbe International Airport highway (00°10ʹ N 32°34ʹ E), just twenty-five kilometres away from the capital Kampala. The study stakeholders were from Kajjansi Town Council in the communities of Lutembe Ddewe, Bwerenga and Nganjo. According to data from Uganda Bureau of Statistic (UBOS), Kajjansi Town Council has a population of 135,600 (UBOS, 2021). The wetland was declared a Ramsar site by the government of Uganda in 2006 as an Important Bird Area (Arinaitwe et al., 2010 ). It is a wetland of international importance and a major tourist attraction. Local tourists come to the area for leisure especially during weekends.

All organisations and groups focused on aspects of wetland conservation or restoration combine under one local umbrella organisation known as the Lutembe Wetland Users Association (LWUA).

Nabaziza wetland site is in Kyengera Town Council, Wakiso District, along the Kampala—Masaka Highway connecting Uganda to Tanzania and Rwanda. It is one of the small wetlands in Uganda that are rarely included in surveys or maps but undergoing conversion. Kyengera Town Council has a population of 285,400 (UBOS, 2021). Nabaziza wetland on the side of Kyengera covers the villages of Nkokonjeru B, Nabaziza and Masanda. The wetland is a tributary of river Mayanja and forms part of the Mayanja Wetland System (Basudde, 2013 ). As evidenced in Fig.  1 a, the wetland is in a highly urbanizing suburb of Kampala City, and this partly explains the challenges it is facing such as illegal dumping of wastes, high levels of encroachment by those constructing informal settlements, crop farmers, clay brick making and the proposed Kampala–Mpigi express Highway which is to pass through the wetland.

( Source : Adapted from Google Earth Images)

Geographical location of Lutembe Bay and Nabaziza wetlands

The two wetlands are located in the same district and have similarities and differences in terms of their characteristics that are likely to impact on the efforts regarding their conservation and restoration. Lutembe Bay being in a fast-urbanizing community is exposed to many challenges related to its conversion as it is part of Lake Victoria which attracts many people to come in either as fishermongers, traders or residents who buy big plots and establish homes or small encroachers that occupy sections of the wetland illegally waiting for their eviction (Table 1 ).

3 Materials and methods

Following a qualitative multi-site case study research design (Creswell, 2013 ), fieldwork was conducted over a 6-month period by the first author in two areas within Wakiso District. Qualitative data were collected using semistructured interviews. Guided by Bryman ( 2016 ), the research questions focused on enabling stakeholders to describe their perceptions and feelings and establish their reasoning behind what individuals do in relation to wetland conservation. Drawing on common characteristics of the case study design (Zainal, 2007 ), we engaged with communities to explore and investigate the contemporary real-life phenomenon of wetland loss, degradation and possibilities for conservation and restoration.

3.1 Study participants

Overall, forty stakeholders were engaged in this study with ten participants from each of the following categories: Lutembe Bay community, Nabaziza wetland community, Wakiso District and National level. Twenty stakeholders were selected at the community level representing a diverse group of people that largely derive their living by working in and around the wetland. These included (1) Water fetchers, (2) Crop and animal farmers, (3) Sand and clay miners, (4) Beach management unit (BMU) a unit that established by government to oversee activities that take place on the beach and report to government accordingly, (5) Herbalists, (6) Tour guides, (7) Representatives of community-based organizations focusing on wetland conservation, (8) Local leaders, (9) Religious leader representatives and (10) Handicraft association representatives. From each of the above categories, one member represented the group. Lutembe Wetland Users Association was helpful in locating the members, and the selection was done purposively given the sensitivity of the study. Ten participants were selected at district level including district technical leaders (district natural resources officer, environment officers, wetland officer, community development officer, organizations and a religious leader). At national level, participants were from Ministry of Water and Environment, research institutions, media and civil society including national and international organizations (Table 2 ).

3.2 Data management and analysis

Primary data were collected through interviews, then transcribed and translated to English when the local language was used. The transcripts were then processed and analysed following steps. All interviews were audio recorded on a digital recorder, transcribed and typed in Microsoft Word. Data familiarization was achieved through reading the transcripts and identifying the major themes. The themes identified were then coded through marking key ideas, phrases and concepts in the transcripts. A code as defined by Clarke and Braun ( 2017 ) is the smallest unit of analysis that captures interesting features of data relevant to the research question. Then, the transcribed interviews were entered into NVivo 12 Pro software for sorting and easy identification. In NVivo, individual transcripts were organized in several nodes, and from them, some verbatim statements were identified from the coded transcripts which were later incorporated in this paper. Therefore, NVivo was used to organize data and filter it for ease of access based on the generated thematic codes and nodes. Analysis of the data was done using the embedded analysis as suggested by Creswell ( 2013 ). Interpretation was done through identifying links, meanings, differences from quotes, nodes and themes to draw answers to the research question. Finally, we used embedded analysis (Creswell, 2013 ) where we looked at aspects of stakeholder perceptions in relation to several factors of interest such as wetland ownership, wetland use, current and future state of wetland, benefits derived from wetlands as well as perceptions that stakeholders had on wetlands and their implications for conservation and restoration efforts.

