essay marine environment

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Human impacts on marine environments.

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Throughout human existence we have relied on the oceans – for food, as a waste dump, for recreation, for economic opportunities and so on. However, it’s not only our activities in the marine environment that affect life in the sea – it’s also the things we do on land.

With more than half the world’s population now living within 100 kilometres of the coast, it’s not surprising that our activities are taking their toll. Human impacts have increased along with our rapid population growth, substantial developments in technology and significant changes in land use. Over-fishing, pollution and introduced species are affecting life in the sea – and New Zealand is no exception!

Threats to marine habitats

Human actions at sea and on land are putting increasing pressure on the ocean and the species that live there.

Humans living near the coast have probably always used the ocean as a source of food. However, with advances in fishing equipment, larger ships and new tracking technologies, many fish stocks around the world have reduced significantly. Fish stocks on continental shelf areas are now widely considered to be fully or over exploited. Aside from reducing fish stocks, unsustainable fishing practices can have other negative impacts on the marine environment. For example, some fishing techniques such as dredging and trawling can cause widespread damage to marine habitats and organisms living on the sea floor. These techniques also often capture non-target species (known as bycatch) that are then discarded.

Commercial fishing boat

Fishing was probably the first use of the oceans by humans. In the last century, significant increases in commercial fishing have resulted in the over-exploitation of many fish stocks.

In New Zealand, fisheries are managed by a quota system that sets catch limits for commercially important species and aims at sustainable management of our fish stocks. The Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society (NZ) used to publish the Best Fish Guide to try and encourage us to make more sustainable choices when purchasing seafood. The list evaluated fish stocks and bycatch levels and the fishing methods used.

Our oceans have long been used as an intentional dumping ground for all sorts of waste including sewage, industrial run-off and chemicals. In more recent times, policy changes in many countries have reflected the view that the ocean does not have an infinite capacity to absorb our waste. However, marine pollution remains a major problem and threatens life in the sea at all levels.

Phytoplankton bloom

This image shows a large phytoplankton bloom that occurred around New Zealand in October 2009. The image was acquired by the Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), flying aboard NASA’s Terra satellite.

Some marine pollution may be accidental, for example, oil spills caused by tanker accidents. Some may be indirect, when pollutants from our communities flow out to sea via stormwater drains and rivers. Some effects may not be immediately obvious, for example, bioaccumulation – the process where levels of toxic chemicals in organisms increase as they eat each other at each successive trophic level in the food web.

All marine pollution has the potential to seriously damage marine habitats and life in the sea. Scientists are concerned that marine pollution places extra stress on organisms that are already threatened or endangered.

Eutrophication

Eutrophication is the result of a particular type of marine pollution. It is caused by the release of excess nutrients into coastal areas via streams and rivers. These nutrients come from fertilisers used in intensive farming practices on land. Additional nutrients in the sea can lead to excessive phytoplankton growth that results in ‘blooms’. When these large numbers of organisms die, the sharp increase in decomposition of the dead organisms by oxygen-using bacteria depletes oxygen levels. In some cases, this can result in the death by oxygen starvation of large numbers of other organisms such as fish.

Introduced species

Since the arrival of humans in New Zealand, introduced species in our terrestrial ecosystems have contributed to a significant loss of biodiversity. Introduced species also present a threat to our marine environment. It is not always easy to monitor or prevent the introduction of unwanted marine organisms, and visiting ships may introduce them accidentally on their hulls, in ballast water or on equipment.

Not all introduced species will spread or even survive, but once established, they may be difficult or impossible to remove. For example, the Japanese seaweed, wakame Undaria pinnatifida , which probably arrived in 1987, is now widespread. Scientists are still monitoring its impact on our native marine organisms.

In New Zealand, the Ministry of Primary Industries is responsible for providing border inspectors who manage risks from people, planes, vessels (like ships) and goods coming into the country. They also coordinate responses when new, harmful pests and diseases are detected in our country.

Nature of science

Scientific research sometimes uncovers environmental problems that are linked to human lifestyles. This research shows that the way we live needs to be balanced with environmental needs, which sometimes puts scientists in a difficult position in defending their work.

Ocean acidification

There is evidence to suggest that human activities have caused the amount of carbon dioxide in our atmosphere to rise dramatically. This impacts on the marine environment as the world’s oceans currently absorb as much as one-third of all CO 2 emissions in our atmosphere. This absorption of CO 2 causes the pH to decrease, resulting in the seawater becoming more acidic.

Our role in ocean acidification

In this video, Associate Professor Abby Smith, from the University of Otago, talks about what we can do to help reduce ocean acidification.

Scientists have long understood that an increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will result in higher levels of dissolved CO 2 in seawater. However, a relatively recent discovery is that even small changes in water pH can have big impacts on marine biology. Ocean acidification is a worldwide issue, but as CO 2 is more soluble in colder water, it is of particular concern in New Zealand’s temperate oceans.

It is difficult to predict the overall impact on the marine ecosystem but many scientists fear that ocean acidification has the potential to decrease marine biodiversity on a very large scale.

New Zealanders are aware that old ways of managing our seas are in need of a rethink. The Sustainable Seas National Science Challenge is tasked with helping New Zealand enhance the value of our marine resources while ensuring they are safeguarded for future generations.

Related content

Explore the timeline to look at some of the historical aspects of fisheries in New Zealand.

Overfishing is an ongoing environmental issue in our oceans. This article answers the question: how do you locate ships that have gone ‘dark’ and are fishing illegally?

The Rena disaster impacted the habitat of many species, read how marine life adapts to habitats and how it deals with stress caused by human impacts .

Waitā is a whetū in the Matariki cluster connected to the oceans and marine environments. He reminds us that the mauri of the people is closely connected to the mauri of the moana.

Raʻui: Giving it back to the gods is a Connected article that takes a Pacific worldview and describes how the people of the Cook Islands have attempted to manage and protect their marine resources with the re-introduction of the tradition of ra‘ui.

• Identifying marine stressors
• Investigating marine and costal tipping points
• Modelling marine stressors and tipping points

Activity ideas

In Introducing biodiversity , students make models of a marine ecosystem and then explore ways humans might impact on that ecosystem.

After watching the video Our role in ocean acidification , explore why egg shells are dissolving and can you get a fisherman and a conservationist to agree ?

Changes on the beach is a cross-curricular activity that explores natural and human-induced changes to beach environments.

Citizen science

Using online citizen science opportunities as a way to deepen student learning and engagement is easier than you think. Have a look at this example, Adrift , looking at marine microbes drifting continually in our ocean systems. Read about these schools’ citizen science projects in the Connected articles Down the drain and Sea science .

Useful links

Visit the Department of Conservation’s website to find out more about marine reserves and other efforts being made to protect life in the sea.

In this recording, Marine reserves, part of Te Papa’s Science Express programme, hear biologist Jonathan Gardner discuss marine reserves around the world – their importance as ecosystems, and the competing interests that threaten or help protect them.

The OECD commissioned the report 2023 Agency in the Anthropocene . This easy to read report, co-authored by Dr Chris Eames at the University of Waikato, explains the competencies youth need to address local and global challenges in this Anthropocene epoch of human influences on the planet.

This classroom module for marine biosecurity is designed for years 5-8 to help them understand the role they play in protecting our coastlines. It is provided in both Google Docs and as printable PDFs so that it's easy for teachers to use. Part 3 uses the Marine Metre Squared project.

The Marine Stewardship Council is an international non-profit organisation that aims to protect oceans and safeguard fish stocks. It has a system for labelling sustainable seafood for consumers. Some critics argue the system is ‘greenwashing’, take a look at the Greenpeace article Understanding the true price of fish . Do either of the articles align with the 2017 Best Fish guide by the New Zealand Forest and Bird? If you were buying seafood, how would you decide on what species are sustainable?

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Why is Ocean Conservation so important?

07 Jun 2022

https://oceanliteracy.unesco.org/ocean-conservation/

The ocean covers three-quarters of the Earth’s surface and feeds about half of the world’s population, as well as being home for millions of animal species – hundreds of thousands of which have yet to be found! The ocean also functions as a life-support system for our “blue planet”, regulating the climate on a global scale and producing over half of the oxygen we breathe . Despite this, mankind has mistreated these life-giving oceans to the point where around 40% of marine ecosystems have been harmed.

For far too long, people believed the ocean was endless and unaffected by human activity.

Scientists have just recently realised the terrible impact and ongoing hazard of human activities and behaviour . Our ocean is threatened by overfishing, climate change, pollution, habitat destruction, invasive species, and other types of human exploitation. 

Marine conservation as a concept, then, is actually relatively new. It wasn’t until the 1960s that it became widely accepted that major fish populations were declining and ecosystems were rapidly deteriorating. Today, marine conservation is regarded as one of the world’s most pressing scientific issues. 

Ecosystems have irreversibly changed, ocean management is fragmented, and seas are managed separately from their terrestrial (land) counterparts. Given that water covers 71% of our world, the status of our waterways has become one of our most serious concerns.

A variety of issues have had a harmful impact on our oceans in recent years :

• climate change
• overfishing
• acidification
• sedimentation

What are the policies and actions to reach the goal ?  

​​What is being done to fight for ocean conservation? And, even more importantly, what can you do in your everyday life to support it?

The good news is you can actually do a lot in your daily life to help safeguard the ocean and all the species it sustains. For example:

• Learn about and support your local or national marine protected zones, and look into volunteering possibilities there.
• If you travel, look for marine protected areas that are dedicated to the conservation of marine life, such as the Blue Parks.
• Only take pictures and leave footprints.
• Tell your legislators how vital it is to protect marine species.
• Tell your legislators that you believe it is critical to address climate change.
• Spread the word about what we can do to safeguard ocean ecosystems by talking to people about ocean species and ocean conservation.
• Stop using single-use plastics (such as supermarket bags, straws, to-go containers, and bottled drinks) and replace them with reusable alternatives . Let businesses know why you prefer or avoid their products.
• Reduce your reliance on fossil fuels by riding your bike, taking public transportation, attending virtual meetings and conferences to cut down on long-distance travel, Using renewable energy to power your home and consuming less meat, or no meat!
• Consume only sustainable fish (or none at all!). You may also help by purchasing only responsibly caught fish, while current research indicates that fishing is harmful to the ocean, and that eating no fish at all would be far better for marine ecosystems !
• Support groups dedicated to preserving marine biodiversity.
• Participate in a cleanup ! Many organisations , such as The Sea Cleaners and The Ocean Clean Up, are working on this and creating new technology. Supporting them is a fantastic way to help save the ocean!

The full list of conferences 

If you’re interested in learning more about the most recent advancements in terms of new technology and regulations to clean up our ocean, here’s a list of significant ocean-related conferences throughout the world.

Gordon Research Seminar and Conference — Ocean Biogeochemistry

30 Apr 2022 – 06 May 2022 • Castelldefels, Spain

This Ocean Biogeochemistry Seminar and Conference provides a unique opportunity to share and exchange new data and cutting-edge ideas. Ocean dynamics are driven by complex processes that are critical for ecosystem resilience. “Fundamental and interdisciplinary biogeochemical research that is vital to create a holistic understanding of our past, present, and future oceans” is the goal of this conference.

2022 Joint Aquatic Sciences Meeting

14 May 2022 – 22 May 2022 – Grand Rapids, Michigan, United States

“The world’s largest assembly of aquatic scientists, students, practitioners, resource agency employees, and industry representatives in history,” according to JASM (the Joint Aquatic Sciences Meeting).

Gordon Research Seminar and Conference — Ocean Mixing

04 Jun 2022 – 10 Jun 2022 – Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, United States

The impact of ocean mixing on the ocean and atmospheric systems, as well as on Earth and society in general, will be discussed during this conference.

Gordon Research Seminar and Conference — Ocean Global Change Biology

16 Jul 2022 – 22 Jul 2022 – Waterville Valley, United States

“Integrating Environmental, Organismal, and Community Complexity into Ocean Global Change Research” will be the theme of this forum.

UN Ocean Conference

27 Jun – 1 Jul 2022 – Lisbon, Portugal

The UN Ocean Conference will be co-hosted by the governments of Kenya and Portugal this year, and it will aim to address many of the issues that the COVID-19 outbreak has brought to light. We’ll strive to come up with important structural changes and common solutions during the meeting.

7th International Marine Debris Conference (7IMDC)

18 Sep – 23 Sep 2022 – Busan, Republic of Korea​

This is one of the oldest international conferences on the subject of marine debris and plastic pollution. Governments, industry, scientists, and society will come together to discuss the most recent research, strengthen cooperation, and discover answers to major global issues.

ICEOE 2022 — The 5th International Conference on Environment and Ocean Engineering

21 Oct 2022 – 23 Oct 2022 – Shandong, China

Shandong University is hosting ICEOE, which is one of the major platforms for sharing and exchanging breakthroughs in Environment and Ocean Engineering. It will bring together renowned scientists and researchers from all over the world to debate the most recent subjects in the field.

​​​ 5th International Symposium on the Effects of Climate Change on the World’s Oceans

17-21 April 2023 – Bergen, Norway

ECCWO-5 brings together scientists from around the world to better understand the effects of climate change on ocean ecosystems and to identify potential adaptation and mitigation measures. It also provides the most up-to-date information on how our oceans are changing, what is at risk, and how to respond and work toward a more sustainable future.

More info and projects on ocean conservation

Marine protection atlas.

The Marine Conservation Atlas (MPAtlas), a Marine Conservation Institute initiative, was launched in 2012 with the goal of providing a more nuanced picture of worldwide marine protection. The goal of this project is to clarify, calculate, and illustrate the level of protection and implementation of marine protected zones around the world (MPAs). The identification and tracking of fully and highly protected regions is our major focus. These criteria will guide future discussions and goals for worldwide marine conservation efforts.

To ensure that marine protected areas (MPAs) truly safeguard marine biodiversity, we need guidelines. The Marine Conservation Institute started the Blue Parks program to recognize and reward excellent MPAs, as well as to encourage governments, managers, communities, and leaders to pursue effective conservation. The Blue Parks initiative aims to create a global ocean refuge system that protects at least 30% of the ocean’s biodiversity. The Blue Park Awards honour exceptional marine protected areas (MPAs), and the Blue Park criteria serve as a science-based benchmark for marine conservation effectiveness.

