essay on importance of exercise and physical fitness

Importance of Exercise Essay

500 words essay on exercise essay.

Exercise is basically any physical activity that we perform on a repetitive basis for relaxing our body and taking away all the mental stress. It is important to do regular exercise. When you do this on a daily basis, you become fit both physically and mentally. Moreover, not exercising daily can make a person susceptible to different diseases. Thus, just like eating food daily, we must also exercise daily. The importance of exercise essay will throw more light on it.

Importance of Exercise

Exercising is most essential for proper health and fitness. Moreover, it is essential for every sphere of life. Especially today’s youth need to exercise more than ever. It is because the junk food they consume every day can hamper their quality of life.

If you are not healthy, you cannot lead a happy life and won’t be able to contribute to the expansion of society. Thus, one needs to exercise to beat all these problems. But, it is not just about the youth but also about every member of the society.

These days, physical activities take places in colleges more than often. The professionals are called to the campus for organizing physical exercises. Thus, it is a great opportunity for everyone who wishes to do it.

Just like exercise is important for college kids, it is also essential for office workers. The desk job requires the person to sit at the desk for long hours without breaks. This gives rise to a very unhealthy lifestyle.

They get a limited amount of exercise as they just sit all day then come back home and sleep. Therefore, it is essential to exercise to adopt a healthy lifestyle that can also prevent any damaging diseases .

Benefits of Exercise

Exercise has a lot of benefits in today’s world. First of all, it helps in maintaining your weight. Moreover, it also helps you reduce weight if you are overweight. It is because you burn calories when you exercise.

Further, it helps in developing your muscles. Thus, the rate of your body will increases which helps to burn calories. Moreover, it also helps in improving the oxygen level and blood flow of the body.

When you exercise daily, your brain cells will release frequently. This helps in producing cells in the hippocampus. Moreover, it is the part of the brain which helps to learn and control memory.

The concentration level in your body will improve which will ultimately lower the danger of disease like Alzheimer’s. In addition, you can also reduce the strain on your heart through exercise. Finally, it controls the blood sugar levels of your body so it helps to prevent or delay diabetes.

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Conclusion of Importance of Exercise Essay

In order to live life healthily, it is essential to exercise for mental and physical development. Thus, exercise is important for the overall growth of a person. It is essential to maintain a balance between work, rest and activities. So, make sure to exercise daily.

FAQ of Importance of Exercise Essay

Question 1: What is the importance of exercise?

Answer 1: Exercise helps people lose weight and lower the risk of some diseases. When you exercise daily, you lower the risk of developing some diseases like obesity, type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure and more. It also helps to keep your body at a healthy weight.

Question 2: Why is exercising important for students?

Answer 2: Exercising is important for students because it helps students to enhance their cardiorespiratory fitness and build strong bones and muscles. In addition, it also controls weight and reduces the symptoms of anxiety and depression. Further, it can also reduce the risk of health conditions like heart diseases and more.

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• Importance Of Exercises Essay

Importance of Exercise Essay

500+ words essay on the importance of exercise.

We all know that exercise is extremely important in our daily lives, but we may not know why or what exercise can do. It’s important to remember that we have evolved from nomadic ancestors who spent all their time moving around in search of food and shelter, travelling large distances on a daily basis. Our bodies are designed and have evolved to be regularly active. Over time, people may come across problems if they sit down all day at a desk or in front of the TV and minimise the amount of exercise they do. Exercise is a bodily movement performed in order to develop or maintain physical fitness and good health overall. Exercise leads to the physical exertion of sufficient intensity, duration and frequency to achieve or maintain vigour and health. This essay on the importance of exercise will help students become familiar with the several benefits of doing exercise regularly. They must go through this essay so as to get an idea of how to write essays on similar topics.

Need of Exercise

The human body is like a complex and delicate machine which comprises several small parts. A slight malfunction of one part leads to the breakdown of the machine. In a similar way, if such a situation arises in the human body, it also leads to malfunctioning of the body. Exercise is one of the healthy lifestyles which contributes to optimum health and quality of life. People who exercise regularly can reduce their risk of death. By doing exercise, active people increase their life expectancy by two years compared to inactive people. Regular exercise and good physical fitness enhance the quality of life in many ways. Physical fitness and exercise can help us to look good, feel good, and enjoy life. Moreover, exercise provides an enjoyable way to spend leisure time.

Exercise helps a person develop emotional balance and maintain a strong self-image. As people get older, exercise becomes more important. This is because, after the age of 30, the heart’s blood pumping capacity declines at a rate of about 8 per cent each decade. Exercise is also vital for a child’s overall development. Exercising helps to maintain a healthy weight by stoking our metabolism, utilizing and burning the extra calories.

Types of Exercise

There are three broad intensities of exercise:

1) Light exercise – Going for a walk is an example of light exercise. In this, the exerciser is able to talk while exercising.

2) Moderate exercise – Here, the exerciser feels slightly out of breath during the session. Examples could be walking briskly, cycling moderately or walking up a hill.

3) Vigorous exercise – While performing this exercise, the exerciser is panting during the activity. The exerciser feels his/her body being pushed much nearer its limit compared to the other two intensities. This could include running, cycling fast, and heavy-weight training.

Importance of Exercise

Regular exercise increases our fitness level and physical stamina. It plays a crucial role in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases. It can help with blood lipid abnormalities, diabetes and obesity. Moreover, it can help to reduce blood pressure. Regular exercise substantially reduces the risk of dying of coronary heart disease and eases the risk of stroke and colon cancer. People of all age groups benefit from exercising.

Exercise can be effective in improving the mental well-being of human beings. It relieves human stress and anxiety. When we come back from work or school, we feel exhausted after a whole day of work. If we can go out to have a walk or jog for at least 30 minutes, it makes us feel happy and relaxed. A number of studies have found that a lifestyle that includes exercise helps alleviate depression. Those who can maintain regular exercise will also reduce their chances of seeing a doctor. Without physical activity, the body’s muscles lose their strength, endurance and ability to function properly. Regular exercise keeps all parts of the body in continuous activity. It improves overall health and fitness, as well as decreases the risk of many chronic diseases. Therefore, physical exercise is very important in our life.

Exercise can play a significant role in keeping the individual, society, community and nation wealthy. If the citizens of a country are healthy, the country is sure to touch heights in every facet of life. The country’s healthy generation can achieve the highest marks in various fields and thereby enable their country to win laurels and glory at the international level. The first step is always the hardest. However, if we can overcome it, and exercise for 21 days continuously, it will be a new beginning for a healthy life.

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Frequently Asked Questions on the Importance of Exercises Essay

What are the benefits of exercising regularly.

Regular exercise helps in the relaxation of the mind and body and keeps the body fit. It improves flexibility and blood circulation.

Which are some of the easy exercises that can be done at home?

Sit-ups, bicycle crunches, squats, lunges and planks are examples of easy exercises which can be done at home without the help of costly equipment.

Is cycling an effective form of exercise?

Cycling is a low-impact exercise and acts as a good muscle workout.

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Importance of Physical Fitness Essay

People all over the world are becoming fitness conscious as they have realized that it is the most important and have shifted their priorities from everything else to keep them fit and fine as healthy with wealth. Regular exercise has several benefits it helps the body to get into the desired shape and develops resistance power from gaining additional and excessive weight. It helps a person safe from diseases such as obesity, blood pressure, heart diseases, and high cholesterol. Furthermore, an activity also helps in reducing depression and insomnia by enhancing sleeping routines. Also, such activity is known to produce positive vibes inside a person which in turn increases the person’s confidence. (Hardcastle, 2006)

Fitness training fine-tunes the muscles using and burning calories in the body which also increases the metabolic rate in the body. While an inactive person will have his or her body losing its muscles decreasing the metabolism of the body, resulting in concentration of calories and formation of fat and the person gains weight. Exercises like walking, jogging, running, swimming, doing push-ups and pull-ups, running up a flight of stairs, doing crunches, cycling, etc. not only helps a person maintain an outer strong and toned look but it also help the organs like heart, lungs, liver and other to function properly while giving mental peace. (Hasselfors, Hans, n.d.)

For the community, there can be several initiatives taken to help people exercise regularly and maintain a healthy diet. Being a nutritionist advisor, I can guide people on what types of food are healthy and which types of foods should be avoided. As a social welfare worker, I can organize marathons for social causes where people can participate in the form of marathon exercises and also serve a more worldly cause. By adopting an educationist’s role, I can educate the positive aspects of personal fitness and make people aware of the negatives of not exercising. Also, I can start dancing lessons for young boys and girls where from an early stage not only children learn to dance but also learn to exercise. Furthermore, I can become a sport’s proponent where teaching people to play sports will also help them increase their activity and become fit. (Personal Health Zone, 2009)

The most common type of exercise is walking or running. From a casual stroll to a paced walk every day works the muscles relentlessly. Yet another popular exercise common amongst the younger people is playing sports since most sports involve running and stretching out the body muscles. Aerobics or even dancing is a type of exercise that is fun yet physically strengthening. Although swimming might fall under the banner of sports, most people swim to relax in the water and have a good time, and can exercise their body at the same time. For the more body-conscious people, bodybuilding is a set of exercises that strengthens the muscles by picking weights and putting regular pressure. Carrying excessive loads from to and fro also is a form of exercise. Furthermore, in a computer-related work environment, where repetitive strain injury (RSI) is quite common, people should take regular breaks and stretch out their muscles. People recommend the use of machines available in gymnasiums to flex their muscles. Yet another method of exercising is cycling either on a bicycle or a gymnasium machine. (ADAM, 2004)

Active people tend to outlive those who are inactive. In case of being physically inactive for a long time and then taking drastic measures to lose weight to achieve a good result is not an efficient way, as it will not have a lifelong effect on the body. It is rather recommended to consult the physician and go slowly and step-wise. Alongside maintaining a healthy lifestyle by eating healthy food, avoiding junk and fast food, and exercising regularly mainly in the early morning and late evening as these are the effective times for exercising.

ADAM (2004). Exercise . Web.

Hardcastle, J. (2006). The Importance of Physical Fitness .

Hasselfors, H. (N.D) Fitness Training. Web.

Personal Health Zone (2009). Health and Fitness . Web.

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Physical Activity Is Good for the Mind and the Body

Health and Well-Being Matter is the monthly blog of the Director of the Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion.

Everyone has their own way to “recharge” their sense of well-being — something that makes them feel good physically, emotionally, and spiritually even if they aren’t consciously aware of it. Personally, I know that few things can improve my day as quickly as a walk around the block or even just getting up from my desk and doing some push-ups. A hike through the woods is ideal when I can make it happen. But that’s me. It’s not simply that I enjoy these activities but also that they literally make me feel better and clear my mind.

Mental health and physical health are closely connected. No kidding — what’s good for the body is often good for the mind. Knowing what you can do physically that has this effect for you will change your day and your life.

Physical activity has many well-established mental health benefits. These are published in the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans and include improved brain health and cognitive function (the ability to think, if you will), a reduced risk of anxiety and depression, and improved sleep and overall quality of life. Although not a cure-all, increasing physical activity directly contributes to improved mental health and better overall health and well-being.

Learning how to routinely manage stress and getting screened for depression are simply good prevention practices. Awareness is especially critical at this time of year when disruptions to healthy habits and choices can be more likely and more jarring. Shorter days and colder temperatures have a way of interrupting routines — as do the holidays, with both their joys and their stresses. When the plentiful sunshine and clear skies of temperate months give way to unpredictable weather, less daylight, and festive gatherings, it may happen unconsciously or seem natural to be distracted from being as physically active. However, that tendency is precisely why it’s so important that we are ever more mindful of our physical and emotional health — and how we can maintain both — during this time of year.

Roughly half of all people in the United States will be diagnosed with a mental health disorder at some point in their lifetime, with anxiety and anxiety disorders being the most common. Major depression, another of the most common mental health disorders, is also a leading cause of disability for middle-aged adults. Compounding all of this, mental health disorders like depression and anxiety can affect people’s ability to take part in health-promoting behaviors, including physical activity. In addition, physical health problems can contribute to mental health problems and make it harder for people to get treatment for mental health disorders.

The COVID-19 pandemic has brought the need to take care of our physical and emotional health to light even more so these past 2 years. Recently, the U.S. Surgeon General highlighted how the pandemic has exacerbated the mental health crisis in youth .

The good news is that even small amounts of physical activity can immediately reduce symptoms of anxiety in adults and older adults. Depression has also shown to be responsive to physical activity. Research suggests that increased physical activity, of any kind, can improve depression symptoms experienced by people across the lifespan. Engaging in regular physical activity has also been shown to reduce the risk of developing depression in children and adults.

Though the seasons and our life circumstances may change, our basic needs do not. Just as we shift from shorts to coats or fresh summer fruits and vegetables to heartier fall food choices, so too must we shift our seasonal approach to how we stay physically active. Some of that is simply adapting to conditions: bundling up for a walk, wearing the appropriate shoes, or playing in the snow with the kids instead of playing soccer in the grass.

Sometimes there’s a bit more creativity involved. Often this means finding ways to simplify activity or make it more accessible. For example, it may not be possible to get to the gym or even take a walk due to weather or any number of reasons. In those instances, other options include adding new types of movement — such as impromptu dance parties at home — or doing a few household chores (yes, it all counts as physical activity).

During the COVID-19 pandemic, I built a makeshift gym in my garage as an alternative to driving back and forth to the gym several miles from home. That has not only saved me time and money but also afforded me the opportunity to get 15 to 45 minutes of muscle-strengthening physical activity in at odd times of the day.

For more ideas on how to get active — on any day — or for help finding the motivation to get started, check out this Move Your Way® video .

The point to remember is that no matter the approach, the Physical Activity Guidelines recommend that adults get at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic activity (anything that gets your heart beating faster) each week and at least 2 days per week of muscle-strengthening activity (anything that makes your muscles work harder than usual). Youth need 60 minutes or more of physical activity each day. Preschool-aged children ages 3 to 5 years need to be active throughout the day — with adult caregivers encouraging active play — to enhance growth and development. Striving toward these goals and then continuing to get physical activity, in some shape or form, contributes to better health outcomes both immediately and over the long term.

For youth, sports offer additional avenues to more physical activity and improved mental health. Youth who participate in sports may enjoy psychosocial health benefits beyond the benefits they gain from other forms of leisure-time physical activity. Psychological health benefits include higher levels of perceived competence, confidence, and self-esteem — not to mention the benefits of team building, leadership, and resilience, which are important skills to apply on the field and throughout life. Research has also shown that youth sports participants have a reduced risk of suicide and suicidal thoughts and tendencies. Additionally, team sports participation during adolescence may lead to better mental health outcomes in adulthood (e.g., less anxiety and depression) for people exposed to adverse childhood experiences. In addition to the physical and mental health benefits, sports can be just plain fun.

Physical activity’s implications for significant positive effects on mental health and social well-being are enormous, impacting every facet of life. In fact, because of this national imperative, the presidential executive order that re-established the President’s Council on Sports, Fitness & Nutrition explicitly seeks to “expand national awareness of the importance of mental health as it pertains to physical fitness and nutrition.” While physical activity is not a substitute for mental health treatment when needed and it’s not the answer to certain mental health challenges, it does play a significant role in our emotional and cognitive well-being.

No matter how we choose to be active during the holiday season — or any season — every effort to move counts toward achieving recommended physical activity goals and will have positive impacts on both the mind and the body. Along with preventing diabetes, high blood pressure, obesity, and the additional risks associated with these comorbidities, physical activity’s positive effect on mental health is yet another important reason to be active and Move Your Way .

As for me… I think it’s time for a walk. Happy and healthy holidays, everyone!

Yours in health, Paul

Paul Reed, MD Rear Admiral, U.S. Public Health Service Deputy Assistant Secretary for Health Director, Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion

The Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (ODPHP) cannot attest to the accuracy of a non-federal website.

Linking to a non-federal website does not constitute an endorsement by ODPHP or any of its employees of the sponsors or the information and products presented on the website.

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The Health Benefits of Exercise and Physical Activity

• Gastroenterology, Critical Care, and Lifestyle Medicine (SA McClave, Section Editor)
• Published: 14 July 2016
• Volume 5 , pages 204–212, ( 2016 )

Cite this article

• Keith R. Miller 1 ,
• Stephen A. McClave 2 ,
• Melina B. Jampolis 3 ,
• Ryan T. Hurt 4 ,
• Kristine Krueger 2 ,
• Sarah Landes 2 &
• Bryan Collier 5  

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Physical inactivity is a modifiable risk factor (similar to dyslipidemia and hypertension) for a variety of chronic diseases, including cancer and cardiovascular disease. Exercise provides a clear health benefit, which serves in the primary and secondary prevention of these disease processes (the most important being a reduction in cardiovascular disease and premature death). The physiologic mechanisms for such a benefit occur at both a cellular and multisystem level. Prolonged periods of occupational or leisure-time sitting have adverse health effects independent of exercise performed before or after. Almost any form of physical activity (PA) is beneficial, whether part of a regular exercise program or as a series of intermittent, incidental, non-purposeful, lifestyle-embedded activity (causing non-exercise activity thermogenesis or NEAT). The health benefits of exercise appear to be dose-dependent. Physicians should recommend near daily exercise which includes at various times strength training, stretching, and aerobic activity in addition to emphasizing adjustments that allow for reduced sitting and increased activity during daily routines. Patients should understand that for optimal health, exercise is no longer optional.

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Introduction

Physical inactivity is a modifiable risk factor for cardiovascular disease, obesity, depression, cancer, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and osteoporosis. Physical exercise reduces the risk of premature death and prolongs longevity, and is an important treatment modality in the primary and secondary prevention of the above disorders [ 1 ]. For most states in this country, less than half of the population meets CDC exercise recommendations [ 2 •]. The decline in physical activity (PA) occurs both at work and in leisure time, and may have at least partially contributed to the increase in obesity over the past 30 years. Low recreational physical activities have been associated with a threefold increase for major weight gain in men and a fourfold increase in women [ 3 ]. Surveys of PA across the lifecycle show that physical exercise peaks in the middle high-school age range and begins declining through high school and into adult life. A vicious cycle of decline occurs between inactivity and loss of skeletal muscle mass which accelerates with age. With avoidance of activity requiring effort, there is increased loss of exercise capacity. This loss causes the perception of effort associated with even sub-maximal work to worsen, as the anaerobic threshold decreases. The vicious cycle contributes to further inactivity and deterioration of physical function. The only treatment that can break the cycle is exercise.

Impact of Exercise on Aging

Exercise provides powerful health benefits for quality of life, physical function, and independent living throughout the life cycle. Exercise impedes the aging process and promotes longevity. Observational studies have shown that even in the presence of disease processes such as hypertension (HTN), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), diabetes, smoking, high body mass index (BMI), and hypercholesterolemia, increasing PA has a dose-dependent effect in decreasing relative risk of death [ 4 ]. In a study of subjects over a 13-year time period, both baseline fitness, and improvement in physical fitness through exercise and PA was associated with significant increases in longevity [ 4 ]. Functional independence with advanced age relates to the overall level of physical fitness. Physical fitness is most affected by the status of the cardiorespiratory and vascular systems, as well as muscle function [ 5 •].

