essay about wireless technology

Wireless Technology and Applications

The society has progressively transformed due to the development of various technological applications. In today’s fast-paced digital era, the use of electronic devices is increasing gradually. Technology is the application of technical expertise to improve the efficiency and convenience of achieving tasks that would otherwise be burdensome if executed using conventional means. It has become an essential part of the twenty-first-century civilization because of its expediency in many activities, including communication, transport, security, aviation, surveillance, construction, and entertainment among others. Without technical knowledge, it would be impossible to accomplish various tasks that are vital for human survival in the modern world. Technological advancement has restructured societal norms and values. With the advent of wireless technology, the world is more connected than ever before. Indeed, a person in one continent can execute and complete a business deal abroad using a smartphone. This essay provides insight into wireless technology, its applications, costs and benefits, and impacts on individuals, organizations, and the society as a whole.

Wireless Technology and its History

Wireless technology refers to the transfer of a signal from a device to one or more receivers without any electrical connectivity. The history of wireless technology dates back to the nineteenth century. It is linked to Michael Faraday and James Maxwell who accomplished various developments around electromagnetic induction. Later in 1896, Guglielmo Marconi invented the first wireless device, namely, the telegraph system (Frenzel, 2018). The end of the Second World War between 1946 and 1947 marked a revolution in the development of wireless technology due to the need for transferring information conveniently and faster. In the mid-1946, the public was allowed to use the first commercial mobile radiotelephone. In the following year, the invention of the transistor made it easy to establish a connection between a remote communication device and the computer. A series of inventions in the 1960s led to the advancement of cellular and telecommunication technology. It was not until 1997 when the Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity) was invented (Frenzel, 2018). Today, as Atalah and Seymour (2013) reveal, countless commercial and domestic applications, including smartphones, audio equipment, alarms, televisions, and security systems among others depend on wireless networks for operation.

Uses of Wireless Technology by Individuals and Organizations

The deployment of the wireless technology has resulted in novel ways for both individuals and business institutions to perform their activities. Today, it may be unimaginable to live without a smartphone or any other wireless device. Humans, even in the most remote places, are now intertwined with technology than ever before (Frenzel, 2018). The most renowned use of wireless devices is communication. The current number of mobile devices is close to the total world population (McDonald, 2018). Modern technologies such as automation, video conferencing, and electronic mail among others connect not only devices but also people across the world.

The transfer of data is unlimited. With wireless technology, it is possible to access a wide range of information using Internet-enabled devices, regardless of one’s geographical positioning. It is important to note that the advancement of wireless technology has reshaped the way in which organizations conduct activities. Business communication has improved tremendously. In particular, managers benefit from the effectiveness of wireless gadgets in this new era of digitization. Employees no longer need to worry about upcoming schedules and instructions (Byrne & Corrado, 2017). Multiple online document services and databases pave the way for the creation of interactive platforms where workers can login in to check assigned tasks and job reviews. This convenience improves the accomplishment of business goals and objectives.

Tangible and Intangible Costs and Benefits of Wireless Technology

Wireless technology comes with various tangible and intangible benefits. The chief benefit of adopting wireless technology is cost reduction. While value is a complicated and intangible business element, saving money is important for organizations to accomplish commercial goals (Agrawal & Zeng, 2014). The installation of wireless technology is relatively cheaper than the wired network. As a result, it has increasingly become an important asset for both small firms and advanced corporations. Its intangible advantages include improved customer satisfaction and efficiency in operations. Companies are saving substantial amounts of money after setting up wireless networks in offices since there is no need to run wires throughout buildings.

A recent study by Byrne and Corrado (2017) reveals that about 70 percent of businesses around the globe find it difficult to thrive without wireless technology. In addition, firms stay connected to workers who move to remote locations because they can use portable gadgets that support inventory and sales software. As a result, businesses that have adapted to this novelty have realized tangible benefits, including improved productivity and performance. Consumers can order and pay for products through online platforms, hence saving time and money. Companies also benefit from improved asset utilization, organizational flexibility, and resource control. Wireless technology has also increased job satisfaction amongst workers (Byrne & Corrado, 2017). Managers ensure timely exchange of information with their employees without the need for converging in physical meetings. As another tangible benefit, meteorologists no longer need to go to weather stations to gather data regarding environmental conditions. Automated instruments collect or generate information, which is conveyed through wireless devices. The pace of this innovation is rapidly transforming the business and social environment.

Nevertheless, wireless technology generates a mix of tangible and intangible costs for both individuals and organizations. At the outset, due to the ever-changing technological pace, individuals have to replace older devices with new ones that support the most recent software. For instance, some earlier smartphones are incompatible with up-to-the-minute communication applications (Lee & Lee, 2015). In addition, companies have to purchase new computer systems, related equipment, and software to support the wireless network capabilities. This undertaking increases their operational costs. Intangible costs include the time taken by human resources to comprehend and use the system. Losses can also be incurred where a firm needs to replace its employees (Lee & Lee, 2015). The new workforce may require fresh training in the use of the existing infrastructure, which results in additional expenses.

The Impacts of the Technology on Individuals, Organizations, and the Society

The use of wireless networks has influenced the way in which people conduct their activities. The number of people who own smart devices is still increasing. The study by Lobaccaro, Carlucci, and Löfström (2016) reveals that millions of individuals are exchanging information every second via chat rooms, voice calls, and social platforms. The human society is becoming more interconnected through wireless gadgets such as cell phones and personal computers. The evolution of wireless technology has intensely changed societal processes. Robust strategies have been developed to meet fluctuating demands.

Today, organizations are equipped with the most reliable technologies that support efficient production processes (Cousins & Robey, 2015). Emerging developments in wireless networks are significantly changing business and social spheres even further. One of the greatest impacts of this technology on organizations is the concept of a mobile workforce. It has brought about improved flexibility in firms (Cousins & Robey, 2015). Workers can access relevant documents on their smart devices or computers provided they are within the appropriate signal range. This technology encourages teamwork and the sharing of information among employees.

Furthermore, the integration of wireless technologies into business underpins responsiveness. Customers can get apprehensive when a company’s representative fails to give them proper information about their inquiries (Cousins & Robey, 2015). This situation creates a negative image regarding a particular firm. However, a wireless network ensures that information is readily available and accessible to employees. Swift access to product data allows them to provide quick responses to consumers. Businesses have realized increased productivity due to the ability of workers to share information on a real-time basis. Wireless networks have hastened the marketing process by making business operations faster and convenient.

Wireless technology has rapidly advanced in the last twenty years. Individuals and organizations around the world have accepted this novelty, which has changed their norms and values. With high-speed communication through intricate wireless infrastructure, companies have improved their production processes. Unwired devices have interconnected suppliers and consumers through the Internet. Customers get real-time information about their desired products. This inclination to wireless networks has increased productivity and customer satisfaction. The world can only expect complex technologies due to the current pace of innovation. The Internet of Things (IoT) is a paradigm that is used these days to imply increased connectivity through wireless capabilities. It is regarded as an area of focus in the development of information and communication technology. In this era, devices can communicate with each other and exchange important responses depending on the settings in which they are applied. It has led to the redesigning of organizational workflows, enhanced distribution costs, and the improved monitoring of goods and services.

Agrawal, D. P., & Zeng, Q. A. (2014). Introduction to wireless and mobile systems (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

Atalah, A., & Seymour, A. (2013). The current state of wireless information technology in the construction industry in Ohio. The Journal of Technology Studies , 39 (1/2), 14-27.

Byrne, D., & Corrado, C. (2017). ICT services and their prices: What do they tell us about productivity and technology? International Productivity Monitor , (33), 150-186.

Cousins, K., & Robey, D. (2015). Managing work-life boundaries with mobile technologies: An interpretive study of mobile work practices. Information Technology & People , 28 (1), 34-71.

Frenzel, L. (2018). Wireless technology: The existential necessity of life. Electronic Design, 66 (1), 35-38.

Lee, I., & Lee, K. (2015). The internet of things (IoT): Applications, investments, and challenges for enterprises. Business Horizons , 58 (4), 431-440.

Lobaccaro, G., Carlucci, S., & Löfström, E. (2016). A review of systems and technologies for smart homes and smart grids. Energies , 9 (5), 348.

McDonald, N. (2018). Digital in 2018: World’s internet users pass the 4 billion mark [Blog post]. Web.

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Evolution and Impact of Wi-Fi Technology and Applications: A Historical Perspective

• Published: 19 November 2020
• Volume 28 , pages 3–19, ( 2021 )

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• Kaveh Pahlavan 1 &
• Prashant Krishnamurthy 2  

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The IEEE 802.11 standard for wireless local area networking (WLAN), commercially known as Wi-Fi, has become a necessity in our day-to-day life. Over a billion Wi-Fi access points connect close to hundred billion of IoT devices, smart phones, tablets, laptops, desktops, smart TVs, video cameras, monitors, printers, and other consumer devices to the Internet to enable millions of applications to reach everyone, everywhere. The evolution of Wi-Fi technology also resulted in the first commercial piloting of spread spectrum, high speed optical communications, OFDM, MIMO and mmWave pulse transmission technologies, which then became more broadly adopted by cellular phone and wireless sensor networking industries. The popularity and widespread Wi-Fi deployment in indoor areas further motivated innovation in opportunistic cyberspace applications that exploit the ubiquitous Wi-Fi signals. The RF signal radiated from Wi-Fi access points creates an “RF cloud” accessible to any Wi-Fi equipped device hosting or supporting these opportunistic applications. Wi-Fi positioning and location intelligence were the first popular opportunistic applications of Wi-Fi’s RF cloud. Today, researchers are investigating opportunistic applications of Wi-Fi signals for gesture and motion detection as well as authentication and security. This paper provides a holistic overview of the evolution of Wi-Fi technology and its applications as the authors experienced it in the last few decades.

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1 Introduction

In the last few decades, as we were witnessing the emergence of the “information age” and the third industrial revolution, wireless access and localization played an undisputable role by enabling millions of innovative and popular cyberspace applications to connect to the Internet by anyone, anywhere Footnote 1 . These cyberspace applications have had and continue to make a fundamental impact on the way we live, conduct business, shop, access news media, deliver education, transport, care for health, and interact with the world. Today, smart phones, tablets and laptops use wireless technology to support untethered access to information, which is the most essential part of the way we live and work. Footnote 2 Smart cities monitor the environment and cyberspace intelligence is helping us as a society to optimize the way our intelligence contributes to the collective intelligence of humanity, to optimize the efficiency of consuming resources while sustaining life on the earth. The backbone of this third industrial revolution has been the computer and communication industry. The exponential growth in computational speed and the size of memory for information processing and storage has enabled implementation of numerous cyberspace applications that at the same time demand high speed communications and networking of devices, especially with tetherless connections to easily reach the numerous types of consumer devices emerging with the growth of the microelectronics industry at a reasonable cost. Wireless technologies have played an extremely important role in enabling this revolution to take place and to facilitate the access and intelligent processing of information to anyone, anytime, and anywhere.

At the time of this writing we have two different wireless data interfaces to connect a smartphone to the Internet, IEEE 802.11 wireless local area networks, commercially known as Wi-Fi, and cellular mobile data networks. Wi-Fi is the primary choice for smartphones because it can provide a higher data rate and more reliable indoor connections at a lower cost - users typically resort to cellular networks as a second choice. Researchers in next generations of cellular industry believe that as the cellular data rates and cellular costs goes down, the balance may shift to cellular networks because it is available everywhere. However, as of today Wi-Fi is the fastest and most cost-effective way of wireless Internet connectivity, especially in large parts of the world where broadband wired connectivity exists, but the latest 5G cellular technology does not. In addition to smartphones, many other devices like home entertainment systems, environmental monitoring sensors, and security systems connect to the Internet with Wi-Fi, but not necessarily through cellular networks. Wi-Fi brings people, processes, data, and devices, together and turns data into valuable information that makes life better and business thrive [ 1 ]. Some companies engaged in Wi-Fi related business resort to artistic illustrations similar to Fig.  1 (adapted from [ 2 , 3 ]) to relate Wi-Fi to human basic needs using Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs [ 4 ], with an additional lowest layer called Wi-Fi. Usually, Maslow’s hierarchy is shown as a pyramid, but to illustrate the crucial importance of Wi-Fi, in Fig.  1 the hierarchy is shown using the inverted version of the common symbol for Wi-Fi signal strength with Wi-Fi as the “most basic” of human needs.

adapted from [ 2 , 3 ]

Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs with an additional layer referring to Wi-Fi as enabler of these needs

Innovations after the first and second industrial revolution, such as the steam engine, the internal combustion engine, electricity, the telegraph and the telephone, radio, television, airplane, and rockets, had profound impacts on the way we live and have affected many other industries (such as entertainment). However, the Internet, the fruit of the third industrial revolution, enabling the emergence of the “information age”, has had a wider impact on our daily lives. The Internet provides access to unlimited amounts of information in an almost instant manner, anywhere, and that is further enhanced by wireless technologies by allowing devices to be anywhere. Indeed, Wi-Fi is the most popular of the wireless technologies to connect the devices and carry the internet protocol (IP) traffic.