Ocean Care works on a number of different projects and campaigns to protect our ocean. With the campaign “Silent Oceans”, for example, Ocean Care wants to make sure marine life is protected against underwater noise. They are also launching a new program to fight the devastating effects deep sea mining is having on marine ecosystems. 

https://www.oceancare.org/en/our-work/ocean-conservation/

https://oceanconservancy.org/

https://www.oceanconservation.org/

https://www.worldwildlife.org/initiatives/oceans

https://www.oecd.org/ocean/topics/ocean-conservation/

https://marine-conservation.org/why-protect-the-ocean/#:~:text=A%20healthy%20ocean%20regulates%20climate,emissions%20produced%20by%20human%20activities .

https://www.oysterworldwide.com/news/marine-conservation-important/

https://www.fao.org/zhc/detail-events/en/c/846698/

https://www.gvi.co.uk/blog/out-of-sight-front-of-mind-why-marine-conservation-is-so-important/

The social hub of ocean action and literacy

Follow and be part of a community taking actions that help the ocean. Share your initiative and inspire others with your examples! Learn about the 7 Principles of Ocean Literacy, and the steps you can take in your life to help preserve our Oceans. Connect with the world's greatest scientific minds, and read articles to inspire you to take action in your daily life.

Generation Ocean: join the race to protect our incredible blue planet (Booklet)

Call for young ocean advocates – the youth and the arctic, building a new ocean literacy approach based on a simulated dive in a submarine: a multisensory workshop to bring the deep sea closer to people.

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Climate Change Impacts on the Ocean and Marine Resources

The ocean is an essential part of the global environment. It influences climate and weather around the world and is home to millions of different forms of life. 1 Thriving marine ecosystems provide Americans with food, medicines, jobs, and recreation. The ocean also connects people to nature and is critical to some Native cultures.

Coral bleaching. Coral reefs are home to many sea creatures. When water is too warm or too cold, coral becomes damaged in a process called bleaching . If bleaching goes on for too long, it can kill the coral. 39

Dead Zones. Harmful algal blooms (HABs), sometimes called red tides, have been linked to increasing temperatures in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Some species of HABs can produce excessive amounts of biomass that can prevent light from getting below the ocean surface. As these organisms die and decompose, oxygen levels go down, making it harder for other organisms to survive. Other species of HABs can produce toxins that are hazardous to marine life and humans .

Threats to subsistence fishing. Salmon and other types of fish are an essential part of subsistence fishing in Alaska. Climate change is making it difficult for Indigenous people to practice fishing traditions.

Wildlife impacts. A 2014 marine heatwave caused the death of many sea lions. 35 The warm water caused the fish that the sea lions eat to move elsewhere. As a result, thousands of sea lion pups starved.

Decreases in commercial fishing harvests. America’s East Coast is projected to see a 20% to 30% decrease in fish harvests by 2060. 36 Climate change will drive fish further north as waters heat up.

Increasing emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere from the burning of fossil fuels are causing changes in the ocean (see box). These changes can alter which species of marine life thrive best in certain areas. For example, many fish have shifted their typical range as water temperatures rise. 2 However, other species are expected to decline in number or leave areas that are no longer favorable for them. 3 These shifts can have significant impacts on marine ecosystems and on fishing communities. 4

Many climate change impacts will only be avoided by reducing carbon dioxide emissions. 5 Climate-driven changes in the ocean are motivating people to find solutions to the new challenges. For example, new forecast tools are helping predict changes in ocean conditions that can help the fishing industry adapt. Many organizations are working together to protect coral reefs , which face hazards such as bleaching, infectious diseases, smothering from sediment, collapses in fish stocks, and other issues. Such strategies can help preserve and protect marine resources. Even with these efforts, however, it will take decades or longer for the ocean to recover.

Explore the sections on this page to learn more about climate impacts on the ocean and marine resources :

Top Climate Impacts on the Ocean and Marine Resources

The marine environment and the economy, environmental justice and equity, what we can do, related resources, climate change impacts on the ocean .

Human-caused carbon dioxide emissions are affecting the ocean in three main ways:

• Warming. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere trap energy from the sun. The ocean absorbs much of this energy, causing ocean waters to warm. Warmer waters also contribute to sea level rise.
• Acidification. The ocean’s absorption of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is changing the pH of the ocean, making seawater more acidic.
• Low oxygen levels. Warm water cannot hold as much oxygen as cold water. 

Climate change affects the ocean in many ways. Three key impacts are described in this section.

1. Changes in Ocean Ecosystems

Climate changes to the physical and chemical makeup of the ocean have significant impacts on marine ecosystems. For example, water temperature influences which species can live in an area. Acidification affects many animals’ ability to make shells or skeletons, while low oxygen levels can contribute to hypoxia , or dead zones . Warm temperatures can exacerbate the effects of both acidification and hypoxia. 6

Impacts on one species can ripple across an entire ecosystem. For example, plankton—tiny organisms at the bottoms of many marine food chains —are sensitive to water temperatures and oxygen concentrations. They can die off if the water gets too warm. Animals farther up the food chain, like whales, can suffer food shortages when this happens. 

Climate changes to the marine environment will come in many forms. For instance, the diversity of some temperate ecosystems is expected to increase. 7 But overall, climate change is projected to disrupt marine ecosystems in ways that reduce the services they provide and their diversity of life. 8

2. More Common and Severe Extreme Marine Events

Rising water temperatures, acidification, and low oxygen levels can combine with natural ocean cycles to create extreme marine events. Marine heat waves, dead zones, and coral bleaching are just a few examples of these events, which are projected to become more common and severe. 10 Extreme events can harm marine ecosystems and communities connected to these systems. For example, a large heat wave off the West Coast in 2014 shut down crab fisheries and starved baby sea lions. 11

3. Impacts on Marine Fisheries

Commercial and recreational marine fisheries in some regions are at high risk from climate-driven changes in the size and distribution of fish populations. 12 Some fish species have already altered their geographic range in response to climate change. For example, pollock and cod are moving north to colder water as local ocean temperatures rise. 13

The movement of fish into new areas disrupts the ecosystems that they move into. It can also cause confusion about what fishing regulations apply. 14 Changes in where fish live may also mean boats have to travel further from ports, potentially increasing costs. 15

Climate change is also affecting the timing of seasonal events, which can affect fisheries. For example, some species, such as striped bass, are spawning earlier in the year. 16 This means that catches can peak earlier than normal. Fisheries will need to adapt to such changes or risk reduced catches and lost revenues, which can also increase prices for consumers. 17

Changes in the locations and number of fish species in the ocean can present new opportunities in some cases. For example, scientists predict that some areas, such as the Bering Sea, will see more kinds of fish as warming waters drive populations north. 18 This could lead to new fishing opportunities and economic growth in that region.

For more specific examples of climate change impacts in your region, please see the National Climate Assessment .

Many U.S. industries depend on the ocean. The marine economy generated over $665 billion in sales in 2019, with tourism and recreation, including recreational fishing, making up more than one-third of that total. 20 The marine economy also generated $397 billion in gross domestic product (GDP), which was 1.9% of the national GDP. 21

Commercial fisheries are an important contributor to the economy. In 2019, they produced 9.3 billion pounds of seafood valued at $5.5 billion. 22 Other businesses, such as grocery stores, tackle shops, and restaurants, also benefit from fishery-related products and services.

As of 2019, almost 2.4 million Americans had jobs related to the ocean in fields including fisheries, construction, tourism, real estate, food service, and transportation. 23 The Atlantic and Pacific Oceans are both key trade channels for importing and exporting goods. 24 The United States also extracts oil, gas, sand, and gravel from the ocean.

The ocean also provides many benefits that are harder to measure in economic terms. These are called ecosystem services . Carbon storage, water filtration, and shoreline protection are just a few of the many ecosystem services that the ocean provides.    

Healthy oceans provide Americans with food and employment and are important to cultural traditions. Climate change leaves communities that depend on the ocean vulnerable to hardship. Many fishing communities already experience high rates of poverty. 25 Unstable fish populations and market pricing can hurt fishing communities’ earnings. 26 This is especially true if a community depends on a single species for their livelihoods.

Ocean health is a cornerstone of many Indigenous cultures . Native American, Pacific Islander, and Alaska Native communities often practice subsistence fishing. 27 , 28 Fluctuating fish populations can lead to food insecurity for rural Alaskan villages, where many people depend on locally caught fish for a large portion of their diet. 29 For example, populations of Chinook and chum salmon hit record lows in 2021, leading to the closure of subsistence salmon fishing for much of the year. 30 The number of shellfish, another important part of subsistence diets, has also been declining due to ocean acidification. 31

Climate change also affects Indigenous people culturally. Gathering and preparing food provide social, spiritual, and economic benefits for Indigenous communities. 32 , 33 Disruptions to subsistence practices have negative health outcomes such as anxiety disorders and feelings of isolation. 34  

We can help reduce the impact of climate change on the marine environment in many ways, including the following: 

• Adapt fishery management. Fishing professionals and government officials can help people adapt to climate change by changing policies and practices to avoid overfishing and maintain healthy marine ecosystems. 
• Diversify fisheries. Aquaculture , or seafood farming, helps build resilience against climate change. 
• Reduce energy use. Everyone can take steps to lower carbon emissions , which can help reduce ocean warming and acidification. 
• Shop sustainably. Plan your meals with sustainably harvested seafood to keep ocean ecosystems healthy. These are fish and shellfish that have been caught using sustainable techniques and management practices. 
• Recreate responsibly. Help protect coral reefs . When boating, be careful not to let anchors damage coral reefs or seagrass beds. Never touch coral reefs when diving or snorkeling. Also avoid using sunscreens containing chemicals that can harm marine life.

See additional actions you can take, as well as steps that companies can take, on EPA’s What You Can Do About Climate Change page.

Related Climate Indicators

Learn more about some of the key indicators of climate change related to this sector from EPA’s Climate Change Indicators in the United States :

• Ocean Acidity
• Sea Surface Temperatures
• Marine Species Distribution
• Atmospheric Concentrations of Greenhouse Gases
• Climate Change Indicators in the United States: Oceans.
• National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Fisheries . Manages fisheries around the nation and provides resources to professional and recreational fishers.
• National Estuary Program . Provides information about the location and function of U.S. estuaries, where freshwaters mix with saltwater from the sea.
• Ocean and Coastal Acidification . Explains the causes and effects of acidification.
• Fish and Shellfish Advisories . Provides information on safe eating guidelines and explains how advisories are formed.
• NOAA: Gulf of Mexico Hypoxia Watch . Monitors levels of dissolved oxygen in the waters of the Gulf of Mexico. 

1  National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). (2017). Marine life counts: The U.S. marine biodiversity observation network . National Ocean Service. NOAA Ocean Podcast: Episode 35. Retrieved 3/7/2022.

2  Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018). Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources . In: Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II . U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 369.

3  Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018). Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources . In: Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II . U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 358.

4  Moore, C., et al. (2021). Estimating the economic impacts of climate change on 16 major U.S. fisheries . Climate Change Economics, 12(1).

5  Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018). Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources . In: Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II . U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 367.

6  Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018). Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources . In: Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II . U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 362.

7  Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018). Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources . In: Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II . U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 357.

8  Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018). Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources . In: Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II . U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 360.

9  Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018). Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources . In: Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II . U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 355.

10  Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018). Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources . In: Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II . U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 372.

11  Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018). Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources . In: Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II . U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 366.

12  Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018). Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources . In: Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II . U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 361.

13  Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018). Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources . In: Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II . U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 355.

14  Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018). Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources . In: Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II . U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 362.

15  Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018). Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources . In: Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II . U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 362.

16  Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018). Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources . In: Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II . U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 366.

17  Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018). Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources . In: Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II . U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 366.

18  Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018). Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources . In: Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II . U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 362.

19  NOAA. (N.D.). Northeast fish and shellfish climate vulnerability assessment . NOAA Fisheries. Retrieved 3/18/2022.

20  U.S. Department of Commerce. (2021). Marine economy satellite account, 2014–2019 . Bureau of Economic Analysis. Retrieved 3/7/2022. 

21  U.S. Department of Commerce. (2021). Marine economy satellite account, 2014–2019 . Bureau of Economic Analysis. Retrieved 3/7/2022. 

22  NOAA Fisheries. (2019). Fisheries of the United States . Retrieved 5/11/2022. 

23  U.S. Department of Commerce. (2021). Marine economy satellite account, 2014–2019 . Bureau of Economic Analysis. Retrieved 2/7/2022. 

24  U.S. Department of Commerce. (N.D.). Maritime services . International Trade Administration. Retrieved 3/18/2022. 

25  NOAA. (2021). Social indicators for coastal communities . NOAA Fisheries. Retrieved 3/18/2022.

26  NOAA. (2021). Social indicators for coastal communities . NOAA Fisheries. Retrieved 3/18/2022.

27  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2016). Guidance for conducting fish consumption surveys . Retrieved 3/7/2022.

28   EPA. (2016). Technical guidance for assessing environmental justice in regulatory analysis . Retrieved 3/7/2022.

29  Markon, C., et al. (2018). Ch. 26: Alaska . In: Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II . U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 1205.

30  Alaska Department of Fish and Game. (2021). 2021 Yukon River summer season summary . Retrieved 3/18/2022. 

31  Markon, C., et al. (2018). Ch. 26: Alaska . In: Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II . U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 1205.

32  Jantarasami, L.C., et al. (2018). Ch. 15: Tribes and indigenous peoples . In: Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II . U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 582. 

33  Markon, C., et al. (2018). Ch. 26: Alaska . In: Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II . U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 1205.

34  Jantarasami, L.C., et al. (2018). Ch. 15: Tribes and indigenous peoples . In: Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II . U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 582. 

35  Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018). Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources . In: Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II . U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 366.

36  Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018). Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources . In: Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II . U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 363.

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Home » Water » Seas and oceans » The marine environment

The marine environment

More than two thirds of the Earth’s surface is occupied by seas and oceans. Heated by the sunshine, the temperature of sea water varies with location and depth. On the other hand, its composition and therefore its salinity are remarkably constant in a given sea while showing some variations from one sea to another. In the marine environment, the cradle of life, under the open ocean surface, which is neither flat as the ancients believed, nor really round, a multitude of organisms live in conditions very different from those known on earth and constitute an amazing biodiversity.

1. Origin and extent of the oceans

2. density, salinity and temperature of the marine environment, 3. composition of seawater, 4. the hummocky relief of the seas, 5. the amazing biodiversity of the marine environment.