3.3 Limitations to the study

Efforts to include representatives from the manufacturing sector (industries and factories) as well as large flower farms were unsuccessful. Despite numerous attempts, none agreed to be interviewed. Representatives from Environmental police were also inaccessible despite initial agreements. We cannot confirm why these stakeholders refused to be interviewed but can hypothesize that it relates to the presence of negative publicity about both large-scale industry and governance in the recent past, especially regarding their role in wetland degradation. Interviews at district and national levels were conducted digitally via telephone as they were conducted at a time when Uganda was under lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Face-to-face interactions were missed along with their associated benefits of observing non-verbal cues that accompany the respondents’ responses.

4 Results of the study

4.1 stakeholder perceptions of wetlands.

Stakeholders had various perceptions on Lutembe and Nabaziza wetlands. Some were similar, complementary, or overlapping, yet others were different. Our findings show that human perceptions are very complex to understand given their heterogeneous nature. What is constant is that different stakeholder perceptions affect the way they interpret the ecosystem services that are provided by the wetlands. There were a few stakeholders who perceived wetlands as places that deserved total protection, restricting all activities, while others looked at them as a source of materials for their livelihoods. To those who perceived them as a source of materials, restricting access to the wetland meant changing their livelihoods altogether. In turn, this would negatively affect their social, cultural and economic well-being. As shown in Table 3 , the primary reasons stakeholders had for relating with the wetland were highly influenced by their livelihoods.

The key perceptions that emerged after data analysis were related to the following aspects of the wetland ecosystem and had significant impacts on the actions or inactions that later the stakeholders engaged in, in as far as wetland conservation and restoration is concerned.

4.2 Wetlands as a source of materials

Community-level stakeholders perceive wetlands as a source of livelihood in the form of Mudfish and Lungfish for eating or selling. Other materials provided include papyrus for weaving, water for domestic use and sand and clay for house construction. Stakeholders, especially those who were older, regarded wetlands as a source of medicinal plants and herbs for treating some human ailments such as skin and stomach related diseases as well as snake bites. This was not common among the young stakeholders, and it could be because of changes in the community with the advance of modern medicine. These activities have a direct effect on the status and functioning of the wetland and is related to the scale of the extraction. For instance, when substantial amounts of papyrus and other vegetation are cut down to create space for farming, the level of degradation of the wetland can be severe. Whereas some of the activities are on a small scale such as sand and clay mining, many were found to be on a large scale, especially farming. The larger the scale, the higher the perceived impact on the state of the wetland, and its actual impact cannot easily be estimated in the short term. Whereas stakeholders at the community level were more familiar with the direct values that they obtained from the wetland, there were other indirect values that are related to functions and services such as environment protection, water purification, water storage and any other services and these were highlighted by those at district level.

4.3 Wetlands as fertile lands for crop and animal farming

Stakeholders involved in growing crops perceived wetlands as fertile lands suitable for crops. Indeed, many community members were engaged in the growing of crops especially vegetables in and around wetlands. People have been growing crops along the wetland edges for many years. What has changed now is that some people are moving into the wetland, away from the edges, clearing and burning the papyrus, degrading the wetland. Other people ferry and pour soil picked from the dry land to areas that are wet to be able to grow their crops. Earlier studies such as Kakuru et al ( 2013 ) noted that around 80% of the people who live near wetlands in Uganda derive their livelihood from it. The major crops grown include yams, cassava, cabbages, tomatoes, sweet potatoes and other vegetables. One of the study participants at the community level stated that, “… this wetland [Lutembe] does so many things for us. We grow food there, get grass for our animals and some have started fish farming”. Such an observation suggests that the respondent attaches a lot of importance to the existence of the wetland since through human action, wetlands support the generation of many types of provisioning services albeit contributing to their degradation. Whereas many people still depend on the wetland for their food, Mbabazi et al. ( 2010 ) discourage such practices. In their study, they cautioned people to refrain from eating crops grown in wetlands due to the high threat of ingesting heavy metals that accumulate in the wetlands following heavy rainfall events (Fig.  2 ).

(Source: Field photograph, 2021)

Papyrus burning inside Lutembe Bay wetland

Wetlands are perceived to be immensely helpful during dry seasons for the cattle keepers as they would remain green and provide grass that can be eaten by the animals. Certainly, the participants at the community level did not perceive animal grazing to be one of the degrading activities among those done in the wetland. The reason was that whatever the cattle fed on would grow again rapidly and thus it was not a reason to worry about. The fact that agriculture and animal grazing are not perceived as detrimental to the functioning of wetlands in Wakiso District is in agreement with observations from Musasa and Marambanyika ( 2020 ) who noted that cultivation and livestock grazing are the dominant wetland use activities in Zimbabwe.