Garatachea et al. provide an excellent review of the effect of exercise on the physiologic changes associated with aging [ 5 •]. Exercise exerts its positive influence on both a cellular level and at the level of organ systems. At the cellular level, exercise helps reduce genomic instability, epigenetic alteration, loss of proteostasis, dysregulated nutrient sensing, cellular senescence, and altered intracellular communication that leads to inflammation. These effects alter the way the body performs transcellular signaling in the skeletal muscle, the turning on and off of genes through epigenetics, and the manner in which the system manages reactive oxygen species [ 5 •]. On a multisystem level, the benefits of exercise include improvement in brain, cardiovascular, lung, and muscle function, favorable alterations in body composition, and advantageous changes in metabolic responses. The report concludes by suggesting that in the future, pharmaceuticals should be designed which mimic the effects of exercise on the aging process [ 5 •].

Effect of Exercise on Treatment of Disease

Robert Butler from the National Institute on Aging has said that “If exercise could be put in a bottle, it would be the strongest medicine money could buy” [ 6 ]. Exercise helps prevent common chronic diseases (primary prevention), and often plays an important role in the treatment of these disease processes (secondary prevention). Specific benefits from exercise have been seen with cardiovascular disease, stroke, diabetes mellitus, depression, cancer, obesity, and osteoporosis [ 7 , 8 ]

Cardiovascular Disease

Increased levels of PA and physical fitness have a graded effect in reducing the risk of death from cardiovascular disease. The relative risk from all cause and cardiovascular disease mortality is reduced 20–35 % by exercise and PA [ 9 ]. In an observational study, subjects in the lowest quintile of exercise had a relative risk of 3.4 in men and 4.7 in women for death compared to those in the highest quintile [ 10 ]. An increase in activity-related energy expenditure by as little as 1000 kcal or 1 metabolic equivalent (MET)-hour of exercise per week has a mortality benefit of 20 % [ 11 ]. Physically inactive women have a 52 % increase in death, a cardiovascular disease-related death that is doubled, and a cancer-related death rate that is increased by 29 % [ 11 ]. These risks on mortality from inactivity are similar to other modifiable risk factors such as HTN, hypercholesterolemia, and obesity. In randomized controlled trials (RCT)s, exercise and PA are valuable for the secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Whereas in the past, traditional recommendations for patients with a heart attack included rest and physical inactivity. Newer information demonstrates that exercise actually attenuates or reverses risk of cardiovascular disease [ 12 ]. The benefit of exercise is seen in cardiac rehabilitation, where increasing PA reduces the risk of premature death following a myocardial infarction [ 12 ]. Added energy expenditure of 1600 kcal/week from exercise may halt the progression of heart disease and energy expenditure of >2200 kcal/week can lead to plaque reduction [ 13 ]. The minimum training recommendation for patients following myocardial infarction is to reach 45 % of their heart rate reserve through cardiac rehabilitation [ 12 , 13 ].

Multiple mechanisms have been identified whereby exercise reduces the risk of premature death [ 4 ]. Exercise affects body composition by decreasing abdominal adiposity and improving weight control. Exercise enhances lipid profiles by reducing serum triglyceride levels, raising HDL, and reducing the LDL/HDL ratio. In addition, a recent meta-analysis showed beneficial changes in lipoprotein subclasses associated with regular exercise including a reduction in small LDL-p and an increase in large LDL-p [ 14 ]. Exercise enhances hemodynamics by decreasing blood pressure, increasing cardiac function, and improving coronary blood flow. Autonomic tone is enhanced and shear stress-mediated endothelial function is improved. Exercise reduces systemic inflammation, as evidenced by reduced C-reactive protein (CRP) levels. Improved psychological well-being in response to exercise is associated with reduced stress, anxiety, and depression [ 4 ].

PA is inversely correlated with risk of incident stroke as shown in a large nurses’ health study [ 15 ]. Habitual exercise reduces risk of stroke by 40–50 % at the highest level of PA. Change in PA is protective against stroke as evidenced by the fact that an increase of 3.5 h of exercise or PA per week is associated with a 29 % reduction in ischemic stroke [ 15 ].

Diabetes Mellitus

Exercise is valuable in both the primary and secondary prevention of diabetes mellitus. Aerobic and resistant-type exercise reduces the likelihood of developing type-2 diabetes mellitus. For each 500 kcal of energy expended per week, there is an associated 6 % reduction in the likelihood of type-2 diabetes (which may be even greater with increasing BMI) [ 16 ]. In patients already diagnosed to have diabetes mellitus, walking 2 h per week is associated with a 39–54 % reduction in all-cause mortality from diabetes mellitus, and a 34–53 % reduction in mortality related to cardiovascular disease [ 17 ]. The benefit of exercise on glycemic control appears to be greater with resistance training than aerobic exercise. A meta-analysis of exercise and PA in diabetes showed that exercise reduces hemoglobin A1C by 0.66 %, an effect similar to intensive glucose-lowering pharmacologic therapy [ 18 ]. The mechanisms by which exercise benefits diabetes relate to the fact that exercise increases glycogen synthetase and hexokinase activity [ 4 ]. Exercise reduces GLUT-4 protein and messenger RNA expression and increases muscle capillary density, which helps improve glucose delivery to the muscle [ 4 ].

Increasing PA, either occupational or at leisure, has been shown to exert a primary preventative effect on two cancers—breast and colon cancer [ 19 ]. Moderate exercise of as little as 4–5 METs (equivalent to mowing the lawn or brisk walking), is required to achieve this effect [ 20 ]. Exercise is associated with a 20–30 % reduction in the incidence of breast cancer in women, and a 30–40 % reduction in the incidence of colon cancer in both men and women [ 20 ]. In those patients already diagnosed to have one of these cancers, exercise reduces the likelihood for cancer recurrence and reduces risk from cancer death by as much as 26–40 % [ 21 ]. PA improves quality of life and overall health status in cancer patients. The mechanisms by which exercise improves risk from cancer may relate to reduced fat stores, an increase in energy expenditure offsetting a high-fat diet, activity-related changes in sex hormone levels, improvement in immune function, and reduced generation of free oxygen radicals [ 4 ].

Osteoporosis

Exercise has a valuable effect in the primary prevention of osteoporosis. Routine PA minimizes age-related bone loss. Weight-bearing exercise (especially resistance exercise) increases bone density compared to low impact non-weight-bearing exercise. Exercise prevents 1 % of bone loss per year, an effect which is greater in post-menopausal than pre-menopausal women [ 22 ]. In RCTs, exercise reduces the risk and number of falls, as well as the risk of fracture [ 22 ]. Even in men, PA reduces the risk of fracture by 62 % over the age of 21 years [ 23 ]. Exercise is also valuable in the secondary prevention of osteoporosis. RCTs in the past have shown that exercise with resistance training increases bone density in older osteoporotic women by as much as 1.4 %, while agility training alone increases bone density by 0.5 % [ 24 ]. Stretching, which was used as sham control, was shown to have no effect on the expected decrease in bone density with age [ 24 ]. In a 12-year follow up of over 60,000 post-menopausal women, risk of hip fracture was lowered 6 % for each increase of three MET-hours per week of activity (the equivalent of walking three miles in 1 h) [ 25 ]. Active women with at least 24 met-hours of exercise per week had a 55 % lower risk of hip fracture than sedentary women with no other exercise. Walking at least 4 h per week was associated with a 41 % lower risk of hip fracture than walking less than one hour per week [ 25 ].

Exercise has a valuable therapeutic effect on the treatment on multiple types of depression, including dysthymic, seasonal, bipolar, post-natal, pre-menstrual, atypical, and major depression [ 26 ]. The value in treating depression comes from an innate anti-depressive effect from exercise. Combining exercise with psychotropic medications achieves better treatment results than the same medications alone [ 26 ]. Exercise is relatively inexpensive, safe, and has minimal side effects when done correctly. Exercise may help reduce the dose of anti-depressive medications required. Subjects are less likely to relapse with an active exercise program [ 26 ].

The patients with depression who are most likely to benefit from exercise include those with age <20 or >40 years, higher education, higher baseline physical status, females, untrained subjects, and those with mild to moderate depression [ 26 ]. There are a number of aspects of exercise that get the optimal results in treating depression including programs that are structured, individually tailored to the patient, low to moderate intensity, when it is used as an adjunct to medication therapy, and exercise that is a combination of aerobic or resistive training performed 3–4 times per week [ 26 ]. The mechanism of effect from exercise on depression occurs on a systemic level as well as a direct effect on central nervous system (CNS) function. Exercise appears to increase serotonin, ACTH, endorphins, and endocannabinoids within the CNS. On a systemic level, exercise increases norepinephrine and reduces cortisol, tumor necrosis factor (TNF), and interleukin-6 [ 26 ].

In a controversial article that appeared in Time magazine in 2009, the journalist John Cloud wrote about “The Myth of Exercise” and its effect on treating obesity [ 27 ]. The article suggested that exercise was not good for weight management in obesity. The author pointed out that exercise leads to increased appetite and intake of food and causes a decrease in non-exercise energy expenditure, and therefore that exercise was a poor strategy for weight loss [ 27 ]. A number of letters to the editor of Time magazine followed the publication of this article, including letters from the American Society for Sports Medicine, arguing that facts were misrepresented and that the article gave the wrong message about the health benefits of exercise.

A recent review by Swift clarified the role of exercise in managing or preventing obesity, and suggested that Cloud’s article was in fact an accurate portrayal of the facts [ 28 ]. The key issue of Swift’s review is that exercise without caloric restriction is unlikely to succeed in weight loss [ 28 ]. Increasing PA can prevent weight gain, but it requires 150–250 min per week of moderate to vigorous exercise or 1200–2000 kcal/week expended through exercise to accomplish this feat [ 29 ]. Aerobic exercise by itself is minimally helpful in promoting weight loss, successful in loss of only 0–2 kg total [ 29 ]. Extreme high-volume aerobic exercise can achieve significant weight loss, but this is usually unsustainable by most obese patients. Moderate intensity, surprisingly, is no different than vigorous intensity in achieving weight loss, unless subjects are matched for exercise duration. Resistance training by itself has no impact on weight loss, and aerobic training combined with resistant training has no greater effect than aerobic training alone. However, adding caloric restriction to aerobic training does result in successful weight loss of 9–13 kg, and higher intensity of exercise has the potential for even greater weight loss [ 29 ]. Some obese subjects do experience weight compensation in response to exercise, defined by the circumstances where less weight is lost than expected with the amount of exercise sustained, often a factor related to an increase in caloric intake [ 28 , 30 ]. This is more likely to occur in women performing 150 % of weekly recommendations (compared to women performing only 100 % or 50 % of weekly recommendations) [ 28 , 30 ]. Even if minimal or no weight loss occurs in response to exercise, obese subjects still benefit from the increase in PA due to increased cardiorespiratory fitness, glucose control, endothelial function, improvements in hyperlipidemia, quality of life, and a reduction in future weight gain [ 28 ].

Caloric restriction is better than exercise for significant weight loss initially, and the weight loss is not necessarily enhanced significantly by adding exercise [ 28 ], although exercise training plus caloric restriction does improve body composition by increasing fat loss and decreasing loss of lean body mass [ 31 ]. The greatest value of exercise in the management of obesity occurs not in the initial weight loss, but in the situation where obese patients have lost weight successfully and now require substantial PA to maintain that weight loss [ 28 ]. Interestingly, an “energy gap” has been identified as the difference in energy expenditure before and after weight loss [ 32 ]. The energy gap is estimated to be approximately 8 kcal per day per pound of weight lost. An energy gap, for example, of 40 lbs lost would be associated with 320 kcal of energy. Sustaining this weight loss successfully would require either a continued reduction in energy consumption by 320 kcal per day, or increasing activity-associated energy expenditure by the same amount [ 32 ]. Based on the Set Point theory, both biological and environmental pressures oppose the strategy of food restriction in keeping weight off, but the same effect does not occur with increased PA [ 32 ]. Therefore, while food restriction is the key to weight loss, PA is the key to successful maintenance of the weight lost [ 32 ]. The ACSM has identified that people who successfully maintain weight loss average at least 250 min of PA per week [ 29 ].

Low Back Pain

A 2016 systematic review and meta-analysis reviewed 23 randomized controlled trials evaluating the prevention of low back pain [ 33 ]. Over 30,000 patients were involved in these studies. Ultimately, the combination of exercise (varying regimens of abdominal strengthening, core stability, cardiovascular, and isometrics) plus education regarding prevention of low back pain was found to reduce the risk of low back pain as well as sick leave related to low back pain. Exercise alone was also found to have an impact but had a more short term effect (<12 months), thought to be due to cessation of exercise following the intervention. Other interventions, including back belts, insoles, and education alone were not found to have any impact [ 33 ].

Not All Exercise is Created Equal

Physical activity versus physical fitness.

The lay public tends to use the terms PA and physical fitness interchangeably, but subtle differences between the two exist. Physical fitness is a physiologic state of being with regard to daily living and/or sports performance [ 4 ]. Physical fitness is comprised of cardiovascular, musculoskeletal, body composition, and metabolic components [ 4 ]. Physical fitness is similar to PA, but is more predictive of health outcomes. For example, a high-fit versus a low-fit person is estimated to have a 50 % lower mortality [ 34 ]. Physical fitness, therefore, becomes a better measure of PA than self-reporting. From a public health standpoint, however, it is better and more productive to encourage the public to be physically active and not push the need to be physically fit. Eventually, increased activity should lead to physical fitness.

In the past, guidelines for optimal health seemed to have had a singular focus on aerobic fitness. But a new paradigm shift has occurred with the addition of the concept of musculoskeletal fitness [ 4 ]. In other words, health status can improve due to increased PA in the absence of changes in aerobic fitness. Regular PA can decrease risk factors from chronic disease and disability without changing cardiac output or oxidative potential, especially in the elderly [ 4 ]. The shift has been to focus on the health benefits of musculoskeletal fitness, which may be a critical factor in the functional threshold for dependence with the aging population. Loss of muscular fitness can result in loss of capacity for daily living, and a cycle of decline can ensue [ 4 ]. Improvement in musculoskeletal function can delay the onset of disability, dependence, and chronic disease [ 35 ]. Musculoskeletal fitness is associated with fewer functional limitations and a reduced incidence of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, degenerative joint disease, and coronary artery disease [ 35 ]. Therefore, resistance training that works all the major muscle groups (including legs, hips, back, abdomen, chest, shoulders, and arms) and flexibility exercise, which are necessary to achieve musculoskeletal fitness, are recommended to be done at least twice weekly, to complement aerobic fitness and optimize overall health status.

Adverse Health Risk from Sitting

In an effort to delineate those factors which contribute to the obesity epidemic, researchers are increasingly focused on the adverse health risk from prolonged sitting [ 36 •]. A newly recognized occupational hazard has evolved because of workers needing to sit at a computer screen throughout the workday. Each mean hour of sitting after a total mean of 7 h per day is associated with a 5 % increase in premature death [ 36 •]. More time sitting at work has been shown to correlate with more sitting in leisure time. Prolonged sitting while watching TV at home, for example, has adverse effects on mental health, well-being, and muscle strength. Long sedentary hours have been linked to a twofold increase in diabetes, a twofold increase in cardiovascular disease, a 13 % increase in the incidence of cancer, and a 17 % increase in mortality related to cancer [ 36 •]. It is estimated that the average worker in the USA and England spends 60–70 % of waking hours in a sedentary sitting position. The effect of sitting has been likened to the transmission of a car. Sitting for such a prolonged period is like putting a car in reverse, causing one’s overall health status to go in the wrong direction [ 36 •]. Approximately 20–30 % of the time is spent in light intensity activity, described as postural changes, standing and movement, or ambulation. For less than 5–10 % of waking hours, individuals spend in moderate to vigorous PA. The adverse effect of sitting on health status is independent of the exercise or PA done before or after [ 36 •]. In other words, no amount of PA later can overcome the negative health effects of prolonged sitting.

Changes in the workplace environment may be the key issue to minimizing the negative effects of prolonged sitting. Particularly, in the UK, recommendations and guidelines have been developed to avoid this health hazard [ 36 •]. Workers are encouraged to accumulate up to 2 h per day at work standing or performing light walking, with the goal to progress ultimately to 4 h per day. Workers should interrupt seat-based work with standing-based work. However, workers should avoid both prolonged periods of standing as well as prolonged periods of sitting. Adaptation of these guidelines may lead to musculoskeletal complaints and fatigue, which should be monitored by managers in the workplace. Such health promotion strategies should eventually extend from the workplace to the leisure time [ 36 •].

Non-Exercise Activity Thermogenesis

Non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT) has been described as unstructured PA, energy expended unrelated to sleeping, eating, or sports exercise. NEAT is energy expended outside of purposeful exercise [ 37 ]. Surprisingly, this incidental, non-purposeful lifestyle-embedded PA can have tremendous health benefits. Three components of NEAT include body posture, ambulation, and all other movements (the most important of which may be fidgeting) [ 38 ]. Researchers involved in the study of obesity are finding that in some cases what delineates the lean subject from an obese one is a difference in NEAT, not exercise-associated activity thermogenesis [ 38 ]. Early experiments which helped identify NEAT came from studies where energy requirements were measured and all subjects were placed on a diet of 1000 cal over requirements [ 39 ]. Subjects were then videotaped, and in a blinded fashion designated as fidgeters or non-fidgeters. At the end of the trial, those patients who were designated as fidgeters failed to gain weight, while those identified to be non-fidgeters sustained significant weight gain. The increase in kilocalories of energy expenditure attributed to NEAT was inversely proportional to fat gain in pounds [ 39 ]. NEAT ranges from 15 % of total energy expenditure (TEE) in sedentary subjects to as much as 50 % of TEE in fidgeting physically active people [ 39 ]. Fidgeting has been shown in twin studies to be genetic, with an estimated >62 % heritability [ 40 ]. Simply standing or lightly ambulating can increase energy expenditure by an average of 350 kcal/day (range 269–477 kcal/day) [ 37 ]. NEAT tends to be greater in men than women, in obese subjects rather than lean, and in those with more education than those with less [ 38 , 39 ]. NEAT tends to be seasonal and overall, declines with age [ 39 ]. The concept of an energy gap is pertinent to NEAT. An average citizen in the USA has been shown to gain 1–2 lbs each year through their adult life. An energy gap of 100 kcal additional energy consumed each day would account for this weight gain [ 41 ]. NEAT can be an important contributor to TEE, such that increases in NEAT of as little as 100–150 kcal of activity per day could prevent such weight gain (by offsetting the energy gap) in the vast majority of people [ 41 ]. Recommendations now suggest that if you were not lucky enough to inherit fidgeting, you should “act like a fidgeter,” standing often, getting up from sitting, pacing, parking at the back of a parking lot, and taking stairs instead of elevators [ 40 ].