During the slow evolution of our planet, plate tectonics has continuously changed the positions of continents and oceans. At the time of the Pangea , about 300 million years ago [1] , there was only one large ocean surrounding this one continent. Today, according to the classification of the International Hydrological Organization (IHO), there are three oceans. The Pacific Ocean is the largest, its surface area is about half that of the oceans as a whole, and it alone covers one-third of the Earth’s surface. It is certainly because of its predominance on the surface that the median meridian of this ocean was chosen as the date change line. The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest by area, accounting for about 30% of the total. It is much better supplied with fresh water than other oceans, since it receives flows from large rivers such as the Amazon, Congo and St. Lawrence. The Indian Ocean , the third largest by area, accounts for about 20% of the total. It is almost entirely located in the southern hemisphere, between Asia, Africa and Australia.

Despite this official classification, it is common practice to have 5 oceans on our planet, rather than 3, distinguishing between the Antarctic Ocean to the south, or Austral , which surrounds the Antarctic continent up to about 60 degrees and whose area represents about 6% of the total, and the Arctic Ocean to the north, which is bordered by the lands of Siberia, Scandinavia, Greenland and North America, whose area represents about 4% of the total. This shallow Arctic Ocean is partly covered by ice floes. Globally, the surface area of these oceans represents 71% of that of the globe.

The seas then appear as marine sub-domains, of relatively small sizes and relatively individualized. Geographical reasons usually justify this individualisation, as is the case for the Mediterranean Sea , which communicates with the Atlantic Ocean only through the Strait of Gibraltar, so narrow that the Atlantic tides are slowed down to the point of being felt very little on the Mediterranean coast (read The Tides ). On the contrary, the English Channel is largely open to the Atlantic and receives high tides, slowed by the Pas de Calais between England and France, before joining those of the North Sea , being slowed down again by the narrow passages between Denmark and Sweden, and finally reaching the Baltic Sea almost imperceptible. In other cases, such as that of the Caribbean Sea , even if the geographical separation is very real and characterized by the long chain of islands that runs from the coasts of Venezuela to the Florida peninsula, it is rather because of the history of the riparian states and successive conquests that we can justify the individualization of these seas.

Under reference conditions (pressure of 1013 hPa , or hectoPascal, temperature of 3.98 °C, zero salinity) the density of the water is exactly 10 3 kg/m 3 . It was these conditions that led to the first definition of the kilogram, the maximum value of the mass of a litre of fresh water. The density of seawater varies mainly with temperature and salinity, much less with pressure, which often leads to considering this fluid as incompressible.

The salinity , or mass fraction of salt, or ratio of the mass of salt contained in a unit of volume to the mass of this unit, is expressed in g/kg (gram of salt per kilogram of sea water). In lakes and rivers, salinity is almost zero, rarely exceeding a few units. It can reach and sometimes exceed 50 g/kg in the seas, its average value is around 35 g/kg. It is 12 g/kg in the Black Sea. In the Dead Sea, its very high value, close to 275 g/kg, practically prohibits any animal or plant life.

The variation in density as a function of temperature, shown in Figure 2, shows its maximum, around 3.98°C for fresh water, with a decreasing variation between 13 and 30°C. In addition, in summer, the surface water of the warmest seas can reach temperatures of 26 to 30°C, which often leads to cyclones (see Tropical Cyclones, Development and Organisation ).

In the upper layers of the marine environment, surface water, heated by solar radiation, is subjected to constant thermal exchanges by conduction and convection with the atmosphere. Agitation by waves and turbulence then manages to homogenize the temperature in the first tens of meters (between 0 and -50 m). On the contrary, at great depths (below -120 m), exchanges are almost limited to pure conduction and become much weaker, so that the approximation of a resting marine environment is well justified, even if extremely slow deep currents, coupled with surface currents, weakly amplify the apparent thermal conductivity of the water at the depths.

Between these two areas, it is common practice to distinguish a relatively thin layer (between -50 and -120 m) called the thermocline , where the temperature can vary by about ten degrees between the water above and the water below. The temperature of the water above the thermocline experiences significant seasonal variations, due to variations in sunlight, without any change in the temperature of the deep layers. It can be seen in Figure 1 that the Mediterranean Sea thermocline is built in spring, as the sunlight increases. It reaches its maximum temperature difference of around 10°C in August, and sees it decrease more and more in autumn and early winter. In February and March, the thermocline disappears, making the temperature almost invariant over the entire depth, between 13 and 13.5 °C. It is noteworthy that above and below the thermocline the temperature variation as a function of altitude, even very low, remains increasing, so that this deep fluid layer heated above is only slightly subject to the convective instability of Rayleigh-Bénard, which generates a low rise in deep waters compensated by a fall in surface waters.

However, this vertical movement plays a key role in the deep life of the marine environment by regenerating oxygen by supplying surface water. The corresponding upwelling is beneficial to life on the surface by bringing nutrients from the seabed to the surface. In the Mediterranean, this phenomenon of deep convection is mainly located in the Gulf of Lions, making it a major centre of biological activity. However, this convection only occurs when the conditions necessary for its presence are met, so the Black Sea remains constantly stratified in density, and this prevents the penetration of oxygen beyond a depth of 200 m. Only very specific species can live in this marine environment under so-called anoxic conditions. On the global scale of thermohaline circulation a similar phenomenon of convection brews the world ocean at depth.

The chemical composition of seawater is not a simple matter. Most of the chemical elements are found in solution in the form of a complex mixture of anions, cations and molecules. Ions are not reduced to either chloride anion or sodium cation, although these two elements, which are largely dominant, form the basis of sea salt (NaCl). The attached Table lists, in descending order of importance, the top five anions and cations of typical seawater, with a salinity of 35 g/kg. As it happens, the ratios between the concentrations of all these ions vary very little from sea to sea [3] , so that, if we measure the content of one of these constituents, we can deduce the overall salinity.

These elements have various origins. Some ions come from the dissolution of continental rocks by rivers that carry them to the oceans, where they stay for very long periods of time and where evaporation of water increases their concentration. A significant part of the cations comes from the original ocean floor. And the origin of the chloride ion is often attributed to the degassing of hydrogen chloride from volcanoes, which is soluble in water.

Table 1. Concentrations of the main ions dissolved in typical seawater with a salinity of 35 g/kg.

In addition to water and salts, there are also various low-concentration molecules, such as boric acid (0.0198 g/kg) and carbon dioxide (0.0004 g/kg), as well as nitrogen and oxygen. It is remarkable that the amount of carbon dioxide in seawater is much greater than in the air, about 60 times, without this value constituting an upper limit on the oceans’ ability to retain this molecule. This is a highly debated issue at the moment: the possibility of sequestering carbon dioxide in the oceans , with a view to reducing the content of this greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Some suggest capturing this gas near emitting sources and injecting it directly into the oceans at great depth, despite uncertainties about possible reactions, such as significant changes in the pH [4] of seawater or the carbon cycle .

Since mass is not uniformly distributed in the Earth’s mantle, gravity cannot be uniform on the Earth’s surface. This effect alone implies that the altitude of oceans assumed to be absolutely immobile must vary due to the opposite of local gravity, being maximum where gravity is minimal, and vice versa, so that their product is constant. As a result, the average free surface of the oceans cannot coincide exactly with that of a sphere. However, since all altitudes are defined and measured from mean sea level, it is necessary to specify what this level represents [5] . This has led oceanographers and geophysicists to choose as a reference the equipotential surface of the gravity field (or gravity) that best coincides with the mean sea level . This particular surface, called the geoid , shown in Figure 3, highlights how far the actual ocean surface deviates from the sphere that would correspond to the case of uniform gravity. This bumpy surface represents the variations in gravity on the Earth’s surface, both on continents and oceans [6] .

References and notes

[1] The single continent called Pangea dates back to the Paleozoic (between 500 and 250 million years ago, or Ma, before our time), a geological era that followed the Precambrian (2500 to 500 Ma) and preceded the Mesozoic (250 to 65 Ma), the Cenozoic (65 to 1.65 Ma) and the present Quaternary era.

[2] S. Levitus and T.P. Boyer, 1994, World Ocean Atlas , Vol. 4, Temperature, NOAA

[3] This empirical property is known as Dittmar’s Law, in honour of the Scottish chemist William Dittmar (1859-1951) who drew it from the analyses of samples taken during the Challenger oceanographic expedition between 1872 and 1876.

[4] The acronym pH stands for hydrogen potential. Its value measures the chemical activity of hydrogen ions (H+) in solution and characterizes the acidity or basicity of a solution. Thus, in an aqueous medium at 25°C, a solution is acidic with a pH below 7, neutral with a pH of 7 and basic with a pH above 7.

[5] Gravity, or the weight of the unit of mass, derives from a potential. Like all vector quantities that possess this property, it can be represented by a family of equipotential surfaces to which it is orthogonal. These surfaces are tighter, like contours on a map, where gravity is at its highest; they are further apart where gravity is at its lowest. Broadly speaking, we can consider that the bumps of the geoid correspond to gravity minima, the hollows to maxima.

[6] G. Balmino, F. Perosanz, R. Rummel, N. Sneeuw and H. Sunkel, Champ, GRACE and GOCE: mission concepts and simulations , Int. Gravity Commission and Int. Geoid Commission, N°2, Trieste, 1999, vol. 40, No. 3-4, pp. 309-319.

The Encyclopedia of the Environment by the Association des Encyclopédies de l'Environnement et de l'Énergie ( www.a3e.fr ), contractually linked to the University of Grenoble Alpes and Grenoble INP, and sponsored by the French Academy of Sciences.

To cite this article: MOREAU René (February 7, 2019), The marine environment, Encyclopedia of the Environment, Accessed March 25, 2024 [online ISSN 2555-0950] url : https://www.encyclopedie-environnement.org/en/water/marine-environment/ .

The articles in the Encyclopedia of the Environment are made available under the terms of the Creative Commons BY-NC-SA license, which authorizes reproduction subject to: citing the source, not making commercial use of them, sharing identical initial conditions, reproducing at each reuse or distribution the mention of this Creative Commons BY-NC-SA license.

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Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystems Underpin a Healthy Planet and Social Well-Being

About the author, cristiana paşca palmer.

May 2017, Nos. 1 & 2 Volume LIV,  Our Ocean, Our World

I n no other realm is the importance of biodiversity for sustainable development more essential than in the ocean. Marine biodiversity, the variety of life in the ocean and seas, is a critical aspect of all three pillars of sustainable development—economic, social and environmental—supporting the healthy functioning of the planet and providing services that underpin the health, well­-being and prosperity of humanity.

The ocean is one of the main repositories of the world's biodiversity. It constitutes over 90 per cent of the habitable space on the planet and contains some 250,000 known species, with many more remaining to be discovered—at least two thirds of the world's marine species are still unidentified. 1

The ocean, and the life therein, are critical to the healthy functioning of the planet, supplying half of the oxygen we breathe 2 and absorbing annually about 26 per cent of the anthropogenic carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere. 3

Evidence continues to emerge demonstrating the essential role of marine biodiversity in underpinning a healthy planet and social well-being. The fishery and aquaculture sectors are a source of income for hundreds of millions of people, especially in low-income families, and contribute directly and indirectly to their food security. Marine ecosystems provide innumerable services for coastal communities around the world. For example, mangrove ecosystems are an important source of food for more than 210 million people 4  but they also deliver a range of other services, such as livelihoods, clean water, forest products, and protection against erosion and extreme weather events.

Not surprisingly, given the resources that the ocean provides, human settlements have developed near the coast: 38 per cent of the world's population lives within 100 km of the coast, 44 per cent within 150 km, 50 per cent within 200 km, and 67 per cent within 400 km. 5 Roughly 61 per cent of the world's total gross domestic product comes from the ocean and the coastal areas within 100 km of the coastline. 6 Coastal population densities are 2.6 times larger than in inland areas and benefit directly and indirectly from the goods and services of coastal and marine ecosystems, which contribute to poverty eradication, sustained economic growth, food security and sustainable livelihoods and inclusive work, while hosting large biodiversity richness and mitigating the impacts of climate change. 7

Thus, pressures that adversely impact marine biodiversity also undermine and compromise the healthy functioning of the planet and its ability to provide the services that we need to survive and thrive. Moreover, as demands on the ocean continue to rise, the continued provisioning of these services will be critical. The consequences of biodiversity loss are often most severe for the poor, who are extremely dependent on local ecosystem services for their livelihoods and are highly vulnerable to impacts on such services.

Concerns over the drastic declines in biodiversity are what initially motivated the development of the Convention on Biological Diversity. The Convention encompasses three complementary objectives: the conservation of biodiversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources. With 196 Parties, participation in the Convention is nearly universal, a sign that our global society is well aware of the need to work together to ensure the survival of life on Earth.

The Convention also serves as a new biodiversity focal point for the entire United Nations system and a basis for other international instruments and processes to integrate biodiversity considerations into their work; as such, it is a central element of the global framework for sustainable development. The Convention's Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 and its 20 Biodiversity Targets, adopted by the Parties to the Convention in Nagoya, Aichi Prefecture, Japan, in 2010, provide an effective framework for cooperation to achieve a future in which the global community can sustainably and equitably benefit from biodiversity without affecting the ability of future generations to do so.

The centrality of marine biodiversity to sustainable development was recognized in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), in which global leaders highlighted the urgency of taking action to improve the conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity. In particular, SDG 14 is aimed at con­serving and sustainably using the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development and emphasizes the strong linkages between marine biodiversity and broader sustainable development objectives. In fact, many elements of Goal 14 and a number of other SDGs reflect the same objectives and principles agreed upon under the Aichi Biodiversity Targets. Thus, efforts at different scales to achieve the Aichi Targets will directly contribute to implementing the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and achieving the SDGs.

Marine biodiversity and ecosystems are intrinsically connected to a wide range of services that are essential to sustainable development. These relationships are often complex and dynamic, and are influenced by feedback loops and synergistic effects. These outline the need to take an integrated and holistic approach to conservation and the sustainable use of marine biodiversity, based on the ecosystem and precautionary approaches, principles of inclusiveness and equity, and the need to deliver multiple benefits for ecosystems and communities.