4.4 Wetlands offer cheap and affordable options to the poor to access land

Over half of the study participants were of the view that lands in or around wetlands were cheaper compared to dry lands. There were also people who simply came and occupied parts of a wetland without paying any fee or rent, content to stay until evicted by government officials. There are some insights that the encroachers know that what they were doing was illegal and against the set laws that govern wetlands. Nevertheless, due to life challenges they end up encroaching the wetland in search for survival even when they know that it will be temporary. The search for survival partly explains why a wetland like Lutembe Bay is occupied by so many people owning or using small plots of land.

4.5 Wetlands as “God-given” and belonging to no one

Community stakeholders perceive wetlands as “God-given” and therefore belonging to no one. In contrast, stakeholders at district and national levels perceive wetlands as belonging to individuals and institutions. There is evidence of lack of consensus regarding ownership of wetlands in the district. To many stakeholders, the wetlands belong to no one and are managed by the government on behalf of citizens. Yet, the government and business sector continue to commodify wetlands by fencing off sections and preventing community members from access. This deprives the people access to essential resources such as water. Ownership of wetland as private property is highly contested and often the cause of conflict especially when the public have been prohibited from accessing and using wetland resources which they perceive to belong to no one. Lack of clear ownership has made wetland conservation in the district to be a concern of everybody, but a responsibility of no one. Participants argued that one cannot ably manage what does not belong to them.

In a bid to streamline issues of wetland ownership and management, the central Uganda government designated three categories of wetlands that are managed at distinct levels: (1) wetlands of international importance (Ramsar sites); (2) national importance (critical wetlands); and (3) local importance (valuable wetlands) as outlined in the National Environmental Act (MWE, 2019 ). In the Act, the central government is mandated to manage only the first two categories, and the third one valuable wetlands are managed at community level. The “wise-use” of wetlands is only acceptable in Uganda by law to apply to those wetlands categorized as critical and valuable and not in the wetlands of international importance. The practice in Wakiso District shows no different treatment whether a wetland is of national importance, critical or valuable. They are all degraded and continually converted to pave way for other developments. The practice of parcelling plots in Lutembe wetland and issuance of titles were of particularly great concern for many stakeholders at both the community and district levels. As stated by one stakeholder at the community level “The dilemma we have while trying to conserve our wetlands are those who even up to-today are still issuing land/ plot titles on the wetland”. It was indeed noted that if all individuals owning plots of land on Lutembe wetland decided to use them, there will be no wetland vegetation left. This in a way deflates the efforts and zeal of those involved in wetland conservation and restoration efforts.

4.6 Central government perceived as not prioritizing wetland conservation

Wetlands are perceived to be one of the ecosystems that are not prioritized by the central government. There is a cross-cutting perception among stakeholders especially at the community and district levels. The central government and its environment protection agencies are perceived to be not doing enough to streamline the management of wetlands in Wakiso District. Participants alleged that a few officials in government do facilitate and supervise the encroachment on wetlands through issuing permits, land and plot titles in wetlands. With extensive structures already in place, the government is perceived and indeed believed to have the capacity and means to conserve wetland if there was political will. “… we know that the government institutions in place have the capacity to protect the wetland if those in power chose to do so. But they chose to ignore it” mentioned a stakeholder at the national level. Another participant doubted the possibility of the government officials to conserve the wetland stating that much of the degradation is associated with the government: “Degradation of wetlands is largely by the government itself; it is either by people who are working for the government, their accomplices or a project supported by government or a government project such as establishment of a road or factory”. As Hobfoll et al., ( 2018 ) observed that individuals and groups strive to obtain, retain, foster and protect the resources they value. It would appear here some government officials do not value wetlands as an ecosystem. It can be argued that the central government is more concerned with development and meeting economic gains (Ondiek et al., 2020 ) from the wetlands rather than caring about the other values and benefits derived from them.