As mentioned above, Wi-Fi is one of two primary wireless technologies that carries IP traffic. The IP traffic includes text, voice, images, and videos that comprises the communication needs in our daily lives and it is a good measure of information exchange on the Internet. A reliable source for measurement and prediction of IP traffic is the Cisco Visual Networking Index: Global Mobile Data Traffic Forecast [ 5 ]. Figure  2 , adapted from this source, shows the breakdown of this data from Mobile, Wi-Fi and Fixed access in different years. We use their prediction of traffic in 2022 as a measure to demonstrate the role of Wi-Fi in handling IP traffic. The traffic is divided into wireless (Wi-Fi and cellular mobile) and wired (Ethernet) with wireless carrying 70.6% and wired carrying 29.4%. Because of its flexibility of connection, being available anywhere, wireless traffic is more than twice the wired traffic. Fixed devices generate 58% of the traffic and mobile devices generate 42%. Wi-Fi carries 22.9% of the traffic from mobile devices (that also have a cellular connection) and 28.1% of traffic from Wi-Fi only devices for a total 51% of the entire traffic. This means that by the year 2022, Wi-Fi may carry the majority of IP global traffic soaring to reach the unbelievable high value of zettabytes (10 21 bytes). The reason for the success of Wi-Fi over wired Ethernet, carrying 29.2% of the traffic, is Wi-Fi’s connection flexibility, and the reason for success over cellular, carrying 19.6% of traffic, is Wi-Fi’s higher speed and less expensive connection cost. We use these numbers as a proxy metric to now explain why we need Wi-Fi. This discussion clarifies our “artistic expression” in the beginning of this section, about the impact of Wi-Fi in our daily needs, in a broader context with historical and projected usage numbers.

adapted from [ 5 ]

Approximate global monthly IP traffic for different Internet access methods in 2017 and 2022 (note Exabyte is 10 18 bytes); Data

In this brief introduction we provided our view on the importance and impact of Wi-Fi technology. In the remainder of this paper we provide a holistic overview of the evolution of Wi-Fi technology and its applications. This is a huge area and it is very difficult to write a paper that includes every aspect of its history. As members of a pioneering research center in this field [ 6 ], we provide a historical perspective of evolution of Wi-Fi in the way that we experienced it in the past few decades (and the paper is driven by this personal lens). We approach this challenging task from three angles. First, how the physical (PHY) and medium access control (MAC) for wireless communications with Wi-Fi technology evolved and what were the novel wireless transmission technologies that were introduced in this endeavor. Second, how Wi-Fi positioning emerged as the most popular positioning technology in indoor and urban areas and how it has impacted our daily lives. Third, how other cyberspace applications, such as motion and gesture detection as well as authentication and security, are emerging to revolutionize human computer interfacing with the RF cloud of Wi-Fi devices.

2 Evolution of Wi-Fi Communications Technology

In this section we first discuss the origins of the PHY and MAC layer technologies for Wi-Fi by separating their origins into three eras: (i) prior to 1985, when the pioneering technologies for WLAN were invented, (ii) during the period 1985–1997, when IEEE 802.11 and Wi-Fi technology became IEEE standards and finally, (iii) from 1997 to the present, when orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) and multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) technologies enabled Wi-Fi to enhance the supported data rates from 2 Mbps to Gbps. Then we discuss the evolution of the market and the applications of Wi-Fi that eventually emerged.

2.1 The Origin of WLAN Technologies Before 1985

Around the year 1980, IBM‘s Rueschlikon Laboratory, Zurich, Switzerland began research and development on using InfraRed (IR) technology to design WLANs for manufacturing floors [ 7 ]. At that time, wired local area networks (LAN)s were popular in office areas and large manufacturers such as General Motors (GM) were considering their use in computerized manufacturing floors. To wire the inside of offices, it was necessary to snake wires in walls and was easier with low-height suspended ceilings. In manufacturing floors, there are limited numbers of partitioning walls and moreover ceilings are high and made of hard material. Consequently, WLAN technology offered itself as a practical alternative for manufacturing floors. Around the same time frame, HP Palo Alto Laboratory, California, reported a prototype WLAN using direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) with surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices (for implementation of a matched filter at the receiver) [ 8 ]. HP Laboratories at that time had open space offices without partitioning by walls, which again created challenges for wiring through the walls. Dropping wires from the ceiling to desktops was not aesthetically pleasing. It was in this time that optical wireless and spread spectrum, combined with spread spectrum technology emerged, that could support huge amounts of capacity for indoor WLANs to connect desktops and printers together in a local network [ 9 , 10 ].

Prior to all this, Norm Abramson at University of Hawaii had designed the first experimental wireless data network, the ALOHA system [ 11 ]. The difference between the approach taken by IBM or HP and this approach was that ALOHA was an academic experimentation of wireless packet data networks with an antenna deployed outdoors with relatively low data rate modems at a speed of around 9600 bps. However, the concept had inspired low speed wireless data networking technologies such as Motorola’s ARDIS, and Ericsson’s Mobitex, (which we refer to as mobile data services now generally subsumed by cellular data services in 3G, 4G, and beyond). For WLAN technologies, the antenna is installed indoors, and the data rate needed to be at least 1 Mbps (at that time) to be considered by IEEE 802 standards organization community as a LAN [ 12 ]. The medium access control of both wireless data services was contention based, originally experimented in ALOHA, and later on evolving into carrier-sensing or listen before talk based contention access adopted by wired LANs by the IEEE 802.3 standard, commercially known as the Ethernet with some variation.

The main obstacle for commercial implementation of the early WLANs were interference and availability of a low cost wideband spectrum in which the WLAN could operate. Indoor optical WLANs did not need to consider regulation by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and they could potentially provide extremely wide bandwidths. However, optical communications cannot penetrate walls or other obstacles and thus, the operation becomes restricted to open areas, which are often small inside buildings. Spread spectrum was an anti-interference technology, which at that time could potentially manage the interference problem allowing multiple users to share a wideband spectrum [ 9 , 10 , 13 ]. In the summer of 1985, Mike Marcus, the chief engineer at FCC at that time, released the unlicensed Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) bands with restrictions of having to use spread spectrum technology for interference management [ 14 ]. For WLANs to become a commercial product, there was need for large bandwidths (at that time) and modem technologies that could overcome the challenges of indoor RF multipath propagation to achieve data rates beyond 1 Mbps required to be considered by the IEEE 802 committee as a LAN. The ISM bands and spread spectrum technology could address both issues.

2.2 Evolution of WLAN Technologies and Standards Between 1985 and 1997

The summer of 1985 was a turning point in the entrepreneurship for implementation in the WLAN industry. The FCC had released the ISM bands for commercial implementation of low power spread spectrum technology in May [ 14 ]. The suitability of RF spread spectrum and IR for implementing wireless office information networks had captured the cover page of the IEEE Communication Magazine in June [ 10 ]. Suddenly, several startup companies and a few groups in large companies, almost exclusively in North America, emerged to begin developing WLANs using spread spectrum and infrared technologies. Infrared devices did not need FCC regulations because they operate above the 300 GHz frequency, the highest governed by this agency. Among the exceptions for locations of these companies, was a small group in NCR, Netherlands, which designed the first Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) technology to achieve 2 Mbps [ 15 , 16 ]. Other companies, such as Proxim, Mountain View, CA, resorted to Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS), and a third group led by Photonics, supported by Apple, resorted to an IR solution for WLANs. All three groups could achieve 2 Mbps. These three groups, originally started in the late 1980’s, laid the foundation for the first legacy IEEE 802.11 standards series, finalized in 1997. The final standard for DSSS and FHSS operated in the 2.4 GHz ISM bands. Other exceptions in technologies were efforts by Motorola, IL and WINDATA, Marlborough, MA. Motorola introduced a revolutionary WLAN technology operating in the 18 GHz licensed bands achieving 10 Mbps using a six sectored antenna configuration [ 17 , 18 ], and WINDATA, achieved 6 Mbps in a dual band mode with 2.4 GHz for uplink and 5.2 GHz for downlink. The work presented in [ 17 , 18 ] was the first time a wireless network was adopting frequencies in 18 GHz with directional antennas. We may refer to this work as the first attempt to use close to mmWave technology for modern wireless networking, which is now adopted by 5G cellular networks [ 19 ]. However, mmWaves cannot penetrate walls well, which restricts their coverage in indoor areas. This restriction is less of a concern in cellular networks with outdoor antenna deployments.

The first academic research in the physical layer of WLANs began at the Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA in Fall of 1985 [ 6 ]. The early academic research literature in this area began with the empirical modeling of the multipath radio propagation in indoor areas [ 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 ], examining decision feedback equalization (DFE) [ 26 ], and M-ary orthogonal coding [ 27 ] to achieve data rates beyond the 2 Mbps rates studied by the IEEE 802.11, to achieve rates on the orders of 20 Mbps, and the integration of voice and data for WLAN [ 28 ]. A form of M-ary orthogonal signaling was adopted by IEEE802.11b standard, DFE was adopted by the Pan European HIgh PERformance LAN (HIPERLAN)-I standard, and a form of OFDM was implemented in HIPERLAN-2 and IEEE 802.11a standards. A breakthrough, patented in this era, was the application of OFDM to WLANs, first filed by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO), Sydney, Australia [ 29 ]. The origins of equalization, quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), and OFDM transmission technologies were first implemented for commercial voice band communications [ 30 ]. The use of DFE was first adopted for wireless data communications over multipath troposcatter channels in military applications [ 31 ] and M-ary orthogonal coding was an extension to Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) to increase the capacity for military applications [ 32 ]. The novelty of these technologies in this later time was in their application in commercial WLANs in non-wired and non-military applications.

The IEEE group for WLAN standardization was first formed as IEEE 802.4L in 1998. The IEEE 802.4 group was devoted to Token Bus LANs for manufacturing environments and was on the verge of disbanding. The rationale for introducing WLANs in this group was that new IEEE standards usually begin in a closely related standard and after going through the establishment procedure, may form their own group and standard series. The IEEE 802.11 group was the same group from IEEE 802.4L formed later in July 1990 [ 33 ]. In the early days of this standard the important challenge was to find the correct direction for the future technology among a number of acceptable technologies. In 1991, the standards group participated in the first IEEE sponsored conference to address this issue [ 34 ]. The early IEEE standards for wired LANs were differentiating from each other through their MAC method. IEEE 802.11 was the first with three MAC mechanisms (that could work together) and three PHY layer methods. The legacy IEEE 802.11 standard was completed in 1997 with three PHY layer recommendations, DSSS and FHSS operating in the 2.4 GHz ISM bands and Diffused Infrared (DFIR) wireless optical options. All three PHY layer options operated at raw data rate options of 1 and 2 Mbps and employed three possibilities for the MAC: carrier sensing - CSMA, request and clear to send - RTS-CTS, and polling (point-coordination-function) - PCF. RTS/CTS and PCF were designed to operate in conjunction with the base CSMA with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA).

The HIPERLAN was another WLAN standardization activity, sponsored by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), which began its work in 1992. The HIPERLAN-1 standard was the first attempt to achieve data rates above 10Mbps using DFE technology and in the 5 GHz unlicensed bands [ 35 ]. This standard was also completed in 1997, but it failed in developing a market for itself. Another more popular but extensive standardization activity for wireless indoor networking in this era was Wireless Asynchronous Transfer Mode (W-ATM), which aimed to integrate local wireless traffic with an ATM backbone wired technology [ 36 , 37 ]. A comparison of this technology with Wi-Fi is available in [ 38 ].

In summary, it is fair to say that during the 1985–1997 era, the WLAN industry was in the process of discovering technologies for wideband indoor wireless communications and it examined spread spectrum, M-ary orthogonal coding, IR, licensed bands at 18 GHz with directional antennas, DFE, and OFDM technologies and the importance of the analysis of the effects of multipath and appropriate mitigation techniques to achieve higher data rates. The spread spectrum and Infrared technologies of the legacy IEEE 802.11 standard were the only technologies which survived in the market and a modified form of these technologies have remained in other popular standards such as Bluetooth, using FHSS and ZigBee using DSSS. M-ary orthogonal coding and OFDM appeared in later standards. This era also opened channels for dissemination of research and scholarship through publication channels. The first IEEE workshop on WLAN (1991), and the IEEE International Symposium on Personal, Indoor, and Mobile Communications (1992), hosted first panel discussions on the future of the WLAN industry in cooperation with the IEEE 802.11 standardization organization. The year 1994 marked the establishment of the first scientific journal, the International Journal of Wireless Information Networks, and the first scientific magazine related to this subject, IEEE Personal Communications, which later changed its name to IEEE Wireless Communications. The pioneering textbooks in Wireless Information Networks [ 39 ] and Wireless Communications [ 40 ] also emerged in this era.