Work under the Convention has evolved to reflect such an approach and to support Parties and relevant organizations in implementing the Convention, notably through national biodiversity strategies and action plans, and through policies, programmes and measures across different sectors that both affect and rely on biodiversity.

This work takes a thematic approach focused on (a) understanding the ecological and biological value of the ocean; (b) addressing the impacts of pressures and threats on marine and coastal biodiversity; (c) facilitating the application of tools for applying the ecosystem approach for conservation and sustainable use; (d) building capacity to put in place the enabling conditions for implementation; and (e) mainstreaming biodiversity into sectors.

Under the Convention on Biological Diversity, a global process for the description of ecologically or biologically significant marine areas (EBSAs) has served to enhance understanding of the ecological and biological value of marine areas in nearly all of the world's ocean regions. This work serves as an important foundation for conservation and management, and creates the enabling conditions to further enhance and utilize this knowledge by catalysing scientific networking and partnerships at the regional level. It also helps to identify gaps in knowledge and to prioritize monitoring and research activities in support of the application of the ecosystem approach. 8

Parties have also prioritized the need to address key pressures on marine biodiversity, including unsustainable fishing practices, marine debris and anthropogenic underwater noise, as well as climate change and ocean acidification. The secretariat, Parties to the Convention, other Governments and relevant organizations work with scientists and experts to synthesize best available knowledge on the effects of major pressures/stressors, and produce consolidated guidance on means to prevent and mitigate adverse impacts of these pressures.

Through expert workshops, publications and engagement with other relevant processes, the Convention on Biological Diversity has generated guidelines for the development and application of the ecosystem approach, including through area­based measures, such as marine spatial planning and marine and coastal protected areas, as well as biodiversity-inclusive environmental impact and strategic environmental assessments, integrating different sectoral policy measures to address various pressures on the biological and ecological values of the ocean.

Capacity-building to support implementation is also a central focus of the Convention on Biological Diversity. One of the tools for this is the Sustainable Ocean Initiative, a global partnership framework coordinated by the Convention secretariat, together with various United Nations entities and international partner organizations. The Initiative builds on existing efforts, resources and experiences by enhancing partnerships, disseminating lessons learned and knowledge gained, and facilitating improved coordination among sectors and stakeholder groups. It does this across multiple scales in order to create the enabling conditions needed for improved on-the-ground implementation. The Sustainable Ocean Initiative Global Dialogue with Regional Seas Organizations and Regional Fisheries Bodies on Accelerating Progress Towards the Aichi Biodiversity Targets works to facilitate cross-sectoral regional-scale dialogue and coordination. 9

Parties have also prioritized the mainstreaming of bio­diversity considerations into economic sectors that both affect and rely on healthy marine ecosystems for sustainable economic growth. Mainstreaming was at the forefront of the Convention on Biological Diversity at the recent United Nations Biodiversity Conference, held in Cancun, Mexico, in December 2016. Ministers of environment, fisheries and tourism, among others, at the high-level segment of the Conference expressed their commitment, through the adoption of the Cancun Declaration, to work at all levels within Governments and across sectors to mainstream biodiversity in sectoral development. In this vein, the Convention secretariat has worked closely over the years with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, regional fishery bodies and other stakeholders to support enhanced implementation by the Parties to the Convention to better mainstream biodiversity into the fisheries and aquaculture sectors.

If we are to achieve the SDGs and the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, we will have to abandon business-as-usual approaches and mainstream biodiversity into our development planning, governance and decision-making. We will have to mobilize resources to make the on-the-ground changes that are so desperately needed. Furthermore, stakeholders at all levels will need to be conscious of how their actions and behaviours affect the marine ecosystems on which we all depend, and make conscious decisions to improve our relationships with the ocean, which has given us so much throughout human history.

The forthcoming Ocean Conference, to be held at the United Nations in New York from 5 to 9 June 2017, represents a momentous opportunity to build the necessary political will and put in place the enabling conditions to foment enhanced implementation at all levels with the inclusion of all stakeholders in order to realize a future of healthy and productive marine biodiversity that supports societal well-being. In line with the principles of intergenerational equity, we must also recognize the right of future generations to inherit a planet thriving with life, and to reap the economic, cultural and spiritual benefits of a healthy ocean.

1   For further information, see the Census of Marine life website:  http://coml.org.

2   The First Global Integrated Marine Assessment (World Ocean Assessment I) (United Nations, 2016). Available from http://www.un.org/depts/los/global_reporting/WOA_RegProcess.htm .

3   Corinne Le Quere and others, "Global carbon budget 2015", Earth Sys tem Science Data , Vol. 7, No. 2 (December 2015), 349-396 (371).

4   Mark Spalding, Robert D. Brumbaugh and Emily Landis, Atlas of Ocean Wealth (Arlington, VA, The Nature Conservancy, 2016), p. 14.

5   Christopher Small and Joel E. Cohen, Continental physiography, climate, and the global distribution of Human Population", Current Anthropology Vol. 45, No. 2 (April 2004), 269-277 (272).

6   Paulo A.L.D. Nunes and Andrea Ghermandi, The economics of marine ecosystems: reconciling use and conservation of coastal and marine systems and the underlying natural capital, Environmental and Resource Economics , Vol. 56, No. 4 (October 2013), 459-465 (460).

7   Ibid.

8   For further information on ecologically or biologically significant marine areas, see  https://www.cbd.int/ebsa/ .

9   For further information on the Sustainable Ocean Initiative, see https://www.cbd.int/soi/ .

The UN Chronicle  is not an official record. It is privileged to host senior United Nations officials as well as distinguished contributors from outside the United Nations system whose views are not necessarily those of the United Nations. Similarly, the boundaries and names shown, and the designations used, in maps or articles do not necessarily imply endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.

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74 Ocean Pollution Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

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• Published: 07 July 2022

A global horizon scan of issues impacting marine and coastal biodiversity conservation

• James E. Herbert-Read   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0243-4518 1   na1 ,
• Ann Thornton   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7448-8497 2   na1 ,
• Diva J. Amon   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3044-107X 3 , 4 ,
• Silvana N. R. Birchenough   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5321-8108 5 ,
• Isabelle M. Côté   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5368-4061 6 ,
• Maria P. Dias   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7281-4391 7 , 8 ,
• Brendan J. Godley 9 ,
• Sally A. Keith   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9634-2763 10 ,
• Emma McKinley   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8250-2842 11 ,
• Lloyd S. Peck   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3479-6791 12 ,
• Ricardo Calado 13 ,
• Omar Defeo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8318-528X 14 ,
• Steven Degraer   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3159-5751 15 ,
• Emma L. Johnston   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2117-366X 16 ,
• Hermanni Kaartokallio 17 ,
• Peter I. Macreadie   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7362-0882 18 ,
• Anna Metaxas   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1935-6213 19 ,
• Agnes W. N. Muthumbi 20 ,
• David O. Obura   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2256-6649 21 , 22 ,
• David M. Paterson 23 ,
• Alberto R. Piola   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5003-8926 24 , 25 ,
• Anthony J. Richardson   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9289-7366 26 , 27 ,
• Irene R. Schloss   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5917-8925 28 , 29 , 30 ,
• Paul V. R. Snelgrove   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6725-0472 31 ,
• Bryce D. Stewart 32 ,
• Paul M. Thompson   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6195-3284 33 ,
• Gordon J. Watson   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8274-7658 34 ,
• Thomas A. Worthington   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8138-9075 2 ,
• Moriaki Yasuhara   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0990-1764 35 &
• William J. Sutherland 2 , 36  

Nature Ecology & Evolution volume  6 ,  pages 1262–1270 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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The biodiversity of marine and coastal habitats is experiencing unprecedented change. While there are well-known drivers of these changes, such as overexploitation, climate change and pollution, there are also relatively unknown emerging issues that are poorly understood or recognized that have potentially positive or negative impacts on marine and coastal ecosystems. In this inaugural Marine and Coastal Horizon Scan, we brought together 30 scientists, policymakers and practitioners with transdisciplinary expertise in marine and coastal systems to identify new issues that are likely to have a significant impact on the functioning and conservation of marine and coastal biodiversity over the next 5–10 years. Based on a modified Delphi voting process, the final 15 issues presented were distilled from a list of 75 submitted by participants at the start of the process. These issues are grouped into three categories: ecosystem impacts, for example the impact of wildfires and the effect of poleward migration on equatorial biodiversity; resource exploitation, including an increase in the trade of fish swim bladders and increased exploitation of marine collagens; and new technologies, such as soft robotics and new biodegradable products. Our early identification of these issues and their potential impacts on marine and coastal biodiversity will support scientists, conservationists, resource managers and policymakers to address the challenges facing marine ecosystems.

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The fifteenth Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity will conclude negotiations on a global biodiversity framework in late-2022 that will aim to slow and reverse the loss of biodiversity and establish goals for positive outcomes by 2050 1 . Currently recognized drivers of declines in marine and coastal ecosystems include overexploitation of resources (for example, fishes, oil and gas), expansion of anthropogenic activities leading to cumulative impacts on the marine and coastal environment (for example, habitat loss, introduction of contaminants and pollution) and effects of climate change (for example, ocean warming, freshening and acidification). Within these broad categories, marine and coastal ecosystems face a wide range of emerging issues that are poorly recognized or understood, each having the potential to impact biodiversity. Researchers, conservation practitioners and marine resource managers must identify, understand and raise awareness of these relatively ‘unknown’ issues to catalyse further research into their underlying processes and impacts. Moreover, informing the public and policymakers of these issues can mitigate potentially negative impacts through precautionary principles before those effects become realized: horizon scans provide a platform to do this.

Horizon scans bring together experts from diverse disciplines to discuss issues that are (1) likely to have a positive or negative impact on biodiversity and conservation within the coming years and (2) not well known to the public or wider scientific community or face a substantial ‘step-change’ in their importance or application 2 . Horizon scans are an effective approach for pre-emptively identifying issues facing global conservation 3 . Indeed, marine issues previously identified through this approach include microplastics 4 , invasive lionfish 4 and electric pulse trawling 5 . To date, however, no horizon scan of this type has focused solely on issues related to marine and coastal biodiversity, although a scan on coastal shorebirds in 2012 identified potential threats to coastal ecosystems 6 . This horizon scan aims to benefit our ocean and human society by stimulating research and policy development that will underpin appropriate scientific advice on prevention, mitigation, management and conservation approaches in marine and coastal ecosystems.

We present the final 15 issues below in thematic groups identified post-scoring, rather than rank order (Fig. 1 ).

Numbers refer to the order presented in this article, rather than final ranking. Image of brine pool courtesy of the NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research, Gulf of Mexico 2014. Image of biodegradable bag courtesy of Katie Dunkley.

Ecosystem impacts

Wildfire impacts on coastal and marine ecosystems.

The frequency and severity of wildfires are increasing with climate change 7 . Since 2017, there have been fires of unprecedented scale and duration in Australia, Brazil, Portugal, Russia and along the Pacific coast of North America. In addition to threatening human life and releasing stored carbon, wildfires release aerosols, particles and large volumes of materials containing soluble forms of nutrients including nitrogen, phosphorus and trace metals such as copper, lead and iron. Winds and rains can transport these materials over long distances to reach coastal and marine ecosystems. Australian wildfires, for example, triggered widespread phytoplankton blooms in the Southern Ocean 8 along with fish and invertebrate kills in estuaries 9 . Predicting the magnitude and effects of these acute inputs is difficult because they vary with the size and duration of wildfires, the burning vegetation type, rainfall patterns, riparian vegetation buffers, dispersal by aerosols and currents, seasonal timing and nutrient limitation in the recipient ecosystem. Wildfires might therefore lead to beneficial, albeit temporary, increases in primary productivity, produce no effect or have deleterious consequences, such as the mortality of benthic invertebrates, including corals, from sedimentation, coastal darkening (see below), eutrophication or algal blooms 10 .

Coastal darkening

Coastal ecosystems depend on the penetration of light for primary production by planktonic and attached algae and seagrass. However, climate change and human activities increase light attenuation through changes in dissolved materials modifying water colour and suspended particles. Increased precipitation, storms, permafrost thawing and coastal erosion have led to the ‘browning’ of freshwater ecosystems by elevated organic carbon, iron and particles, all of which are eventually discharged into the ocean 11 . Coastal eutrophication leading to algal blooms compounds this darkening by further blocking light penetration. Additionally, land-use change, dredging and bottom fishing can increase seafloor disturbance, resuspending sediments and increasing turbidity. Such changes could affect ocean chemistry, including photochemical degradation of dissolved organic carbon and generation of toxic chemicals. At moderate intensities, limited spatial scales and during heatwaves, coastal darkening may have some positive impacts such as limiting coral bleaching on shallow reefs 12 but, at high intensities and prolonged spatial and temporal extents, lower light-regimes can contribute to cumulative stressor effects thereby profoundly altering ecosystems. This darkening may result in shifts in species composition, distribution, behaviour and phenology, as well as declines in coastal habitats and their functions (for example, carbon sequestration) 13 .

Increased toxicity of metal pollution due to ocean acidification

Concerns about metal toxicity in the marine environment are increasing as we learn more about the complex interactions between metals and global climate change 14 . Despite tight regulation of polluters and remediation efforts in some countries, the high persistence of metals in contaminated sediments results in the ongoing remobilization of existing metal pollutants by storms, trawling and coastal development, augmented by continuing release of additional contaminants into coastal waters, particularly in urban and industrial areas across the globe 14 . Ocean acidification increases the bioavailability, uptake and toxicity of metals in seawater and sediments, with direct toxicity effects on some marine organisms 15 . Not all biogeochemical changes will result in increased toxicity; in pelagic and deep-sea ecosystems, where trace metals are often deficient, increasing acidity may increase bioavailability and, in shallow waters, stimulate productivity for non-calcifying phytoplankton 16 . However, increased uptake of metals in wild-caught and farmed bivalves linked to ocean acidification could also affect human health, especially given that these species provide 25% of the world’s seafood. The combined effects of ocean acidification and metals could not only increase the levels of contamination in these organisms but could also impact their populations in the future 14 .