Continuous Versus Interval Exercise

Long bouts of continuous exercise as a strategy for weight loss or weight maintenance can be a contentious and challenging recommendation for the general public. Longer duration, continuous exercise may be difficult and not particularly enjoyable for patients and may not fit as well with work or home schedules. Research now has shown that interval exercise, which involves alternating short bouts of high-intensity exercise with lower-intensity exercise that allows for partial recovery, can match the health benefits of continuous exercise [ 42 ]. Studies in patients with class-1 obesity (BMI 30–34.9 kg/m 2 ), walking at a moderate level of intensity, randomized to two 15-min intervals of walking versus one 30-min interval, showed essentially the same improvements in overall health status [ 42 ]. Both intermittent and continuous exercise resulted in improvement of maximum oxygen consumption, body composition, and lipid profiles. In some categories, interval exercise even exceeded the benefit seen with continuous exercise (such as VLDL levels and percent fat lost) [ 42 ]. The value of these findings for intermittent exercise stems from three factors: there is less attrition with recommendations for interval exercise, time constraints, and short periods of interval exercising may allow for greater intensity of PA [ 42 ]. An additional study involving 28 sedentary overweight or obese men compared five 45- to 60-min sessions of continuous moderate intensity cycling per week for 6 weeks with three 20-min sessions of high-intensity interval exercise per week (for a total of 60 min) for 6 weeks. Similar improvements in cardio-metabolic risk factors including improved insulin sensitivity, cardiovascular fitness, and a reduction in blood lipids and body fat percentage were observed in the groups [ 43 ]. While cardiovascular fitness was improved to a greater extent in the continuous exercise group, this study, along with numerous other studies of interval exercise showing similar outcomes in different populations, are encouraging in that they show many of the same improvements in overall health with a substantially reduced time commitment [ 43 ]. This is especially relevant as lack of time is cited as the most common reason for not exercising by many. In addition, interval exercise can be easily adapted to an individual’s starting fitness level by adjusting either the duration or intensity (or both) of the high-intensity component of exercise. This may be especially beneficial for sedentary overweight or obese individuals who are new to exercise. In light of both the potential health and time saving benefits, interval exercise training appears to be an appealing and worthwhile exercise option in addition to, or instead of, continuous exercise. The good news for public health is that short walks on a subject’s lunch break or brief periods of activity before and after work all count, and the sum of their duration may have similar benefits to a single continuous interval of exercise of the same duration.

Success of Pedometers

The use of pedometers to increase PA was generated years ago in Japanese walking clubs. The rationalization for the pedometer was that the average stride was estimated to be 2.5 ft. Therefore, 2000 steps should approximately equal a mile, 10,000 equaling about 5 miles [ 44 ]. Based on this rationalization, PA can be classified as sedentary (<5000 steps per day), low active (5000 to 7500 steps), somewhat active (7500 to 10,000 steps), and active (>10,000 steps per day). Highly active physical exercise is associated with >12,500 steps per day [ 44 ]. This is an arbitrary categorization, however, and 10,000 steps per day may be too little for children or too much for the elderly. Weight loss using a pedometer without caloric restriction is associated with minimal to modest weight loss of <2 kg [ 44 ]. Health benefits associated with use of the pedometer may be limited to a reduction in blood pressure, with not much change in cholesterol, triglycerides, or fasting glucose [ 44 ].

Exercise in the Intensive Care Unit

Exercise is becoming increasingly important in one of the least expected circumstances, that of a critically ill patient in the intensive care unit (ICU). Researchers have found that exercising muscle increases the uptake of amino acid fuel and promotes greater protein synthesis [ 45 , 46 ]. Patients in the ICU on a ventilator in some centers are gotten out of bed and encouraged to walk with assistance in the hallway. Other centers have used a pedaling device, some of which can even be adapted for passive activity in a patient who is otherwise sedated and minimally responsive. Exercise in the critical care setting helps maintain muscular strength, reduces the risk for long-term neuromuscular weakness, shortens rehabilitation, and is more likely to result in the patient being discharged to their home [ 45 , 46 ].

Recommendations for Public Health

Similar to the Food Guide Pyramid designed by the USDA, an activity pyramid has been created to guide the public in strategies to increase flexibility, muscular strength, and aerobic capacity ( www.wellspan.org/media/3648/activitypyramid-2009.pdf ). Every day, subjects are encouraged to increase activity in leisure and at work. Three to five times per week, aerobic activity should occur, accumulating 150 min each week ( www.wellspan.org/media/3648/activitypyramid-2009.pdf ). Two to three times per week, muscular activity focusing on flexibility and strength training should be scheduled. Sitting more than 30 min at a time, watching TV, or staring at a computer screen should be minimized or reduced as much as possible ( www.wellspan.org/media/3648/activitypyramid-2009.pdf ).

Guidelines differentiate between moderate and vigorous intensity of PA. Moderate intensity is defined by a 3–5 MET level of effort, and includes activities that cause some increase in breathing and heart rate (such as walking 3–4 miles per hour, bicycling on level ground, light swimming, gardening, or mowing a lawn) [ 4 ]. Vigorous intensity is defined by ≥6 METs, and is exemplified by activities causing large increases in breathing, heart rate, and sweating. Such activities of vigorous intensity would include jogging or running at faster than a 10 min mile, aerobic dancing, competitive sports, heavy yard or construction work, brisk swimming, or fast bicycling [ 4 ].

The amount of PA needed to optimize health is not clear. The particular dose of exercise required to achieve benefits with regard to a particular disease process is difficult to ascertain. For cardiovascular disease, the intensity of PA is inversely and linearly associated with increased mortality, with the biggest effect seen as a reduction of premature death [ 47 ]. PA of >2000 kcal per week extends life by 1–2 years by age 80 [ 47 ]. An average energy expenditure of 1000 kcal per week is associated with a 20–30 % decrease in all-cause mortality. Beginning at a minimum of 1000 kcal per week, increasing benefits are seen with increasing energy expenditure, suggesting a dose-response gradient to the effect of exercise on cardiovascular health [ 47 ]. For diabetes mellitus, there is decreased risk from this disease process with PA of >5.5 METs for at least 40 min per week [ 48 ]. Walking 2 h per week decreases the risk of premature death from diabetes [ 48 ]. Moderate exercise defined by a >4.5 METs for 30–60 min per day reduces both the risk of colon cancer and breast cancer [ 19 ]. For women in particular, >7 h per week of moderate exercise has been shown to be successful in reducing risk of breast cancer (TI01). For osteoporosis, the dose-response gradient is less clear, with recommendations simply emphasizing that osteogenic adaptation is load-dependent and site-specific [ 4 ]. The Center for Disease Control (CDC), the American College of Sports Medicine, and the Healthy People 2010 recommendations provide guidelines for aerobic activity for public health purposes [ 49 ]. Adults should engage in PA of moderate intensity for at least 150 min per week or engage in PA of vigorous intensity for at least 75 min per week. Bouts of exercise may be broken up into smaller increments lasting at least 10 min [ 49 ].

Should Anyone Not be Exercising?

Jim Fixx was a celebrity journalist who helped contribute to the running craze seen in the 1980s in the USA. His sudden death from cardiovascular disease, while jogging, raised questions as to the need for medical evaluation prior to engaging in a program of increasing PA. Moderately strenuous PA may trigger ischemic events, particularly among sedentary people. There is an increased incidence of primary heart attack in high-intensity exercise. In competitive athletes, 80 % of deaths are caused by coronary artery disease. Some subjects do need to have their health risks assessed prior to engaging in an aggressive program.

The degree to which a person is evaluated prior to exercise depends on the presence or absence of cardiovascular disease risk factors and whether the exercise will be moderate or vigorous in intensity [ 50 ]. Subjects at low risk would be those who are young in age (<45 years for male, <55 years for female), are asymptomatic, and have ≤1 cardiovascular risk disease factors. These patients do not need a medical evaluation or stress test for moderate or even vigorous exercise. Subjects at moderate risk are older (men >45 years, women >55 years), or have ≥2 risk factors for cardiovascular disease. For moderate exercise, no medical evaluation may be needed, but these subjects should undergo a stress test. If exercise of vigorous intensity is planned, both a medical evaluation and a stress test should be performed. For those patients at high risk, however, defined by ≥1 sign or symptom of cardiovascular, pulmonary, or metabolic disease, both a full medical evaluation and stress test should be performed before any program is undertaken [ 50 ].

Specifically, those subjects who should not be exercising are those experiencing an acute myocardial infarction, subjects with unstable angina, systolic blood pressure >180, diastolic pressure >110 ml/Hg, uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, poorly controlled congestive heart failure, or thrombophlebitis [ 50 ].

While formal studies have shown that physician counseling is time-intensive and only minimally effective in changing behavior, physicians should no longer avoid the subject of recommendations for exercise as part of the healthcare they deliver to their patients. Physicians can begin by suggesting lifestyle changes such as climbing stairs at work, parking further away from the door on errands, walking regularly, and doing chores at home and in the yard. Clinicians should write on a prescription pad for the patient, specifying the type of exercise, duration, frequency, and intensity. The physician upon discharge from an office visit should determine plans for support and follow up to encourage success, manage obstacles, and prevent relapses. Clinicians should encourage their outpatients to involve community services such as physical therapy, mall-walking programs, school tracks, safe neighborhoods, the YMCA, and walk-a-thon’s.

Physicians should counsel that exercise is not an option. The exercise does not have to be continuous to be effective, and any physical activity counts. Patients should sit less, stand more, and plan their exercise activity at the beginning of each week. Subjects should be encouraged to find activities which they enjoy and involve others to maintain compliance. As Edward Stanley, the Earl of Derby in 1873 said, “Those who think they have not time for bodily exercise will sooner or later have to find time for illness” [ 51 ].

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Keith R. Miller has received compensation from Nestlé for serving as faculty in its fellowship program, from Abbott for serving on a surgical advisory board, and from Metagenics for serving on an advisory board.

Stephen A. McClave declares that he has no conflict of interest.

Melina B. Jampolis declares that she has no conflict of interest.

Ryan T. Hurt has received compensation from Nestlé Nutrition for service as a consultant.

Kristine Krueger declares that she has no conflict of interest.

Sarah Landes declares that she has no conflict of interest.

Bryan Collier declares that he has no conflict of interest.

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Miller, K.R., McClave, S.A., Jampolis, M.B. et al. The Health Benefits of Exercise and Physical Activity. Curr Nutr Rep 5 , 204–212 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13668-016-0175-5

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s13668-016-0175-5

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Essay on Physical Fitness

Students are often asked to write an essay on Physical Fitness in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Physical Fitness

What is physical fitness.

Physical fitness is about having a body that can do many activities without getting too tired. It means your heart, muscles, and bones are strong. When you are fit, you can run, jump, and play without feeling out of breath quickly.

Why is Fitness Important?

Being fit is good for your health. It helps you stay away from sickness. Kids who are fit can focus better in school. It also makes you feel happy and gives you more energy to enjoy life.

How to Get Fit

To get fit, you should be active. Run, swim, or play sports. Also, eat healthy foods like fruits, vegetables, and grains. Drink plenty of water and sleep well to help your body grow strong.

Staying Safe While Exercising

When you exercise, it’s important to be safe. Wear the right shoes and clothes. Start slow and learn the right way to move. Always listen to your body and rest if you feel pain or are very tired.

Also check:

• Paragraph on Physical Fitness
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250 Words Essay on Physical Fitness

Physical fitness means being in good health and shape. It’s when your body can do activities like running, jumping, and playing games without getting too tired quickly. Being fit is important for everyone, no matter how old they are. It helps us stay strong and healthy.

Parts of Physical Fitness

There are two main parts of being fit: aerobic fitness and muscle strength. Aerobic fitness is about how well your heart and lungs work when you exercise. When you can run for a long time without stopping, that’s good aerobic fitness. Muscle strength is when your muscles can lift things or do work without getting tired fast.

Why Being Fit Matters

Being fit is great for your body. It helps you not get sick often and can make you feel happier. When you’re fit, you can play with your friends and not feel like you need to stop and rest all the time. It also means you might not get hurt as often.

Getting fit can be fun. You can play sports, dance, swim, or even just go for walks. Eating healthy foods like fruits and vegetables helps too. It’s important to exercise a few times a week and not sit around too much.

Staying Fit

Once you’re fit, you have to keep exercising to stay that way. It’s like a game where you have to keep practicing to be good at it. Remember to stay active and eat well, and being fit will become a part of your life.

500 Words Essay on Physical Fitness

Physical fitness is about keeping your body in good shape. It means having the energy and strength to do daily activities without getting too tired. Just like a car needs fuel and a good engine to run smoothly, your body needs healthy food and exercise to work well.

Why is Being Fit Important?

Being fit is key to a happy and healthy life. When you are fit, you can play, run, and do your school work better. Your body fights off sickness easier, and you feel good about yourself. It’s not just about how you look; it’s about taking care of your body so that it can take care of you.

Types of Fitness

Fitness is not just one thing. There are different types, like strength, which lets you lift things; endurance, which is the power to keep going without stopping; flexibility, which helps you move your body in different ways; and balance, which keeps you from falling. Doing a mix of activities that help all these areas is the best way to stay fit.

Getting fit can be fun. You can play sports like soccer or basketball, swim, dance, or even just walk or bike around your neighborhood. It’s important to find activities you enjoy so that you will keep doing them. Try to move your body for at least an hour every day. This doesn’t have to be all at once; it can be spread out through the day.

Eating Right

Eating healthy foods helps your fitness too. Imagine your body is like a plant. Plants need water and good soil to grow. Your body needs healthy food and water to grow strong and stay fit. Eat plenty of fruits, vegetables, grains, and proteins, and drink lots of water. Try to eat less junk food, which is like giving your plant the wrong kind of soil.

Rest and Sleep

Rest is just as important as exercise. Your body needs to sleep and take breaks to rebuild and get ready for the next day. Make sure you get enough sleep each night. This helps your body heal and gives you the energy to be active and fit.

Staying Motivated

Sometimes it’s hard to stay on track with fitness. Setting goals can help. Maybe you want to be able to run a mile without stopping or learn a new sport. Write down your goals and how you plan to reach them. Celebrate when you meet them, and set new ones.

Physical fitness is a big part of a healthy life. It keeps your body strong and gives you the energy to do all the things you love. Remember, being fit isn’t just about how you look. It’s about taking good care of your body by moving around, eating well, resting, and setting goals to keep yourself motivated. Start taking steps towards being fit today, and your body will thank you for years to come.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

• Essay on Physical Development
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Beyond Weight Loss: Five Yale Experts on the Benefits of Exercise

Listen to "beyond weight loss: five yale experts on the benefits of exercise".

Most of us know that regular physical activity can strengthen muscles, burn fat, and lower our risk of heart disease. But many advantages of exercise go beyond physical fitness and cardiovascular health, according to Yale School of Medicine experts.

Five Yale Department of Internal Medicine specialists in areas ranging from infectious diseases to allergy and immunology discuss why exercise is key to optimal health.

1. Exercise reverses insulin resistance.

Studies led by Gerald I. Shulman, MD, PhD , George R. Cowgill Professor of Medicine (Endocrinology) and Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Investigator Emeritus of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and co-director of the Yale Diabetes Research Center, have demonstrated that exercise can reverse muscle insulin resistance.

“Insulin resistance in skeletal muscle is a major factor in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes, fatty liver disease, heart disease, and obesity-associated cancers,” said Shulman, who recommends daily exercise to promote cardiometabolic health. “There is also increasing evidence that insulin resistance may be a contributing factor in the progression of Alzheimer’s disease.”

2. Exercise aids in recovery from infection.

Exercise can reduce the risk of poor outcomes when infections occur, according to Scott Roberts, MD , assistant professor of medicine (infectious diseases). “For many infections, such as influenza, COVID-19, and RSV, comorbidities such as obesity, diabetes, and poor respiratory health are all major contributors to severe disease,” he said. “Exercise can help mitigate these risks and boost the odds of a speedy recovery.”

3. Exercise enhances immunity.

There is evidence that light to moderate aerobic exercise, like walking or jogging, can help the immune system work better, says Elise Liu, MD, PhD , instructor of medicine (rheumatology, allergy and immunology). “People who regularly get this type of exercise get sick less frequently than people who are sedentary,” she said. “This could be because several types of immune cells have been shown to work better shortly after exercise.”

4. Exercise contributes to a healthy gut.

Evidence suggests that exercise leads to a more diverse gut microbiome and an increase in butyrate, a short-chain fatty acid that may prevent disease, according to Avlin Imaeda, MD, PhD , associate professor of medicine (digestive diseases). “Butyrate is one of the key fuels that the cells lining the colon need to grow, divide, and stay healthy, and higher levels of butyrate can reduce the severity of inflammatory bowel disease and the risk of colon cancer, as well as general inflammation,” she said.

5. Exercise improves sleep.

Exercising during the day can help you sleep at night, notes Brienne Miner, MD, MHS , assistant professor of medicine (geriatric medicine). “Exercise is an external cue to your circadian clock, sending a physiologic message that lets your brain and body know when it is time to be awake versus when it is time to sleep,” she said. “A robust and regular circadian clock allows more regular and restorative sleep.”

Regular physical activity also contributes to better physical and mental health, decreasing the risk of developing sleep problems and potentially improving existing sleep problems, Miner said.

The Department of Internal Medicine at Yale School of Medicine is among the nation's premier departments, bringing together an elite cadre of clinicians, investigators, educators, and staff in one of the world's top medical schools. To learn more, visit Internal Medicine.

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• Gerald I Shulman, MD, PhD, MACP, MACE, FRCP George R. Cowgill Professor of Medicine (Endocrinology) and Professor of Cellular And Molecular Physiology; Co-Director, Yale Diabetes Research Center, Internal Medicine; Director, Internal Medicine

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Importance Of Exercise Essay - 100, 200, 500 Words

• Essay on Importance of Exercise -

It is our responsibility to take care of our bodies and stay fit in order to live a long life. People believe that eating healthy foods is sufficient for the body, ignoring the benefits of exercise. Doctors always advise their patients to make time in their lives to exercise and improve their health. Here are a few sample essays on Importance Of Exercise.

100 Words Essay on Importance of Exercise

200 words essay on importance of exercise, 500 words essay on importance of exercise.

Keeping our bodies fit enough to live a healthy and wealthy life is one of the most crucial components of existence. Getting up early, eating a nutritious meal, and keeping track of nutrients are all important. Our bodies require exercise as well as nutrients to develop our bones and muscles, boost our mental health, and lose weight. People can avoid orthopedic disorders in their old age by strengthening their bones. Obesity can be avoided by losing weight. People who resist being indolent and prefer to engage in physical activity are more likely to live a pleasant existence. At the end of the day, it is up to the people to change their way of life.

Exercising is one of the most vital processes that everyone should incorporate into their lives. Some people disregard the benefits of physical exercises and how they might help them live a peaceful life. Your body is your responsibility, and the least you can do is stay fit for as long as possible. Exercising not only maintains your body fit, but it also prevents ailments caused by a lack of physical activity. Half of all illnesses can be avoided by engaging in modest exercise on a daily basis . Consider the issue of obesity—obesity is caused mostly by excessive calorie intake and insufficient physical activity. Squats, planks, running, and other exercises can help in the reduction of body weight.

In terms of mental health, exercise has been shown to be a mood booster and aid in the treatment of depression and other mental health issues. This also aids in better sleep at night. Excessive calorie consumption can result in heart disease . Exercise is vital for persons who have long-term cardiac and diabetes problems since it helps them avoid future sickness. Some individuals believe that exercise is only done in a gym and is physically exhausting. However, there are a variety of workouts that can be done from the convenience of your own home.

Physical activity is regarded as one of the most vital components of life , yet many individuals tend to disregard it. Hearing the term "physical activity" drains some people, and they avoid doing it. But many don't realise how beneficial exercise is on its own. It not only helps to keep fit, but it also helps to prevent numerous long-term disorders. It is always preferable for a person to alter their lifestyle in order to do something beneficial to themselves. People must realise how good exercise is, and once they do, they will embark on a healthy lifestyle journey. The following are some of the advantages of exercising that individuals should be aware of—

Reduces Weight

Exercise aids in weight loss and keeping a particular amount of BMI for a healthy lifestyle . A change in diet can only help with calorie reduction; to burn fat, people must step up and conduct regular exercises every day. This activity can also help to lower bad cholesterol in the body and prevent future cardiovascular disease. Excessive physical activity depletes obese persons. They can, however, burn calories without going to the gym every day. Normal daily actions such as walking the stairs frequently, keeping oneself busy, and avoiding binge eating are also ways to lose weight.