2.3 Evolution of WLAN Technologies and Standards After 1997

The IEEE 802 standards define MAC and PHY specifications of local networks as standards for vendors to be able to interoperate. Figure  3 shows the evolution of the PHY and MAC layers of the IEEE 802.11 standards from the beginning to the present. The first step of evolution of the standard after completion of the legacy 802.11 standard in 1997, was the IEEE 802.11b standard that used complex M-Ary orthogonal coding known as Complementary Code Keying (CCK). The IEEE 802.11b standard was completed in 1999. Devices using this standard operated at speeds up to 11 Mbps with a fall back to 1–2 Mbps using the legacy 802.11 standard. Both IEEE 802.11b and the legacy IEEE 802.11 devices operated in the 2.4 GHz bands. In 1999, the IEEE standards body also completed specifications for IEEE 802.11a operating at 5.2 GHz using OFDM transmission technology to achieve data rates up to 54 Mbps. The IEEE 802.11a PHY layer was coordinated with the efforts in the HIPERLAN-2 standard in Europe [ 41 ]. In comparison with Wi-Fi, the centralized MAC of HIPERLAN-2 [ 42 ] was expected to allow better management of quality of service, vital to the cellular telephone industry. Perhaps that was the motivation of Ericsson to pursue the leadership of this effort. However, in a manner similar to wireless ATM, this standard did not achieve commercial success. This could be because in wide area networking we have large number of users with less bandwidth resources and rationing this scarce resource requires centralized supervision by enforcing quality of service rules. In local areas with abundant availability of bandwidth and only a few users, a distributed MAC would be more practical in that time frame. Although a new standard for integration of local and metropolitan area networks, such as HIPERLAN-2 or wireless ATM, did not became a reality, the need for this integration of cellular networks with Wi-Fi, became a reality. The concept of integration of Wi-Fi with cellular using vertical hand-offs and mobile IP technology emerged in the early days of commercial popularity of Wi-Fi [ 43 ] and it has prevailed all the way along up to the time of this writing but this time with operating system and software control. The continuation of the ideal of new standards for local operation continued into Femtocells [ 44 ] and long-term evolution-unlicensed (LTE-U) [ 45 ] – operation of 4G cellular networks in the unlicensed spectrum, but neither has created any serious challenge to the Wi-Fi market yet. In the same way that the WLAN industry in its early days of survival resorted to point-to-multipoint outdoor installation for wider area coverage, it can be thought that Wi-Max [ 46 ] emerged as a successful application of local area centralized medium access control technologies for outdoor antenna deployments. The wireless ATM, HIPERLAN, Femto-cell, LTE-U and Wi-MAX technologies created a significant hype in scientific publication venues and among national funding agencies, but they failed to keep investors in developing these technologies as happy as those that invested in Wi-Fi. Later, in 2003, the IEEE 802.11g working group defined OFDM operation in 2.4 GHz with the same data rates as IEEE 802.11a, which expanded the horizon for Wi-Fi market.

Evolution of Wi-Fi technologies and standards

The breakthrough in wireless communications at the turn of the twenty first century was the discovery of multiple antennae streaming benefitting from space time coding (STC) and MIMO technology. The foundation of multiple antenna streaming is based on two technologies: adaptive antenna arrays to focus the beam pattern of antennas and space time coding (STC) which is a coding technique enabling separation of multiple streams of data with coding. The benefits of multiple transmitting and receiving antennas existed in the antenna and propagation society literature since the 1930’s [ 47 ]. Seminal work on STC [ 48 , 49 , 50 ] enabled multiple streams of data and that is why it is considered as one of the most important worldwide innovations around the turn of the twenty first century. Multiple streams of data using MIMO technology in conjunction with OFDM and benefitting from STC opened a new horizon in scaling the physical layer transmission rates in multipath fading channels [ 51 ]. The next giant step in the evolution of technology for the IEEE 802.11 community was the introduction of IEEE 802.11n in 2009, using MIMO technology to enable multiple data streams to achieve raw data rates up to 600 Mbps both in the 2.4 and 5.2 GHz bands. Other standards such as IEEE 802.11ac and 802.11ax, followed the same OFDM/MIMO technology.

Another major hype in physical layer technologies for wireless communications was mmWave pulse transmission technology. The IEEE 802.11ad group adopted mmWave pulse transmission technology in the 60 GHz band with utra-wideband (UWB) transmission bandwidth exceeding 2 GHz to achieve data rates on the order of Gbps. Although mmWave technology became an important part of the 5G cellular networking industry [ 19 ], IEEE 802.11ad and 802.11ay, as the first completed standards using these technologies have not been successful in attracting a huge share of the WLAN market. As we explained earlier, mmWaves in indoor areas has coverage restriction that does not apply to outdoor antenna deployments.

Regarding the MAC of the IEEE 802.11, the main two techniques which became dominant were CSMA/CA and request/clear to send - RTS/CLS. Carrier sensing with collision avoidance—CSMA/CA was a practical extension to the wireless medium of CSMA/CD (collision detection), which was adopted for the IEEE 802.3 standard, commercially known as Ethernet. The IEEE 802.11 devices grew with the name “wireless Ethernet” and CSMA/CA would enable Ethernet to finally have a wireless extension. The RTS/CTS mechanism was originally designed to address the hidden terminal problem, but it became more popular for application with directional antennas for IEEE 802.11ac, ad. An analytical comparison of these two MAC techniques is a challenging problem that received a very thorough and popular analysis in the year 2000 [ 52 ].

A good survey of all these standards is presented at Wikipedia [ 53 ]. Here, we argue that all major PHY layer technologies evolved for wireless information networks: optical wireless, spread spectrum, M-ary orthogonal coding, OFDM, MIMO, and mmWave technologies were first adopted by the IEEE 802.11 standardization community. Then, DSSS and orthogonal signaling in 2G/3G, OFDM/MIMO in 4G, and mmWave in 5G/6G cellular telephone technologies, came after the adoption of these technologies in IEEE802.11 standards. The MAC of cellular telephone industry is centralized and different from that of WLANs, primarily to accommodate high traffic densities and support higher level of mobility for users with metropolitain area coverage. The IEEE 802.15 wireless personal area networks followed a similar pattern by adoption of FHSS for Bluetooth and DSSS for ZigBee, after they were first introduced by the IEEE 802.11 standard. The MAC of Bluetooth and in particular ZigBee carry similarities with those of the MAC of IEEE 802.11. Therefore, it is fair to say that the WLAN industry pioneered the design of the dominant PHY technologies of today’s wireless networking industry and this is a huge technological impact in the communication of humans, devices, and machines.

2.4 Evolution of Wi-Fi Applications and Market

Applications fuel the market, and they are intimately linked to the network through devices running these applications. Local area networks were networking computers to share common peripheral devices such as printers or storage memories and later machines in a manufacturing floor. In the late 1980’s and early 1990’s, when the WLAN industry began to test the market, Personal Computers (PC) and Workstations were competing to capture the market of mini-computers. Laptops became popular in this market a little later. From the networking point of view in that era, engineers were searching for wiring solutions for the growing market of these devices to connect them with minimal effort. The early WLAN startups were thinking of wireless as a replacement to wired LANs to connect PC’s in open areas such as manufacturing floors or open offices without partitions. These companies were assuming that these small computers will grow on office desks or on manufacturing areas in clusters. The idea was that if we connect this cluster of desktop computers to a hub and then we connect the hub to a central node connected to the Ethernet backbone, we will avoid snaking of wires or wires hanging from the ceilings of manufacturing floors and offices. In a typical startup proposal for venture capital, these companies were arguing that close to half of the cost of the LAN industry was associated with installation and maintenance of these networks, which can be vanishingly small when we use wireless technology. As a result, the first WLAN products were shoe box sized hubs and central units and following the above argument, these companies were estimating that a market of a few billion-dollars would emerge for these devices in early 1990’s. Based on this idea a typical startup company or a small group in a large company could raise up to $20 M at that time, adequate to support a design and marketing team to get the product going. Therefore, the early products from NCR, Proxim, Aironet, WINDATA, Motorola, NCR, Persoft, Photnics and others appeared in the market (see Fig.  4 a for samples of these products). The reader can find a variety of photos of these historical WLAN products in the proceedings of the first IEEE Workshop on WLAN [ 34 ]. This workshop was held in Worcester, MA, in parallel to the IEEE 802.11 official meeting to decide on the future of this industry. Around the year 1993 these products were in the market but the expected few billion-dollar market developed only to a few hundred million dollars. These sales were mostly for selected vertical applications and by research laboratories discovering the technology, not for the horizontal market for connecting desktop computers everywhere. This resulted in a retreat in the original few tens of companies, searching for a new market domain.

a Some historical pioneering shoe box size WLANS designed by Motorola, Persoft, Aironet, and WINDATA, b the wireless PC cards and its access points in Roamabout designed by Digital Equipment Corporation

During the market crash of 1993 for the WLAN industry designed for connecting clusters of desktop computers, two new applications emerged. The first solution was point-to-point or point-to-multipoint WLAN bridges. The idea was to allow WLANs to operate outdoors and add a strong roof top antenna to take advantage of free space propagation and antenna gains to extend the expected 100 m indoor coverage to outdoor coverage spanning a few miles. As examples of these markets, two hospitals in Worcester, MA, which were a few miles away could connect their networks with low cost private WLANs, instead of using expensive leased lines from telephone companies. Or, Worcester Polytechnic Institute could connect the dormitories to the local area network of the main campus. The other idea was to design smaller wireless PC Cards for the emerging laptop market. Figure  4 b shows the picture of the Roamabout access point box and the laptop wireless PC Cards of the first successful product of that type, designed at Digital Equipment Corporation, Maynard, MA. These devices were the showcase of the second IEEE Workshop on WLANs, October 1996 [ 54 ]. Examples of a practical market for laptop operation included large financing corporations such as Fidelity in Boston, who would purchase laptops for their marketing, sales, and other staff. Such companies wanted their staff to be connected to the corporate network, when in office.

The next wave of market demand for WLANs was for small office/ home office (SOHO) application, which began around 2000. The authors believe that this story began in the mid-1990 with the penetration of the Internet to homes with service providers like America online (AOL) for small indoor area distribution of signals. The penetration of the Internet in homes fueled the development of cable modems and digital subscriber line (DSL) modems for high data rate home services and with that came the growth in the number of home devices and demand for Home-LAN technology. Several ideas such as using home wiring or electricity wiring for implementation of Home-LANs were studied, but Wi-Fi emerged as the natural solution. At that time, the price of a Wi-Fi access point (AP), such as the one made by Linksys, had fallen to below $100 and wireless PC Cards could be purchased with a reasonable price of a few tens of dollars. The original early shoe boxes had been selling for a few hundred dollars for the hub and up to a few thousand dollars for the AP! With these lower prices, coffeeshops and other small businesses could afford to provide free Wi-Fi and homeowners could bring Wi-Fi home. This was perhaps the first large market bringing Wi-Fi from office to the home. During the 2000’s despite the crash of the .com industry, the Wi-Fi market in this domain began to grow exponentially. The exponential growth of Wi-Fi for SOHO encouraged consumer product manufacturing to consider Wi-Fi for integration in their products (e.g., in digital cameras and TV monitors). This market was however not that large, and the ease of Wi-Fi networking did not exist. The integration of Wi-Fi in the iPhone was the next major marketing break-through for Wi-Fi popularity and market growth. Integration of Wi-Fi into smartphone increased the sale of Wi-Fi chipsets to billions and further enabled Wi-Fi based positioning. More recently Wi-Fi applications expanded by emergence of motion and gesture detection as well as authentication and security with Wi-Fi signals to facilitate human computer interaction. Figure  5 summarizes the evolution of Wi-Fi applications. We provide an overview of these cyberspace application using the Wi-Fi signal in the remainder of this paper.