4.7 Wetlands as places of spiritual practices

Both Lutembe and Nabaziza were perceived as sources of spiritual power. Hence both wetlands are visited by many people, not only those who lived near them but also from distant places. The visitors come to consult the spirits believed to be found in the wetlands. Seeking for spirits and blessings from wetlands supports Russi’s ( 2013 ) statement that there are social and cultural values to the wetlands. Local knowledge has it that the name Lutembe originated from a practice of calling a Crocodile from Lake Victoria to give them blessings (Stakeholder at the community level). Nabaziza wetland is a tributary of River Mayanja which is full of traditions in the central region as it is widely believed to have been birthed by a Muganda woman named Nalongo. To date, some people go to the river and use its banks as a spiritual and historical place (Basudde, 2013 ). In addition to spiritual blessings, both Lutembe and Nabaziza are perceived as rich sources of traditional herbs that help people in treating some skin infections, stomach pains, snake bites, cough and chest pains. While talking about the relevance of the wetland, one participant commented: “As a Herbalist I do get herbs from Lutembe wetland. I used to get many herbs in the past from the wetland, but they are now reducing as people clear the wetland vegetation to plant their crops or graze animals”. Because of large vegetation cutting and burning to establish gardens, many of the varieties of herbs in the form of grass, roots, trees and flowers can no longer be found. As confirmed by Ondiek et al ( 2020 ), such disappearance reduces the value of the wetlands a source of materials and spiritual centres.

4.8 Wetlands as tourist attractions

Lutembe wetland is widely known as an International Birding Area. The migration of birds such as White-winged Terns, Gull-billed Terns from Europe between September and March attract tourists, specifically those interested in birdwatching. There are concerns that the wetland and its ability to host birds that tourists want to see is under threat. As one of the study participants commented: “I am worried because what tourists used to come for is no longer present. The birds like the Shoebill were everywhere, today you can take hours to find one”. The changes that are happening in Lutembe are real and felt by the local stakeholders and many are just left wondering what is happening. Such scenarios could point to either migration or extinction of some wildlife that used to inhabit the wetland.

Nabaziza wetland also attracts visitors that come to learn about the wetland including students from nearby primary and secondary schools. There are also community members who walk along the wetland edge as a form of leisure especially during the evening hours. Community members visit the wetland to relax and get connected with nature.

4.9 Wetlands as degraded ecosystem

Wetlands were on a whole perceived as degraded in Wakiso District. It was one of the most agreed upon perceptions by more than half of the stakeholders. Wetlands are perceived to be reducing in size, quality and vegetation cover as most of their edges are converted to other uses. Examples include, construction of houses, growing crops, animal farms, flower gardens, factories as well as other businesses like establishment of petrol stations. While describing their perceptions regarding the state of wetlands in Wakiso District, some stakeholders used phrases such as “it is worrying”, “wetlands are threatened extensively”, “it is alarming”, “it is appalling” and “wetland coverage is reducing”. One stakeholder at the district level noted that “The state of wetlands in the district is worrying because there is a lot of degradation. We cannot say that the status is the same as we started it is on a decline trend because of several reasons”. Another participant from the community level explained that “… previously all the wetland [Lutembe Bay] was covered by forest and it could rain a lot in this area. Now, rainfall has become so unpredictable and that has led to changes in our seasons”. After the trees were cut down, the land was divided into small plots and sold to numerous people. The stated quotes suggest that stakeholders perceive wetlands as being encroached on at a high scale portraying a bleak future if no action is taken to avert the situation.

5 Discussion

The results have highlighted several ecosystem services that people obtain from wetlands and presented arguments for the need for conservation of what is remaining of the wetlands as well as restoration of what has already been converted to other uses. Clearly, the central government has done a lot to enact laws but has not created an enabling environment for the implementation of the same laws to allow for success in wetland conservation and restoration. Perhaps, the biggest conundrum is for the government to balance the need and drive for wealth creation while at the same time conserving natural resources such as wetlands. All this happens in a country where there is increase in population and demand for land for other uses as it is the case with other developing countries (Asumadu et al., 2023 ). There is need for many local-level studies to support evidence-based wetland management practices which this study contributes to. Consequently, the study adds to the body of knowledge about perceptions stakeholders have on wetland ecosystem conservation and restoration in Wakiso District, Uganda. The research contributes to the current discussion on how to increase chances of success in efforts geared towards nature conservation particularly wetlands in developing countries.

There are three broad implications of stakeholder perceptions regarding wetland conservation and restoration. These perceptions may lead to over-use , wise-use and not-use of wetlands and their resources. Stakeholders who are more inclined to and or supported the uncontrolled conversion of wetlands to meet human and developmental needs lead to actions that results in increased conversion, degradation and over-use of wetland resources. Those whose perceptions supported wise-use of wetlands appreciate the dangers resulting from over-use and are concerned that uncontrolled conversion would lead to disaster. Wise-use of wetland resources is recommended in a number of studies including Keddy and Fraser, ( 2000 ), Kalanzi, ( 2015 ), Gupta et al., ( 2020 ), Kingsford et al., ( 2021 ) and the Ramsar Convention Secretariat ( 2010 ). Wise-use is defined as the maintenance of the wetland’s ecological character achieved through the implementation of ecosystem approaches (Finlayson et al., 2015 ; Gardner & Davidson, 2011 ). The third and final group were those stakeholders whose perceptions were against using wetlands at all and wished to leave them intact, arguing that a lot of degradation and conversion has already taken place. These were in support of large scale conservation and restoration programmes as well as ensuring that what remains should not tampered with at all costs.