Prevents Illness

To avoid pain, the bones and muscles in the body require exercise. Orthopedic experts advise patients to exercise on a daily basis to keep their bones healthy. People who follow a regular fitness plan will never tire quickly.

Some diseases or illnesses, such as stroke, type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and high blood pressure, can also be avoided with physical activity . While exercising, the brain releases hormones that make individuals joyful, which leads to a reduction in depression. Exercise has always been shown to be good in many aspects, and experts have supported this notion.

Elevates Mood

Exercise is the most effective mood booster. If you are going through a difficult time or need a solution to relieve stress, exercise is the only option. Most people have low self-esteem when it comes to their appearance. This can result in social anxiety and an eating disorder. Regular physical activity alleviates this anxiety . One can gain confidence in themselves and boost their self-esteem. People might also improve their mood by taking a short evening walk to relieve their minds of tension.

Exercise can help improve energy by supplying oxygen and nutrients to the tissues and assisting the circulatory system to function properly. People will have more energy to complete all of their chores this way. People sometimes find it difficult to socialise with others . They see no reason to leave their comfort zone and participate in any enjoyable activity. In this situation, exercise can serve as an excuse for people to socialise. Going to the gym and meeting new people can make your time and day more memorable. Dancing, climbing, backpacking, and athletics are all examples of physical activities that are simple to perform .

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Home — Essay Samples — Nursing & Health — Maintaining Health — Physical Exercise

Essay Examples on Physical Exercise

Hook examples for physical exercise essays, anecdotal hook.

As I pushed myself to finish that last mile, my heart pounding and sweat pouring down my face, I realized that exercise isn't just about physical fitness; it's a journey of self-discovery.

Question Hook

Why is it that some people find solace in the rhythmic beat of their running shoes on the pavement, while others dread the mere thought of breaking a sweat? What makes exercise such a diverse and personal experience?

Quotation Hook

"Physical fitness is not only one of the most important keys to a healthy body; it is the basis of dynamic and creative intellectual activity." These words from John F. Kennedy emphasize the profound connection between physical exercise and mental well-being.

Health Benefits Hook

Physical exercise isn't just about sculpting a perfect physique; it's a lifeline to health. Delve into the myriad benefits, from reducing the risk of chronic diseases to boosting immunity, that come with regular physical activity.

Motivation and Discipline Hook

What does it take to overcome the allure of a comfortable couch and choose the treadmill instead? The journey of self-discipline and motivation in the realm of physical exercise is a fascinating one to explore.

Exercise and Mental Well-being Hook

Physical exercise isn't just about improving the body; it's about enhancing the mind. Dive into the science of endorphins, the "feel-good" chemicals, and how they can transform your mental state through exercise.

Personal Transformation Hook

For many, physical exercise isn't just a routine; it's a profound transformation. Share stories of individuals who've turned their lives around through fitness, demonstrating the power of resilience and determination.

Exercise Trends and Innovations Hook

From CrossFit to wearable technology, the world of physical exercise is constantly evolving. Explore the latest trends and innovations that are reshaping how we approach fitness and well-being.

Pain in My Life: Lessons in Resilience and Healing

The importance of exercise for a healthy lifestyle, made-to-order essay as fast as you need it.

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Physical Activity: Benefits of Exercise for Health and Wellbeing

Why we should be playing sports, what do you feel after exercise: my experience, physical activity in older adults, let us write you an essay from scratch.

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My Fitness Plan: Reflective Analysis

Physical activity and sports studies assessment – enhancing performance, the effects of regular exercising on everyday life, my personal physical fitness program: physical goals and opportunities, get a personalized essay in under 3 hours.

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The Effects of Physical Activity on Mental Health

The best exercises to gain muscle and strength , recreational soccer: cardiovascular health, physical fitness, and mental health, physical fitness: the evolution of "exercise", possibly the most important factor in weight loss, an important reasons to do exercise, the importance of sports and outdoor activities for children’s development, fitness training program: planning and performance, the positive impact of exercise in protecting the brain from alzheimer's disease, effects of ignorance to regular body exercise, physical therapy: today it hurts, tomorrow it works, importance of optimal dynamic warm-up, how sports activities help to increase learning abilities, your motivation to do sports, we should care about sedentary behavior, the importance of sports in life, the importance of healthy eating and exercise for children, weight loss: the role of healthy eating and exercising, how an individual’s personality can impact sports performance, decline in physical activity: causes and effects.

Physical exercise is the performance of some activity in order to develop or maintain physical fitness and overall health.

Physical exercises are generally grouped into three types: aerobic exercise (running, cycling, swimming, brisk walking, skipping rope, rowing, hiking, dancing, playing tennis, continuous training, and long distance running), anaerobic exercise (push-ups, pull-ups, lunges, squats, bench press, etc.), and flexibility exercises (stretching).

Regular exercise helps lower blood pressure and cholesterol levels. Exercising improves brain performance Fat and muscle are completely different types of tissue. Muscle cannot turn into fat. People who don’t regularly exercise may lose up to 80% of their muscle strength by age 65.

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• Eating Disorders
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• Published: 16 November 2020

Exercise/physical activity and health outcomes: an overview of Cochrane systematic reviews

• Pawel Posadzki 1 , 2 ,
• Dawid Pieper   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0715-5182 3 ,
• Ram Bajpai 4 ,
• Hubert Makaruk 5 ,
• Nadja Könsgen 3 ,
• Annika Lena Neuhaus 3 &
• Monika Semwal 6  

BMC Public Health volume  20 , Article number:  1724 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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Sedentary lifestyle is a major risk factor for noncommunicable diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer and diabetes. It has been estimated that approximately 3.2 million deaths each year are attributable to insufficient levels of physical activity. We evaluated the available evidence from Cochrane systematic reviews (CSRs) on the effectiveness of exercise/physical activity for various health outcomes.

Overview and meta-analysis. The Cochrane Library was searched from 01.01.2000 to issue 1, 2019. No language restrictions were imposed. Only CSRs of randomised controlled trials (RCTs) were included. Both healthy individuals, those at risk of a disease, and medically compromised patients of any age and gender were eligible. We evaluated any type of exercise or physical activity interventions; against any types of controls; and measuring any type of health-related outcome measures. The AMSTAR-2 tool for assessing the methodological quality of the included studies was utilised.

Hundred and fifty CSRs met the inclusion criteria. There were 54 different conditions. Majority of CSRs were of high methodological quality. Hundred and thirty CSRs employed meta-analytic techniques and 20 did not. Limitations for studies were the most common reasons for downgrading the quality of the evidence. Based on 10 CSRs and 187 RCTs with 27,671 participants, there was a 13% reduction in mortality rates risk ratio (RR) 0.87 [95% confidence intervals (CI) 0.78 to 0.96]; I 2  = 26.6%, [prediction interval (PI) 0.70, 1.07], median effect size (MES) = 0.93 [interquartile range (IQR) 0.81, 1.00]. Data from 15 CSRs and 408 RCTs with 32,984 participants showed a small improvement in quality of life (QOL) standardised mean difference (SMD) 0.18 [95% CI 0.08, 0.28]; I 2  = 74.3%; PI -0.18, 0.53], MES = 0.20 [IQR 0.07, 0.39]. Subgroup analyses by the type of condition showed that the magnitude of effect size was the largest among patients with mental health conditions.

There is a plethora of CSRs evaluating the effectiveness of physical activity/exercise. The evidence suggests that physical activity/exercise reduces mortality rates and improves QOL with minimal or no safety concerns.

Trial registration

Registered in PROSPERO ( CRD42019120295 ) on 10th January 2019.

Peer Review reports

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines physical activity “as any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that requires energy expenditure” [ 1 ]. Therefore, physical activity is not only limited to sports but also includes walking, running, swimming, gymnastics, dance, ball games, and martial arts, for example. In the last years, several organizations have published or updated their guidelines on physical activity. For example, the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans, 2nd edition, provides information and guidance on the types and amounts of physical activity that provide substantial health benefits [ 2 ]. The evidence about the health benefits of regular physical activity is well established and so are the risks of sedentary behaviour [ 2 ]. Exercise is dose dependent, meaning that people who achieve cumulative levels several times higher than the current recommended minimum level have a significant reduction in the risk of breast cancer, colon cancer, diabetes, ischemic heart disease, and ischemic stroke events [ 3 ]. Benefits of physical activity have been reported for numerous outcomes such as mortality [ 4 , 5 ], cognitive and physical decline [ 5 , 6 , 7 ], glycaemic control [ 8 , 9 ], pain and disability [ 10 , 11 ], muscle and bone strength [ 12 ], depressive symptoms [ 13 ], and functional mobility and well-being [ 14 , 15 ]. Overall benefits of exercise apply to all bodily systems including immunological [ 16 ], musculoskeletal [ 17 ], respiratory [ 18 ], and hormonal [ 19 ]. Specifically for the cardiovascular system, exercise increases fatty acid oxidation, cardiac output, vascular smooth muscle relaxation, endothelial nitric oxide synthase expression and nitric oxide availability, improves plasma lipid profiles [ 15 ] while at the same time reducing resting heart rate and blood pressure, aortic valve calcification, and vascular resistance [ 20 ].

However, the degree of all the above-highlighted benefits vary considerably depending on individual fitness levels, types of populations, age groups and the intensity of different physical activities/exercises [ 21 ]. The majority of guidelines in different countries recommend a goal of 150 min/week of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity (or equivalent of 75 min of vigorous-intensity) [ 22 ] with differences for cardiovascular disease [ 23 ] or obesity prevention [ 24 ] or age groups [ 25 ].

There is a plethora of systematic reviews published by the Cochrane Library critically evaluating the effectiveness of physical activity/exercise for various health outcomes. Cochrane systematic reviews (CSRs) are known to be a source of high-quality evidence. Thus, it is not only timely but relevant to evaluate the current knowledge, and determine the quality of the evidence-base, and the magnitude of the effect sizes given the negative lifestyle changes and rising physical inactivity-related burden of diseases. This overview will identify the breadth and scope to which CSRs have appraised the evidence for exercise on health outcomes; and this will help in directing future guidelines and identifying current gaps in the literature.

The objectives of this research were to a. answer the following research questions: in children, adolescents and adults (both healthy and medically compromised) what are the effects (and adverse effects) of exercise/physical activity in improving various health outcomes (e.g., pain, function, quality of life) reported in CSRs; b. estimate the magnitude of the effects by pooling the results quantitatively; c. evaluate the strength and quality of the existing evidence; and d. create recommendations for future researchers, patients, and clinicians.

Our overview was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42019120295) on 10th January 2019. The Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of interventions and Preferred Reporting Items for Overviews of Reviews were adhered to while writing and reporting this overview [ 26 , 27 ].

Search strategy and selection criteria

We followed the practical guidance for conducting overviews of reviews of health care interventions [ 28 ] and searched the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (CDSR), 2019, Issue 1, on the Cochrane Library for relevant papers using the search strategy: (health) and (exercise or activity or physical). The decision to seek CSRs only was based on three main aspects. First, high quality (CSRs are considered to be the ‘gold methodological standard’) [ 29 , 30 , 31 ]. Second, data saturation (enough high-quality evidence to reach meaningful conclusions based on CSRs only). Third, including non-CSRs would have heavily increased the issue of overlapping reviews (also affecting data robustness and credibility of conclusions). One reviewer carried out the searches. The study screening and selection process were performed independently by two reviewers. We imported all identified references into reference manager software EndNote (X8). Any disagreements were resolved by discussion between the authors with third overview author acting as an arbiter, if necessary.

We included CSRs of randomised controlled trials (RCTs) involving both healthy individuals and medically compromised patients of any age and gender. Only CSRs assessing exercise or physical activity as a stand-alone intervention were included. This included interventions that could initially be taught by a professional or involve ongoing supervision (the WHO definition). Complex interventions e.g., assessing both exercise/physical activity and behavioural changes were excluded if the health effects of the interventions could not have been attributed to exercise distinctly.

Any types of controls were admissible. Reviews evaluating any type of health-related outcome measures were deemed eligible. However, we excluded protocols or/and CSRs that have been withdrawn from the Cochrane Library as well as reviews with no included studies.

Data analysis

Three authors (HM, ALN, NK) independently extracted relevant information from all the included studies using a custom-made data collection form. The methodological quality of SRs included was independently evaluated by same reviewers using the AMSTAR-2 tool [ 32 ]. Any disagreements on data extraction or CSR quality were resolved by discussion. The entire dataset was validated by three authors (PP, MS, DP) and any discrepant opinions were settled through discussions.

The results of CSRs are presented in a narrative fashion using descriptive tables. Where feasible, we presented outcome measures across CSRs. Data from the subset of homogeneous outcomes were pooled quantitatively using the approach previously described by Bellou et al. and Posadzki et al. [ 33 , 34 ]. For mortality and quality of life (QOL) outcomes, the number of participants and RCTs involved in the meta-analysis, summary effect sizes [with 95% confidence intervals (CI)] using random-effects model were calculated. For binary outcomes, we considered relative risks (RRs) as surrogate measures of the corresponding odds ratio (OR) or risk ratio/hazard ratio (HR). To stabilise the variance and normalise the distributions, we transformed RRs into their natural logarithms before pooling the data (a variation was allowed, however, it did not change interpretation of results) [ 35 ]. The standard error (SE) of the natural logarithm of RR was derived from the corresponding CIs, which was either provided in the study or calculated with standard formulas [ 36 ]. Binary outcomes reported as risk difference (RD) were also meta-analysed if two more estimates were available. For continuous outcomes, we only meta-analysed estimates that were available as standardised mean difference (SMD), and estimates reported with mean differences (MD) for QOL were presented separately in a supplementary Table  9 . To estimate the overall effect size, each study was weighted by the reciprocal of its variance. Random-effects meta-analysis, using DerSimonian and Laird method [ 37 ] was applied to individual CSR estimates to obtain a pooled summary estimate for RR or SMD. The 95% prediction interval (PI) was also calculated (where ≥3 studies were available), which further accounts for between-study heterogeneity and estimates the uncertainty around the effect that would be anticipated in a new study evaluating that same association. I -squared statistic was used to measure between study heterogeneity; and its various thresholds (small, substantial and considerable) were interpreted considering the size and direction of effects and the p -value from Cochran’s Q test ( p  < 0.1 considered as significance) [ 38 ]. Wherever possible, we calculated the median effect size (with interquartile range [IQR]) of each CSR to interpret the direction and magnitude of the effect size. Sub-group analyses are planned for type and intensity of the intervention; age group; gender; type and/or severity of the condition, risk of bias in RCTs, and the overall quality of the evidence (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) criteria). To assess overlap we calculated the corrected covered area (CCA) [ 39 ]. All statistical analyses were conducted on Stata statistical software version 15.2 (StataCorp LLC, College Station, Texas, USA).

The searches generated 280 potentially relevant CRSs. After removing of duplicates and screening, a total of 150 CSRs met our eligibility criteria [ 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 100 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 106 , 107 , 108 , 109 , 110 , 111 , 112 , 113 , 114 , 115 , 116 , 117 , 118 , 119 , 120 , 121 , 122 , 123 , 124 , 125 , 126 , 127 , 128 , 129 , 130 , 131 , 132 , 133 , 134 , 135 , 136 , 137 , 138 , 139 , 140 , 141 , 142 , 143 , 144 , 145 , 146 , 147 , 148 , 149 , 150 , 151 , 152 , 153 , 154 , 155 , 156 , 157 , 158 , 159 , 160 , 161 , 162 , 163 , 164 , 165 , 166 , 167 , 168 , 169 , 170 , 171 , 172 , 173 , 174 , 175 , 176 , 177 , 178 , 179 , 180 , 181 , 182 , 183 , 184 , 185 , 186 , 187 , 188 , 189 ] (Fig.  1 ). Reviews were published between September 2002 and December 2018. A total of 130 CSRs employed meta-analytic techniques and 20 did not. The total number of RCTs in the CSRs amounted to 2888; with 485,110 participants (mean = 3234, SD = 13,272). The age ranged from 3 to 87 and gender distribution was inestimable. The main characteristics of included reviews are summarised in supplementary Table  1 . Supplementary Table  2 summarises the effects of physical activity/exercise on health outcomes. Conclusions from CSRs are listed in supplementary Table  3 . Adverse effects are listed in supplementary Table  4 . Supplementary Table  5 presents summary of withdrawals/non-adherence. The methodological quality of CSRs is presented in supplementary Table  6 . Supplementary Table  7 summarises studies assessed at low risk of bias (by the authors of CSRs). GRADE-ings of the review’s main comparison are listed in supplementary Table  8 .

Study selection process

There were 54 separate populations/conditions, considerable range of interventions and comparators, co-interventions, and outcome measures. For detailed description of interventions, please refer to the supplementary tables . Most commonly measured outcomes were - function 112 (75%), QOL 83 (55%), AEs 70 (47%), pain 41 (27%), mortality 28 (19%), strength 30 (20%), costs 47 (31%), disability 14 (9%), and mental health in 35 (23%) CSRs.

There was a 13% reduction in mortality rates risk ratio (RR) 0.87 [95% CI 0.78 to 0.96]; I 2  = 26.6%, [PI 0.70, 1.07], median effect size (MES) = 0.93 [interquartile range (IQR) 0.81, 1.00]; 10 CSRs, 187 RCTs, 27,671 participants) following exercise when compared with various controls (Table 1 ). This reduction was smaller in ‘other groups’ of patients when compared to cardiovascular diseases (CVD) patients - RR 0.97 [95% CI 0.65, 1.45] versus 0.85 [0.76, 0.96] respectively. The effects of exercise were not intensity or frequency dependent. Sessions more than 3 times per week exerted a smaller reduction in mortality as compared with sessions of less than 3 times per week RR 0.87 [95% CI 0.78, 0.98] versus 0.63 [0.39, 1.00]. Subgroup analyses by risk of bias (ROB) in RCTs showed that RCTs at low ROB exerted smaller reductions in mortality when compared to RCTs at an unclear or high ROB, RR 0.90 [95% CI 0.78, 1.02] versus 0.72 [0.42, 1.22] versus 0.86 [0.69, 1.06] respectively. CSRs with moderate quality of evidence (GRADE), showed slightly smaller reductions in mortality when compared with CSRs that relied on very low to low quality evidence RR 0.88 [95% CI 0.79, 0.98] versus 0.70 [0.47, 1.04].

Exercise also showed an improvement in QOL, standardised mean difference (SMD) 0.18 [95% CI 0.08, 0.28]; I 2  = 74.3%; PI -0.18, 0.53], MES = 0.20 [IQR 0.07, 0.39]; 15 CSRs, 408 RCTs, 32,984 participants) when compared with various controls (Table 2 ). These improvements were greater observed for health related QOL when compared to overall QOL SMD 0.30 [95% CI 0.21, 0.39] vs 0.06 [− 0.08, 0.20] respectively. Again, the effects of exercise were duration and frequency dependent. For instance, sessions of more than 90 mins exerted a greater improvement in QOL as compared with sessions up to 90 min SMD 0.24 [95% CI 0.11, 0.37] versus 0.22 [− 0.30, 0.74]. Subgroup analyses by the type of condition showed that the magnitude of effect was the largest among patients with mental health conditions, followed by CVD and cancer. Physical activity exerted negative effects on QOL in patients with respiratory conditions (2 CSRs, 20 RCTs with 601 patients; SMD -0.97 [95% CI -1.43, 0.57]; I 2  = 87.8%; MES = -0.46 [IQR-0.97, 0.05]). Subgroup analyses by risk of bias (ROB) in RCTs showed that RCTs at low or unclear ROB exerted greater improvements in QOL when compared to RCTs at a high ROB SMD 0.21 [95% CI 0.10, 0.31] versus 0.17 [0.03, 0.31]. Analogically, CSRs with moderate to high quality of evidence showed slightly greater improvements in QOL when compared with CSRs that relied on very low to low quality evidence SMD 0.19 [95% CI 0.05, 0.33] versus 0.15 [− 0.02, 0.32]. Please also see supplementary Table  9 more studies reporting QOL outcomes as mean difference (not quantitatively synthesised herein).