Evolution of Wi-Fi applications and market

3 From Wi-Fi to Wi-Fi Positioning – Emergence of Another “Killer App”

In the early 1990’s, when the expected market for WLANs did not emerge, those invested in this emerging technology began to discover reasons for the lack of success. These were the CEO’s of startups and managers of the WLAN projects in larger companies. Some were associating the lack of success to the delay in finalizing the IEEE 802.11 standard and some to the lack of a “Killer App”. The standard itself was completed in 1997 (with interoperability tests) and soon, deployment in SOHO scenarios appeared as the “Killer App” in the late 1990’s. Adoption of Wi-Fi in smart phones in the late 2000 s was another breakthrough “Killer App” of Wi-Fi technology, which enabled these devices to execute a number of user applications such as integration of search engines, email, and large file transfers using smart phones. Other networked applications that were typically done on a desktop using the Internet followed (e.g., e-commerce and banking). However, the Wi-Fi Positioning engine was perhaps the most innovative “Killer App” related to Wi-Fi technology that was introduced by the iPhone. When Steve Jobs introduced Skyhook of Boston’s Wi-Fi positioning technology in the iPhone, and he called it “Cool” and a “neat idea” [ 55 ], because it was different.

3.1 The Origin of Wi-Fi Positioning

Because of the commercial success of the Global Positioning System (GPS) in the mid-1990’s, the fact that GPS does not work properly in indoor areas, and the FCC mandate on E911 services for cellular networks, the indoor geolocation science and technology began to emerge in the late 1990’s [ 56 , 57 ]. The expensive cost of dense infrastructure needed for commercial positioning applications led that industry to resort to opportunistic positioning. Opportunistic Wi-Fi positioning using received Wi-Fi signals radiated from the Wi-Fi access points, originally deployed for wireless communications in office areas, was the first idea to attract attention for a cost effective indoor geolocation system [ 58 , 59 ]. The received signal strength (RSS) or time of arrival (TOA) of the signals radiated from the access points could be used for positioning since the locations of the access points were known and could be used for this purpose. The RSS was a quantity that was easier to measure but it was not accurate enough for good location granularity. The use of RSS for positioning became practical only by incorporating intelligence through training the system with fingerprinting and using pattern recognition algorithms to find the location [ 60 , 61 ]. This training was done with similar devices that collected data at known locations to make up the training fingerprints. The more accurate TOA measurements [ 59 ] needed additional design to be incorporated through a TOA acquisition system. The widespread deployment of Wi-Fi in office areas was more fertile for commercial development and a few companies, such as Ekahau, Helsinki, Finland, adopted that technology as their Wi-Fi positioning indoor geolocation system. Today this Wi-Fi positioning industry is sometime referred to as “real time positioning system” RTLS) [ 62 ]. The commercial success of RTLS was rather limited and it never generated a substantial market for Wi-Fi positioning.

Another approach to Wi-Fi positioning was to collect the fingerprint of locations from the APs from a vehicle driving in the streets and tagging the fingerprints with the GPS location reports of the vehicle at the time of measurement. This was the approach used by Skyhook Wireless, Boston, MA, which was adopted by the iPhone and was trademarked as “Wi-Fi Positioning System” (WPS) by Skyhook [ 62 ]. The difference between RTLS and WPS are: (1) RTLS typically covers only one building while WPS covers a metropolitan area, (2) fingerprinting in RTLS for a given area of coverage is much more expensive than WPS, (3) RTLS provides an accuracy of around a few meters while WPS provides for accuracies on the order of 10-15 m. Larger coverage areas with accuracies of 10-15 m enabled turn-by-turn direction finding for vehicles in the metropolitan areas that was the highlight of positioning applications in the original iPhone [ 55 ]. As a result, WPS became a commercial success and a highlight of the magic of iPhone applications. Today, Skyhook’s database contains over a billion AP locations worldwide and its database receives over a billion hits per day from smart device applications using WPS technologies. Google, Apple and other cyberspace giants have formed their own WPS system with their own database of APs along with that of the Skyhook.

3.2 Emergence of Location Intelligence from WPS

WPS is a device-based positioning system, i.e., a device reads the RSS of surrounding Wi-Fi devices with their MAC addresses. These readings are transferred to a central server with a database of the mapping of fingerprints to position and the system can determine the location of the device using the fingerprint database. Thus, communication link to carry these information between the device and the server is essential here, which Wi-Fi already provides. This process traditionally takes place in two steps, fingerprinting and positioning. During the fingerprinting phase, a data acquisition device located in a vehicle drives on the streets. In this phase the MAC addresses of the APs and their associated RSS are sampled approximately every second and each sample is tagged with the GPS reading of the location at the time of sampling. The fingerprint in the database, the MAC addresses and the GPS readings are post processed with proprietary algorithms to associate the MAC addresses of each AP to a location based on GPS readings. In this way, the WPS system builds a database of locations of the APs in the areas that the vehicles drive through. When a device, not knowing its location, sends the MAC address of an AP and RSS readings to the server, the server uses another proprietary algorithm to position the device and determine its location. The major WPS service providers, Skyhook, Google, and Apple, each receive approximately one billion requests per day from millions of devices. The one billion hits each associate a personal device address to a location and one can track the movements of the device. Applications drawing from this motion tracking capability of WPS are referred to as “location intelligent” and are said to be providing location-based services. One simple location intelligence application is the location-time traffic analysis. We may grade the density of hits per-hour of the day to determine where the people are going, and smart marketing strategies can benefit from that data. Other location intelligent applications include “geofencing” of elderly people, animals, prisoners, suspicious people, real world consumer behavior, location certification for security, positioning IP addresses, and customizing contents and experiences. During the recent COVID pandemic, Apple made its mobility data (when people were asking directions – and thus location information) public to enable assessing the social distancing and quarantine postures in various cities and communities [ 63 ]. Of course, this data also includes cell phone technology, but it is an indication of how far sensing signals from mobile devices has come, starting with Wi-Fi positioning.

The future directions in Wi-Fi positioning is in the integration of RSS signals with other sensor readings on smart devices (accelerometers for instance) to enhance the precision and flexibility of positioning. There are research works on integration of mechanical sensors such as accelerometer and gyroscope on robotic platforms with Wi-Fi positioning [ 64 ], there are works in integrating more precise UWB positioning with limited coverage with wider coverage Wi-Fi positioning [ 65 ], and frameworks for generalizing fingerprinting in multi-sensor environment [ 66 , 67 ]. Other researchers investigate submeter Wi-Fi positioning using Wi-Fi channel state information (CSI) [ 68 ].

4 Wi-Fi and Emerging Cyberspace Applications

Wi-Fi localization, either for local indoor areas (what we referred to above as RTLS) or for metropolitan areas (which we referred to as WPS) makes use of the RSS feature from APs that are broadcasting signals, by reading their broadcast quasi-periodic beacon signal. Beacons are used to advertise the availability of an AP thereby enabling other devices like smartphones or laptops to access the Wi-Fi network (called basic or extended service area in the standard). A device that reads the beacon only for localization does not need to connect to the AP because it only needs the MAC address and the RSS information for positioning itself. Access Points radiate a radio frequency (RF) cloud around themselves which are available to any device in their area of coverage. The RSS is one feature of the Wi-Fi RF cloud, which can be measured easily without any coordination between the transmitter and the receiver. With some coordination, the receiver can measure the Time of Arrival (TOA) of a signal as well. Today, the dominant transmission technique in Wi-Fi is MIMO-OFDM. Devices which can use MIMO_OFDM can also measure Direction of Arrival (DOA), channel impulse response (CIR), and the Channel State Information (CSI) of the multipath medium between the transmitter and the received [ 69 ]. These features (as well as the RSS feature) vary statistically depending on the multipath characteristics arising from the motion in the environment. Consequently, it is possible to use these features for motion and gesture detection. In this section, we begin by describing these statistical behaviors and following that we briefly review the emerging research benefitting from analyzing these statistical changes in features, toward the design of cyberspace applications for human-computer interactions.

4.1 Characteristics of Features of Wi-Fi Signals in Multipath

Figure  6 , illustrates a general line-of-sight (LOS) scenario for a MIMO-OFDM Wi-Fi communication with typical multipath propagation. Multiple paths are reflected from walls and other stationary and moving objects in the environment. These paths are often clustered due to scattering from smaller objects located close to each other. In an ideal situation, the stationary baseband CIR for wireless devices operating in multipath indoor areas is represented by:

where \((\alpha_{i} ;\tau_{i} ;\theta_{i} ;\psi_{i} )\,\) are the magnitude, TOA, phase, and DOA of the i-th path, and N is the number of multipath components. In this equation the phase of the arriving path and the TOA are related by \(\theta_{i} = 2\pi f_{c} \tau_{i} \,\) . Therefore, if we measure the TOA, we can calculate phase and vice versa. Since the phase is a periodic function, in calculation of the TOA from the phase we should consider such ambiguities [ 57 ]. The TOA, amplitude, and phase of each path as well as the RSS can be calculated from the length of the path, by:

, where \(f_{c} \,\) is the carrier frequency of the signal, \(\lambda = c/f_{c} \,\) is the wavelength of the signal, \(d_{i}\) , is the length of the path, and c is the speed of light. If we have an antenna array, we can calculate the DOA from TOA differences between the received signals from different array elements. When we have motion in the environment, either by moving the location of the devices or objects move in the environment, the lengths of the various paths change affecting features such as RSS, TOA, and DOA. In addition, due to Doppler shift effects, a change in the length of a path with the velocity of \(v_{i} \,\) meters per second causes a frequency off-set in the carrier frequency calculated from [ 57 ] :

Multipath scenario of RF propagation for Wi-Fi enabled indoor wireless communications using OFDM/MIMO technology

In summary, if a receiver can measure the CIR and the frequency off-set, it can monitor the length and direction of the path as well as the velocity of changes in the path lengths.

As shown in Eq. ( 2 ), the amplitude of the received signal, \(\alpha_{i}\) , from a path changes inversely with the increase in the path length, \(d_{i}\) . The phase of the arriving signal from a path, \(\theta_{i}\) , changes rapidly for a value of \(2\pi\) each time the length of the path increases by a value equivalent to the wavelength of the signal, \(\lambda\) . The rapid change in phase of the arriving paths causes fading and these rapid changes are caused by motion of the device, motion of people around the devices, and by the changes in frequency of operation. In the wireless communication literature, fading characteristics is studied under temporal, frequency-selective, and spatial fading [ 39 ].

The traditional application of measurements of the CIR is in high-speed wireless communications and in radars. Modern applications that use CIR measurements are in wireless positioning, gesture, and motion detection, and in authentication and security. Each application relies on certain specific features of the CIR and for that needs to measure those features with certain precision at the receiver. The accuracy of measurement of these features at a receiver relies on training (known signals), the bandwidth of the system, availability of antenna arrays at the receiver, and accuracy of synchronization between the transmitter and the receiver. As a result, the specific implementation of these applications have unique challenges and demand research and development and decades of years of evolution. Traditional radar and digital communication systems were built around the second World War and today we are still developing new cyberspace applications around them. What is changing is the application environment and characteristics of multipath inside those environments. As we move from open areas to sub-urban, densely populated urban areas, and indoor areas, the multipath propagation of RF signals increases, and design of applications faces new challenges.

The measurement of multipath characteristics of the channel was a very challenging problem in the early 1970’s [ 70 ]. Wideband digital communication systems evolving in this era needed the estimate of multipath arrivals to enhance their data rates. Wideband multipath channel measurement in that period would be a subject for a Ph.D. thesis [ 71 ]. Today, all wireless communication devices measure the multipath characteristics as a routine in the design of their systems.

If the bandwidth of the system is wide enough so that the width of the transmitted communication symbols, the inverse of the bandwidth, is less than the inter-arrival time of the paths, a sensitive enough receiver can isolate each path and measure the features precisely. If the bandwidth of the channel is not wide enough, a receiver can only detect a cluster of paths as one path. In wireless communications we can categorize device receivers into three categories, ultra-wideband (UWB), Footnote 3 wideband (WB), and narrowband (NB). UWB systems are capable of measuring most individual paths, WB receivers measure multipath arrivals but each path is in reality an aggregate of a cluster of paths, and NB receivers receive the signal from many paths as essentially a single path that combines all multipath arrivals (see Fig.  7 ). When a receiver detects a path that is indeed the combination of several neighboring paths, due to fast variations of the phases of the original path, the amplitude of the detected path experiences Rayleigh or Rician fading and the TOA of the detected path obviously is something very different from any of the individual paths in wireless communication applications, fading causes huge degradation of the maximum achievable data rate, and to compensate for that the research community have discovered equalization, spread spectrum, OFDM, and MIMO technologies in the past several decades [ 39 ]. The popular TOA-based location related applications measure the distance from the delay of the TOA of the direct path between the transmitters and the receiver and integration of multiple paths in a single path at the receiver causes huge errors in distance estimation (1 m error for every 3 ns error in delay).