Many stakeholders that participated in this study support wise-use because they reason that humans have for decades relied on the services offered or supported by wetlands. This agrees with what Warbington and Boyce, ( 2023 ) and Gosling et al., ( 2017 ) observed that communities living adjacent to the wetland know their value but may end up over-using them in the absence of regulation and enforcement. Some stakeholders were deeply concerned about the continued conversion of wetlands and called for immediate conservation and restoration if future generations are to benefit from wetlands. Stakeholders with this perception are most likely not to engage in actions that would further degrade the wetland. Some stakeholders at the community level did not only guard the wetlands but also discouraged others from degrading them. Sensitizing others on the relevance of conserving and restoring wetlands was done emphasizing the benefits, goods and services they provided. Unfortunately, these were the minority among the study participants and comprised about 30% of the study population.

As the results show, there has been a failure in clearly understanding and using this concept in the two wetlands of Lutembe and Nabaziza. The same results could be applied to other wetlands in the Wakiso District and the central region at large. Wetlands around Lake Victoria tend to face almost similar challenges such as over-use especially the harvesting of papyrus and encroachment for agricultural production. Failure to promote and adopt the “wise-use” concept could be as a result of lack of capacity to implement the required practices as outlined by the Ramsar Secretariat recommendations (Ramsar Convention Secretariat, Handbook I, 2010 ; Ostrovskaya et al., 2013 ), or a lack of knowledge about the wetland and its usefulness (Gardner & Davidson, 2011 ). Evidence from interviews shows that local-level stakeholders consider what they do as wise-use since they have done so for ages given that their wetland has the capacity to regenerate. It is new practices such as back filling and flower farming which completely alters the ecological character and state of the wetland.

There are stakeholders that perceived wetland as a source of livelihoods materials, as fertile land for crop and animal farming, cheap and affordable, “God-given”, and not being prioritized by the central government. These perceptions are a danger to the existence of wetlands in the district because they contribute to over-use, conversion and degradation of wetlands. The need for present survival as opposed to future is largely the driving force. It is natural for some people to always think about their own needs or those of their immediate family members first before considering the larger society. Whereas such stakeholders may not be completely stopped from accessing such resources depending on the established norm, they need to be assisted to find alternative livelihoods if they are to co-exist with such a fragile ecosystem. Therefore, stakeholders with these perceptions need to be identified, involved and made aware of how their perceptions and actions negatively affect the overall functioning of the wetland ecosystem. There is need for constant reminders that natural resources such as wetlands in most countries belong to the living, the dead and the yet to be born.

The perception that wetlands are “God-given” makes it difficult to exercise caution believing that it does not harm individual members of the community, yet that endangers other creatures and species that live in the wetlands. No wonder there has been a reported decline in the number of fish species caught from Lake Victoria which is partially attributed to loss of wetlands and climatic change. In response to the reduced quantities of fish, the government has deployed soldiers to monitor fishing activities on the lake and to reduce the use of illegal fishing nets locally known as “ Kambamajji ”, “ Bungulu ” and “ Kokota ” and unauthorized fishing boats called “ Baotaddu ” or “ Paala ”. Those who use illegal fishing nets and boats are perceived to make more money since they catch small fish which they sell and earn more than those who use authorized gear. The continued degradation of especially Lutembe Bay wetland where fish produces from as it lays there eggs contributes significantly to the persistent loss of fish and low catch affecting hundreds of people that depend on that trade.

The study found that stakeholders had varied perception regarding who is responsible for conserving and restoring wetlands in Wakiso District. Those named include government, civil society organizations, community members as the key institutions responsible for conserving wetlands. Surprisingly only one stakeholder said, “it was the responsibility of everyone to manage the wetland”. Notably, participants at the community level mentioned civil society as not only responsible for conservation and restoration of wetlands but also as owners. A possible explanation for this could be that civil society organizations are possibly the most active in the field but also engage and involve local people in their programme activities related to wetland conservation. The benefits of stakeholder participation have been expressed by many scholars (Bal et al., 2013; Centre & Jeffery, n.d.; Nakiyemba et al., 2020 ; Pluchinotta et al., 2018 ). The more stakeholders participate, the higher the possibilities of arriving at an effective management, especially when it comes to natural resources.