Adverse events (AEs) were reported in 100 (66.6%) CSRs; and not reported in 50 (33.3%). The number of AEs ranged from 0 to 84 in the CSRs. The number was inestimable in 83 (55.3%) CSRs. Ten (6.6%) reported no occurrence of AEs. Mild AEs were reported in 28 (18.6%) CSRs, moderate in 9 (6%) and serious/severe in 20 (13.3%). There were 10 deaths and in majority of instances, the causality was not attributed to exercise. For this outcome, we were unable to pool the data as effect sizes were too heterogeneous (Table 3 ).

In 38 CSRs, the total number of trials reporting withdrawals/non-adherence was inestimable. There were different ways of reporting it such as adherence or attrition (high in 23.3% of CSRs) as well as various effect estimates including %, range, total numbers, MD, RD, RR, OR, mean and SD. The overall pooled estimates are reported in Table 3 .

Of all 16 domains of the AMSTAR-2 tool, 1876 (78.1%) scored ‘yes’, 76 (3.1%) ‘partial yes’; 375 (15.6%) ‘no’, and ‘not applicable’ in 25 (1%) CSRs. Ninety-six CSRs (64%) were scored as ‘no’ on reporting sources of funding for the studies followed by 88 (58.6%) failing to explain the selection of study designs for inclusion. One CSR (0.6%) each were judged as ‘no’ for reporting any potential sources of conflict of interest, including any funding for conducting the review as well for performing study selection in duplicate.

In 102 (68%) CSRs, there was predominantly a high risk of bias in RCTs. In 9 (6%) studies, this was reported as a range, e.g., low or unclear or low to high. Two CSRs used different terminology i.e., moderate methodological quality; and the risk of bias was inestimable in one CSR. Sixteen (10.6%) CSRs did not identify any studies (RCTs) at low risk of random sequence generation, 28 (18.6%) allocation concealment, 28 (18.6%) performance bias, 84 (54%) detection bias, 35 (23.3%) attrition bias, 18 (12%) reporting bias, and 29 (19.3%) other bias.

In 114 (76%) CSRs, limitation of studies was the main reason for downgrading the quality of the evidence followed by imprecision in 98 (65.3%) and inconsistency in 68 (45.3%). Publication bias was the least frequent reason for downgrading in 26 (17.3%) CSRs. Ninety-one (60.7%) CSRs reached equivocal conclusions, 49 (32.7%) reviews reached positive conclusions and 10 (6.7%) reached negative conclusions (as judged by the authors of CSRs).

In this systematic review of CSRs, we found a large body of evidence on the beneficial effects of physical activity/exercise on health outcomes in a wide range of heterogeneous populations. Our data shows a 13% reduction in mortality rates among 27,671 participants, and a small improvement in QOL and health-related QOL following various modes of physical activity/exercises. This means that both healthy individuals and medically compromised patients can significantly improve function, physical and mental health; or reduce pain and disability by exercising more [ 190 ]. In line with previous findings [ 191 , 192 , 193 , 194 ], where a dose-specific reduction in mortality has been found, our data shows a greater reduction in mortality in studies with longer follow-up (> 12 months) as compared to those with shorter follow-up (< 12 months). Interestingly, we found a consistent pattern in the findings, the higher the quality of evidence and the lower the risk of bias in primary studies, the smaller reductions in mortality. This pattern is observational in nature and cannot be over-generalised; however this might mean less certainty in the estimates measured. Furthermore, we found that the magnitude of the effect size was the largest among patients with mental health conditions. A possible mechanism of action may involve elevated levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor or beta-endorphins [ 195 ].

We found the issue of poor reporting or underreporting of adherence/withdrawals in over a quarter of CSRs (25.3%). This is crucial both for improving the accuracy of the estimates at the RCT level as well as maintaining high levels of physical activity and associated health benefits at the population level.

Even the most promising interventions are not entirely risk-free; and some minor AEs such as post-exercise pain and soreness or discomfort related to physical activity/exercise have been reported. These were typically transient; resolved within a few days; and comparable between exercise and various control groups. However worryingly, the issue of poor reporting or underreporting of AEs has been observed in one third of the CSRs. Transparent reporting of AEs is crucial for identifying patients at risk and mitigating any potential negative or unintended consequences of the interventions.

High risk of bias of the RCTs evaluated was evident in more than two thirds of the CSRs. For example, more than half of reviews identified high risk of detection bias as a major source of bias suggesting that lack of blinding is still an issue in trials of behavioural interventions. Other shortcomings included insufficiently described randomisation and allocation concealment methods and often poor outcome reporting. This highlights the methodological challenges in RCTs of exercise and the need to counterbalance those with the underlying aim of strengthening internal and external validity of these trials.

Overall, high risk of bias in the primary trials was the main reason for downgrading the quality of the evidence using the GRADE criteria. Imprecision was frequently an issue, meaning the effective sample size was often small; studies were underpowered to detect the between-group differences. Pooling too heterogeneous results often resulted in inconsistent findings and inability to draw any meaningful conclusions. Indirectness and publication bias were lesser common reasons for downgrading. However, with regards to the latter, the generally accepted minimum number of 10 studies needed for quantitatively estimate the funnel plot asymmetry was not present in 69 (46%) CSRs.

Strengths of this research are the inclusion of large number of ‘gold standard’ systematic reviews, robust screening, data extractions and critical methodological appraisal. Nevertheless, some weaknesses need to be highlighted when interpreting findings of this overview. For instance, some of these CSRs analysed the same primary studies (RCTs) but, arrived at slightly different conclusions. Using, the Pieper et al. [ 39 ] formula, the amount of overlap ranged from 0.01% for AEs to 0.2% for adherence, which indicates slight overlap. All CSRs are vulnerable to publication bias [ 196 ] - hence the conclusions generated by them may be false-positive. Also, exercise was sometimes part of a complex intervention; and the effects of physical activity could not be distinguished from co-interventions. Often there were confounding effects of diet, educational, behavioural or lifestyle interventions; selection, and measurement bias were inevitably inherited in this overview too. Also, including CSRs only might lead to selection bias; and excluding reviews published before 2000 might limit the overall completeness and applicability of the evidence. A future update should consider these limitations, and in particular also including non-CSRs.

Conclusions

Trialists must improve the quality of primary studies. At the same time, strict compliance with the reporting standards should be enforced. Authors of CSRs should better explain eligibility criteria and report sources of funding for the primary studies. There are still insufficient physical activity trends worldwide amongst all age groups; and scalable interventions aimed at increasing physical activity levels should be prioritized [ 197 ]. Hence, policymakers and practitioners need to design and implement comprehensive and coordinated strategies aimed at targeting physical activity programs/interventions, health promotion and disease prevention campaigns at local, regional, national, and international levels [ 198 ].

Availability of data and materials

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no raw data were analysed during the current study. All information in this article is based on published systematic reviews.

Abbreviations

Adverse events

Cardiovascular diseases

Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews

Cochrane systematic reviews

Confidence interval

Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation

Hazard ratio

Interquartile range

Mean difference

Prediction interval

Quality of life

Randomised controlled trials

Relative risk

Risk difference

Risk of bias

Standard error

Standardised mean difference

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There was no funding source for this study. Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL.

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Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore

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Jozef Pilsudski University of Physical Education in Warsaw, Faculty Physical Education and Health, Biala Podlaska, Poland

Hubert Makaruk

Health Outcomes Division, University of Texas at Austin College of Pharmacy, Austin, USA

Monika Semwal

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PP wrote the protocol, ran the searches, validated, analysed and synthesised data, wrote and revised the drafts. HM, NK and ALN screened and extracted data. MS and DP validated and analysed the data. RB ran statistical analyses. All authors contributed to writing and reviewing the manuscript. PP is the guarantor. The authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Additional file 1:.

Supplementary Table 1. Main characteristics of included Cochrane systematic reviews evaluating the effects of physical activity/exercise on health outcomes ( n  = 150). Supplementary Table 2. Additional information from Cochrane systematic reviews of the effects of physical activity/exercise on health outcomes ( n  = 150). Supplementary Table 3. Conclusions from Cochrane systematic reviews “quote”. Supplementary Table 4 . AEs reported in Cochrane systematic reviews. Supplementary Table 5. Summary of withdrawals/non-adherence. Supplementary Table 6. Methodological quality assessment of the included Cochrane reviews with AMSTAR-2. Supplementary Table 7. Number of studies assessed as low risk of bias per domain. Supplementary Table 8. GRADE for the review’s main comparison. Supplementary Table 9. Studies reporting quality of life outcomes as mean difference.

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Posadzki, P., Pieper, D., Bajpai, R. et al. Exercise/physical activity and health outcomes: an overview of Cochrane systematic reviews. BMC Public Health 20 , 1724 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-09855-3

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Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment; Food and Nutrition Board; Institute of Medicine; Kohl HW III, Cook HD, editors. Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2013 Oct 30.

Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School.

• Hardcopy Version at National Academies Press

4 Physical Activity, Fitness, and Physical Education: Effects on Academic Performance

Key messages.

• Evidence suggests that increasing physical activity and physical fitness may improve academic performance and that time in the school day dedicated to recess, physical education class, and physical activity in the classroom may also facilitate academic performance.
• Available evidence suggests that mathematics and reading are the academic topics that are most influenced by physical activity. These topics depend on efficient and effective executive function, which has been linked to physical activity and physical fitness.
• Executive function and brain health underlie academic performance. Basic cognitive functions related to attention and memory facilitate learning, and these functions are enhanced by physical activity and higher aerobic fitness.
• Single sessions of and long-term participation in physical activity improve cognitive performance and brain health. Children who participate in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity benefit the most.
• Given the importance of time on task to learning, students should be provided with frequent physical activity breaks that are developmentally appropriate.
• Although presently understudied, physically active lessons offered in the classroom may increase time on task and attention to task in the classroom setting.

Although academic performance stems from a complex interaction between intellect and contextual variables, health is a vital moderating factor in a child's ability to learn. The idea that healthy children learn better is empirically supported and well accepted ( Basch, 2010 ), and multiple studies have confirmed that health benefits are associated with physical activity, including cardiovascular and muscular fitness, bone health, psychosocial outcomes, and cognitive and brain health ( Strong et al., 2005 ; see Chapter 3 ). The relationship of physical activity and physical fitness to cognitive and brain health and to academic performance is the subject of this chapter.

Given that the brain is responsible for both mental processes and physical actions of the human body, brain health is important across the life span. In adults, brain health, representing absence of disease and optimal structure and function, is measured in terms of quality of life and effective functioning in activities of daily living. In children, brain health can be measured in terms of successful development of attention, on-task behavior, memory, and academic performance in an educational setting. This chapter reviews the findings of recent research regarding the contribution of engagement in physical activity and the attainment of a health-enhancing level of physical fitness to cognitive and brain health in children. Correlational research examining the relationship among academic performance, physical fitness, and physical activity also is described. Because research in older adults has served as a model for understanding the effects of physical activity and fitness on the developing brain during childhood, the adult research is briefly discussed. The short- and long-term cognitive benefits of both a single session of and regular participation in physical activity are summarized.

Before outlining the health benefits of physical activity and fitness, it is important to note that many factors influence academic performance. Among these are socioeconomic status ( Sirin, 2005 ), parental involvement ( Fan and Chen, 2001 ), and a host of other demographic factors. A valuable predictor of student academic performance is a parent having clear expectations for the child's academic success. Attendance is another factor confirmed as having a significant impact on academic performance ( Stanca, 2006 ; Baxter et al., 2011 ). Because children must be present to learn the desired content, attendance should be measured in considering factors related to academic performance.

• PHYSICAL FITNESS AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY: RELATION TO ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

State-mandated academic achievement testing has had the unintended consequence of reducing opportunities for children to be physically active during the school day and beyond. In addition to a general shifting of time in school away from physical education to allow for more time on academic subjects, some children are withheld from physical education classes or recess to participate in remedial or enriched learning experiences designed to increase academic performance ( Pellegrini and Bohn, 2005 ; see Chapter 5 ). Yet little evidence supports the notion that more time allocated to subject matter will translate into better test scores. Indeed, 11 of 14 correlational studies of physical activity during the school day demonstrate a positive relationship to academic performance ( Rasberry et al., 2011 ). Overall, a rapidly growing body of work suggests that time spent engaged in physical activity is related not only to a healthier body but also to a healthier mind ( Hillman et al., 2008 ).

Children respond faster and with greater accuracy to a variety of cognitive tasks after participating in a session of physical activity ( Tomporowski, 2003 ; Budde et al., 2008 ; Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pesce et al., 2009 ; Ellemberg and St-Louis-Deschênes, 2010 ). A single bout of moderate-intensity physical activity has been found to increase neural and behavioral concomitants associated with the allocation of attention to a specific cognitive task ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2012 ). And when children who participated in 30 minutes of aerobic physical activity were compared with children who watched television for the same amount of time, the former children cognitively outperformed the latter ( Ellemberg and St-Louis-Desêhenes, 2010 ). Visual task switching data among 69 overweight and inactive children did not show differences between cognitive performance after treadmill walking and sitting ( Tomporowski et al., 2008b ).

When physical activity is used as a break from academic learning time, postengagement effects include better attention ( Grieco et al., 2009 ; Bartholomew and Jowers, 2011 ), increased on-task behaviors ( Mahar et al., 2006 ), and improved academic performance ( Donnelly and Lambourne, 2011 ). Comparisons between 1st-grade students housed in a classroom with stand-sit desks where the child could stand at his/her discretion and in classrooms containing traditional furniture showed that the former children were highly likely to stand, thus expending significantly more energy than those who were seated ( Benden et al., 2011 ). More important, teachers can offer physical activity breaks as part of a supplemental curriculum or simply as a way to reset student attention during a lesson ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ; see Chapter 6 ) and when provided with minimal training can efficaciously produce vigorous or moderate energy expenditure in students ( Stewart et al., 2004 ). Further, after-school physical activity programs have demonstrated the ability to improve cardiovascular endurance, and this increase in aerobic fitness has been shown to mediate improvements in academic performance ( Fredericks et al., 2006 ), as well as the allocation of neural resources underlying performance on a working memory task ( Kamijo et al., 2011 ).

Over the past three decades, several reviews and meta-analyses have described the relationship among physical fitness, physical activity, and cognition (broadly defined as all mental processes). The majority of these reviews have focused on the relationship between academic performance and physical fitness—a physiological trait commonly defined in terms of cardiorespiratory capacity (e.g., maximal oxygen consumption; see Chapter 3 ). More recently, reviews have attempted to describe the effects of an acute or single bout of physical activity, as a behavior, on academic performance. These reviews have focused on brain health in older adults ( Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ), as well as the effects of acute physical activity on cognition in adults ( Tomporowski, 2003 ). Some have considered age as part of the analysis ( Etnier et al., 1997 , 2006 ). Reviews focusing on research conducted in children ( Sibley and Etnier, 2003 ) have examined the relationship among physical activity, participation in sports, and academic performance ( Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 , 2010 ; Singh et al., 2012 ); physical activity and mental and cognitive health ( Biddle and Asare, 2011 ); and physical activity, nutrition, and academic performance ( Burkhalter and Hillman, 2011 ). The findings of most of these reviews align with the conclusions presented in a meta-analytic review conducted by Fedewa and Ahn (2011) . The studies reviewed by Fedewa and Ahn include experimental/quasi-experimental as well as cross-sectional and correlational designs, with the experimental designs yielding the highest effect sizes. The strongest relationships were found between aerobic fitness and achievement in mathematics, followed by IQ and reading performance. The range of cognitive performance measures, participant characteristics, and types of research design all mediated the relationship among physical activity, fitness, and academic performance. With regard to physical activity interventions, which were carried out both within and beyond the school day, those involving small groups of peers (around 10 youth of a similar age) were associated with the greatest gains in academic performance.

The number of peer-reviewed publications on this topic is growing exponentially. Further evidence of the growth of this line of inquiry is its increased global presence. Positive relationships among physical activity, physical fitness, and academic performance have been found among students from the Netherlands ( Singh et al., 2012 ) and Taiwan ( Chih and Chen, 2011 ). Broadly speaking, however, many of these studies show small to moderate effects and suffer from poor research designs ( Biddle and Asare, 2011 ; Singh et al., 2012 ).

Basch (2010) conducted a comprehensive review of how children's health and health disparities influence academic performance and learning. The author's report draws on empirical evidence suggesting that education reform will be ineffective unless children's health is made a priority. Basch concludes that schools may be the only place where health inequities can be addressed and that, if children's basic health needs are not met, they will struggle to learn regardless of the effectiveness of the instructional materials used. More recently, Efrat (2011) conducted a review of physical activity, fitness, and academic performance to examine the achievement gap. He discovered that only seven studies had included socioeconomic status as a variable, despite its known relationship to education ( Sirin, 2005 ).

Physical Fitness as a Learning Outcome of Physical Education and Its Relation to Academic Performance

Achieving and maintaining a healthy level of aerobic fitness, as defined using criterion-referenced standards from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES; Welk et al., 2011 ), is a desired learning outcome of physical education programming. Regular participation in physical activity also is a national learning standard for physical education, a standard intended to facilitate the establishment of habitual and meaningful engagement in physical activity ( NASPE, 2004 ). Yet although physical fitness and participation in physical activity are established as learning outcomes in all 50 states, there is little evidence to suggest that children actually achieve and maintain these standards (see Chapter 2 ).

Statewide and national datasets containing data on youth physical fitness and academic performance have increased access to student-level data on this subject ( Grissom, 2005 ; Cottrell et al., 2007 ; Carlson et al., 2008 ; Chomitz et al., 2008 ; Wittberg et al., 2010 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Early research in South Australia focused on quantifying the benefits of physical activity and physical education during the school day; the benefits noted included increased physical fitness, decreased body fat, and reduced risk for cardiovascular disease ( Dwyer et al., 1979 , 1983 ). Even today, Dwyer and colleagues are among the few scholars who regularly include in their research measures of physical activity intensity in the school environment, which is believed to be a key reason why they are able to report differentiated effects of different intensities. A longitudinal study in Trois-Rivières, Québec, Canada, tracked how the academic performance of children from grades 1 through 6 was related to student health, motor skills, and time spent in physical education. The researchers concluded that additional time dedicated to physical education did not inhibit academic performance ( Shephard et al., 1984 ; Shephard, 1986 ; Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 ).