Multipath detection in UWB and multipath clustering in WB and NB receivers

The receivers of wireless communication devices employing these technologies measure the characteristic of the communication channel and characteristics of these measurements vary, depending on the architecture and bandwidth of the system. Empirical measurements and modeling of multipath RF propagation in indoor areas in the late 1980’s, first showed that if the bandwidth exceeded 100 MHz the amplitude of multipath arrivals follows a lognormal distribution, caused by shadowing, and they do not follow the commonly assumed Rayleigh or Rician multipath fading characteristics [ 24 ]. Therefore, we may consider Wi-Fi technologies using bandwidths on that order as UWB systems that can resolve the paths. The characteristics of CIR measurements with UWB systems is that the amplitude of the paths follow a lognormal distribution that is much more stable than Rayleigh/Rician distributions, and the TOA measurements are precise for calculation of the delay of the paths. The IEEE 802.11ad devices certainly follow the UWB characteristics. The IEEE 802.11ac options with bandwidth up to 160 MHz gets close to observing UWB features. However, legacy IEEE 802.11 and the popular 802.11 a,g,n,ac,ax,af can be considered as WB systems with bandwidths of approximately 20-40 MHz (and sometimes up to 80 MHz). The IEEE 802.11 standards using OFDM have sub-carriers with a bandwidth of approximately 20 MHz/64 = 375 kHz per carrier, which is considered NB. In summary, channel measurements for NB transmissions provide for a stream of Rayleigh fading amplitudes and uniformly distributed phases. The phase measurements do not support a reliable measure of distance and WB systems provide multiple streams of NB data. The UWB systems provide for multiple streams of slow lognormally fading signals with multiple streams of phases that are beneficial for accurate measurements of the delays of the associated paths.

The most popular Wi-Fi devices at the time of this writing, IEEE802.11n and IEEE 802.11ac, use MIMO-OFDM technology with three transmitters and two receiver antennas, shown in Fig.  6 . The OFDM signal has 64 sub-carriers, using 52 of these carriers for communication data. In addition, to the magnitude and phase of the carriers they also provide the frequency off-set from the center frequency as well as six streams of magnitude and phases of the CSI data. Depending on the quality of the beam forming algorithm to sharpen the beam, the CSI data can represent a single path or a cluster of paths arriving from a direction. If it is a cluster, the amplitude samples have a Rayleigh distribution and if it is a single path the amplitudes should be more stable with a lognormal fading behavior. The number of paths in the cluster also governs the accuracy of delay of the path measurement using the phase of the received CSI stream [ 72 ]. Recently, these data streams have been paired with artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms to initiate research in several cyberspace applications.

4.2 Emerging Cyberspace Applications of Wi-Fi

In recent years, researchers have studied a variety of Wi-Fi “RF cloud” features in several cyberspace applications and for the enhancement of local area positioning systems. The idea of using the preamble of OFDM signals, first introduced in HIPERLAN-2/IEEE 802.11a standard, for TOA localization was discussed at the emergence of this standard in [ 59 ]. In this work, the pseudo noise (PN) sequence used in the preamble of the OFDM signal is used for TOA positioning. Like the measurement of timing in GPS, the TOA is measured from the time displacements in the sharp peak of the autocorrelation function of the PN-sequence. It is also possible to measure the TOA from the phase of the received signal; however, this is very sensitive to multipath fading [ 57 ]. OFDM/MIMO systems reduce the multipath allowing a more accurate measurement of TOA using the phase of the received signal. Recently, the measurement of TOA using the phase of Wi-Fi signals with OFDM/MIMO was used for fine-grained micro-robot tracking in [ 68 , 73 ]. The experience in that work suggests that in a line-of-sight (LOS) situation (close distance between transmitter and receiver), where the multipath features are not significant, the phase of the received signal provides a reasonable estimate of the distance. Others have experimented with CSI fingerprints to enhance indoor Wi-Fi positioning [ 74 ]. As we explained in Sect.  4.1 , CSI provides multiple streams of magnitude and phase and the phase information can be used for TOA estimations. The research trend in [ 59 , 68 , 73 , 74 ] opens a horizon for higher precision Wi-Fi positioning, as they are compared to RSS based Wi-Fi positioning in local indoor [ 58 , 75 ], and wider metropolitan areas [ 62 , 76 , 77 ].

In the past decade, the design of novel “cyberspace intelligence” applications that opportunistically benefit from the “RF cloud” radiated from signals used for wireless communications and short range radars, has been a fertile area of research [ 69 ]. These applications take advantage of statistical variations of RF signals propagated from the wireless devices, caused by motion in the environment to design applications that can detect gestures and motion or those used for authentication and security. Because of the widespread deployment and reach of Wi-Fi access points and the availability of Wi-Fi chip sets in almost every personal electronic device, as described in Sects.  2.4 and 2.5, a large body of this literature has evolved around this Wi-Fi RF cloud. Once again, the simplest feature of the Wi-Fi RF cloud is the RSS. Motions in the environment cause multipath fading resulting in changes in the RSS and statistics of this fading behavior as it relates to the speed of motion. The applications benefit from this behavioral change in the RSS to develop simple possibilities in detecting motion related human activity. This trend of research began in the early 2010’s and has evolved throughout that decade. As an example, the time- and frequency-domain multipath fading characteristics of the RSS from body mounted health monitoring sensors was examined in the lead author’s laboratory in the early 2010’s to differentiate among standing, walking, and jogging activities by humans [ 78 ]. In the mid-2010’s, when the infusion of AI to applications became popular, the same idea with more complex activity classifications with AI algorithms was pursued [ 79 ]. In the middle of these activities, hand motion classification using RSS and the frequency offset of OFDM signals from Wi-Fi devices when motion occurs between two devices without any body mounted device was reported to differentiate nine hand gestures [ 80 ]. Research in that direction encouraged the consideration of a more advanced feature such as the CSI for similar applications and suddenly a large body of literature emerged for a variety of related applications for human computer interaction that made extensive use of the statistical behavior of CSI from Wi-Fi signals. Approximately 150 of these papers are classified in [ 81 ]. These papers use CSI toward what is called as “device-free” human activity detection [ 82 ] all the way up to micro-gesture detection applications such as detecting hand motion while typing [ 83 , 84 ].

In gesture and motion detection using RF signals, the work takes advantage of the effects of motion on changing the multipath propagation of signals and the resulting change in statistical behavior of the features of RF cloud to classify human activity. Similarly, it is possible to use the uniqueness of these variations for individual human motions to identify a person. For example, when we train a computer to detect the keystroke of a person using the CSI from Wi-Fi signals, the same system can identify that person as the keystrokes of one individual vary from that of another. This way, using the CSI for keystroke detection can also be used for human authentication for security purposes [ 83 ]. In recent years, a body of literature has also evolved for applications of the Wi-Fi RF cloud in authentication and security. Again, the simplest feature that is used is the RSS and it is possible to use the RSS behavior of body mounted sensors to identify a person [ 85 ]. Fundamentally, authentication is a binary decision-making process (is it Alice or not?) and activity classification is a multiple classification problem (is Alice jogging, walking, standing, or sitting?). In authentication we compare RF feature characteristics of one person to others, while in activity classification we usually compare different activities of a single person. Such similarities have led to the emergence of literature in using more complex CSI from Wi-Fi signals for device-free authentication such as those in [ 86 ]. Another survey of these categories of applications is available in [ 87 ].

The problem of entity authentication is for security – whether an authorized individual is performing an action. However, there is another branch of security application, concerned with generation of unique (and random so that it cannot be guessed) keys for encryption of the data communication between wireless devices sharing this natural broadcasting medium. The fundamental idea comes from the fact that the wireless communication channel between two devices is reciprocal [ 88 , 89 ]. Therefore, when we measure the features of the communication channel between two devices, these features should be the same. However, the details of the electronic implementation of a device is unique to itself and that results in measurements which are not identical. If we can model these differences by a measurement noise, then we can quantize the measured feature based on the measurement noise to establish the same key at two ends of a wireless communication link. A survey of these physical layer security systems is available in [ 90 , 91 ]. Geo-fencing, to ensure that Wi-Fi signal propagation can be confined to the inside of a building is another interesting application of radio propagation for information security [ 92 ].

Although in past decade these cyberspace applications of Wi-Fi signals have attracted significant intellectual attention for research, the commercial market is still waiting for a “Killer App” like Wi-Fi positioning and tracking. The industry is waiting for the next popular application of Wi-Fi signals to enhance cyberspace intelligence further.

5 Conclusions

In this paper we presented a historical perspective of the evolution of Wi-Fi technology in the way that the principal author experienced it (and subsequently the second author) since the inception of this industry in early 1980’s. The paper was prepared as a part of a special issue on the 25 anniversaries of the International Journal of Wireless Information Networks, which was established in 1994 as the first journal fully devoted to wireless networks. In the paper, we began by describing how Wi-Fi has impacted our daily lives and why it is playing this important role. Then we discussed how the dominant physical layer wireless communication technologies, wireless optical, spread spectrum, OFDM and MIMO, and mmWave UWB technologies, were first implemented in the IEEE 802.11 standards for Wi-Fi and how indoor radio propagation studies were conducted to enable these technologies. The rest of the paper illustrated how the RF cloud propagated from Wi-Fi devices enabled important cyberspace applications. We began this part by describing how Wi-Fi positioning revolutionized indoor geolocation science and technology. Then we explained how the RF cloud of Wi-Fi devices has enabled diverse cyberspace applications such as motion and gesture detection as well as authentication and security to hopefully lead the way to another revolution in human computer interfacing.

A version of this paper was originally presented as a keynote speech entitled “Evolution of Wi-Fi Access and Localization – A Historical Perspective”, IEEE VTC, Boston, MA, May 6, 2015. Material presented further evolved in other keynote speeches, the last one in Cybercon’19, Beijing, China, December 16, 2019.

In the recent pandemic, parents and children are using Wi-Fi for work and school, and its untethered feature has made a big difference to the way people have coped with social distancing and quarantines.

We use the term UWB differently here than before, where extremely narrow pulses of bandwidth on the order of a GHz are used for fine grained localization. The term UWB is also now used by commercial 5G systems differently.

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Pahlavan, K., Krishnamurthy, P. Evolution and Impact of Wi-Fi Technology and Applications: A Historical Perspective. Int J Wireless Inf Networks 28 , 3–19 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10776-020-00501-8

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What is 5G?

Fifth time’s the charm: 5G—or fifth-generation wireless technology— is powering the Fourth Industrial Revolution . Sure, 5G is faster than 4G. But 5G is more than just (a lot) faster: the connectivity made possible with 5G is significantly more secure and more stable than its predecessors. Plus, 5G enables data to travel from one place to another with a significantly shorter delay between data submission and arrival—this delay is known as latency.

Here are a few big numbers from the International Telecommunications Union . 5G networks aim to deliver:

• 1,000 times higher mobile data volume per area
• 100 times the number of connected devices
• 100 times higher user data rate
• ten times longer battery life for low-power massive-machine communications
• five times reduced end-to-end latency

Here’s how it works: like all cellular networks, the service area of 5G networks is divided into geographic sub-areas called cells. Each cell has local antennae, through which all wireless devices in the cell are connected to the internet and telephone network via radio waves. To achieve its very high speeds, 5G utilizes low- and midbands on the radio spectrum  (below six gigahertz), as well as whole new bands of the radio spectrum . These are so-called “millimeter waves,” broadcast at frequencies between 30 and 300 gigahertz, which have previously been used only for communication between satellites and radar systems.

Cell phone companies began deploying 5G in 2019. In the United States, 5G coverage is already available in many areas . And, while previous generation 2G and 3G technology is still in use, 5G adoption is accelerating: according to various predictions, 5G networks will have billions of subscribers by 2025.

But 5G can do more than enable faster loading of cat videos. This new speed and responsiveness—and the connectivity solutions it makes possible—is poised to transform a wide variety of industries.

Learn more about our Technology, Media & Telecommunications Practice .

How will 5G be used?

To date, 5G will enable four key use-case archetypes , which will require 5G to deliver on its promise of evolutionary change in network performance. They are:

• Enhanced mobile broadband . The faster speed, lower latency, and greater capacity 5G makes possible could enable on-the-go, ultra-high-definition video, virtual reality, and other advanced applications.
• Internet of Things (IoT) . Existing cellular networks are not able to keep up with the explosive growth in the number of connected devices, from smart refrigerators to devices monitoring battery levels on manufacturing shop floors. 5G will unlock the potential of IoT by enabling exponentially more connections at very low power.
• Mission-critical control . Connected devices are increasingly used in applications that require absolute reliability, such as vehicle safety systems or medical devices. 5G’s lower latency and higher resiliency mean that these time-critical applications will be increasingly reliable.
• Fixed wireless access . The speeds made possible by 5G make it a viable alternative to wired broadband in many markets, particularly those without fiber optics.

How might 5G and other advanced technologies impact the world?

If 5G is deployed across just four commercial domains—mobility, healthcare, manufacturing, and retail—it could boost global GDP by up to $2 trillion by 2030. Most of this value will be captured with creative applications of advanced connectivity.