Perceiving wetlands as very fertile lands with water has always attracted many low-income earners to settle on them. After they fail to get alternative land elsewhere to construct houses and grow some crops to feed themselves that is when some turn to wetlands. When all the edges are all safeguarded by their perceived owners, such wetland users’ resort to going deep inside the wetland to establish their own sections where no one claims ownership. Whereas wetlands should be conserved, maintained or rehabilitated (Turyasingura et al., 2023 ), this study found that more and more farmers are entering deep into the wetland to grow vegetables especially in Lutembe Bay. This affects the essential role of the wetland in climate change mitigation since especially flower farmers are cutting, burning, backfilling large sections of the wetland to establish gardens hence changes the ecological character of the wetland. Moomaw et al. ( 2018 ) stress the need for wetlands to be protected from direct human disturbance as this affects their functioning and contradicts the wise-use principle.

The perception that some central government officials, ministries and departments do not prioritize wetland conservation was prevalent even when there were many presidential directives calling on wetland encroachers to vacate. The central government in general was perceived as the leading contributor to wetland conversion in Wakiso District, yet it bears the highest responsibility to conserve wetlands. This is a challenge that is cutting across many African countries where even when there is remarkable progress in developing policies for wetland conservation (Simaika et al., 2021 ) there exist implementation challenges. Although the majority stakeholders in this study (57%) said it was the responsibility of government to conserve wetlands, 13% of the stakeholders are not aware of who is exactly responsible (see details in Fig.  3 ). The perceived inadequate prioritization means that not enough funds are allocated to monitor and prevent wetland encroachment. It also demotivates staff leaving them helpless to act even when they want to. Continuous allocation of wetland sections to private developers clearly shows a lack of commitment to conserve and restore wetlands in the district.

Perceived responsibility to conserve wetlands in Wakiso District

There is a sense of despondency among some district level stakeholders. For example, one of the stakeholders stated that, “Do you want me to be shot at first for you to know I care about wetland conservation?”, and another asked “Should I use my private car and fuel it to do government work?” Such could be interpreted as lack of morale for the staff to do what they ought to do. Then statements indicate that some government employees in wetlands management are becoming less hopeful about the success of their efforts, and thus are resigned to doing the little they can. Inadequate support demoralizes staff at district and Town Council level and inhibits their ability to monitor and conduct detailed and up-to-date inventories on what is remaining of the wetland, despite that being a prerequisite for proper planning (Simaika et al., 2021 ). Hence, it paves the way for individual wetland degraders to continue unchallenges at the expense of the majority stakeholders who are meant to benefit from such resources whether directly or indirectly.

The perceived absence of political will in wetland conservation makes the available policies less effective. Considering what is on the ground, the available laws ought to be amended to cater for the current crisis where the district is about to lose all the natural wetlands. The same observation was arrived at in a study by Ostrovskaya et al. ( 2013 ), that wetland management capacities are high at policy formulation level but extremely weak at implementation level. Therefore, availability of good laws and policies not backed by political will and enforcement commitment from the side of government is not sufficient to bring about the desired increment in wetland restoration.

Issues of survival may in many cases supersede the need to conserve wetlands. The challenge is to ensure that people escape poverty, while at the same time conserving and/or restoring Wakiso natural wetlands. In line with Agol et al. ( 2021 ), our study demonstrates that there is a great urgency to manage, conserve and restore wetland ecosystems in Wakiso District. However, as Verhoeven ( 2014 ) observes even with the protection of wetlands by laws they are still converted to other uses especially where major economic and social interests are at stake. Therefore, there is a conundrum that calls for more research to support survival and decent life, while at the same time conserving the environment.

“ The good thing with the current generation is that majority of the people are educated and now the responsibility is with you. Whatever happens it is your responsibility. It is sad that your [referring to the interviewer] generation seem not to care about the environment, and it is being destroyed as you look on. It is really sad! ” Interview Community level stakeholder.

There is an emerging perception that wetlands are vanishing because Wakiso District is increasingly urbanizing. Urbanization was referred to commonly by district level stakeholders who argue that many people want to live in the district because the price of land is still lower compared to the capital Kampala. Interestingly, as shown in Fig.  4 , urbanization was only the fourth driver of wetland conversion  following increase in poverty, population increase and crop and animal farming as the major drivers of wetland conversion in Wakiso District. However, such an argument can be challenged because urbanization per se is not a threat to wetland survival in the region, but rather what allows urbanization to take place such as wetlands not being clearly demarcated, ownership challenges, not being politically prioritized by central government makes wetlands disappear is the main concern. As evidenced by the study results, addressing unplanned urbanization, informal settlements, over exploitation of wetland resources reducing destructive farming practices like the use of herbicides and pesticides will enable stakeholders to conserve and restore wetlands amidst pressures of urbanization. However, as Eroğlu & Erbil ( 2022 ) observe, it is a challenge to manage many stakeholders with varied expectations for a long time. Managing expectations call for constant reviews and updates to ensure that stakeholder interests are always at the forefront of any wetland conservation project.