Longitudinal follow-up investigating the long-term benefits of enhanced physical education experiences is encouraging but largely inconclusive. In a study examining the effects of daily physical education during elementary school on physical activity during adulthood, 720 men and women completed the Québec Health Survey ( Trudeau et al., 1999 ). Findings suggest that physical education was associated with physical activity in later life for females but not males ( Trudeau et al., 1999 ); most of the associations were significant but weak ( Trudeau et al., 2004 ). Adult body mass index (BMI) at age 34 was related to childhood BMI at ages 10-12 in females but not males ( Trudeau et al., 2001 ). Longitudinal studies such as those conducted in Sweden and Finland also suggest that physical education experiences may be related to adult engagement in physical activity ( Glenmark, 1994 ; Telama et al., 1997 ). From an academic performance perspective, longitudinal data on men who enlisted for military service imply that cardiovascular fitness at age 18 predicted cognitive performance in later life (Aberg et al., 2009), thereby supporting the idea of offering physical education and physical activity opportunities well into emerging adulthood through secondary and postsecondary education.

Castelli and colleagues (2007) investigated younger children (in 3rd and 5th grades) and the differential contributions of the various subcomponents of the Fitnessgram ® . Specifically, they examined the individual contributions of aerobic capacity, muscle strength, muscle flexibility, and body composition to performance in mathematics and reading on the Illinois Standardized Achievement Test among a sample of 259 children. Their findings corroborate those of the California Department of Education ( Grissom, 2005 ), indicating a general relationship between fitness and achievement test performance. When the individual components of the Fitnessgram were decomposed, the researchers determined that only aerobic capacity was related to test performance. Muscle strength and flexibility showed no relationship, while an inverse association of BMI with test performance was observed, such that higher BMI was associated with lower test performance. Although Baxter and colleagues (2011) confirmed the importance of attending school in relation to academic performance through the use of 4th-grade student recall, correlations with BMI were not significant.

State-mandated implementation of the coordinated school health model requires all schools in Texas to conduct annual fitness testing using the Fitnessgram among students in grades 3-12. In a special issue of Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport (2010), multiple articles describe the current state of physical fitness among children in Texas; confirm the associations among school performance levels, academic achievement, and physical fitness ( Welk et al., 2010 ; Zhu et al., 2010 ); and demonstrate the ability of qualified physical education teachers to administer physical fitness tests ( Zhu et al., 2010 ). Also using data from Texas schools, Van Dusen and colleagues (2011) found that cardiovascular fitness had the strongest association with academic performance, particularly in mathematics over reading. Unlike previous research, which demonstrated a steady decline in fitness by developmental stage ( Duncan et al., 2007 ), this study found that cardiovascular fitness did decrease but not significantly ( Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Aerobic fitness, then, may be important to academic performance, as there may be a dose-response relationship ( Van Dusen et al., 2011 ).

Using a large sample of students in grades 4-8, Chomitz and colleagues (2008) found that the likelihood of passing both mathematics and English achievement tests increased with the number of fitness tests passed during physical education class, and the odds of passing the mathematics achievement tests were inversely related to higher body weight. Similar to the findings of Castelli and colleagues (2007) , socioeconomic status and demographic factors explained little of the relationship between aerobic fitness and academic performance; however, socioeconomic status may be an explanatory variable for students of low fitness ( London and Castrechini, 2011 ).

In sum, numerous cross-sectional and correlational studies demonstrate small-to-moderate positive or null associations between physical fitness ( Grissom, 2005 ; Cottrell et al., 2007 ; Edwards et al., 2009; Eveland-Sayers et al., 2009 ; Cooper et al., 2010 ; Welk et al., 2010 ; Wittberg et al., 2010 ; Zhu et al., 2010 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ), particularly aerobic fitness, and academic performance ( Castelli et al, 2007 ; Chomitz et al., 2008 ; Roberts et al., 2010 ; Welk et al., 2010 ; Chih and Chen, 2011 ; London and Castrechini, 2011 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Moreover, the findings may support a dose-response association, suggesting that the more components of physical fitness (e.g., cardiovascular endurance, strength, muscle endurance) considered acceptable for the specific age and gender that are present, the greater the likelihood of successful academic performance. From a public health and policy standpoint, the conclusions these findings support are limited by few causal inferences, a lack of data confirmation, and inadequate reliability because the data were often collected by nonresearchers or through self-report methods. It may also be noted that this research includes no known longitudinal studies and few randomized controlled trials (examples are included later in this chapter in the discussion of the developing brain).

Physical Activity, Physical Education, and Academic Performance

In contrast with the correlational data presented above for physical fitness, more information is needed on the direct effects of participation in physical activity programming and physical education classes on academic performance.

In a meta-analysis, Sibley and Etnier (2003) found a positive relationship between physical activity and cognition in school-age youth (aged 4-18), suggesting that physical activity, as well as physical fitness, may be related to cognitive outcomes during development. Participation in physical activity was related to cognitive performance in eight measurement categories (perceptual skills, IQ, achievement, verbal tests, mathematics tests, memory, developmental level/academic readiness, and “other”), with results indicating a beneficial relationship of physical activity to all cognitive outcomes except memory ( Sibley and Etnier, 2003 ). Since that meta-analysis, however, several papers have reported robust relationships between aerobic fitness and different aspects of memory in children (e.g., Chaddock et al., 2010a , 2011 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 ; Monti et al., 2012 ). Regardless, the comprehensive review of Sibley and Etnier (2003) was important because it helped bring attention to an emerging literature suggesting that physical activity may benefit cognitive development even as it also demonstrated the need for further study to better understand the multifaceted relationship between physical activity and cognitive and brain health.

The regular engagement in physical activity achieved during physical education programming can also be related to academic performance, especially when the class is taught by a physical education teacher. The Sports, Play, and Active Recreation for Kids (SPARK) study examined the effects of a 2-year health-related physical education program on academic performance in children ( Sallis et al., 1999 ). In an experimental design, seven elementary schools were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (1) a specialist condition in which certified physical education teachers delivered the SPARK curriculum, (2) a trained-teacher condition in which classroom teachers implemented the curriculum, and (3) a control condition in which classroom teachers implemented the local physical education curriculum. No significant differences by condition were found for mathematics testing; however, reading scores were significantly higher in the specialist condition relative to the control condition ( Sallis et al., 1999 ), while language scores were significantly lower in the specialist condition than in the other two conditions. The authors conclude that spending time in physical education with a specialist did not have a negative effect on academic performance. Shortcomings of this research include the amount of data loss from pre- to posttest, the use of results of 2nd-grade testing that exceeded the national average in performance as baseline data, and the use of norm-referenced rather than criterion-based testing.

In seminal research conducted by Gabbard and Barton (1979) , six different conditions of physical activity (no activity; 20, 30, 40, and 50 minutes; and posttest no activity) were completed by 106 2nd graders during physical education. Each physical activity session was followed by 5 minutes of rest and the completion of 36 math problems. The authors found a potential threshold effect whereby only the 50-minute condition improved mathematical performance, with no differences by gender.

A longitudinal study of the kindergarten class of 1998–1999, using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, investigated the association between enrollment in physical education and academic achievement ( Carlson et al., 2008 ). Higher amounts of physical education were correlated with better academic performance in mathematics among females, but this finding did not hold true for males.

Ahamed and colleagues (2007) found in a cluster randomized trial that, after 16 months of a classroom-based physical activity intervention, there was no significant difference between the treatment and control groups in performance on the standardized Cognitive Abilities Test, Third Edition (CAT-3). Others have found, however, that coordinative exercise ( Budde et al., 2008 ) or bouts of vigorous physical activity during free time ( Coe et al., 2006 ) contribute to higher levels of academic performance. Specifically, Coe and colleagues examined the association of enrollment in physical education and self-reported vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity outside school with performance in core academic courses and on the Terra Nova Standardized Achievement Test among more than 200 6th-grade students. Their findings indicate that academic performance was unaffected by enrollment in physical education classes, which were found to average only 19 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity. When time spent engaged in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity outside of school was considered, however, a significant positive relation to academic performance emerged, with more time engaged in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity being related to better grades but not test scores ( Coe et al., 2006 ).

Studies of participation in sports and academic achievement have found positive associations ( Mechanic and Hansell, 1987 ; Dexter, 1999 ; Crosnoe, 2002 ; Eitle and Eitle, 2002 ; Stephens and Schaben, 2002 ; Eitle, 2005 ; Miller et al., 2005 ; Fox et al., 2010 ; Ruiz et al., 2010 ); higher grade point averages (GPAs) in season than out of season ( Silliker and Quirk, 1997 ); a negative association between cheerleading and science performance ( Hanson and Kraus, 1998 ); and weak and negative associations between the amount of time spent participating in sports and performance in English-language class among 13-, 14-, and 16-year-old students ( Daley and Ryan, 2000 ). Other studies, however, have found no association between participation in sports and academic performance ( Fisher et al., 1996 ). The findings of these studies need to be interpreted with caution as many of their designs failed to account for the level of participation by individuals in the sport (e.g., amount of playing time, type and intensity of physical activity engagement by sport). Further, it is unclear whether policies required students to have higher GPAs to be eligible for participation. Offering sports opportunities is well justified regardless of the cognitive benefits, however, given that adolescents may be less likely to engage in risky behaviors when involved in sports or other extracurricular activities ( Page et al., 1998 ; Elder et al., 2000 ; Taliaferro et al., 2010 ), that participation in sports increases physical fitness, and that affiliation with sports enhances school connectedness.

Although a consensus on the relationship of physical activity to academic achievement has not been reached, the vast majority of available evidence suggests the relationship is either positive or neutral. The meta-analytic review by Fedewa and Ahn (2011) suggests that interventions entailing aerobic physical activity have the greatest impact on academic performance; however, all types of physical activity, except those involving flexibility alone, contribute to enhanced academic performance, as do interventions that use small groups (about 10 students) rather than individuals or large groups. Regardless of the strength of the findings, the literature indicates that time spent engaged in physical activity is beneficial to children because it has not been found to detract from academic performance, and in fact can improve overall health and function ( Sallis et al., 1999 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ; Tomporowski et al., 2008a ; Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 ; Rasberry et al., 2011 ).

Single Bouts of Physical Activity

Beyond formal physical education, evidence suggests that multi-component approaches are a viable means of providing physical activity opportunities for children across the school curriculum (see also Chapter 6 ). Although health-related fitness lessons taught by certified physical education teachers result in greater student fitness gains relative to such lessons taught by other teachers ( Sallis et al., 1999 ), non-physical education teachers are capable of providing opportunities to be physically active within the classroom ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ). Single sessions or bouts of physical activity have independent merit, offering immediate benefits that can enhance the learning experience. Studies have found that single bouts of physical activity result in improved attention ( Hillman et al., 2003 , 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2012 ), better working memory ( Pontifex et al., 2009 ), and increased academic learning time and reduced off-task behaviors ( Mahar et al., 2006 ; Bartholomew and Jowers, 2011 ). Yet single bouts of physical activity have differential effects, as very vigorous exercise has been associated with cognitive fatigue and even cognitive decline in adults ( Tomporowski, 2003 ). As seen in Figure 4-1 , high levels of effort, arousal, or activation can influence perception, decision making, response preparation, and actual response. For discussion of the underlying constructs and differential effects of single bouts of physical activity on cognitive performance, see Tomporowski (2003) .

Information processing: Diagram of a simplified version of Sanders's (1983) cognitive-energetic model of human information processing (adapted from Jones and Hardy, 1989). SOURCE: Tomporowski, 2003. Reprinted with permission.

For children, classrooms are busy places where they must distinguish relevant information from distractions that emerge from many different sources occurring simultaneously. A student must listen to the teacher, adhere to classroom procedures, focus on a specific task, hold and retain information, and make connections between novel information and previous experiences. Hillman and colleagues (2009) demonstrated that a single bout of moderate-intensity walking (60 percent of maximum heart rate) resulted in significant improvements in performance on a task requiring attentional inhibition (e.g., the ability to focus on a single task). These findings were accompanied by changes in neuroelectric measures underlying the allocation of attention (see Figure 4-2 ) and significant improvements on the reading subtest of the Wide Range Achievement Test. No such effects were observed following a similar duration of quiet rest. These findings were later replicated and extended to demonstrate benefits for both mathematics and reading performance in healthy children and those diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( Pontifex et al., 2013 ). Further replications of these findings demonstrated that a single bout of moderate-intensity exercise using a treadmill improved performance on a task of attention and inhibition, but similar benefits were not derived from moderate-intensity exercise that involved exergaming ( O'Leary et al., 2011 ). It was also found that such benefits were derived following cessation of, but not during, the bout of exercise ( Drollette et al., 2012 ). The applications of such empirical findings within the school setting remain unclear.

Effects of a single session of exercise in preadolescent children. SOURCE: Hillman et al., 2009. Reprinted with permission.

A randomized controlled trial entitled Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC) used cluster randomization among 24 schools to examine the effects of physically active classroom lessons on BMI and academic achievement ( Donnelly et al., 2009 ). The academically oriented physical activities were intended to be of vigorous or moderate intensity (3–6 metabolic equivalents [METs]) and to last approximately 10 minutes and were specifically designed to supplement content in mathematics, language arts, geography, history, spelling, science, and health. The study followed 665 boys and 677 girls for 3 years as they rose from 2nd or 3rd to 4th or 5th grades. Changes in academic achievement, fitness, and blood screening were considered secondary outcomes. During a 3-year period, students who engaged in physically active lessons, on average, improved their academic achievement by 6 percent, while the control groups exhibited a 1 percent decrease. In students who experienced at least 75 minutes of PAAC lessons per week, BMI remained stable (see Figure 4-3 ).

Change in academic scores from baseline after physically active classroom lessons in elementary schools in northeast Kansas (2003–2006). NOTE: All differences between the Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC) group ( N = 117) and control (more...)

It is important to note that cognitive tasks completed before, during, and after physical activity show varying effects, but the effects were always positive compared with sedentary behavior. In a study carried out by Drollette and colleagues (2012) , 36 preadolescent children completed two cognitive tasks—a flanker task to assess attention and inhibition and a spatial nback task to assess working memory—before, during, and after seated rest and treadmill walking conditions. The children sat or walked on different days for an average of 19 minutes. The results suggest that the physical activity enhanced cognitive performance for the attention task but not for the task requiring working memory. Accordingly, although more research is needed, the authors suggest that the acute effects of exercise may be selective to certain cognitive processes (i.e., attentional inhibition) while unrelated to others (e.g., working memory). Indeed, data collected using a task-switching paradigm (i.e., a task designed to assess multitasking and requiring the scheduling of attention to multiple aspects of the environment) among 69 overweight and inactive children did not show differences in cognitive performance following acute bouts of treadmill walking or sitting ( Tomporowski et al., 2008b ). Thus, findings to date indicate a robust relationship of acute exercise to transient improvements in attention but appear inconsistent for other aspects of cognition.

Academic Learning Time and On- and Off-Task Behaviors

Excessive time on task, inattention to task, off-task behavior, and delinquency are important considerations in the learning environment given the importance of academic learning time to academic performance. These behaviors are observable and of concern to teachers as they detract from the learning environment. Systematic observation by trained observers may yield important insight regarding the effects of short physical activity breaks on these behaviors. Indeed, systematic observations of student behavior have been used as an alternative means of measuring academic performance ( Mahar et al., 2006 ; Grieco et al., 2009 ).

After the development of classroom-based physical activities, called Energizers, teachers were trained in how to implement such activities in their lessons at least twice per week ( Mahar et al., 2006 ). Measurements of baseline physical activity and on-task behaviors were collected in two 3rd-grade and two 4th-grade classes, using pedometers and direct observation. The intervention included 243 students, while 108 served as controls by not engaging in the activities. A subgroup of 62 3rd and 4th graders was observed for on-task behavior in the classroom following the physical activity. Children who participated in Energizers took more steps during the school day than those who did not; they also increased their on-task behaviors by more than 20 percent over baseline measures.

A systematic review of a similar in-class, academically oriented, physical activity plan—Take 10!—was conducted to identify the effects of its implementation after it had been in use for 10 years ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ). The findings suggest that children who experienced Take 10! in the classroom engaged in moderate to vigorous physical activity (6.16 to 6.42 METs) and had lower BMIs than those who did not. Further, children in the Take 10! classrooms had better fluid intelligence ( Reed et al., 2010 ) and higher academic achievement scores ( Donnelly et al., 2009 ).

Some have expressed concern that introducing physical activity into the classroom setting may be distracting to students. Yet in one study it was sedentary students who demonstrated a decrease in time on task, while active students returned to the same level of on-task behavior after an active learning task ( Grieco et al., 2009 ). Among the 97 3rd-grade students in this study, a small but nonsignificant increase in on-task behaviors was seen immediately following these active lessons. Additionally, these improvements were not mediated by BMI.

In sum, although presently understudied, physically active lessons may increase time on task and attention to task in the classroom setting. Given the complexity of the typical classroom, the strategy of including content-specific lessons that incorporate physical activity may be justified.

It is recommended that every child have 20 minutes of recess each day and that this time be outdoors whenever possible, in a safe activity ( NASPE, 2006 ). Consistent engagement in recess can help students refine social skills, learn social mediation skills surrounding fair play, obtain additional minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity that contribute toward the recommend 60 minutes or more per day, and have an opportunity to express their imagination through free play ( Pellegrini and Bohn, 2005 ; see also Chapter 6 ). When children participate in recess before lunch, additional benefits accrue, such as less food waste, increased incidence of appropriate behavior in the cafeteria during lunch, and greater student readiness to learn upon returning to the classroom after lunch ( Getlinger et al., 1996 ; Wechsler et al., 2001 ).

To examine the effects of engagement in physical activity during recess on classroom behavior, Barros and colleagues (2009) examined data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study on 10,000 8- to 9-year-old children. Teachers provided the number of minutes of recess as well as a ranking of classroom behavior (ranging from “misbehaves frequently” to “behaves exceptionally well”). Results indicate that children who had at least 15 minutes of recess were more likely to exhibit appropriate behavior in the classroom ( Barros et al., 2009 ). In another study, 43 4th-grade students were randomly assigned to 1 or no days of recess to examine the effects on classroom behavior ( Jarrett et al., 1998 ). The researchers concluded that on-task behavior was better among the children who had recess. A moderate effect size (= 0.51) was observed. In a series of studies examining kindergartners' attention to task following a 20-minute recess, increased time on task was observed during learning centers and story reading ( Pellegrini et al., 1995 ). Despite these positive findings centered on improved attention, it is important to note that few of these studies actually measured the intensity of the physical activity during recess.

From a slightly different perspective, survey data from 547 Virginia elementary school principals suggest that time dedicated to student participation in physical education, art, and music did not negatively influence academic performance ( Wilkins et al., 2003 ). Thus, the strategy of reducing time spent in physical education to increase academic performance may not have the desired effect. The evidence on in-school physical activity supports the provision of physical activity breaks during the school day as a way to increase fluid intelligence, time on task, and attention. However, it remains unclear what portion of these effects can be attributed to a break from academic time and what portion is a direct result of the specific demands/characteristics of the physical activity.

• THE DEVELOPING bRAIN, PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, AND BRAIN HEALTH

The study of brain health has grown beyond simply measuring behavioral outcomes such as task performance and reaction time (e.g., cognitive processing speed). New technology has emerged that has allowed scientists to understand the impact of lifestyle factors on the brain from the body systems level down to the molecular level. A greater understanding of the cognitive components that subserve academic performance and may be amenable to intervention has thereby been gained. Research conducted in both laboratory and field settings has helped define this line of inquiry and identify some preliminary underlying mechanisms.