Here are the four commercial domains with some of the largest potential to capture higher revenues or cost efficiencies:

• Connectivity will be the foundation for increasingly intelligent mobility systems, including carsharing services, public transit, infrastructure, hardware and software, and more. Connectivity could create new revenue streams through preventive maintenance, improved navigation and carpooling services, and personalized “infotainment” offerings.
• Devices and advanced networks with improved connectivity could transform the healthcare industry. Seamless data flow and low-latency networks could mean better robotic surgery. AI-powered decision support tools can make faster and more accurate diagnoses, as well as automate tasks so that caregivers can spend more time with patients. McKinsey analysis estimates that these use cases together could generate up to $420 billion in global GDP impact by 2030 .
• Low-latency and private 5G networks can power highly precise operations in manufacturing and other advanced industries . Smart factories powered by AI , analytics, and advanced robotics can run at maximum efficiency, optimizing and adjusting processes in real time. New features like automated guided vehicles and computer-vision-enhanced bin picking and quality control require the kind of speed and latency provided by high-band 5G. By 2030, the GDP impact in manufacturing could reach up to $650 billion .
• Retailers can use technology like sensors, trackers, and computer vision to manage inventories, improve warehouse operations, and coordinate along the supply chain. Use cases like connectivity-enhanced in-store experiences and real-time personalized recommendations could boost global GDP up to $700 billion by 2030 .

The use cases identified in these commercial domains alone could boost global GDP by up to $2 trillion by 2030 . The value at stake could ultimately run trillions of dollars higher across the entire global economy.

Beyond industry, 5G connectivity has important implications for society. Enabling more people to plug into global flows of information, communication, and services could add another $1.5 trillion to $2 trillion to GDP . This stands to unlock greater human potential and prosperity, particularly in developing nations .

Learn more about our Technology, Media & Telecommunications  Practice.

What are advanced connectivity and frontier connectivity?

Advanced connectivity is propelled by the continued evolution  of existing connectivity technologies, as networks are built out and adoption grows. For instance, providers are upgrading existing 4G infrastructure with 5G network overlays, which generally offer improvements in speed and latency while supporting a greater density of connected devices. At the same time, land-based fiber optic networks continue to expand, enabling faster data connections all over the world.

Introducing McKinsey Explainers : Direct answers to complex questions

On the other hand, frontier technologies like millimeter-wave 5G and low-earth-orbit satellite constellations offer a more radical leap forward . Millimeter-wave 5G is the ultra-fast mobile option, but comes with significant deployment challenges. Low-earth-orbit (LEO) satellites could deliver a breakthrough in breadth of coverage. LEO satellites work by beaming broadband down from space, bringing coverage to remote parts of the world where physical internet infrastructure doesn’t make sense for a variety of reasons. Despite the promise of LEO technology, challenges do remain, and no commercial services are yet available.

How are telecommunications players grappling with the transition to 5G?

5G promises better connectivity for consumers and organizations. Network providers, on the other hand, are resigned  to higher costs to deploy 5G infrastructure before they can reap the benefits. This cycle has happened before: with the advent of 4G, telcos in Europe and Latin America reported decreased revenues.

Given these realities, telecommunications players are working to develop their 5G investment strategies . In order to achieve the speed, latency, and reliability required by most advanced applications, network providers will need to invest in all network domains, including spectrum, radio access network infrastructure, transmission, and core networks. More specifically, operators will increasingly share more parts of the network, including towers, backhaul, and even spectrum and radio access, through so-called MOCN (Multi-Operator Core Network) or MORAN (Multi-Operator Radio Access Network) deals. This is a 5G-specific way for operators to cope with higher investment burdens at flat revenues.

Some good news: 5G technology is largely built on 4G networks, which means that mobile operators can simply evolve their infrastructure investment  rather than start from scratch. For instance, operators could begin by upgrading the capacity of their existing 4G network by refarming a portion of their 2G and 3G spectrum, thereby delaying investments in 5G. This would allow operators to minimize investments while the revenue potential of 5G remains uncertain.

How will telecommunications players monetize 5G in the B2C market?

The rise of 5G also presents an opportunity for telecommunications players to shift their customer engagement. As they reckon with the costs of 5G, they also must reimagine how to charge customers for 5G . The B2B 5G revolution is already under way; in the B2C market, the value proposition of 5G is less clear. That’s because there is no 5G use case compelling enough, at the present time, to transform the lives of people not heavily invested in gaming, for instance.

But despite the uncertainty, McKinsey has charted a clear path  for telecommunications organizations to monetize 5G in the B2C sector. There are three models telcos might pursue, which could increase average revenue per user by up to 20 percent:

• Impulse purchases and “business class” plans . 5G technology will allow telcos to move away from standard monthly subscriptions toward flexible plans that allow for customers to upgrade network performance when and where they feel the urge. Business class plans could feature premium network conditions at all times. According to McKinsey analysis, 7 percent of customers  are already ready to use 5G boosters, and would use them an average of seven times per month if each boost cost $1.
• Selling 5G-enabled experiences . The speeds and latency of 5G make possible streamlined and seamless experiences such as multiplayer cloud gaming, real-time translation, and augmented reality (AR) sports streaming. McKinsey research shows that customers are willing to pay  for these 5G-enabled experiential use cases, and more.
• Using partnerships to deliver 5G-enabled experiences . When assessing customer willingness to pay for 5G cloud gaming, McKinsey analysis showed that 74 percent of customers  would prefer buying a 5G service straight from the game app rather than from their mobile provider. To create a seamless experience for customers, telcos could embed 5G connectivity directly into their partners’ apps or devices. This could greatly expand telecommunications organizations’ customer base.

How has COVID-19 impacted connectivity IoT?

For one thing, the pandemic has created the need for applications with the advanced connectivity that only 5G can provide. Among other things, 5G enables the types of applications that help leaders understand whether their workforces are safe and which devices have been connected to the network and by whom.

Advanced connectivity technologies like 5G also stand to enable remote healthcare , although, ironically, the pandemic has also eaten up the resources necessary to create the infrastructure to implement it.

During the pandemic, Industry 4.0 frontrunners have done very well. This illustrates the fact that digital first businesses are nimbler and better prepared to react to unforeseen challenges.

Learn more about our Healthcare Systems & Services  Practice.

How can advanced electronics companies and industrials benefit from 5G?

The 5G Internet of Things (IoT)  B2B market, and its development over the coming years, offer significant opportunities for advanced electronics organizations. 5G IoT refers to industrial use-case archetypes enabled by the faster, more stable, and more secure connectivity available with 5G. McKinsey analyzed the events surrounding the introduction of 4G and other technologies, looking for clues about how 5G might evolve in the industry.

We found that many companies will derive great value from 5G IoT, but it will come in waves . The first 5G IoT use-case archetypes to gain traction will be those related to enhanced mobile broadband, followed shortly thereafter by use cases for ultra-reliable, low-latency communication. Finally, use cases for massive machine-type communication will take several more years. The businesses best placed to benefit from the growth of 5G include mobile operators, network providers, manufacturing companies, and machinery and industrial automation companies.

The B2B sector is especially well placed to benefit from 5G IoT. The most relevant short-term opportunities for 5G IoT involve Industry 4.0 , or the digitization of manufacturing and other production processes. The Industry 4.0 segment will account for sales of about 22 million 5G IoT units by 2030, with most applications related to manufacturing.

In order to take advantage of the opportunity, advanced electronics companies should look now to revamping their strategies . In the short-term, they should focus on B2B cases that are similar to those now being deployed in the B2C sector. Looking ahead, they should shift their focus toward developing hardware and software tailored to specific applications. But expanding the business field is always something that should be done with great care and consideration.

How will 5G impact the manufacturing industry?

There are five potential applications that are particularly relevant  for manufacturing organizations:

• Cloud control of machines . In the past, automation of machines in factories has relied on controllers that were physically installed on or near machines, which would then send information to computer networks. With 5G, this monitoring can in theory be done in the cloud, although these remain edge cases for now.
• Augmented reality . Seamless AR made possible by 5G connectivity will ultimately replace standard operating procedures currently on paper or video. These will help shop-floor workers undertake advanced tasks without waiting for specialists.
• Perceptive AI eyes on the factory floor . 5G will allow for live video analytics based on real-time video data streaming to the cloud.
• High-speed decisioning. The best-run factories rely on massive data lakes to make decisions. 5G accelerates the decision-cycle time, allowing massive amounts of data to be collected, cleaned, and analyzed in close to real time.
• Shop-floor IoTs . The addition of sensors to machines on factory floors means more data than ever before. The speeds made possible by 5G will allow for the operationalization of these new data.

Learn more about our Operations  Practice.

For a more in-depth exploration of these topics, see McKinsey’s Technology, Media & Telecommunications Practice. Also check out 5G-related job opportunities if you’re interested in working at McKinsey.

Articles referenced:

• “ Unlocking the value of 5G in the B2C marketplace ,” November 5, 2021, Ferry Grijpink , Jesper Larsson, Alexandre Ménard , and Konstantin Pell
• “ Connected world: An evolution in connectivity beyond the 5G revolution ,” February 20, 2020, Ferry Grijpink , Eric Kutcher , Alexandre Ménard , Sree Ramaswamy, Davide Schiavotto , James Manyika , Michael Chui , Rob Hamill, and Emir Okan
• The 5G era: New Horizons for advanced electronics in industrial companies , February 21, 2020, Ondrej Burkacky , Stephanie Lingemann, Alexander Hoffmann, and Markus Simon
• “ Five ways that 5G will revolutionize manufacturing ,” October 18, 2019, Enno de Boer , Sid Khanna , Andy Luse , Rahul Shahani , and Stephen Creasy
• “ Cutting through the 5G hype: Survey shows telcos’ nuanced views ,” February 13, 2019, Ferry Grijpink , Tobias Härlin, Harrison Lung, and Alexandre Ménard
• “ The road to 5G: The inevitable growth of infrastructure cost ,” February 23, 2018, Ferry Grijpink , Alexandre Ménard , Halldor Sigurdsson , and Nemanja Vucevic
• “ Are you ready for 5G? ,” February 22, 2018, Mark Collins, Arnab Das, Alexandre Ménard , and Dev Patel

Want to know more about 5G?

Related articles.

Connected world: An evolution in connectivity beyond the 5G revolution

Unlocking the value of 5G in the B2C marketplace

What is the Internet of Things?

Wireless Technology Essays

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Communications and Media: Wireless Technologies Essay

Introduction, social media, voice and messaging, works cited.

Wireless technologies are attracting attention because wireless components can provide temporal connections to an existing cabled network, they can help provide backup to an existing network; extending the degree of portability hence taking the network beyond the limits of physical connectivity. There are vast ranges of wireless technologies being adopted by individuals and even cooperate companies, and the question is, “Wireless technology is here with us, what next?”. Therefore in this context, we specifically explain the importance and the issues surrounding two such technologies; Social media and Voice and Messaging.

Following the advent of the Internet, individuals felt the need to extend the advantages of the devices interconnectivity through sharing information and social life experiences. In essence people use tools like social networks in order to see and to be seen in a social interaction design. The Social Media merges direct and urgent communication interests of people with the indirect or mediated means of production of media’s conceptual forms, thus presenting a good environment for wireless connectivity. Social media also promote the authenticity and truth that interpersonal communication posses, and which can only be imitated by mass media (Chan, 4)

In response to the consumer behaviors, preferences and acceptance, social software systems are different in their theme, user interface as well as their genre. For instance, dating sites such as afrointroduction.com and enharmony.com, deal extensively on personal information. Career connectivity sites like linkedin.com focus on individuals also, but presents only the professional details required. Both these networks are therefore biographical and representational. Facebook and Myspace deal dynamically with people as compared to other sites, for they produce social networks: groups, events, news and scenes. Blogging and discussion sites such as techrepublic.com also engage in the news generation, emphasizing different viewpoints, perceptions and expertise more than an individual’s personality. Social media such as YouTube engage users in their content by presenting clips, ripped movies and music posted by them. Chan asserts that the social media enables a two way communication as opposed to the mass media (5). Therefore social media can be used for marketing, advertising, entertainment, communication and playing social games.

However, the social media requires higher bandwidth because of a two way transmission of content. In regards to security, this kind of technology raises ethical issues in relation to privacy of individuals’ data. The advancement of network through this technology enables individuals or organizations to reproduce data from one location to another and accessing personal data from remote locations. This means that the social media has made some laws obsolete or severely crippled. Also many people in offices find it easy to watch internet video and chat with friends through these media; this affects the throughput of a company leading to unattained goals. Moreover, Social media is deemed to be a technology that will continue to enhance the communication and relationships among societies.