Equatorial marine communities are becoming depauperate due to climate migration

Climate change is causing ocean warming, resulting in a poleward shift of existing thermal zones. In response, species are tracking the changing ocean environmental conditions globally, with range shifts moving five times faster than on land 17 . In mid-latitudes and higher latitudes, as some species move away from current distribution ranges, other species from warmer regions can replace them 18 . However, the hottest climatic zones already host the most thermally tolerant species, which cannot be replaced due to their geographical position. Thus, climate change reduces equatorial species richness and has caused the formerly unimodal latitudinal diversity gradient in many communities to now become bimodal. This bimodality (dip in equatorial diversity) is projected to increase within the next 100 years if carbon dioxide emissions are not reduced 19 . The ecological consequences of this decline in equatorial zones are unclear, especially when combined with impacts of increasing human extraction and pollution 20 . Nevertheless, emerging ecological communities in equatorial systems are likely to have reduced resilience and capacity to support ecosystem services and human livelihoods.

Effects of altered nutritional content of fish due to climate change

Essential fatty acids (EFAs) are critical to maintaining human and animal health and fish consumption provides the primary source of EFAs for billions of people. In aquatic ecosystems, phytoplankton synthesize EFAs, such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) 21 , with pelagic fishes then consuming phytoplankton. However, concentrations of EFAs in fishes vary, with generally higher concentrations of omega-3 fatty acids in slower-growing species from colder waters 22 . Ongoing effects of climate change are impacting the production of EFAs by phytoplankton, with warming waters predicted to reduce the availability of DHA by about 10–58% by 2100 23 ; a 27.8% reduction in available DHA is associated with a 2.5 °C rise in water temperature 21 . Combined with geographical range shifts in response to environmental change affecting the abundance and distribution of fishes, this could lead to a reduction in sufficient quantities of EFAs for fishes, particularly in the tropics 24 . Changes to EFA production by phytoplankton in response to climate change, as shown for Antarctic waters 25 , could have cascading effects on the nutrient content of species further up the food web, with consequences for marine predators and human health 26 .

Resource exploitation

The untapped potential of marine collagens and their impacts on marine ecosystems.

Collagens are structural proteins increasingly used in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals and biomedical applications. Growing demand for collagen has fuelled recent efforts to find new sources that avoid religious constraints and alleviate risks associated with disease transmission from conventional bovine and porcine sources 27 . The search for alternative sources has revealed an untapped opportunity in marine organisms, such as from fisheries bycatch 28 . However, this new source may discourage efforts to reduce the capture of non-target species. Sponges and jellyfish offer a premium source of marine collagens. While the commercial-scale harvesting of sponges is unlikely to be widely sustainable, there may be some opportunity in sponge aquaculture and jellyfish harvesting, especially in areas where nuisance jellyfish species bloom regularly (for example, Mediterranean and Japan Seas). The use of sharks and other cartilaginous fish to supply marine collagens is of concern given the unprecedented pressure on these species. However, the use of coproducts derived from the fish-processing industry (for example, skin, bones and trims) offers a more sustainable approach to marine collagen production and could actively contribute to the blue bio-economy agenda and foster circularity 29 .

Impacts of expanding trade for fish swim bladders on target and non-target species

In addition to better-known luxury dried seafoods, such as shark fins, abalone and sea cucumbers, there is an increasing demand for fish swim bladders, also known as fish maw 30 . This demand may trigger an expansion of unsustainable harvests of target fish populations, with additional impacts on marine biodiversity through bycatch 30 , 31 . The fish swim-bladder trade has gained a high profile because the overexploitation of totoaba ( Totoaba macdonaldi) has driven both the target population and the vaquita ( Phocoena sinus) (which is bycaught in the Gulf of Mexico fishery) to near extinction 32 . By 2018, totoaba swim bladders were being sold for US$46,000 kg −1 . This extremely lucrative trade disrupts efforts to encourage sustainable fisheries. However, increased demand on the totoaba was itself caused by overexploitation over the last century of the closely related traditional species of choice, the Chinese bahaba ( Bahaba taipingensis) . We now risk both repeating this pattern and increasing its scale of impact, where depletion of a target species causes markets to switch to species across broader taxonomic and biogeographical ranges 31 . Not only does this cascading effect threaten other croakers and target species, such as catfish and pufferfish but maw nets set in more diverse marine habitats are likely to create bycatch of sharks, rays, turtles and other species of conservation concern.

Impacts of fishing for mesopelagic species on the biological ocean carbon pump

Growing concerns about food security have generated interest in harvesting largely unexploited mesopelagic fishes that live at depths of 200–1,000 m (ref. 33 ). Small lanternfishes (Myctophidae) dominate this potentially 10 billion ton community, exceeding the mass of all other marine fishes combined 34 and spanning millions of square kilometres of the open ocean. Mesopelagic fish are generally unsuitable for human consumption but could potentially provide fishmeal for aquaculture 34 or be used for fertilizers. Although we know little of their biology, their diel vertical migration transfers carbon, obtained by feeding in surface waters at night, to deeper waters during the day across many hundreds and even thousands of metres depth where it is released by excretion, egestion and death. This globally important carbon transport pathway contributes to the biological pump 35 and sequesters carbon to the deep sea 36 . Recent estimates put the contribution of all fishes to the biological ocean pump at 16.1% (± s.d. 13%) (ref. 37 ). The potential large-scale removal of mesopelagic fishes could disrupt a major pathway of carbon transport into the ocean depths.

Extraction of lithium from deep-sea brine pools

Global groups, such as the Deep-Ocean Stewardship Initiative, emphasize increasing concern about the ecosystem impacts from deep-sea resource extraction 38 . The demand for batteries, including for electric vehicles, will probably lead to a demand for lithium that is more than five times its current level by 2030 39 . While concentrations are relatively low in seawater, some deep-sea brines and cold seeps offer higher concentrations of lithium. Furthermore, new technologies, such as solid-state electrolyte membranes, can enrich the concentration of lithium from seawater sources by 43,000 times, increasing the energy efficiency and profitability of lithium extraction from the sea 39 . These factors could divert extraction of lithium resources away from terrestrial to marine mining, with the potential for significant impacts to localized deep-sea brine ecosystems. These brine pools probably host many endemic and genetically distinct species that are largely undiscovered or awaiting formal description. Moreover, the extremophilic species in these environments offer potential sources of marine genetic resources that could be used in new biomedical applications including pharmaceuticals, industrial agents and biomaterials 40 . These concerns point to the need to better quantify and monitor biodiversity in these extreme environments to establish baselines and aid management.

New technologies

Colocation of marine activities.

Climate change, energy needs and food security have moved to the top of global policy agendas 41 . Increasing energy needs, alongside the demands of fisheries and transport infrastructure, have led to the proposal of colocated and multifunctional structures to deliver economic benefits, optimize spatial planning and minimize the environmental impacts of marine activities 42 . These designs often bring technical, social, economic and environmental challenges. Some studies have begun to explore these multipurpose projects (for example, offshore windfarms colocated with aquaculture developments and/or Marine Protected Areas) and how to adapt these concepts to ensure they are ‘fit for purpose’, economically viable and reliable. However, environmental and ecosystem assessment, management and regulatory frameworks for colocated and multi-use structures need to be established to prevent these activities from compounding rather than mitigating the environmental impacts from climate change 43 .

Floating marine cities

In April 2019, the UN-HABITAT programme convened a meeting of scientists, architects, designers and entrepreneurs to discuss how floating cities might be a solution to urban challenges such as climate change and lack of housing associated with a rising human population ( https://unhabitat.org/roundtable-on-floating-cities-at-unhq-calls-for-innovation-to-benefit-all ). The concept of floating marine cities—hubs of floating structures placed at sea—was born in the middle of the twentieth century and updated designs now aim to translate this vision into reality 44 . Oceanic locations provide benefits from wave and tidal renewable energy and food production supported by hydroponic agriculture 45 . Modular designs also offer greater flexibility than traditional static terrestrial cities, whereby accommodation and facilities could be incorporated or removed in response to changes in population or specific events. The cost of construction in harsh offshore environments, rather than technology, currently limits the development of marine cities and potential designs will need to consider the consequences of more frequent and extreme climate events. Although the artificial hard substrates created for these floating cities could act as stepping stones, facilitating species movement in response to climate change 46 , this could also increase the spread of invasive species. Finally, the development of offshore living will raise issues in relation to governance and land ownership that must be addressed for marine cities to be viable 47 .

Trace-element contamination compounded by the global transition to green technologies

The persistent environmental impacts of metal and metalloid trace-element contamination in coastal sediments are now increasing after a long decline 48 . However, the complex sources of contamination challenge their management. The acceleration of the global transition to green technologies, including electric vehicles, will increase demand for batteries by over 10% annually in the coming years 49 . Electric vehicle batteries currently depend almost exclusively on lithium-ion chemistries, with potential trace-element emissions across their life cycle from raw material extraction to recycling or end-of-life disposal. Few jurisdictions treat lithium-ion batteries as harmful waste, enabling landfill disposal with minimal recycling 49 . Cobalt and nickel are the primary ecotoxic elements in next-generation lithium-ion batteries 50 , although there is a drive to develop a cobalt-free alternative likely to contain higher nickel content 50 . Some battery binder and electrolyte chemicals are toxic to aquatic life or form persistent organic pollutants during incomplete burning. Increasing pollution from battery production, recycling and disposal in the next decade could substantially increase the potentially toxic trace-element contamination in marine and coastal systems worldwide.

New underwater tracking systems to study non-surfacing marine animals

The use of tracking data in science and conservation has grown exponentially in recent decades. Most trajectory data collected on marine species to date, however, has been restricted to large and near-surface species, limited by the size of the devices and reliance on radio signals that do not propagate well underwater. New battery-free technology based on acoustic telemetry, named ‘underwater backscatter localization’ (UBL), may allow high-accuracy (<1 m) tracking of animals travelling at any depth and over large distances 51 . Still in the early stages of development, UBL technology has significant potential to help fill knowledge gaps in the distribution and spatial ecology of small, non-surfacing marine species, as well as the early life-history stages of many species 52 , over the next decades. However, the potential negative impacts of this methodology on the behaviour of animals are still to be determined. Ultimately, UBL may inform spatial management both in coastal and offshore regions, as well as in the high seas and address a currently biased perspective of how marine animals use ocean space, which is largely based on near-surface or aerial marine megafauna (for example, ref. 53 ).

Soft robotics for marine research

The application and utility of soft robotics in marine environments is expected to accelerate in the next decade. Soft robotics, using compliant materials inspired by living organisms, could eventually offer increased flexibility at depth because they do not face the same constraints as rigid robots that need pressurized systems to function 54 . This technology could increase our ability to monitor and map the deep sea, with both positive and negative consequences for deep-sea fauna. Soft-grab robots could facilitate collection of delicate samples for biodiversity monitoring but, without careful management, could also add pollutants and waste to these previously unexplored and poorly understood environments 55 . With advancing technology, potential deployment of swarms of small robots could collect basic environmental data to facilitate mapping of the seabed. Currently limited by power supply, energy-harvesting modules are in development that enable soft robots to ‘swallow’ organic material and convert it into power 56 , although this could result in inadvertently harvesting rare deep-sea organisms. Soft robots themselves may also be ingested by predatory species mistaking them for prey. Deployment of soft robotics will require careful monitoring of both its benefits and risks to marine biodiversity.

The effects of new biodegradable materials in the marine environment

Mounting public pressure to address marine plastic pollution has prompted the replacement of some fossil fuel-based plastics with bio-based biodegradable polymers. This consumer pressure is creating an economic incentive to adopt such products rapidly and some companies are promoting their environmental benefits without rigorous toxicity testing and/or life-cycle assessments. Materials such as polybutylene succinate (PBS), polylactic acid (PLA) or cellulose and starch-based materials may become marine litter and cause harmful effects akin to conventional plastics 57 . The long-term and large-scale effect of the use of biodegradable polymers in products (for example, clothing) and the unintended release of byproducts, such as microfibres, into the environment remain unknown. However, some natural microfibres have greater toxicity than plastic microfibres when consumed by aquatic invertebrates 58 . Jurisdictions should enact and enforce suitable regulations to require the individual assessment of all new materials intended to biodegrade in a full range of marine environmental conditions. In addition, testing should include studies on the toxicity of major transition chemicals created during the breakdown process 59 , ideally considering the different trophic levels of marine food webs.

This scan identified three categories of horizon issues: impacts on, and alterations to, ecosystems; changes to resource use and extraction; and the emergence of technologies. While some of the issues discussed, such as improved monitoring of species (underwater tracking and soft robotics) and more sustainable resource use (marine collagens), may have some positive outcomes for marine and coastal biodiversity, most identified issues are expected to have substantial negative impacts if not managed or mitigated appropriately. This imbalance highlights the considerable emerging pressures facing marine ecosystems that are often a byproduct of human activities.

Four issues identified in this scan related to ongoing large-scale (hundreds to many thousands of square kilometres) alterations to marine ecosystems (wildfires, coastal darkening, depauperate equatorial communities and altered nutritional fish content), either through the impacts of global climate change or other human activities. There are already clear impacts of climate change, for example, on stores of blue carbon (for example, ref. 60 ) and small-scale fisheries (for example, ref. 61 ) but the identification of these issues highlights the need for global action that reverses such trends. The United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021–2030) is now underway, aligning with other decadal policy priorities, including the Sustainable Development Goals ( https://sdgs.un.org/ ), the 2030 targets for biodiversity to be agreed in 2022, the conclusion of the ongoing negotiations on biodiversity beyond national jurisdictions (BBNJ) ( https://www.un.org/bbnj/ ), the UN Conference on Biodiversity (COP15) ( https://www.unep.org/events/conference/un-biodiversity-conference-cop-15 ) and the UN Climate Change Conference 2021 (COP26) ( https://ukcop26.org/ ). While some campaigns to allocate 30% of the ocean to Marine Protected Areas by 2030 are prominently aired 62 , the unintended future consequences of such protection and how to monitor and manage these areas, remain unclear 63 , 64 , 65 .

Another set of issues related to anticipated increases in marine resource use and extraction (swim bladders, marine collagens, lithium extraction and mesopelagic fisheries). The complex issue of mitigating the impacts on marine conservation and biodiversity of exploiting and using newly discovered resources must consider public perceptions of the ocean 66 , 67 , market forces and the sustainable blue economy 68 , 69 .