The Evidence Base on the Relationship of Physical Activity to Brain Health and Cognition in Older Adults

Despite the current focus on the relationship of physical activity to cognitive development, the evidence base is larger on the association of physical activity with brain health and cognition during aging. Much can be learned about how physical activity affects childhood cognition and scholastic achievement through this work. Despite earlier investigations into the relationship of physical activity to cognitive aging (see Etnier et al., 1997 , for a review), the field was shaped by the findings of Kramer and colleagues (1999) , who examined the effects of aerobic fitness training on older adults using a randomized controlled design. Specifically, 124 older adults aged 60 and 75 were randomly assigned to a 6-month intervention of either walking (i.e., aerobic training) or flexibility (i.e., nonaerobic) training. The walking group but not the flexibility group showed improved cognitive performance, measured as a shorter response time to the presented stimulus. Results from a series of tasks that tapped different aspects of cognitive control indicated that engagement in physical activity is a beneficial means of combating cognitive aging ( Kramer et al., 1999 ).

Cognitive control, or executive control, is involved in the selection, scheduling, and coordination of computational processes underlying perception, memory, and goal-directed action. These processes allow for the optimization of behavioral interactions within the environment through flexible modulation of the ability to control attention ( MacDonald et al., 2000 ; Botvinick et al., 2001 ). Core cognitive processes that make up cognitive control or executive control include inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility ( Diamond, 2006 ), processes mediated by networks that involve the prefrontal cortex. Inhibition (or inhibitory control) refers to the ability to override a strong internal or external pull so as to act appropriately within the demands imposed by the environment ( Davidson et al., 2006 ). For example, one exerts inhibitory control when one stops speaking when the teacher begins lecturing. Working memory refers to the ability to represent information mentally, manipulate stored information, and act on the information ( Davidson et al., 2006 ). In solving a difficult mathematical problem, for example, one must often remember the remainder. Finally, cognitive flexibility refers to the ability to switch perspectives, focus attention, and adapt behavior quickly and flexibly for the purposes of goal-directed action ( Blair et al., 2005 ; Davidson et al., 2006 ; Diamond, 2006 ). For example, one must shift attention from the teacher who is teaching a lesson to one's notes to write down information for later study.

Based on their earlier findings on changes in cognitive control induced by aerobic training, Colcombe and Kramer (2003) conducted a meta-analysis to examine the relationship between aerobic training and cognition in older adults aged 55-80 using data from 18 randomized controlled exercise interventions. Their findings suggest that aerobic training is associated with general cognitive benefits that are selectively and disproportionately greater for tasks or task components requiring greater amounts of cognitive control. A second and more recent meta-analysis ( Smith et al., 2010 ) corroborates the findings of Colcombe and Kramer, indicating that aerobic exercise is related to attention, processing speed, memory, and cognitive control; however, it should be noted that smaller effect sizes were observed, likely a result of the studies included in the respective meta-analyses. In older adults, then, aerobic training selectively improves cognition.

Hillman and colleagues (2006) examined the relationship between physical activity and inhibition (one aspect of cognitive control) using a computer-based stimulus-response protocol in 241 individuals aged 15-71. Their results indicate that greater amounts of physical activity are related to decreased response speed across task conditions requiring variable amounts of inhibition, suggesting a generalized relationship between physical activity and response speed. In addition, the authors found physical activity to be related to better accuracy across conditions in older adults, while no such relationship was observed for younger adults. Of interest, this relationship was disproportionately larger for the condition requiring greater amounts of inhibition in the older adults, suggesting that physical activity has both a general and selective association with task performance ( Hillman et al., 2006 ).

With advances in neuroimaging techniques, understanding of the effects of physical activity and aerobic fitness on brain structure and function has advanced rapidly over the past decade. In particular, a series of studies ( Colcombe et al., 2003 , 2004 , 2006 ; Kramer and Erickson, 2007 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ) of older individuals has been conducted to elucidate the relation of aerobic fitness to the brain and cognition. Normal aging results in the loss of brain tissue ( Colcombe et al., 2003 ), with markedly larger loss evidenced in the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions ( Raz, 2000 ). Thus cognitive functions subserved by these brain regions (such as those involved in cognitive control and aspects of memory) are expected to decay more dramatically than other aspects of cognition.

Colcombe and colleagues (2003) investigated the relationship of aerobic fitness to gray and white matter tissue loss using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in 55 healthy older adults aged 55-79. They observed robust age-related decreases in tissue density in the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions using voxel-based morphometry, a technique used to assess brain volume. Reductions in the amount of tissue loss in these regions were observed as a function of fitness. Given that the brain structures most affected by aging also demonstrated the greatest fitness-related sparing, these initial findings provide a biological basis for fitness-related benefits to brain health during aging.

In a second study, Colcombe and colleagues (2006) examined the effects of aerobic fitness training on brain structure using a randomized controlled design with 59 sedentary healthy adults aged 60-79. The treatment group received a 6-month aerobic exercise (i.e., walking) intervention, while the control group received a stretching and toning intervention that did not include aerobic exercise. Results indicated that gray and white matter brain volume increased for those who received the aerobic fitness training intervention. No such results were observed for those assigned to the stretching and toning group. Specifically, those assigned to the aerobic training intervention demonstrated increased gray matter in the frontal lobes, including the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, the supplementary motor area, the middle frontal gyrus, the dorsolateral region of the right inferior frontal gyrus, and the left superior temporal lobe. White matter volume changes also were evidenced following the aerobic fitness intervention, with increases in white matter tracts being observed within the anterior third of the corpus callosum. These brain regions are important for cognition, as they have been implicated in the cognitive control of attention and memory processes. These findings suggest that aerobic training not only spares age-related loss of brain structures but also may in fact enhance the structural health of specific brain regions.

In addition to the structural changes noted above, research has investigated the relationship between aerobic fitness and changes in brain function. That is, aerobic fitness training has also been observed to induce changes in patterns of functional activation. Functional MRI (fMRI) measures, which make it possible to image activity in the brain while an individual is performing a cognitive task, have revealed that aerobic training induces changes in patterns of functional activation. This approach involves inferring changes in neuronal activity from alteration in blood flow or metabolic activity in the brain. In a seminal paper, Colcombe and colleagues (2004) examined the relationship of aerobic fitness to brain function and cognition across two studies with older adults. In the first study, 41 older adult participants (mean age ~66) were divided into higher- and lower-fit groups based on their performance on a maximal exercise test. In the second study, 29 participants (aged 58-77) were recruited and randomly assigned to either a fitness training (i.e., walking) or control (i.e., stretching and toning) intervention. In both studies, participants were given a task requiring variable amounts of attention and inhibition. Results indicated that fitness (study 1) and fitness training (study 2) were related to greater activation in the middle frontal gyrus and superior parietal cortex; these regions of the brain are involved in attentional control and inhibitory functioning, processes entailed in the regulation of attention and action. These changes in neural activation were related to significant improvements in performance on the cognitive control task of attention and inhibition.

Taken together, the findings across studies suggest that an increase in aerobic fitness, derived from physical activity, is related to improvements in the integrity of brain structure and function and may underlie improvements in cognition across tasks requiring cognitive control. Although developmental differences exist, the general paradigm of this research can be applied to early stages of the life span, and some early attempts to do so have been made, as described below. Given the focus of this chapter on childhood cognition, it should be noted that this section has provided only a brief and arguably narrow look at the research on physical activity and cognitive aging. Considerable work has detailed the relationship of physical activity to other aspects of adult cognition using behavioral and neuroimaging tools (e.g., Boecker, 2011 ). The interested reader is referred to a number of review papers and meta-analyses describing the relationship of physical activity to various aspects of cognitive and brain health ( Etnier et al., 1997 ; Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ; Tomporowski, 2003 ; Thomas et al., 2012 ).

Child Development, Brain Structure, and Function

Certain aspects of development have been linked with experience, indicating an intricate interplay between genetic programming and environmental influences. Gray matter, and the organization of synaptic connections in particular, appears to be at least partially dependent on experience (NRC/IOM, 2000; Taylor, 2006 ), with the brain exhibiting a remarkable ability to reorganize itself in response to input from sensory systems, other cortical systems, or insult ( Huttenlocher and Dabholkar, 1997 ). During typical development, experience shapes the pruning process through the strengthening of neural networks that support relevant thoughts and actions and the elimination of unnecessary or redundant connections. Accordingly, the brain responds to experience in an adaptive or “plastic” manner, resulting in the efficient and effective adoption of thoughts, skills, and actions relevant to one's interactions within one's environmental surroundings. Examples of neural plasticity in response to unique environmental interaction have been demonstrated in human neuroimaging studies of participation in music ( Elbert et al., 1995 ; Chan et al., 1998 ; Münte et al., 2001 ) and sports ( Hatfield and Hillman, 2001 ; Aglioti et al., 2008 ), thus supporting the educational practice of providing music education and opportunities for physical activity to children.

Effects of Regular Engagement in Physical Activity and Physical Fitness on Brain Structure

Recent advances in neuroimaging techniques have rapidly advanced understanding of the role physical activity and aerobic fitness may have in brain structure. In children a growing body of correlational research suggests differential brain structure related to aerobic fitness. Chaddock and colleagues (2010a , b ) showed a relationship among aerobic fitness, brain volume, and aspects of cognition and memory. Specifically, Chaddock and colleagues (2010a) assigned 9- to 10-year-old preadolescent children to lower- and higher-fitness groups as a function of their scores on a maximal oxygen uptake (VO 2 max) test, which is considered the gold-standard measure of aerobic fitness. They observed larger bilateral hippocampal volume in higher-fit children using MRI, as well as better performance on a task of relational memory. It is important to note that relational memory has been shown to be mediated by the hippocampus ( Cohen and Eichenbaum, 1993 ; Cohen et al., 1999 ). Further, no differences emerged for a task condition requiring item memory, which is supported by structures outside the hippocampus, suggesting selectivity among the aspects of memory that benefit from higher amounts of fitness. Lastly, hippocampal volume was positively related to performance on the relational memory task but not the item memory task, and bilateral hippocampal volume was observed to mediate the relationship between fitness and relational memory ( Chaddock et al., 2010a ). Such findings are consistent with behavioral measures of relational memory in children ( Chaddock et al., 2011 ) and neuroimaging findings in older adults ( Erickson et al., 2009 , 2011 ) and support the robust nonhuman animal literature demonstrating the effects of exercise on cell proliferation ( Van Praag et al., 1999 ) and survival ( Neeper et al., 1995 ) in the hippocampus.

In a second investigation ( Chaddock et al., 2010b ), higher- and lower-fit children (aged 9-10) underwent an MRI to determine whether structural differences might be found that relate to performance on a cognitive control task that taps attention and inhibition. The authors observed differential findings in the basal ganglia, a subcortical structure involved in the interplay of cognition and willed action. Specifically, higher-fit children exhibited greater volume in the dorsal striatum (i.e., caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus) relative to lower-fit children, while no differences were observed in the ventral striatum. Such findings are not surprising given the role of the dorsal striatum in cognitive control and response resolution ( Casey et al., 2008 ; Aron et al., 2009 ), as well as the growing body of research in children and adults indicating that higher levels of fitness are associated with better control of attention, memory, and cognition ( Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ; Chang and Etnier, 2009 ). Chaddock and colleagues (2010b) further observed that higher-fit children exhibited increased inhibitory control and response resolution and that higher basal ganglia volume was related to better task performance. These findings indicate that the dorsal striatum is involved in these aspects of higher-order cognition and that fitness may influence cognitive control during preadolescent development. It should be noted that both studies described above were correlational in nature, leaving open the possibility that other factors related to fitness and/or the maturation of subcortical structures may account for the observed group differences.

Effects of Regular Engagement in Physical Activity and Physical Fitness on Brain Function

Other research has attempted to characterize fitness-related differences in brain function using fMRI and event-related brain potentials (ERPs), which are neuroelectric indices of functional brain activation in the electro-encephalographic time series. To date, few randomized controlled interventions have been conducted. Notably, Davis and colleagues (2011) conducted one such intervention lasting approximately 14 weeks that randomized 20 sedentary overweight preadolescent children into an after-school physical activity intervention or a nonactivity control group. The fMRI data collected during an antisaccade task, which requires inhibitory control, indicated increased bilateral activation of the prefrontal cortex and decreased bilateral activation of the posterior parietal cortex following the physical activity intervention relative to the control group. Such findings illustrate some of the neural substrates influenced by participation in physical activity. Two additional correlational studies ( Voss et al., 2011 ; Chaddock et al., 2012 ) compared higher- and lower-fit preadolescent children and found differential brain activation and superior task performance as a function of fitness. That is, Chaddock and colleagues (2012) observed increased activation in prefrontal and parietal brain regions during early task blocks and decreased activation during later task blocks in higher-fit relative to lower-fit children. Given that higher-fit children outperformed lower-fit children on the aspects of the task requiring the greatest amount of cognitive control, the authors reason that the higher-fit children were more capable of adapting neural activity to meet the demands imposed by tasks that tapped higher-order cognitive processes such as inhibition and goal maintenance. Voss and colleagues (2011) used a similar task to vary cognitive control requirements and found that higher-fit children outperformed their lower-fit counterparts and that such differences became more pronounced during task conditions requiring the upregulation of control. Further, several differences emerged across various brain regions that together make up the network associated with cognitive control. Collectively, these differences suggest that higher-fit children are more efficient in the allocation of resources in support of cognitive control operations.

Other imaging research has examined the neuroelectric system (i.e., ERPs) to investigate which cognitive processes occurring between stimulus engagement and response execution are influenced by fitness. Several studies ( Hillman et al., 2005 , 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ) have examined the P3 component of the stimulus-locked ERP and demonstrated that higher-fit children have larger-amplitude and shorter-latency ERPs relative to their lower-fit peers. Classical theory suggests that P3 relates to neuronal activity associated with revision of the mental representation of the previous event within the stimulus environment ( Donchin, 1981 ). P3 amplitude reflects the allocation of attentional resources when working memory is updated ( Donchin and Coles, 1988 ) such that P3 is sensitive to the amount of attentional resources allocated to a stimulus ( Polich, 1997 ; Polich and Heine, 2007 ). P3 latency generally is considered to represent stimulus evaluation and classification speed ( Kutas et al., 1977 ; Duncan-Johnson, 1981 ) and thus may be considered a measure of stimulus detection and evaluation time ( Magliero et al., 1984 ; Ila and Polich, 1999 ). Therefore the above findings suggest that higher-fit children allocate greater attentional resources and have faster cognitive processing speed relative to lower-fit children ( Hillman et al., 2005 , 2009 ), with additional research suggesting that higher-fit children also exhibit greater flexibility in the allocation of attentional resources, as indexed by greater modulation of P3 amplitude across tasks that vary in the amount of cognitive control required ( Pontifex et al., 2011 ). Given that higher-fit children also demonstrate better performance on cognitive control tasks, the P3 component appears to reflect the effectiveness of a subset of cognitive systems that support willed action ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ).

Two ERP studies ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ) have focused on aspects of cognition involved in action monitoring. That is, the error-related negativity (ERN) component was investigated in higher- and lower-fit children to determine whether differences in evaluation and regulation of cognitive control operations were influenced by fitness level. The ERN component is observed in response-locked ERP averages. It is often elicited by errors of commission during task performance and is believed to represent either the detection of errors during task performance ( Gehring et al., 1993 ; Holroyd and Coles, 2002 ) or more generally the detection of response conflict ( Botvinick et al., 2001 ; Yeung et al., 2004 ), which may be engendered by errors in response production. Several studies have reported that higher-fit children exhibit smaller ERN amplitude during rapid-response tasks (i.e., instructions emphasizing speed of responding; Hillman et al., 2009 ) and more flexibility in the allocation of these resources during tasks entailing variable cognitive control demands, as evidenced by changes in ERN amplitude for higher-fit children and no modulation of ERN in lower-fit children ( Pontifex et al., 2011 ). Collectively, this pattern of results suggests that children with lower levels of fitness allocate fewer attentional resources during stimulus engagement (P3 amplitude) and exhibit slower cognitive processing speed (P3 latency) but increased activation of neural resources involved in the monitoring of their actions (ERN amplitude). Alternatively, higher-fit children allocate greater resources to environmental stimuli and demonstrate less reliance on action monitoring (increasing resource allocation only to meet the demands of the task). Under more demanding task conditions, the strategy of lower-fit children appears to fail since they perform more poorly under conditions requiring the upregulation of cognitive control.

Finally, only one randomized controlled trial published to date has used ERPs to assess neurocognitive function in children. Kamijo and colleagues (2011) studied performance on a working memory task before and after a 9-month physical activity intervention compared with a wait-list control group. They observed better performance following the physical activity intervention during task conditions that required the upregulation of working memory relative to the task condition requiring lesser amounts of working memory. Further, increased activation of the contingent negative variation (CNV), an ERP component reflecting cognitive and motor preparation, was observed at posttest over frontal scalp sites in the physical activity intervention group. No differences in performance or brain activation were noted for the wait-list control group. These findings suggest an increase in cognitive preparation processes in support of a more effective working memory network resulting from prolonged participation in physical activity. For children in a school setting, regular participation in physical activity as part of an after-school program is particularly beneficial for tasks that require the use of working memory.

Adiposity and Risk for Metabolic Syndrome as It Relates to Cognitive Health

A related and emerging literature that has recently been popularized investigates the relationship of adiposity to cognitive and brain health and academic performance. Several reports ( Datar et al., 2004 ; Datar and Sturm, 2006 ; Judge and Jahns, 2007 ; Gable et al., 2012 ) on this relationship are based on large-scale datasets derived from the Early Child Longitudinal Study. Further, nonhuman animal research has been used to elucidate the relationships between health indices and cognitive and brain health (see Figure 4-4 for an overview of these relationships). Collectively, these studies observed poorer future academic performance among children who entered school overweight or moved from a healthy weight to overweight during the course of development. Corroborating evidence for a negative relationship between adiposity and academic performance may be found in smaller but more tightly controlled studies. As noted above, Castelli and colleagues (2007) observed poorer performance on the mathematics and reading portions of the Illinois Standardized Achievement Test in 3rd- and 5th-grade students as a function of higher BMI, and Donnelly and colleagues (2009) used a cluster randomized trial to demonstrate that physical activity in the classroom decreased BMI and improved academic achievement among pre-adolescent children.

Relationships between health indices and cognitive and brain health. NOTE: AD = Alzheimer's disease; PD = Parkinson's disease. SOURCE: Cotman et al., 2007. Reprinted with permission.

Recently published reports describe the relationship between adiposity and cognitive and brain health to advance understanding of the basic cognitive processes and neural substrates that may underlie the adiposity-achievement relationship. Bolstered by findings in adult populations (e.g., Debette et al., 2010 ; Raji et al., 2010 ; Carnell et al., 2011 ), researchers have begun to publish data on preadolescent populations indicating differences in brain function and cognitive performance related to adiposity (however, see Gunstad et al., 2008 , for an instance in which adiposity was unrelated to cognitive outcomes). Specifically, Kamijo and colleagues (2012a) examined the relationship of weight status to cognitive control and academic achievement in 126 children aged 7-9. The children completed a battery of cognitive control tasks, and their body composition was assessed using dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). The authors found that higher BMI and greater amounts of fat mass (particularly in the midsection) were related to poorer performance on cognitive control tasks involving inhibition, as well as lower academic achievement. In follow-up studies, Kamijo and colleagues (2012b) investigated whether neural markers of the relationship between adiposity and cognition may be found through examination of ERP data. These studies compared healthy-weight and obese children and found a differential distribution of the P3 potential (i.e., less frontally distributed) and larger N2 amplitude, as well as smaller ERN magnitude, in obese children during task conditions that required greater amounts of inhibitory control ( Kamijo et al., 2012c ). Taken together, the above results suggest that obesity is associated with less effective neural processes during stimulus capture and response execution. As a result, obese children perform tasks more slowly ( Kamijo et al., 2012a ) and are less accurate ( Kamijo et al., 2012b , c ) in response to tasks requiring variable amounts of cognitive control. Although these data are correlational, they provide a basis for further study using other neuroimaging tools (e.g., MRI, fMRI), as well as a rationale for the design and implementation of randomized controlled studies that would allow for causal interpretation of the relationship of adiposity to cognitive and brain health. The next decade should provide a great deal of information on this relationship.