Because of the need for faster and reliable transmission of information between distant locations, technologists came up with an easier way of conveying voice and message which takes advantage of wireless connectivity. Voice and Messaging technologies enable users to communicate through voice and messages. Examples of these technologies include pagers, phones and duplex business radios. Gupta outlines that, voice and messaging devices can be categorized as under, analog or digital depending on the way in which they encode and decode signals. Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) is an analog standard. And the digital protocols are Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), and Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA). The operations of these devices are within networks which are operated by carriers.

AMPS standard is designed on the early electromagnetic radiation spectrum that assigns frequency ranges within 800 and 900 Megahertz (MHz) spectrum to cellular telephone. This enables the service providers of voice and messaging to receive and transmit signals between cellular phones by using the allocated frequency ranges (Gutpa). As a result of the pitfalls of analog systems, the digital systems were invented in order to support encryption, compression and Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) compatibility. One of such is the GSM network which functions in the 1850 to 1990MHz frequency range. The CDMA converts voice into digital information; which is then transmitted over wireless network as a radio signal.

This technology offers choices to individuals, service providers and phone manufacturing companies. It is therefore difficult to enjoy the features of GSM if you have a phone which does not support the service; making choices are sometimes hard especially when it comes to cost. Though, mobile phones today have advanced features like camera, internet accessibility, games and even music at a reduced price hence making wirelessly affordable. Sometimes this type of is prone to transmission impairments such as noise and distortion especially in analog signals and more so people tend to lie on the phone and such like devices; this reduces the rate of loyalty to voice and messaging products among consumers. In essence, the voice and messaging technology is deemed to increase the dynamism of communications systems.

The inherent difficulty of setting up cable networks is a factor that will continue to push wireless environments towards greater acceptance. Wireless connectivity can be useful for networking busy locations such as reception areas, distant buildings having users who collaborate in some way, even historic buildings structures for which it is difficult to lay cables.

Chan, Adrian. “Social Media, Mass Media” . Social Integration Design Reading Notes. (2007): 4-11. 2009. Web.

Gupta, Ruchi. Wireless Technologies: Voice and Messaging. 1999. Web.

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Wireless Technology Essay

Some of the most common forms of wireless communication include cell phones, pagers, Global Positioning System (GPS), wireless mice, printers, and keyboards, VCR control and TV remote controls, FM receivers, vehicle door openers, wireless local area networks (LANs), and satellite TV. However, there are more advanced forms of wireless technology such as Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM), General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), Enhanced Data GSM Environment (EDGE), Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) and the I-Mode (Santos & Block 2012).

Wireless technologies can be divided into four categories:

• The fixed wireless – mainly operate devices at home and office environment. They include equipment that is connected via modems.
• The mobile wireless – mainly used while in motion and include the motorized cell phones used in vehicles.
• The portable wireless – they are easy to carry from place to place. They include the personal cell phones.
• Devices that relay data via infrared radiation and Bluetooth technology.

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Technology and Productivity

Wireless technology has had a tremendous influence on my life. The use of these technologies has had a number of positive effects on my productivity as discussed. Firstly, wireless technologies have enabled the sharing of data between phones and PCs through the use of infrared and Bluetooth technologies. This sharing of data, include Word and PDF documents, video and audio files, pictures, has not only made it easier for one to transfer data but also led to the saving of the all-important time resource. I have also been able to improve my research potential, as well as the timely acquisition of information from all over the world. The WI-FI technology that is used in laptops and cellular phones has made it cheap and easy for students to gather all the information they might need.

In addition to the above benefits, my communication with friends and relatives is now cheaper, easier, and more convenient. I have been able to call my friends and relatives, send emails to friends, family and also receive assignments and submit them without any personal meeting with my tutors. This has lowered the costs associated with meeting people physically thus saving time as well.

Furthermore, with the emergence of social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn that employ the use of these wireless technologies, I have been able to chat and convey important information to my friends and relatives cheaply and conveniently. I have also been in a position to know what is happening around the world faster than before. Hence, I have been well-informed, as well as have managed to inform others on what’s going around my vicinity.

On top of that, with online wireless technology, I have been able to offer data entry services and essay writing services without having to meet with the clients physically. Thus, I have been able to earn money at the comfort of my home. Therefore, with wireless technologies, I have also been able to use wireless modes of payment such as mobile banking, PayPal, credit and debit cards, as well as Bank ATM cards. Thus, I have been able to purchase and pay for goods without dealing with cash. I have also received money from all over the world without meeting with the sender physically.

Moreover, the wireless technologies have also helped me get Forex reports without having to visit the Forex market, thus, saving on time and energy and, hence, channeling the same elsewhere. Further, with these technologies, I have been able to attend meetings via video conferencing. The technology of video conferencing improves productivity in the sense that a person can participate in discussions, arguments, and debates without having to spend time and money like in boardroom meetings.

With the use of wireless technology, my car has been made safer with the installation of car tracking device. This device has improved my productivity by eliminating the potential threat of it being stolen and also saving on the money that would have been used to pay for insurance premiums. Wireless technology has also improved my home security with the security alarms and CCTV cameras installed and, thus, not requiring the physical presence of a home guard. This has enabled me to save on the cost of hiring a home guard since the alarms are automated and can convey messages in case of unfamiliar faces.

The use of satellite TV has also enabled me to access the global TV channels. Thus, I receive global news, watch music channels, documentaries, reality TV shows, as well as sporting events from all over the world. This has improved my productivity by providing me with the necessary avenues for spending my leisure time without having to go out and spend more money.

The other benefit of wireless technology is that it has also enabled me to purchase and download movies and music albums within minutes of their release without having to visit music or film stores. This has enabled me to save on the time required for the physical purchase, as well as making me up-to-date.

The use of voice, facial, and fingerprint recognition devices has also enabled people to save money that would otherwise be needed to make spare keys for each staff in the company. Furthermore, it makes it easier for firms to operate without the need for additional security checks and identification cards. Therefore, in the long run, there will be improved security in the entire premise.

Wireless technology has also enabled me to read and access newspapers, journals, books, and magazines. This has helped me increase productivity on my part since I can read whatever news I might want/need from all over the world without physically purchasing numerous volumes of information which would be not only bulky, but also very expensive.

Wireless technology has also enabled me to receive radio and television signals to my laptop when I am away from home. This, in the long run, has proved to be beneficial since I am always in line with the current affairs from wherever I might be.

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Current Problems that Technology Can Solve

At the moment, there are a number of issues and challenges that I am facing, and the wireless technology is the only possible solution. Despite the availability of the network connectivity, it is still hard for companies to allow their staff to operate fully from the comfort of their homes. With improvements in the conferencing technologies like Skype, most companies can operate a virtual staff.

On top of that, with the hardships involved in charging of phones, car batteries, and other devices when away from home, it is necessary to employ the infrared technology and use solar power to solve the issue (Iniewski 2007).

The problem of theft of equipment and information on companies through burglary can also be solved easily using the wireless technology. In this case, companies can enable their employees go home with special gadgets and carry this information with them.

The use of drones, which use wireless remote controls in warfare or spraying the agricultural land, is still underestimated. However, if it is allowed, there will be an improvement in efficiency of warfare and agricultural production since there since they will require less staff, as well as fewer risks involved.

Though there have been a tremendous improvement in medicine and surgery, the impact of wireless technology has been felt, but with a lot of cautions. For instance, the use of radiology technology has been used to cure cancer in its early stages. With scientific improvements to these technologies, most of the modern diseases will be completely wiped out in the nearest future. Furthermore, there are studies on how to use wireless implants for human beings (Peckham 2013).

Most of the wireless communication devices, however, do not offer the privacy required by their users. For instance, several people can view whatever one is reading in an online magazine.

Another problem involved with wireless technology is the vast number of devices that are required sometimes. This includes chargers, wireless routers, and modems, among many others. Therefore, with the improvement in wireless technology, it would be possible for creating universal chargers both for laptops and phones. This way, if a charger is lost, one will not need to buy a new one but will just use another phone charger even if they are not similar (Peckham 2013).

Last but not least, wireless technology has the ability to lead to wireless charging, which in essence can help reduce the hazardous wires. On the positive side, the companies like Enocean have started creating devices that do not even require charging. Their devices use alternative energy sources, for example, the temperature differences and vibrations to power their sensors.

The Future of Wireless Technology

There are numerous wireless technologies that I would like to see in the future. The devices currently giving scientists sleepless nights on the incorporation of wireless technology are the mobile wireless charging portal, charging system for the electric cars and trains, and wireless recharging system for roads that use renewable energy for recharging the motor vehicles that pass over the road panels (Lepton 2013).

In addition to these, there should be laser communication systems to replace the existing wired fiber-optic cables. This laser technology employs the use of a beam of concentrated light (Lepton 2013). In addition, with the growth in demand for the space tourism, space ships and satellites will have to be installed with laser beams, which will serve to improve the scientific knowledge on the space objects like asteroids, stars, and planets. Thus, they will be an enhanced security against space objects in the future (Lepton 2013).

Even though people with disabilities, at the present moment, can live on computers by connecting the neurons of their brain cells through the electrochemical process, there is light at the end of the tunnel that this process will become completely wireless (Lepton 2013).

Another scenario expected in the near future is the 5G technology to help improve the existing 4G technology. Samsung, the pioneer company to introduce 5G, says that the technology could help increase the download speed up to Gigabits per second. Thus, it will shorten the time needed to download and stream movies live (Sande 2013).

Some other notable future application of the wireless technology is in valve communication. Manufacturers that use valves in their production process will no longer need to employ people to monitor such valves. They will be monitored electronically (Jensen 2010).

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The use of wireless technology since the 19th century up to modern days has been very beneficial to mankind. People have been able to relay information over thousands of miles away. Furthermore, these technologies have made a breakthrough in the field of medicine and surgery and thus improving the healthcare and hence saving lives. There has also been scientific research going on in the outer space which has been enhanced by the use of wireless technology. Devices such as Smartphones have monitors for blood sugar levels, thermometers, and blood pressure detectors, which ensure that their users stay healthy and aware of their health conditions.

However, despite all the benefits that have been brought about by wireless technology, there is a looming danger of a ‘spectrum crunch’ (Swain 2013). This spectrum crunch is a situation where there is a crash in the communication networks due to an overload in data shared. This scenario was almost faced during the 2012 London Olympics. According to the data provided by, there is a looming possibility of a spectrum crunch by 2020.

Nevertheless, the benefits brought about by the wireless technology exceed the costs spent by a wide gap. Therefore, people should embrace these technological changes with open arms.

Wireless Network Technology and its Applications

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Home — Essay Samples — Information Science and Technology — 5G Technology — A Review of 5G wireless technology

A Review of 5g Wireless Technology

• Categories: 5G Technology Mobile Phone

About this sample

Words: 795 |

Published: Jan 29, 2019

Words: 795 | Pages: 2 | 4 min read

Table of contents

Comparision of 4g and 5g:.

• 5G technology use remote management that user can get better and fast solution.
• The uploading and downloading speed of 5Gtechnology is very high.
• 5G technology offer high resolution for crazy cell phone user and bi-directional large bandwidth shaping.
• 5G technology offer transporter class gateway with unparalleled consistency.

Advantages of 5G:

• High resolution and bi-directional large bandwidth shaping.
• Technology to gather all networks on one platform.
• More effective and efficient.
• Technology to facilitate subscriber supervision tools for the quick action.
• Most likely, will provide a huge broadcasting data (in Gigabit), which will support more than 60,000 connections.
• Easily manageable with the previous generations.
• Technological sound to support heterogeneous services (including private network).
• Possible to provide uniform, uninterrupted, and consistent connectivity across the world.

Disadvantages of 5G:

• Technology is still under process and research on its viability is going on.
• The speed, this technology is claiming seems difficult to achieve because of the incompetent technological support in most parts of the world.
• Many of the old devices would not be competent to 5G hence; all of them need to be replaced with new one deal.
• Developing infrastructure needs high cost.

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Essay on Wireless technology

Wireless technologies and the growth of popularity of portable devices such as smartphones and tablets have created a variety of opportunities in the modern world. Wireless communications are changing the world because wireless devices are convenient, easy to use and can provide interconnectivity in virtually any place. Among the segments which are assumed to change dramatically due to the use of wireless technology one can name environmental protection, entertainment, business communications, sales, news reporting and healthcare.

The purpose of this paper is to discuss current and emerging wireless medical technologies, to describe wireless components in healthcare that are required for creating added business value, assess the changes to staffing and training in healthcare associated with the increasing use of wireless technologies, analyze potential challenges pertaining to wireless networks in healthcare institutions and methods of addressing these challenges.