The final set of issues related to new technological advancements, with many offering more sustainable opportunities, albeit some having potentially unintended negative consequences on marine and coastal biodiversity. For example, trace-element contamination from green technologies and harmful effects of biodegradable products highlights the need to assess the step-changes in impacts from their increased use and avoid the paradox of technologies designed to mitigate the damaging effects of climate change on biodiversity themselves damaging biodiversity. Indeed, the impacts on marine and coastal biodiversity from emerging technologies currently in development (such as underwater tracking or soft robotics) need to be assessed before deployment at scale.

There are limitations to any horizon scanning process that aims to identify global issues and a different group of experts may have identified a different set of issues. By inviting participants from a range of subject backgrounds and global regions and asking them to canvass their network of colleagues and collaborators, we aimed to identify as broad a set of issues as possible. We acknowledge, however, that only about one-quarter of the participants were from non-academic organizations, which may have skewed the submitted issues and how they were voted on. However, others 3 reported no significant correlation between participants’ areas of research expertise and the top issues selected in the horizon scan conducted in 2009. Therefore, horizon scans do not necessarily simply represent issues that reflect the expertise of participants. We also sought to achieve diversity by inviting participants from 22 countries and actively seeking representatives from the global south. However, the final panel of 30 participants spanned only 11 countries, most in the global north. We were forced by the COVID-19 pandemic to hold the scan online and while we hoped that this would enable participants to engage from around the world alleviating broader global inequalities in science 63 , digital inequality was in fact enhanced during the pandemic 70 . Our experience highlights the need for other mechanisms that can promote global representation in these scans.

This Marine and Coastal Horizon Scan seeks to raise awareness of issues that may impact marine and coastal biodiversity conservation in the next 5–10 years. Our aim is to bring these issues to the attention of scientists, policymakers, practitioners and the wider community, either directly, through social networks or the mainstream media. Whilst it is almost impossible to determine whether issues gained prominence as a direct result of a horizon scan, some issues featured in previous scans have seen growth in reporting and awareness. Others 3 found that 71% of topics identified in the Horizon Scan in 2009 had seen an increase in their importance over the next 10 years. Issues such as microplastics and invasive lionfish had received increased research and investment from scientists, funders, managers and policymakers to understand their impacts and the horizon scans may have helped motivate this increase. Horizon scans, therefore, should primarily act as signposts, putting focus onto particular issues and providing support for researchers and practitioners to seek investment in these areas.

Whilst recognizing that marine and coastal environments are complex social-ecological systems, the role of governance, policy and litigation on all areas of marine science needs to be developed, as it is yet to be established to the same extent as in terrestrial ecosystems 71 . Indeed, tackling many of the issues presented in this scan will require an understanding of the human dimensions relating to these issues, through fields of research including but not limited to ocean literacy 72 , 73 , social justice, equity 74 and human health 75 . Importantly, however, horizon scanning has proved an efficient tool in identifying issues that have subsequently come to the forefront of public knowledge and policy decisions, while also helping to focus future research. The scale of the issues facing marine and coastal areas emphasizes the need to identify and prioritize, at an early stage, those issues specifically facing marine ecosystems, especially within this UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development.

Identification of issues

In March 2021, we brought together a core team of 11 participants from a broad range of marine and coastal disciplines. The core team suggested names of individuals outside their subject area who were also invited to participate in the horizon scan. To ensure we included as many different subject areas as possible within marine and coastal conservation, we selected one individual from each discipline. Our panel of experts comprised 30 (37% female) marine and coastal scientists, policymakers and practitioners (27% from non-academic institutions), with cross-disciplinary expertise in ecology (including tropical, temperate, polar and deep-sea ecosystems), palaeoecology, conservation, oceanography, climate change, ecotoxicology, technology, engineering and marine social sciences (including governance, blue economy and ocean literacy). Participants were invited from 22 countries across six continents, resulting in a final panel of 30 experts from 11 countries (Europe n  = 17 (including the three organizers); North America and Caribbean n  = 4; South America n  = 3; Australasia n  = 3; Asia n  = 1; Africa n  = 2). All experts co-authored this paper.

To reduce the potential for bias in the identification of suitable issues, each participant was invited to consult their own network and required to submit two to five issues that they considered new and likely to have a positive or negative impact on marine and coastal biodiversity conservation in the next 5–10 years ( Supplementary Information text describes instructions given to participants). Each issue was described in paragraphs of ~200 words (plus references). Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, participants relied mainly on virtual meetings and online communication using email, social-media platforms, online conferences and networking events. Through these channels ~680 people were canvassed by the participants, counting all direct in-person or online discussions as individual contacts but treating social-media posts or generic emails as a single contact. This process resulted in a long list of 75 issues that were considered in the first round of scoring (see Supplementary Table 1 for the full list of initially submitted issues).

Round 1 scoring

The initial list of proposed issues was then shortened through a scoring process. We used a modified Delphi-style 76 voting process, which has been consistently applied in horizon scans since 2009 (refs. 4 , 77 ) (see Fig. 2 for the stepwise process). This process ensured that consideration and selection of issues remained repeatable, transparent and inclusive. Panel members were asked to confidentially and independently score the long list of 75 issues from 1 (low) to 1,000 (high) on the basis of the following criteria:

Whether the issue is new (with ‘new’ issues scoring higher) or is a well-known issue likely to exhibit a significant step-change in impact

Whether the issue is likely to be important and impactful over the next 5–10 years

Whether the issue specifically impacts marine and coastal biodiversity

Left and right columns show the process for the first and second rounds of scoring, respectively.

Participants were also asked whether they had heard of the issue or not.

‘Voter fatigue’ can result in issues at the end of a lengthy list not receiving the same consideration as those at the beginning 76 . We counteracted this potential bias by randomly assigning participants to one of three differently ordered long-lists of issues. Participants’ scores were converted to ranks (1–75). We had aimed to retain the top 30 issues with the highest median ranks for the second round of assessment at the workshop but kept 31 issues because two issues achieved equal median ranks. In addition, we identified one issue that had been incorrectly grouped with three others and presented this as a separate issue. The subsequent online workshop to discuss this shortlist, therefore, considered the top-ranked 32 issues (Fig. 3a ) (see Supplementary Table 2 for the full list).

a , Round 1. Each point represents an individual issue. For all issue titles, see Supplementary Table 1 . Issues in dark blue were retained for the second round. Issues that were ranked higher were generally those that participants had not heard of (Spearman rank correlation = 0.38, P  < 0.001). b , Round 2. Scores as in round 1. For titles of the second round of 32 issues, see Supplementary Table 2 . The 15 final issues (marked in red) achieved the top ranks (horizontal dashed line) and had only been heard of by 50% of participants (vertical dashed line). Red circles, squares and triangles denote issues relating to ecosystem impacts, resource exploitation and new technologies, respectively. The two grey issues marked with crosses were discounted during final discussions because participants could not identify the horizon component of these issues.

Source data

Workshop and round 2 scoring.

Before the workshop, each participant was assigned up to four of the 32 issues to research in more detail and contribute further information to the discussion. We convened a one-day workshop online in September 2021. The geographic spread of participants meant that time zones spanned 17 h. Despite these constraints, discussions remained detailed, focused, varied and lively. In addition, participants made use of the chat function on the platform to add notes, links to articles and comments to the discussion. After discussing each issue, participants re-scored the topic (1–1,000, low to high) based on novelty and the issue’s importance for, and probable impact on, marine and coastal biodiversity (3 participants out of 30 did not score all issues and therefore their scores were discounted). At the end of the selection process, scores were again converted to ranks and collated. Highest-ranked issues were then discussed by correspondence focusing on the same three criteria as outlined above, after which the top 15 horizon issues were selected (Fig. 3b ).

Reporting summary

Further information on research design is available in the Nature Research Reporting Summary linked to this article.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from figshare https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.19703485.v1 . Source data are provided with this paper.

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Acknowledgements

This Marine and Coastal Horizon Scan was funded by Oceankind. S.N.R.B. is supported by EcoStar (DM048) and Cefas (My time). R.C. acknowledges FCT/MCTES for the financial support to CESAM (UIDP/50017/2020, UIDB/50017/2020, LA/P/0094/2020) through national funds. O.D. is supported by CSIC Uruguay and Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research. J.E.H.-R. is supported by the Whitten Lectureship in Marine Biology. S.A.K. is supported by a Natural Environment Research Council grant (NE/S00050X/1). P.I.M. is supported by an Australian Research Council Discovery Grant (DP200100575). D.M.P. is supported by the Marine Alliance for Science and Technology for Scotland (MASTS). A.R.P. is supported by the Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research. W.J.S. is funded by Arcadia. A.T. is supported by Oceankind. M.Y. is supported by the Deep Ocean Stewardship Initiative and bioDISCOVERY. We are grateful to everyone who submitted ideas to the exercise and the following who are not authors but who suggested a topic that made the final list: R. Brown (colocation of marine activities), N. Graham and C. Hicks (altered nutritional content of fish), A. Thornton (soft robotics), A. Vincent (fish swim bladders) and T. Webb (mesopelagic fisheries).

Author information

These authors contributed equally: James E. Herbert-Read, Ann Thornton.

Authors and Affiliations

Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

James E. Herbert-Read

Conservation Science Group, Department of Zoology, Cambridge University, Cambridge, UK

Ann Thornton, Thomas A. Worthington & William J. Sutherland

SpeSeas, D’Abadie, Trinidad and Tobago

Diva J. Amon

Marine Science Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA

The Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Lowestoft, UK

Silvana N. R. Birchenough

Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada

Isabelle M. Côté

Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes (cE3c), Department of Animal Biology, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal

Maria P. Dias

BirdLife International, The David Attenborough Building, Cambridge, UK

Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK

Brendan J. Godley

Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK

Sally A. Keith

School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK

Emma McKinley

British Antarctic Survey, Natural Environment Research Council, Cambridge, UK

Lloyd S. Peck

ECOMARE, CESAM—Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Santiago University Campus, Aveiro, Portugal

Ricardo Calado

Laboratory of Marine Sciences (UNDECIMAR), Faculty of Sciences, University of the Republic, Montevideo, Uruguay

Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Operational Directorate Natural Environment, Marine Ecology and Management, Brussels, Belgium

Steven Degraer

School of Biological, Earth, and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

Emma L. Johnston

Finnish Environment Institute, Helsinki, Finland

Hermanni Kaartokallio

Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Burwood Campus, Burwood, Victoria, Australia

Peter I. Macreadie

Department of Oceanography, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada

Anna Metaxas

Department of Biology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya

Agnes W. N. Muthumbi

Coastal Oceans Research and Development in the Indian Ocean, Mombasa, Kenya

David O. Obura

School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia

Scottish Oceans Institute, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK

David M. Paterson

Servício de Hidrografía Naval, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Alberto R. Piola

Instituto Franco-Argentino sobre Estudios de Clima y sus Impactos, CONICET/CNRS, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina

School of Mathematics and Physics, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia

Anthony J. Richardson

Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) Oceans and Atmosphere, Queensland Biosciences Precinct, St Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia

Instituto Antártico Argentino, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Irene R. Schloss

Centro Austral de Investigaciones Científicas (CADIC-CONICET), Ushuaia, Argentina

Universidad Nacional de Tierra del Fuego, Antártida e Islas del Atlántico Sur, Ushuaia, Argentina

Department of Ocean Sciences and Biology Department, Memorial University, St John’s, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada

Paul V. R. Snelgrove

Department of Environment and Geography, University of York, York, UK

Bryce D. Stewart

Lighthouse Field Station, School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Cromarty, UK

Paul M. Thompson

Institute of Marine Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK

Gordon J. Watson

School of Biological Sciences, Area of Ecology and Biodiversity, Swire Institute of Marine Science, Institute for Climate and Carbon Neutrality, Musketeers Foundation Institute of Data Science, and State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, The University of Hong Kong, Kadoorie Biological Sciences Building, Hong Kong, China

Moriaki Yasuhara

Biosecurity Research Initiative at St Catharine’s (BioRISC), St Catharine’s College, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

William J. Sutherland

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Contributions

J.E.H.-R. and A.T. contributed equally to the manuscript. J.E.H.-R., A.T. and W.J.S. devised, organized and led the Marine and Coastal Horizon Scan. D.J.A., S.N.R.B., I.M.C., M.P.D., B.J.G., S.A.K., E.M. and L.S.P. formed the core team and are listed alphabetically in the author list. All other authors, R.C., O.D., S.D., E.L.J., H.K., P.I.M., A.M., A.W.N.M., D.O.O., D.M.P., A.R.P., A.J.R., I.R.S., P.V.R.S., B.D.S., P.M.T., G.J.W., T.A.W. and M.Y. are listed alphabetically. All authors contributed to and participated in the process and all were involved in writing and editing the manuscript.

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Correspondence to James E. Herbert-Read or Ann Thornton .

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Issue number, final rank and proportion heard of for each issue in round 1 and round 2.

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Herbert-Read, J.E., Thornton, A., Amon, D.J. et al. A global horizon scan of issues impacting marine and coastal biodiversity conservation. Nat Ecol Evol 6 , 1262–1270 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-022-01812-0

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Marine pollution.

Marine pollution is a combination of chemicals and trash, most of which comes from land sources and is washed or blown into the ocean. This pollution results in damage to the environment, to the health of all organisms, and to economic structures worldwide.

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Marine pollution is a growing problem in today’s world. Our ocean is being flooded with two main types of pollution: chemicals and trash.

Chemical contamination, or nutrient pollution, is concerning for health, environmental, and economic reasons. This type of pollution occurs when human activities, notably the use of fertilizer on farms, lead to the runoff of chemicals into waterways that ultimately flow into the ocean. The increased concentration of chemicals, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, in the coastal ocean promotes the growth of algal blooms , which can be toxic to wildlife and harmful to humans. The negative effects on health and the environment caused by algal blooms hurt local fishing and tourism industries.

Marine trash encompasses all manufactured products—most of them plastic —that end up in the ocean. Littering, storm winds, and poor waste management all contribute to the accumulation of this debris , 80 percent of which comes from sources on land. Common types of marine debris include various plastic items like shopping bags and beverage bottles, along with cigarette butts, bottle caps, food wrappers, and fishing gear. Plastic waste is particularly problematic as a pollutant because it is so long-lasting. Plastic items can take hundreds of years to decompose.