Perceived drivers of wetland conversion in Wakiso District

Introducing and adopting contemporary designs of housing infrastructure can help in creating more space for social and economic activities. With the current scattered settlement patterns, it makes it hard to distribute social services such as water and electricity to everyone. On the contrary, when people live in specific defined places, it creates space for more farming activities as well as conservation of the forests and wetlands. At the time of this study, firewood and charcoal were the main source of energy for cooking in the district. Enabling people to adopt the use of improved energy sources, like electricity for cooking and lighting, can go a long way in boosting the wetland conservation effort. In a study about cost of cooking technologies in Uganda, it was found that using gas was the cheapest form of fuel, followed by electricity, then charcoal and firewood (Black et al., 2021 ). The argument is that making the cost of accessing and using electricity affordable to most of the households will save the country hundreds of hectares of natural forests and aid the conservation of wetlands.

There have been continuous presidential directives and statements calling upon all those who encroached on the wetland illegally to leave. It may be said that these have been ignored and not implemented by those to whom they are directed. The government is expected to observe and promote the right of nature as stated in the Environment Act of 2019 that “ Nature has the right to exist, persist, maintain and regenerate its vital cycles, structure, functions and its processes in evolution ” (MWE, 2019 , page 18). It is categorically clear that wetlands, as part of nature, also have a right to be conserved and restored where damage has been done to them either through human action or any other reason. It can be argued that effective participation and involvement of all concerned stakeholders is key to attain success in wetland conservation and restoration. The benefits of stakeholder participation have been expressed by many scholars (Centre & Jeffery, 2009 ; Pluchinotta et al., 2018 ).

6 Conclusion

The study was set out to establish the stakeholder perceptions on wetland conservation and restoration activities in Wakiso District, Uganda. This research has shown that there are many stakeholders involved in wetland conservation and restoration and that they have varied perceptions, motivations and interests for their participation and operate at various levels with community level stakeholders being the least active ones. Second major finding was that no single stakeholder category is responsible for the degradation and conversion of wetlands although the degree and scale of their contribution differs with commercial farmers contributing more than for example papyrus harvesters. Results further showed that the central government even when it has put in place enabling laws and policies to help guide conservation and restoration of wetlands, its agencies have  not been in position to successfully implement them hence leaving the management of this critical resource in the hands of those who want to use it to benefit self rather than societal needs. Most of the stakeholders supported wise-use in principle but lacked capacity to implement it. Taken together, these results suggest that majority of the stakeholders are concerned about the current state of wetland degradation in Wakiso District and blamed the central government for not doing enough to halt the practice using the available laws and policies. However, driven by the desire to create wealth and improve the standards of living for majority citizens, it is likely to remain a big challenge for the government to conserve wetlands as it strives to develop the country. Every effort needs to be taken to address this socio-ecological and development challenge that faces Wakiso District and Uganda at large to achieve balanced and sustainable development.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

Special thanks to all the stakeholders that participated in this study from Lutembe Bay and Nabaziza wetland communities, Wakiso District and national-level stakeholders.

The research was part of Anthony Kadoma PhD sponsored by the University of Glasgow College of Social Sciences PhD Scholarship.

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Kadoma, A., Perry, M. & Renaud, F.G. Stakeholders’ perceptions of wetland conservation and restoration in Wakiso District, Uganda. Environ Dev Sustain (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-023-04008-z

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Wetlands play major roles in the landscape by providing unique habitats for a wide variety of flora and fauna, supporting the extensive food chain and rich biodiversity. They are also being recognized as important carbon sinks and climate stabilizers on a global scale. However, due to human activities and

Wetlands play major roles in the landscape by providing unique habitats for a wide variety of flora and fauna, supporting the extensive food chain and rich biodiversity. They are also being recognized as important carbon sinks and climate stabilizers on a global scale. However, due to human activities and global climate change, wetlands have been extensively reduced and degraded on a global scale. Loss rates of wetlands around the world and the subsequent recognition of wetland values have stimulated wetland restoration and creation. To communicate the knowledge on the researches and projects on wetland restoration, this special topic focuses on the theories, methods, and practices for wetland restorations, and monitoring/evaluations of wetland degradation.

Ecological restoration is being solicited to deliver proven and scalable actions coping with the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services. However, Due to the diversity of wetland types and functions, which indicators have been proved to be credible? Which methods and techniques are used to evaluate the success of wetland restoration in recent years? What successful cases can we learn from across the world? We hope to obtain the progress on the relevant researches and practical projects in wetland restoration at different scales through this special issue, offering a good view of relevant issues and research status, techniques, and applications for wetland restoration.

This special collection will cover investigation and analysis of various wetland types (e.g. coastal, inland, or urban wetlands), development of ecosystem service evaluation approaches, propose of ecosystems modeling methods, advancement of wetland restoration and protection techniques and strategies, as well as the applications of these methods and models in different wetlands.