• LIMITATIONS

Despite the promising findings described in this chapter, it should be noted that the study of the relationship of childhood physical activity, aerobic fitness, and adiposity to cognitive and brain health and academic performance is in its early stages. Accordingly, most studies have used designs that afford correlation rather than causation. To date, in fact, only two randomized controlled trials ( Davis et al., 2011 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 ) on this relationship have been published. However, several others are currently ongoing, and it was necessary to provide evidence through correlational studies before investing the effort, time, and funding required for more demanding causal studies. Given that the evidence base in this area has grown exponentially in the past 10 years through correlational studies and that causal evidence has accumulated through adult and nonhuman animal studies, the next step will be to increase the amount of causal evidence available on school-age children.

Accomplishing this will require further consideration of demographic factors that may moderate the physical activity–cognition relationship. For instance, socioeconomic status has a unique relationship with physical activity ( Estabrooks et al., 2003 ) and cognitive control ( Mezzacappa, 2004 ). Although many studies have attempted to control for socioeconomic status (see Hillman et al., 2009 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 , 2012a , b , c ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ), further inquiry into its relationship with physical activity, adiposity, and cognition is warranted to determine whether it may serve as a potential mediator or moderator for the observed relationships. A second demographic factor that warrants further consideration is gender. Most authors have failed to describe gender differences when reporting on the physical activity–cognition literature. However, studies of adiposity and cognition have suggested that such a relationship may exist (see Datar and Sturm, 2006 ). Additionally, further consideration of age is warranted. Most studies have examined a relatively narrow age range, consisting of a few years. Such an approach often is necessary because of maturation and the need to develop comprehensive assessment tools that suit the various stages of development. However, this approach has yielded little understanding of how the physical activity–cognition relationship may change throughout the course of maturation.

Finally, although a number of studies have described the relationship of physical activity, fitness, and adiposity to standardized measures of academic performance, few attempts have been made to observe the relationship within the context of the educational environment. Standardized tests, although necessary to gauge knowledge, may not be the most sensitive measures for (the process of) learning. Future research will need to do a better job of translating promising laboratory findings to the real world to determine the value of this relationship in ecologically valid settings.

From an authentic and practical to a mechanistic perspective, physically active and aerobically fit children consistently outperform their inactive and unfit peers academically on both a short- and a long-term basis. Time spent engaged in physical activity is related not only to a healthier body but also to enriched cognitive development and lifelong brain health. Collectively, the findings across the body of literature in this area suggest that increases in aerobic fitness, derived from physical activity, are related to improvements in the integrity of brain structure and function that underlie academic performance. The strongest relationships have been found between aerobic fitness and performance in mathematics, reading, and English. For children in a school setting, regular participation in physical activity is particularly beneficial with respect to tasks that require working memory and problem solving. These findings are corroborated by the results of both authentic correlational studies and experimental randomized controlled trials. Overall, the benefits of additional time dedicated to physical education and other physical activity opportunities before, during, and after school outweigh the benefits of exclusive utilization of school time for academic learning, as physical activity opportunities offered across the curriculum do not inhibit academic performance.

Both habitual and single bouts of physical activity contribute to enhanced academic performance. Findings indicate a robust relationship of acute exercise to increased attention, with evidence emerging for a relationship between participation in physical activity and disciplinary behaviors, time on task, and academic performance. Specifically, higher-fit children allocate greater resources to a given task and demonstrate less reliance on environmental cues or teacher prompting.

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• Cite this Page Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment; Food and Nutrition Board; Institute of Medicine; Kohl HW III, Cook HD, editors. Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2013 Oct 30. 4, Physical Activity, Fitness, and Physical Education: Effects on Academic Performance.
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Nih research matters.

May 14, 2024

Understanding how exercise affects the body

At a glance.

• A study of endurance training in rats found molecular changes throughout the body that could help explain the beneficial effects of exercise on health.
• Large differences were seen between male and female rats, highlighting the need to include both women and men in exercise studies.

Exercise is one of the most beneficial activities that people can engage in. Regular exercise reduces the risk of heart disease, diabetes, cancer, and other health problems. It can even help people with many mental health conditions feel better.

But exactly how exercise exerts its positive effects hasn’t been well understood. And different people’s bodies can respond very differently to certain types of exercise, such as aerobic exercise or strength training.

Understanding how exercise impacts different organs at the molecular level could help health care providers better personalize exercise recommendations. It might also lead to drug therapies that could stimulate some of the beneficial effects of a workout for people who are physically unable to exercise.

To this end, researchers in the large, NIH-funded Molecular Transducers of Physical Activity Consortium (MoTrPAC) have been studying how endurance exercise and strength training affect both people and animals. The team is examining gene activity, protein alterations, immune cell function, metabolite levels, and numerous other measures of cell and tissue function. The first results, from rat studies of endurance exercise, were published on May 2, 2024, in Nature and several related journals.

Both male and female rats underwent progressive exercise training on a treadmill over an 8-week period. By the end of training, male rats had increased their aerobic capacity by 18%, and females by 16%. Tissue samples were collected from 18 different organs, plus the blood, during the training period and two days after the final bout of exercise. This let the researchers study the longer-term adaptations of the body to exercise.

Changes in gene activity, immune cell function, metabolism, and other cellular processes were seen in all the tissues studied, including those not previously known to be affected by exercise. The types of changes differed from tissue to tissue.

Many of the observed changes hinted at how exercise might protect certain organs against disease. For example, in the small intestines, exercise decreased the activity of certain genes associated with inflammatory bowel disease and reduced signs of inflammation in the gut. In the liver, exercise boosted molecular changes associated with improved tissue health and regeneration.

Some of the effects differed substantially between male and female rats. For example, in male rats, the eight weeks of endurance training reduced the amount of a type of body fat called subcutaneous white adipose tissue (scWAT). The same amount of exercise didn’t reduce the amount of scWAT in female rats. Instead, endurance exercise caused scWAT in female rats to alter its energy usage in ways that are beneficial to health. These and other results highlight the importance of including both women and men in exercise studies.

The researchers also compared gene activity changes in the rat studies with those from human samples taken from previous studies and found substantial overlap. They identified thousands of genes tied to human disease that were affected by endurance exercise. These analyses show how the MoTrPAC results from rats can be used to help guide future research in people.

“This is the first whole-organism map looking at the effects of training in multiple different organs,” says Dr. Steve Carr, a MoTrPAC investigator from the Broad Institute. “The resource produced will be enormously valuable, and has already produced many potentially novel biological insights for further exploration.”

Human trials are expected in the next few years. Information on participating can be found here .

—by Sharon Reynolds

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• Molecular Transducers of Physical Activity Consortium (MoTrPAC)
• Participating in MoTrPAC

References:  Temporal dynamics of the multi-omic response to endurance exercise training. MoTrPAC Study Group; Lead Analysts; MoTrPAC Study Group. Nature . 2024 May;629(8010):174-183. doi: 10.1038/s41586-023-06877-w. Epub 2024 May 1. PMID: 38693412. Sexual dimorphism and the multi-omic response to exercise training in rat subcutaneous white adipose tissue. Many GM, Sanford JA, Sagendorf TJ, Hou Z, Nigro P, Whytock KL, Amar D, Caputo T, Gay NR, Gaul DA, Hirshman MF, Jimenez-Morales D, Lindholm ME, Muehlbauer MJ, Vamvini M, Bergman BC, Fernández FM, Goodyear LJ, Hevener AL, Ortlund EA, Sparks LM, Xia A, Adkins JN, Bodine SC, Newgard CB, Schenk S; MoTrPAC Study Group. Nat Metab . 2024 May 1. doi: 10.1038/s42255-023-00959-9. Online ahead of print. PMID: 38693320. The impact of exercise on gene regulation in association with complex trait genetics. Vetr NG, Gay NR; MoTrPAC Study Group; Montgomery SB. Nat Commun . 2024 May 1;15(1):3346. doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-45966-w. PMID: 38693125.

Funding:  NIH’s Office of the Director (OD), National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS), National Institute on Aging (NIA), National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), and National Library of Medicine (NLM); Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation; National Science Foundation (NSF).

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• Weight loss

Exercise for weight loss: Calories burned in 1 hour

Being active can help you lose weight and keep it off. Find out how much you need.

Being active is vital to losing weight and keeping it off. When active, the body uses more energy in the form of calories. And burning more calories than you take in leads to weight loss.

To lose weight, most people need to cut the number of calories they eat and move more. This is according to the 2020-2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. Most often, that means cutting daily calories by 500 to 750 to lose 1 1/2 pounds (0.7 kilograms) a week.

Other factors might be involved in losing weight. Because of changes to the body over time, you might need to cut calories more as you age to keep losing weight or to stay at the same weight.

Diet or exercise: Does one matter more?

Both are important. Diet affects weight loss more than physical activity does. Physical activity, including exercise, has a stronger effect in keeping weight from coming back after weight loss.

Losing weight with diet alone and without physical activity can make people weaker. This is because of age-related losses in bone density and muscle mass. Adding resistance training and aerobic exercise to a weight-loss program helps prevent the loss of bone and muscle.

These are the exercise guidelines for most healthy adults from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services:

Aerobic activity. Get at least 150 minutes of moderate aerobic activity a week. Or get 75 minutes of vigorous aerobic activity a week. You also can get an equal mix of the two types.

Aim to exercise most days of the week. For even more health benefits, strive for 300 minutes a week or more of moderate aerobic activity or 150 minutes of vigorous activity. Exercising this much may help with weight loss or keeping off lost weight. But even small amounts of physical activity can be helpful. Being active for short periods of time during the day can add up and give you great health benefits.

• Strength training. Do strength training exercises for all major muscle groups at least two times a week. One set of each exercise is enough for health and fitness benefits. Use a weight or resistance level heavy enough to tire your muscles after about 12 to 15 repetitions.

Moderate aerobic exercise includes activities such as brisk walking, biking, swimming and mowing the lawn.

Vigorous aerobic exercise includes activities such as running, swimming hard laps, heavy yardwork and aerobic dancing.

Strength training can include use of weights or weight machines, your own body weight, resistance tubing, or activities such as rock climbing.

How much am I burning?

This list shows about how many calories are burned while doing certain exercises for one hour. This is based on a person who weighs 160 pounds (73 kilograms). The calories you burn depend on the exercise you do, how hard you do it, how much you weigh and other factors.

Based on Ainsworth BE, et al. 2011 compendium of physical activities: A second update of codes and MET values. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 2011;43:1575.

Remember, to lose weight or to keep weight from creeping up on you as you age, you need to eat less and move more. Moving more means adding more physical activity into your life.

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• Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans. 2nd ed. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://health.gov/paguidelines/second-edition. Accessed March 13, 2024.
• Physical activity for a healthy weight. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/healthyweight/physical_activity/index.html. Accessed March 13, 2024.
• Ainsworth BE, et al. 2011 compendium of physical activities: A second update of codes and MET values. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 2011;43:1575.
• 2020-2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture. https://www.dietaryguidelines.gov. Accessed March 13, 2024.
• Perreault L, et al. Obesity in adults: Role of physical activity and exercise. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/search. Accessed March 13, 2024.
• AskMayoExpert. Physical activity (adult). Mayo Clinic; 2022.

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The Importance of Exercise Variety for Seniors 

05.14.2024 | 3 min read

What does it mean to have variety in exercise? 

Endurance training.

• Brisk walking, jogging, and running 
• Tennis or pickleball 

Strength Training

• Carrying groceries or soil and plants for yardwork 
• Gripping a tennis ball or stress ball 
• Push-ups or wall push-ups 
• Pull-ups or modified pull-ups 

Balance Training

• Standing on one foot and alternating 
• Standing up from being seated 
• Tai Chi, Yoga, or other balance-based workouts 

Flexibility Training and Stretching

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How Mental and Brain Fitness Are One in the Same – Doctor Explains

T he relationship between the body and the mind has been contemplated by poets, philosophers, and physicians throughout time. Keeping both the body and mind in excellent form helps strengthen their connection, but is one more essential than the other? 

The Importance of Mental Fitness and Brain Health

As a neuroscience expert who has spent a significant part of my career exploring the wonders of the human brain, I can confidently say that our mental fitness is just as important as physical fitness. In fact, I dare say they’re two sides of the same coin – each indispensable and intimately linked to the other.

Imagine for a moment a sleek, state-of-the-art sports car. It’s polished, fast, and built with exceptional craftsmanship. Now imagine, if you will, that this car is not maintained properly internally. Despite its impressive design, it will falter and underperform. It may still run, but not at the peak performance it was designed to achieve.

The brain is like the engine of that sports car, and mental fitness keeps its systems running smoothly. Even if our bodies are the epitome of physical health, subpar brain health can prevent us from truly thriving. So, why is brain fitness just as important as physical fitness? Let’s delve into the science.

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The Benefits of Mental Exercise and a Fit Mind

First, mental fitness is central to cognitive function. It impacts everything from memory and attention to problem-solving and decision-making. These are not abstract skills reserved for academic scholars, they are instrumental in navigating everyday life.

When your brain fitness is optimized, cognitive processes are sharper, more efficient, and more effective. Moreover, brain fitness can help ward off cognitive decline as we age.

Mental fitness also plays a crucial role in our emotional state. It has been found to boost resilience, enhance mood, and reduce symptoms of depression and anxiety. These mental health benefits are essential to our overall well-being, just as physical fitness is. Mental and physical health are so interwoven that neglecting one can negatively affect the other.

How Do We Achieve Optimum Brain Fitness?

Just as regular physical exercise can prevent or delay the onset of physical ailments, mental workouts can improve brain fitness.

Neuroplasticity, the brain’s remarkable ability to adapt and change throughout life, is strengthened by mental exercises. Regular mental stimulation can help foster this plasticity, promoting a healthier brain as we age.

Exercise the Brain Daily

Just as we hit the gym to maintain physical health, we must exercise our brains to maintain mental health. That can be as simple as learning a new language, playing a musical instrument, or engaging in strategic games like chess.

Or try a simple task you do every day, like turning a doorknob, but with your non-dominant hand. These activities stimulate the brain , promoting neural connectivity and cognitive function.

Do you have a favorite brain-stimulating activity? Please share with the community in the comments below.

Mindfulness and Rest Are a Must

Mindfulness and relaxation are also critical aspects of brain fitness. Stress can take a significant toll on brain health, impairing cognitive function and emotional wellbeing.

When the brain is dealing with chronic low-level stress, it’s focused on survival first, so energy is not allocated to accomplishing new tasks. Spending time in nature, meditating, breathing exercises, and practicing mindfulness will help reduce overall stress.

Technologies like BrainTap can also maintain mental fitness by regulating brainwaves and using science-backed methods to help the brain help itself. BrainTap strengthens neural pathways with pulsating music and light that stimulate the brain into specific states.

The pulses trigger the brain to align with the frequency of those stimuli or beats, in effect leveraging the power of neuroplasticity to help the brain relax, refocus, and re-energize. This practice has been around for centuries but has been optimized by BrainTap.

Sleep, Nutrition and Exercise for Mental Fitness

Of course, combining mental and physical fitness is ideal, and they enhance each other. A recent study at McMaster University in Ontario combined brain training with physical exercise and monitored the results. They found that the group of exercisers who improved physical fitness also enhanced their memory and recall.

And the group that incorporated 20 minutes of brain training before or after a workout showed further boosted memory and recall capabilities.

Finally, sleep and nutrition are key to maintaining not just brain functioning, but brain health, balance, and fitness. Quality sleep rejuvenates the brain, enhances memory and learning, and helps regulate mood. Nutrition provides the necessary fuel for optimal brain function.

A diet rich in omega-3 fatty acids , antioxidants, and other brain-healthy nutrients can significantly improve brain fitness. Try to include dark chocolate, blueberries, leafy greens, turmeric, almonds, pumpkin seeds, olive oil, avocado, green tea, walnuts, and fish in your diet. (Or watch this video and learn how to make this brain-supporting lion’s mane mushroom pasta recipe .) Imagine that sports car without proper fuel. Nutrition keeps the cylinders running smoothly.

Optimizing the Brain

The brain is the command center of our entire being, orchestrating our thoughts, actions, and emotions. Its fitness dictates how well we navigate the world, interact with others, and experience life itself. Just as we wouldn’t ignore the inner workings of a sports car, we shouldn’t neglect the health of our brains.

Brain fitness helps keep the brain in optimal shape. It’s not a luxury nor is it an option. It is a vital component of holistic health. As a society, we need to shift our perspective and start treating mental fitness with the same importance as physical fitness. After all, our bodies are only as healthy as our brains.

P.S. Did you know? Organic Authority has its own nutrition and wellness shop to meet your needs and help you take control of your health. Shop clean supplements for energy, sleep, inner beauty for skin support, protein, workouts, pantry items and more. Shop The Organic Authority Shop now.

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Note! The opinions and views expressed by the authors at Organic Authority in blogs and on social media and more, are theirs alone and do not necessarily reflect the views, opinions or position of Organic Authority, Inc and do not necessarily represent the views of Organic Authority sponsors and/or partners. Organic Authority content is for informational and entertainment purposes, and any views expressed should not be accepted as a substitute for qualified expertise. Any highlighted alternative studies are intended to spark conversation and are for information purposes only. We are not here to diagnose or treat any health or medical conditions, nor should this be relied upon as a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis or treatment, even if it features the advice of medical practitioners and physicians. When making any lifestyle or health changes, consult your primary care physician.

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• Physical Activity Basics
• Guidelines and Recommendations
• Add Physical Activity as an Older Adult
• Benefits of Physical Activity
• Overcoming Barriers
• Health Benefits of Physical Activity
• Places to Be Physically Active
• Adding Physical Activity as an Adult
• Making Physical Activity Part of a Child's Life

Physical Activity Benefits for Adults 65 or Older

What to know.

A single session of moderate to vigorous physical activity provides immediate benefits for your health. In addition, regular physical activity helps prevent many chronic diseases.

• Sleep: improves sleep quality.
• Less Anxiety: reduces feelings of anxiety.
• Blood Pressure: reduces blood pressure.
• Brain Health: reduces risks of developing dementia (including Alzheimer's disease) and reduces risk of depression.
• Heart Health: lowers risk of heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes.
• Cancer Prevention: lowers risk of 8 cancers (bladder, breast, colon, endometrium, esophagus, kidney, lung, and stomach).
• Healthy Weight: reduces risk of weight gain.
• Independent Living: helps people live independently longer.
• Bone Strength: improves bone health.
• Balance and Coordination: reduces risks of falls.

Emerging research suggests physical activity may also help boost immune function 1 2 .

Source: Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans, 2nd edition .

• Nieman D, Wentz L. The compelling link between physical activity and the body's defense system. J Sport Health Sci. 2019 May;8(3): 201-17.
• Jones A, Davison G . Exercise, immunity, and illness. Muscle and Exercise Physiology . 2019;317-44.

Regular physical activity is one of the most important things you can do for your health. Learn about the benefits of physical activity and what you can do.