This trash poses dangers to both humans and animals. Fish become tangled and injured in the debris , and some animals mistake items like plastic bags for food and eat them. Small organisms feed on tiny bits of broken-down plastic , called micro plastic , and absorb the chemicals from the plastic into their tissues. Micro plastics are less than five millimeters (0.2 inches) in diameter and have been detected in a range of marine species, including plankton and whales. When small organisms that consume micro plastics are eaten by larger animals, the toxic chemicals then become part of their tissues. In this way, the micro plastic pollution migrates up the food chain , eventually becoming part of the food that humans eat.

Solutions for marine pollution include prevention and cleanup. Disposable and single-use plastic is abundantly used in today’s society, from shopping bags to shipping packaging to plastic bottles. Changing society’s approach to plastic use will be a long and economically challenging process. Cleanup, in contrast, may be impossible for some items. Many types of debris (including some plastics ) do not float, so they are lost deep in the ocean. Plastics that do float tend to collect in large “patches” in ocean gyres. The Pacific Garbage Patch is one example of such a collection, with plastics and micro plastics floating on and below the surface of swirling ocean currents between California and Hawaii in an area of about 1.6 million square kilometers (617,763 square miles), although its size is not fixed. These patches are less like islands of trash and, as the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration says, more like flecks of micro plastic pepper swirling around an ocean soup. Even some promising solutions are inadequate for combating marine pollution. So-called “ biodegradable ” plastics often break down only at temperatures higher than will ever be reached in the ocean.

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Human-caused climate change is likely playing a role, researchers said, but is probably not the only factor. Climate models predict a steady rise in sea surface temperatures, but not this quickly, and ocean surface temperatures also fluctuate and can be affected by natural climate variability, including patterns such as El Niño and La Niña.  

So scientists don’t yet know precisely why sea surface temperatures have climbed so high. 

“I pray we’re having a once-in-a-lifetime year of hot sea surface temperatures, but I do fear there may be something else going on that is causing a long-term change in sea surface temperatures we hadn’t predicted,” said John Abraham, a professor at the University of St. Thomas who studies ocean temperatures. “All bets are off now, this is something that is so unusual, it’s challenging our past expectations.” 

If ocean temperatures continue to break records, that could bleach corals, generate more intense and fast-developing hurricanes, drive coastal temperatures up and make extreme precipitation more likely — events scientists already observed in 2023.

Temperatures first soared to record levels in mid-March last year, according to the Climate Reanalyzer, which tracks average measures of sea surface temperature data from across the globe. The data used to measure these trends dates back more than 40 years and comes from networks of monitoring buoys and robotic devices designed to help meteorologists make weather forecasts.

Abraham suspects the main cause of the trend is climate change, with some natural ocean processes that aren’t well understood playing a role, as well.

Average air temperatures are roughly 1.8 F higher today than they were from 1979-2000, but water has a greater capacity to absorb and store heat — the ocean has absorbed about 90% of the heat created by global warming. So, seas were not expected to warm this much already.

“It takes a lot of heat to raise water’s temperature,” Abraham said. 

He and McNoldy both acknowledged, however, that it’s possible that an ocean system has crossed a critical threshold because of global warming. 

Last year, some scientists also pointed to El Niño, a natural pattern that involves warm ocean water in the tropical Pacific Ocean, as a factor driving average sea surface temperatures up.

But now El Niño is dissipating, so they suspect something else is at play. 

“What we see now driving high temperatures is something in addition to El Niño and can’t be explained by the arguments being given six months ago or 12 months ago,” Abraham said. “Sea surface temperatures are higher elsewhere and very far from El Niño locations.”

McNoldy listed other dynamics that may play a small role, including the weakening of trade winds in the North Atlantic, which has reduced the amount of dust blowing from Africa’s Sahara Desert  toward North America. Dust absorbs the sun’s energy over the Atlantic Ocean, so it’s possible that more radiation is being absorbed into the ocean. 

“That could be a factor, but I don’t have a good sense of being able to quantify it,” McNoldy said. 

Some researchers have also suggested that changes to maritime shipping regulations may have reduced sulfur pollution in ship exhaust, ultimately reducing cloud cover and allowing the oceans to absorb more energy. 

“All these little ingredients by themselves don’t explain what we’re seeing, but maybe in a combined sense, they do,” McNoldy said, though he added that he’s skeptical of the theory but can’t rule it out.

Whatever the reason, higher sea surface temperatures can pose dire threats. Warmer water provides more energy for storms to feed on, so “the ones that form often become stronger,” Abraham said.

Warmer waters also increase the risk of rapid intensification — when hurricane winds intensify suddenly as they near the shore. Last year, Hurricane Idalia went from a Category 1 to a Category 4 in 24 hours . 

Some of the largest sea surface temperature anomalies are in the Atlantic and off the west coast of Africa, where the hurricanes that rattle the East Coast of the United States often start. What’s more, the National Weather Service’s Climate Prediction Center says that there is a 62% chance of a La Niña —  which is associated with active and damaging hurricane seasons —  developing in late spring. 

”Not ideal for a calm hurricane season,” McNoldy said, noting that the extra ocean warmth could also lengthen the season. 

High sea surface temperatures can contribute to more intense coastal rainstorms, as well, Abraham said, by helping to build a more moist and hot atmosphere. 

McNoldy said he’s also concerned about corals, which took a beating last year. 

Warm waters caused some of the worst bleaching events ever observed in Florida and the Caribbean Sea , with stressed corals turning white and expelling the photosynthetic algae that lives in their tissue. 

“If the anomalies we’re seeing now are in place during the hot months, the oceans will be warmer than 2023 and we’ll see even worse coral bleaching events,” McNoldy said. 

Among ocean scientists, he added: “We’re kind of all just observing something strange happening. At some point, someone will come up with an answer, but I haven’t seen that answer yet.” 

Evan Bush is a science reporter for NBC News. He can be reached at [email protected].

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TIP 13: Effects of oil pollution on the marine environment

19 May 2014

Oil spills can seriously affect the marine environment both as a result of physical smothering and toxic effects. The severity of impact typically depends on the quantity and type of oil spilt, the ambient conditions and the sensitivity of the affected organisms and their habitats to the oil.

This paper describes the effects of ship-source oil spills and resultant clean-up activities on marine flora and fauna, and their habitats. Particular attention is devoted to discussing the complex interactions between oil and biological systems, which have been the subject of diverse studies over many years. Separate ITOPF papers consider the specific effects of oil on fisheries and mariculture and on wider human activity.

Categories: Environmental effects , Technical Information Paper (TIPS)

• TIP_13_Effects_of_Oil_Pollution_on_the_Marine_Environment.pdf   (3.31 MB)

• PREVIEW: Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC 81), 18-22 March 2024
• Media Centre
• MeetingSummaries

The Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), 81st session, meets in-person at IMO Headquarters in London (with hybrid participation) from 18-22 March 2024.

Amongst other key agenda items, MEPC 81 is expected to discuss the implementation of the 2023 IMO GHG Strategy .  

The MEPC meeting is preceded by the 16th meeting of the Intersessional Working Group on Reduction of GHG Emissions from Ships (ISWG-GHG 16), from 11-15 March 2024.

• Opening speech by the Secretary-General
• Photo gallery

Media access: 

Plenary sessions of the MEPC are open to accredited media .

Working groups are closed to media.

MEPC 81 highlights:

• Tackling climate change - Cutting GHG emissions from ships – implementing the 2023 IMO GHG Strategy - continuing discussions on economic GHG pricing mechanism and technical fuel standard
• Energy efficiency of ships - reports on fuel oil consumption
• Tackling marine litter – Adoption of amendments on reporting procedures for lost containers / recommendations on carriage of plastic pellets by sea in freight containers
• Ballast Water Management Convention implementation - experience-building phase, approval of operational guidelines and adoption of amendments to the BWM Convention

Proposals for Emission Control Areas

• Implementation of the Hong Kong Convention on ship recycling

Marine diesel engine replacing a steam system – draft MARPOL Annex VI amendments

• Underwater noise reduction  - draft action plan to be considered

Tackling climate change - cutting GHG emissions from ships

IMO has developed global regulations on energy efficiency for ships ( read more here ) and continues to take concrete action to ensure that international shipping bears its fair share of responsibility in addressing climate change. MEPC 80 in July 2023 adopted the 2023 IMO Strategy on Reduction of GHG Emissions from Ships, with a goal of achieving net-zero GHG emissions by or around, i.e. close to, 2050.

Mid-term measures: fuel standard and pricing mechanism

The MEPC will continue to consider proposals on candidate mid-term measures , following discussion in the Intersessional GHG Working Group. The 2023 IMO GHG Strategy commits Member States to developing and adopting (in late 2025): a technical element, namely a goal-based marine fuel standard regulating the phased reduction of a marine fuel's GHG intensity; and an economic element, on the basis of a maritime GHG emissions pricing mechanism.   

Proposals under consideration cover both these elements. The latest submissions related to the proposals will be discussed first in the Intersessional Working Group on Reduction of GHG Emissions from Ships ( ISWG-GHG 16 ), which meets 11-15 March 2024.

The MEPC and intersessional group will receive a progress report from the Steering Committee on the conduct of the comprehensive impact assessment of the basket of candidate mid-term measure. The impact assessment is a crucial element to support decision making on the mid‑term measures. The impact assessment, inter alia, considers the following areas: geographic remoteness of and connectivity to main markets; cargo value and type; transport dependency; transport costs; food security; disaster response; cost-effectiveness; and socio-economic progress and development.

A Working Group on Reduction of GHG Emissions from Ships will be established during MEPC 81.  

Revised greenhouse gas life cycle guidelines set for adoption

The report of the Correspondence Group on the Further Development of the LCA Framework will be considered. The MEPC is expected to adopt revised Guidelines on life cycle GHG intensity of marine fuels (LCA Guidelines). The LCA guidelines allow for a Well-to-Wake calculation, including Well-to-Tank and Tank-to-Wake emission factors, of total GHG emissions related to the production and use of marine fuels. The updates include revised calculations for default emission factors; updated appendix 4 on template for well-to-tank default emission factor submission; and new appendix 5 template for Tank-to-Wake (TtW) emission factors.

The MEPC is expected to consider TtW (methane) CH4 and (ammonia slip) N2O emission factors and slip values and the need for continuous expert review of such values and emission factors, taking into account the report of the Correspondence Group.

Future work

The MEPC will develop draft terms of reference for further intersessional GHG work, ahead of MEPC 82 (30 September to 4 October 2024).

Energy Efficiency  

The MEPC is expected to consider a report on the fuel oil consumption data submitted to the IMO Ship Fuel Oil Consumption Database (Reporting year: 2022); and the report on annual carbon intensity and efficiency of the existing fleet (Reporting years: 2019, 2020, 2021 and 2022).

A Working Group on Air Pollution and Energy Efficiency will be established.

Tackling marine litter –reporting procedures for lost containers / carriage of plastic pellets by sea

Mandatory reporting of lost containers.

The MEPC will consider, with a view to adoption, draft amendments to MARPOL Protocol I, referencing a procedure for reporting lost freight containers. Containers lost overboard can be a serious hazard to navigation and safety at sea as well as to the marine environment.

The draft amendments to article V of Protocol I of the MARPOL Convention (Provisions concerning reports on incidents involving harmful substances) would add a new paragraph to say that "In case of the loss of freight container(s), the report required by article II (1) (b) shall be made in accordance with the provisions of SOLAS regulations V/31 and V/32."

Related draft SOLAS chapter V amendments are set to be adopted by the Maritime Safety Committee (MSC 108), in May 2024, and will require the master of every ship involved in the loss of freight container(s) to communicate the particulars of such an incident to ships in the vicinity, to the nearest coastal State and to the flag State.

Recommendations for the carriage of plastic pellets by sea in freight containers

The MEPC is expected to approve draft recommendations for the carriage of plastic pellets by sea in freight containers, agreed by the Sub-Committee on Pollution Prevention and Response ( PPR 11 ). The recommendations address packaging; transport information; and stowage of plastic pellets.   

Ballast water management – implementation and Convention review

The International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments, 2004 (BWM Convention), entered into force on 8 September 2017 and since then the focus is on its effective implementation .

The last MEPC session, MEPC 80, approved the Convention Review Plan (CRP) under the experience‑building phase associated with the BWM Convention, including the list of priority issues to be considered in the Convention review stage. This will guide the comprehensive review of the BWM Convention over the next two years and the corresponding development of a package of amendments to the Convention.

MEPC 81 is expected to consider:

a list of provisions and instruments for revision and/or development under the Convention review stage of the experience‑building phase;

interim guidance on the application of the BWM Convention to ships operating in challenging water quality;

guidance on the temporary storage of treated sewage and grey water in ballast tanks and consequential amendments to the BWM Convention; and

proposals regarding the approval of modifications to ballast water management systems with existing type approval.

BWM Convention amendments

MEPC 81 is expected to adopt amendments to regulations A-1 and B-2 of the BWM Convention concerning the use of electronic record books.

MEPC 81 will be invited to consider two proposals for the designation of Emission Control Areas (ECAs):

Proposed ECA in Canadian Arctic Waters, for Nitrogen Oxides, Sulphur Oxides and Particulate Matter; and

Proposed ECA in the Norwegian Sea for Nitrogen Oxide and Sulphur Oxides which includes a suggested "three dates criterion" consisting of building contract, keel laid and delivery date as part of the keel-laying date requirement in the proposed amendment to MARPOL Annex VI.

Implementation of the Hong Kong Convention

The Hong Kong International Convention for the Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships ( Hong Kong Convention)  is set to enter into force on 26 June 2025. The Convention is aimed at ensuring that ships, when being recycled after reaching the end of their operational life, do not pose any unnecessary risks to human health, safety and to the environment.

Article 12 of the Hong Kong Convention requires each Party to report to IMO, which is required to disseminate, as appropriate, information on, inter alia, ship recycling facilities, competent authorities, an annual list of ships flying the flag of that Party to which an International Ready for Recycling Certificate has been issued, and an annual list of ships recycled within the jurisdiction of that Party.

The MEPC is expected to consider draft reporting formats and the future development of a GISIS module, to provide electronic reporting facilities.   

The MEPC is also expected to discuss a submission highlighting a potential overlap in requirements between the Hong Kong and Basel Conventions.

The MEPC is expected to adopt draft amendments to regulation 13.2.2 of MARPOL Annex VI on a marine diesel engine replacing a steam system.