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3.Evaluation of wetland degradation and restoration

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5. Wetlands resilience and wetlands management

Keywords : Ecological Restoration, Wetland Degradation, Restoration Index, Adaptive Management, Restoration Monitoring

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International Journal of Ecosystem

p-ISSN: 2165-8889    e-ISSN: 2165-8919

2021;  11(2): 31-45

doi:10.5923/j.ije.20211102.01

Received: Apr. 15, 2021; Accepted: May 21, 2021; Published: Jul. 26, 2021

Best Practices of Wetland Degradation Assessment and Restoration in the Semi-Arid Areas. Case Study of Uganda

Bernard Barasa 1 , Moses Egaru 2 , Polycarp M. Musimami 3 , Paul M. Gudoyi 1 , Gertrude Akello 1

1 Department of Geography and Social Studies, Kyambogo University, Kyambogo University, Kampala, Uganda

2 International Union for Conservation for Nature, Kampala, Uganda

3 National Biodiversity Bank, Department of Environmental Management, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda

Copyright © 2021 The Author(s). Published by Scientific & Academic Publishing.

Despite the harsh climate in the semi-arid areas of Uganda, anthropogenic activities continue to increase in many wetlands due to increasing human populations, causing incidences of degradation that require urgent restoration interventions. This study assessed wetland degradation and restoration in four wetland sites. To do this, the spatial- temporal extent and drivers of wetland use/cover changes and wetland degradation were determined, and the best steps, lessons, and principles of conducting wetland restoration were established. We used Sentinel-2 (2016-2019) and MODIS (2019) sensor images to estimate wetland changes and degradation status. Furthermore, focus group discussion, disaggregated by gender, was also conducted with representatives of the wetland user groups. The results revealed a reduction in the area under natural vegetation types compared to small-scale farming and built-up areas, between 2016 and 2019. This pattern was intensively driven by wetland cultivation, deforestation, occurrence of flash floods, and poor market linkages / price of yields. The consequential spatial extent of wetland degradation was generally high. To counteract this degradation, the best steps that ensued an effective wetland ecological restoration included conducting a baseline survey, stakeholder consultation, identification of reference sites, planning for future changes, implementation of restoration action plans, self-sustainability, and monitoring. During this exercise, the key lessons learned were to encourage equal participation of men and women, raise awareness, encourage restoration through income generation, and promote sustainability of restoration interventions. Therefore, if these practices are well implemented, they could increase the resilience of communities to climate change, enhance livelihood diversity and inform the processes of developing wetland management plans.

Keywords: Wetland degradation, Ecological restoration, Wetlands, Uganda

Cite this paper: Bernard Barasa , Moses Egaru , Polycarp M. Musimami , Paul M. Gudoyi , Gertrude Akello , Best Practices of Wetland Degradation Assessment and Restoration in the Semi-Arid Areas. Case Study of Uganda, International Journal of Ecosystem , Vol. 11 No. 2, 2021, pp. 31-45. doi: 10.5923/j.ije.20211102.01.

Article Outline

1. introduction, 2.1. study area, 2.2. spatial temporal extent and drivers of wetland use/cover changes, 2.3. status and scale of wetlands and degradation, 2.4. best practices and lessons learned in conducting wetland ecological restoration, 3.1. spatial temporal extent and drivers of wetland use/cover changes, 3.2. status and scale of wetland degradation, 3.3. ascertaining the best practices and lessons in conducting wetland ecological restoration, 4. discussion, 5. conclusions, acknowledgements.

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Gosling, Amanda Karen. "A case study of Bigodi Wetland Sanctuary as a community driven Community-Based Natural Resource Management initiative : maintaining livelihoods and wetland health." Thesis, Rhodes University, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1007065.

Shamir, Eylon. "Nitrogen Accumulation In A Constructed Wetland For Dairy Wastewater Treatment." Thesis, The University of Arizona, 1998. http://etd.library.arizona.edu/etd/GetFileServlet?file=file:///data1/pdf/etd/azu_etd_hy0014_m_sip1_w.pdf&type=application/pdf.

Cowden, Craig. "Assessment of the long-term response to rehabilitation of two wetlands in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa." Thesis, Rhodes University, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/10962/60606.

Blankenship, Anne Carrington. "A two-year seasonal analysis of wetland vegetation at the McClintic Wildlife Management Area in Mason County, West Virginia." Huntington, WV : [Marshall University Libraries], 2005. http://www.marshall.edu/etd/descript.asp?ref=560.

Archibald, Sally. "Investigating the Aquatic weeds on the Westlake Wetland: Detrimental effects and management options." Bachelor's thesis, University of Cape Town, 1998. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/24395.

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