Underwater noise reduction 

The MEPC is expected to consider and endorse a draft Action plan for the reduction of underwater noise from commercial shipping, developed by the Sub-Committee on Ship Design and Construction ( SDC 10 ).

Working groups – not open to media

The MEPC is expected to establish the following groups:

Working Group on Air Pollution and Energy Efficiency;

Working Group on Reduction of GHG Emissions from Ships;

Drafting Group on Amendments to Mandatory Instruments;

Technical Group on the Designation of PSSA and Special Areas; and

Ballast Water Review Group.

Timetable and agenda

See annotated agenda in document MEPC 81/1/1 which includes the proposed timetable: docs.imo.org/ (Register for a public user account to access documents).

Opening/Chair

The meeting will be opened by IMO Secretary-General Arsenio Dominguez and will be chaired by Dr. Harry Conway (Liberia).

Documents and media accreditation

Media accreditation . Accredited media may attend in person and/or will be given individual access to follow the live stream.  Access is to the plenary sessions of MEPC only.

T&C here .  Please note that it will be expected that: .1  media reports accurately reflect the discussions and outcomes of meetings; and .2  statements may be quoted; however, individual speakers will not be named without their prior consent

Publicly available MEPC documents: may be accessed via IMODOCS (registration required) - docs.imo.org/ (MEPC 81 documents, see also ISWG-GHG 16 documents).

MEPC 81 will be held in person, complemented by hybrid facilities allowing remote participation.

Time: 9.30 am to 5.30 pm London Time each weekday - breaks at 11:00am-11:30am; 12:30pm-2:30pm; 4:00pm-4:30pm. A number of presentations will take place at lunch time/evenings.

Audiovisual and filming requests

The IMO Secretariat will make available photos of the meeting and B-Roll .

Please note the terms and conditions for filming requests .  

For further information, please contact: [email protected]

Upcoming Events

Mote teams up with Taiwanese aquariums and foundation to advance coral resilience effort

M ote Marine Laboratory & Aquarium will collaborate with two aquariums in Taiwan and the philanthropic foundation of a leading Taiwanese electronics manufacturer to advance research on heat-resilient coral and coral restoration, as well as expanding citizen scientists' impact on those efforts.

The partnership will proceed under an agreement Mote signed March 5 with representatives of Delta Environmental and Educational Foundation, Taiwan’s National Museum of Marine Biology and Aquarium (NMMBA) and the National Museum of Marine Science and Technology (NMMST).

The memo of understanding, signed while Mote President & CEO Michael Crosby was giving a presentation in Taiwan, is the first of its type between a major U.S. marine research and science education institution and counterparts in Taiwan. It will allow for exchange of technologies and cross training for scientists, with training manuals generated in both English and Mandarin.

Delta, a global provider of power and thermal management solutions, strives to address key environmental issues with innovative technology and has developed a coral restoration project with the two aquariums in Taiwan with a goal of restoring 10,000 corals over three years through continued efforts in propagation and breeding.

The memo makes Mote a critical partner in that effort.

The key piece of technology developed by Mote is its Climate and Acidification Ocean Simulator – CAOS system for short – used at Mote's Elizabeth Moore International Center for Coral Reef Research & Restoration on Summerland Key.

That system allows coral biologists to test the impact of climate change – including ocean acidification and warming temperatures – and helps them predict what types can thrive as conditions degrade.

Underwater heatwave proved resiliency efforts work

The agreement follows a record-breaking underwater heat wave that started in July 2023 and devastated much of the Florida Reef Tract.

In the aftermath, Mote biologists documented how genetically enhanced cross-bred elkhorn corals planted at the Mission: Iconic Reefs site and  genetically enhanced cross-bred staghorn corals survived the near catastrophic warming event.

“It’s the genetic based resiliency approach that Mote really pioneered for coral restoration that is really the basis for this research collaboration,” Crosby said. ”That’s where we have advanced experience there and so we’ll be helping them begin that effort as well in Taiwan.”

Mote biologists are still studying corals in the keys to expand their comprehensive asexual and sexual reproduction methods for producing genetically resilient coral, and share their findings with partners in Taiwan and around the world.

The Delta Environmental and Educational Foundation sent representatives to Mote last year to watch its coral bleaching rescue effort at work.

“We are honored to officially collaborate with Mote this year and will provide funding to support researchers at the NMMBA and the NMMST,” Shan-Shan Guo, executive director of the Delta Environmental and Educational Foundation said in a news release. “Additionally, we will send volunteers from Delta's coral restoration project to the United States for exchange and learning. We hope that by enhancing coral bleaching early warning and rescue mechanisms, we can better prepare for the next coral bleaching event in Taiwan."

Crosby explained that some of the scenarios Mote scientists create with the CAOS system actually occur in the Western Pacific Ocean near Taiwan.

Taiwan is at the northern tip of one of the most highly diverse coral reef regions in the world, Crosby said. The thermal effluent of a power plant has heated the water in one portion of the reef tract, resulting in corals that have genetically adapted to the higher temperatures.

Meanwhile not far off the reef, the ocean gets deeper, with seasonal and tidal fluctuations producing deep water upwelling that can bring the corals in contact with significantly cooler water.

“So it’s a little bit of a microcosm for what we might be forecasting are possible temperatures in the coming decades,” Crosby said.

“We can do some very interesting compare and contrasts with what Mother Nature herself is doing with respect to the oceans,” he added.

Revolutionary technology

A workstation developed by Delta and showcased at Crosby’s presentation and the signing ceremony, allows biologists to study the skeleton of a living coral that otherwise would have to be killed and dissected.

Crosby explained that the microscope uses a sensor similar to that in a CAT scan that allows a scientist to look at the calcium carbonate skeleton where a coral polyp resides and measure the impact of ocean acidification. In the demonstration, the live coral sample was visible on a laptop screen while the lattice like skeleton was displayed on a larger monitor.

“This is a way to do it with a living coral sample and to follow that same individual polyp or colony of corals over the course of months, years and decades to follow the impacts of different ocean acidification levels – or Ph levels – and intersect that with questions of variability and temperature.”

An adjacent aquarium on that display demonstrated how brooding coral larvae can be captured in nursing and spawning tanks.

Marine science diplomacy

Expect to see those stations in a STEM workforce development lab and teaching labs on the first floor of Mote SEA – where volunteers and students will have a hands-on experience while learning about the ocean.

The partnership is the latest example of Mote's International Marine Science Diplomacy Initiative.

Mote is already working with Japan, Chile and Korea to expand its US Harmful Algal Bloom Control Technologies Incubator; its Global FinPrint project – a shark survey with 58 nations that prompted new international trade regulations – coral reef research in Mozambique and sharks and rays conservation work in Belize.

“Oceans and ocean resources really have no political boundaries other than to human beings who draw lines on a map,” Crosby said. “By working together we can share knowledge, exchange knowledge, learn from each other – not just the scientists but the entire communities and the next generation as well.”

While some of that education may include virtual partnerships across time zones, much of it will be accomplished through exchanges, with U.S.-based citizen scientists and students traveling to the sister aquariums in Taiwan and Taiwanese students and citizen scientists coming to Sarasota.

“Mote SEA is just going to be incredible,” Crosby said. “Everything is about science in that it is not our grandparents' aquarium – it is unlike any other aquarium in any place in the world and it’s right here in our backyard.

“We’re going to really enhance the experiential opportunities of these high school students in all aspects of the research that we do,” Crosby said. “The impacts of this international marine science diplomacy initiative go beyond the innovative science and technology.”

Current progress calls for a soft opening of Mote SEA later this year and an official opening in early 2025.

That opening will clear the way for expansion of research and hospital facilities on City Island.

Visions of an international research campus

Though not officially, Crosby has occasionally referred to the existing City Island site as the Mote International Marine Science and Technology Innovation Park.

Crosby declined to comment on a proposal by Ride Entertainment Sarasota to develop a portion of Ken Thompson Park through a public-private partnership but stressed that Mote is going to need all of its 10.5 acres there as the campus transforms.

“We are going to be adding 60,000 square feet of research infrastructure to what we already have,” Crosby said. “We will have over 100,000 square feet of state-of the-art research infrastructure.”

In addition to research facilities, Crosby said Mote’s marine hospital and rescue and rehabilitation facilities will expand.

“There will be so much for people to see here that yes, there will be quite a few visitors,” Crosby said. “We ain’t going nowhere; we’re going to get bigger and better on City Island, once we give a rebirth to the Aquarium as the new Mote Science Education Aquarium.”

Mote’s long-term strategic plan calls for City Island to become a catalyst for what Crosby foresees as an opportunity for Southwest Florida to really become a Silicon Valley of marine science and technology.

“It’s going to attract scientists and engineers literally from all around the world to come here to Sarasota,” he said. “That intellectual property that comes out of all of this is going to be the foundation of growing new companies.

“Innovators and entrepreneurs can grow science and tech based businesses that can provide jobs for the next generation that are compatible with what we have as a culture here that is so intimately linked to our environment.”

This article originally appeared on Sarasota Herald-Tribune: Mote teams up with Taiwanese aquariums and foundation to advance coral resilience effort

Home — Essay Samples — Environment — Conservation — Population Growth and Environmental Sustainability

Population Growth and Environmental Sustainability

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Published: Mar 25, 2024

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Introduction, population growth and its impact on the environment, conservation efforts: preserving ecosystems and biodiversity, renewable resources: a path to sustainability.

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Guest Essay

Let’s Call Our Present Moment on Earth What It Is: Obscene

By Dominique Browning

Ms. Browning is a founder and the director of the environmental group Moms Clean Air Force and a vice president of the Environmental Defense Fund.

It is springtime, and I want to turn to thoughts of love.

In my case, love of this world, love of nature, love of our life in and as part of it. How I wish we all still loved that way.

New York City’s winter leaf cover has been blown away and stuffed into large, shiny, pristine black plastic bags. Left behind is the detritus of winter’s walkers. That would be the squashed plastic bottles, baggies full of dog poop, takeout containers (some with dinners that rats missed), dead balloons, lost neoprene gloves and abandoned plastic toys, pacifiers, baby bottles, combs, condoms. That’s just what I spotted in the first mile of a recent walk along Riverside Drive heading south from the 150s.

It was an unseasonably warm winter , a concept that could be rendered meaningless within a decade, as memories of snowfall fade. My spring walks are not exactly comforting. But I try to find the beauty with my stalwart walking pals. I am constantly spotting an exotic early bloom or a vivid unfurling of a new sort of plant, and, with exclamations of wonder and surprise, we surround my find, a new life form, perhaps. We soon realize we are gazing at the neon fronds of a partly melted hairbrush or the vivid color of the fraying ring of a soda bottle. A new form of lifelessness, maybe even an anti-life form.

As I was walking recently, I pondered, with a sense of weary bemusement, the recent decision by scientists, after nearly 15 years of debate, against declaring that we have entered a new epoch of geologic time in Earth’s 4.6 billion years, the era that many have long been calling the Anthropocene. Scientists could not yet agree that humans have irretrievably altered the geologic condition of the world enough to have earned ourselves an epoch of narcissism. Of course, by the time we have done so, we will be way past the point of drawing such lines in the rock. The reality then will be more self-evident than it is even today.

So for now, my advice: Forget the Anthropocene. We are in the Obscene Era.

Obscene as in offensive to moral principles. Repugnant, disgusting. Ill-omened or abominable, if etymology is your thing.

We have a plastic crisis , starting with the trash we see casually discarded in our streets, parks, streams and oceans. And yet the production of plastics continues to rise. For decades, the plastics industry sold the public on the material with the misleading message that it would be recycled. Very little is, with recovery and recycling rates at less than 10 percent globally. But the problem is far deeper, as a lengthy report in the journal Annals of Global Health said last year : “It is now clear that current patterns of plastic production, use and disposal are not sustainable and are responsible for significant harms to human health, the environment and the economy, as well as for deep societal injustices.”

And plastic is but one of the many environmental perils we face.

Last year was by far the planet’s warmest, coming close to reaching the 1.5 degrees Celsius rise since preindustrial days — the point that climate scientists have cautioned against exceeding. Global carbon emissions from fossil fuels also reached record highs last year. Methane leaks have been underreported for years. And yet, at an energy conference in Houston this past week, the head of the world’s largest oil producer told fossil fuel executives , “We should abandon the fantasy of phasing out oil and gas.” Applause followed.

Millions of people continue to be exposed to harmful chemicals in food and other consumer goods. Many of the chemicals in household products are detectable in our bloodstreams, and some have been linked to cancer, developmental disorders and reproductive and endocrine issues. Air pollution remains a major problem. While the United States has made great strides in improving air quality, airborne mercury and soot remain problems. Worldwide, air pollution is a global health crisis and is estimated to cause nearly 6.7 million premature deaths annually. And then there is deforestation, the acidification of the ocean, drought and the loss of biodiversity — not a complete list by any means.

At the same time, the clash between the two candidates for president could not be more defining. If the conservative Heritage Foundation’s 887-page “ Mandate for Leadership ” is any guide for what to expect from another Trump presidency — and that is exactly what it is intended to be, should Donald Trump win — we will watch as the Biden administration’s “climate fanaticism” undergoes a “whole of government unwinding.” That, too, will be part of the Obscene Era.

I sometimes wish I could be in denial. I wish I could take a walk and not see the ugly carelessness. But denial is a luxury; “better to light a candle than curse the darkness.” I’ve made a choice not to be paralyzed by despair. It is why I do the work I do, organizing mothers and caregivers to push our lawmakers and regulators to protect us.

The nation has made significant progress in the last few years, with historic investments in clean energy and clean transportation. President Biden’s administration is tackling the compounding and braided crises of climate degradation and pollution and toxic chemicals. It is foundational work, and we must continue it. The alternative is unspeakably obscene.

A springtime walk, soft breezes against the cheek, sunshine slanting in with warmth, shouldn’t be a time for cursing. And look! That enormous raven; you don’t see that often in New York City. But it turns out to be a tangled mess of black plastic bags riding a thermal updraft. Until we harness the will to end this era, until we see it for what it is, we will leave it etched into the very rocks of the ages, with, perhaps, not many around to read the message: We were here, but we did not make the choice to cherish all that was beautiful and beloved in our all-too-human era.

Dominique Browning is a founder and the director of the environmental group Moms Clean Air Force and a vice president of the Environmental Defense Fund.

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