Current and emerging wireless medical technologies

The use of wireless technologies in healthcare has numerous advantages: medical information can be delivered and shared in any setting, medical information and guidelines can be quickly distributed; wireless devices create space for such interconnectivity that could never be provided by wired devices. Wireless healthcare devices can be used for more advanced diagnostics, can deliver information between the patient and the healthcare institution in a continuous way, etc. One wireless device can implement several functions (e.g. providing medical information, gathering healthcare records, delivering physician’s recommendations, collecting statistics, etc.).

The integration of wireless technologies in healthcare is a very promising trend which might lead to a healthcare revolution. A notable invention are the Medical Body Area Network (MBAN) devices – special wearable sensors that collect various information about the patient, starting with respiratory functions and pulse and ending with ECG data (Information Week, 2012). Such novel approach to monitoring health will help to collect accurate medical information, diagnose patients in a better way, provide timely help in critical situations, etc.

Wireless technologies might be used to develop in-house wireless devices that have the potential to enhance performance inside healthcare organizations; for example, wireless connections can help to synchronize actions and information for anesthesiologists, surgeons, etc. Along with sharing information and tracking the patient’s state, wireless devices can be used to track provider care activities and data, to report the status of equipment and other devices, to integrate data from other devices into a global network, to perform drug tracking and other analytical functions (Cooper & Fuchs, 2013). Furthermore, wide use of smartphones and other WiFi enabled devices allows to create healthcare apps for exchanging healthcare information into one system. According to Terry (2012), the major growth of healthcare wireless industry is expected when healthcare providers fully adopt this technology and master processing of patient data and acting instantly basing on these data. Such interactivity might transform the whole approach to healthcare and turn it into a continuous process guided by healthcare institutions.

Wireless components needed for added business value

The technologies used for wireless healthcare devices include WiFi (IEEE 802.11x), Bluetooth, RFID et al. As a minimum, the components needed for added business value of healthcare wireless devices include wireless hardware, means of connecting this hardware to WLAN or WAN and software for handling the connections, measurements and data exchange. Additional components might include various sensors, assistive devices, wearable components, extensions, etc (Going wireless: five perspectives on the challenges in healthcare technology, 2013). In the case of data collection and processing  on the provider’s side, there is a need for access points for wireless connections and a server authenticating and/or processing wireless requests.

Additional staffing and support requirements

The integration of wireless technologies in healthcare is likely to change the requirements to staffing and training of healthcare professionals. Medical professionals will have to be able to connect wireless devices, to use them, to collect data and send these data to the server. Professionals in data processing and data analysis will be in need. Furthermore, the changes of healthcare infrastructure will require hiring more IT professionals who will manage the wireless network, maintain network security, establish proper controls to secure the delivery of patient care, etc.

The need for software developers with healthcare expertise is increasing as the evolving set of wireless technologies should be made live with the relevant software. Regular healthcare professions will have to receive additional training on wireless devices; healthcare professionals should also be prepared to explain the new methods to the patients and show the basics of working with wireless devices to them.

Potential technical and regulatory problems and methods of their mitigation

Active and prolonged use of wireless technologies might also create risks for the patients’ health due to the novelty of wireless technologies and the lack of longitudinal research showing the impact of waves of the target spectrum on human beings. It is recommended to conduct studies on volunteers and/or laboratory animals in order to assess the long-term impact of radio frequencies.

According to Cooper and Fuchs (2013), the dependence of care delivery on wireless systems represents a significant threat to the healthcare itself as the errors or breaches in a wireless system might create an additional health risk for patients. In order to mitigate this risk, it is necessary to establish additional controls for wireless systems and include verification activities in the software handling data from wireless healthcare devices (Going wireless: five perspectives on the challenges in healthcare technology, 2013).

One of the potential problems is the regulation and use of different spectrum bands by wireless healthcare devices. Devices working on the same frequency might “crowd out” each other from the channel, while the devices working on too different frequencies might be unable to exchange information. One of the possible methods of addressing this challenge is the introduction of standards for the spectrum band use by healthcare wireless devices.

There exist several consensus groups which unite the manufacturers of medical devices, healthcare professionals and users is Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) (Witters, 2006). Another consensus group is FCC that proposed rules for dedicating a specific band of frequency spectrum to wireless devices in healthcare (Information Week, 2012). Due to these regulations, it will be possible to enhance the reliability of such devices and their interconnectivity.

The risks of wireless network failure can be addressed with the help of quality of service (QoS) technology use, with the help of data integrity maintenance, using various means of reducing electromagnetic emission and its effects and enhancing wireless network security with the help of secure authentication, encryption and accountability policies (Witters, 2011). Overall, the field of wireless healthcare technology is rapidly evolving and it is likely that wireless devices will change the whole approach to care delivery in the future.

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WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY Essay

ABSTRACT The development of wireless networks improves the performance of the company. At the moment, the company focuses on the wide use of wi-fi, the development of the intranet, security systems based on the use of wireless technology, and wireless energy transfer.

INTRODUCTION Today, the development of wireless technologies opens larger opportunities for the business development and for the development of the effective communication within the company as well as between the company and customers. At this point, the company needs to define clearly wireless technologies to be used. In this respect, the company should focus on several strategic directions of the development of its wireless network, including the wide use of wi-fi, the development of the intranet, security systems based on the use of wireless technology, and wireless energy transfer. WI-FI In actuality, the use of wi-fi allows the company to maintain the effective communication with customers and business partners because the wi-fi technology provides the company with the fast connection to the internet (Behzad, 2003). Therefore, the company can stay connected and use the full potential of the wireless internet using the wi-fi technology. On the other hand, the wi-fi technology progresses fast and has already become accessible to the large number of the target customers and business partners of the company. INTRANET The use of the wireless technology in the development of the intranet will improve the communication within the company because the communication between employees and managers will occur faster (Andrew, 2003). In such a way, the company can improve internal business operations consistently and reach positive outcomes in its organizational performance. WIRELESS SECURITY SYSTEM On the other hand, this technology raises the problem of the security of information but the modern wireless technology allows developing security systems using wireless technologies. As a result, the company can secure its information using wireless technologies as well. WIRELESS ENERGY TRANSFER Finally, the company can use the wireless energy transfer, which can save costs spent by the company on the maintenance of its wireless network. The wireless energy transfer will also contribute to the formation of a positive public image of the company because consumers grow more and more concerned with the development of wireless technologies and technologies that are environment-friendly. The decrease of the energy consumption by wireless technologies will improve the environmental situation and save costs of the company. In such a way, the company will be able to improve its public image and create positive relationships with its customers. CONCLUSION Thus, taking into account all above mentioned, it is possible to place emphasis on the fact that the development of the wireless technology and wireless network can improve the organizational performance consistently. To put it more precisely, the wireless technologies can improve the company-customer communication, the communication within the company. Moreover, wireless technologies can enhance the security system of the company and save energy that leads to the saving costs and improvement of the public image of the company. As a result, the use of wireless technology is very efficient and prospective for the company.

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Essay on wireless technology

• Post author: manashjyotiblogging
• Post published: 7 September 2023
• Post category: Essay
• Post comments: 0 Comments

Introduction

In today’s fast-paced digital age, In this article we read Essay on Wireless technology. wireless technology has become an integral part of our daily lives. Whether it’s connecting with loved ones, accessing information on the go, or controlling our smart devices, wireless technology paves the way for seamless connectivity. In this blog post, we will delve into the fascinating world of wireless technology, exploring its evolution, benefits, and future possibilities for Essay on wireless technology .

Definition of Wireless technology

Wireless technology provides the ability to communicate between two or more entities over distances without the use of wires or cables of any sort. This includes communications using radio frequency as well as infrared waves. Wireless technology has always been preceded by wire technology and is usually more expensive, but it has provided the additional advantage of mobility, allowing the user to receive and transmit information while on the move.

Wireless Technology: Revolutionizing Connectivity in the Digital Age

The Evolution of Wireless Technology

From radio waves to 5g: a brief history.

Wireless technology traces its roots back to the late 19th century when Guglielmo Marconi introduced the telegraph, utilizing radio waves to transmit signals over long distances. Since then, wireless technology has rapidly evolved, reaching significant milestones along the way.

With the advent of 1G in the 1980s, mobile phones were introduced, offering basic voice communication. Subsequent generations, including 2G, 3G, and 4G, brought significant advancements in data transfer speeds, paving the way for mobile internet and video streaming.

Today, we stand on the brink of another technological leap with the introduction of 5G. Promising unprecedented speeds, low latency, and the ability to connect billions of devices simultaneously, 5G is set to revolutionize the way we live, work, and communicate.

How wireless technology works

Wireless technology is the transfer of information between two or more points without the use of wires or cables. Wireless technology works by using radio waves to carry data through the air Or we can say Wireless technology works by using radio waves to carry data through the air. The information is carried by waves and by modulation technique. Wireless technology use radio frequency (RF) or infrared (IR) waves to communicate.

Here we see electromagnetic spectrum of frequency. we use Radio wave , microwave and infrared for wireless communication according to our uses.

Type of wireless technology

Wireless technology refers to a variety of technologies that transmit data for communicate to each other without wires by using electromagnetic or IR (infrared) waves.  

Satellite communication

Infrared communication.

• Broadcast radio

Microwave communication

Satellite communication is spread all over the world widely to allow users to say connected almost anywhere on the universe. In this communication typical manly A satellite link involves the transmission or called uplinkin signal from an Earth station to a satellite. The satellite then receives that signal and amplifies those signal and retransmits it back to Earth and those transmissions called downlink signal, where it is received and reamplified by Earth stations and terminals. Satellite communications use the very high-frequency. it divided in to following frequency range or also called bands.

• L-band: 1–2 GHz. this band use for mobile communications, navigation, and telemetry.
• S-band: 2–4 GHz , this band use for weather radar, surface ship radar, and some communications satellites.
• C-band: 4–8 GHz this band use for long-distance telephony and television signals
• X-band: 8–12 GHz , this band use for terrestrial broadband, space communications, military radar and some weather applications
• Ku-band: 10.7 GHz to 12.75 GHz last band use for direct broadcast satellite services, satellite internet, and some radar systems.

Infrared communication, which uses infrared light to transfer information between devices or systems. Infrared communication use IR light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength longer than visible light, while shorter than that of microwaves. frequency rang of infrared is between 300 GHZ to 400 THz.

Broadcast radio communication

The first wireless technological communication is the open radio communication to seek out widespread use, and it still serves as a purpose in recent years. Broadcast radio communication uses radio waves to send audio or video signals to receivers. Broadcast radio communication use three types of frequency for broadcasting.

• Longwave AM Radio having frequency range: 148.5 kHz – 283.5 kHz (LF)
• Shortwave AM Radio having frequency range: 3 MHz – 30 MHz (HF)
• Mediumwave AM Radio having frequency range: 520 kHz – 1700 kHz (MF)

Wi-Fi communication

Wi-Fi communication, is a wireless communication used by various electronic like smartphone, laptops, i-pads etc. in this particular setup, a router works as a communication hub wirelessly. Wi-Fi communication uses radio waves to provide wireless internet access to devices within a local area network. Widely used frequency band for Wi-Fi communication is  2.4 GHz .

Microwave communication, which uses microwaves to transmit data or voice signals over long distances. Microwave transmit information by electromagnetic waves witch have wavelengths in the microwave frequency. It ranges from  300 MHz to 300 GHz  mins (1 m – 1 mm wavelength) of the electromagnetic spectrum.

The Advantages of Wireless Technology

Enhanced mobility.

One of the key advantages of wireless technology is the freedom of movement it offers. Gone are the days when we had to be tethered to a desk or a specific location to access the internet or communicate. With wireless networks, we can connect to the internet from virtually anywhere, allowing us to work, learn, and socialize on the go.

Easy Connectivity

Wireless technology has made connectivity effortless. We no longer need to deal with the hassle of cables and wires to establish connections between devices. Whether it’s pairing our smartphones with wireless headphones or syncing our smart home devices, wireless technology simplifies the process, making it accessible to everyone.

Scalability and Flexibility

Wireless networks provide excellent scalability, allowing easy expansion and adaptation to changing needs. Adding new devices to a wireless network is as simple as connecting them to the existing network, without the hassle of rewiring. This flexibility enables seamless integration of new technologies and devices without disrupting the existing infrastructure.

1. Any data or information can be transmitted faster and with a high speed

 2. The internet can be accessed from anywhere wirelessly.

  3. It is a very helpful for workers, doctors, working in remote areas as they can be in touch with medical center.

Disadvantages Advantages of Wireless Technology :

1. An unauthorized person can easily capture the wireless signals which spread through the air.

2. It is very important to secure the wireless network so that the information cannot be misused by unauthorized users.

Applications of Wireless Technology

Internet of things (iot).

Wireless technology plays a vital role in powering the Internet of Things (IoT) revolution. IoT devices, such as smart thermostats, wearables, and security systems, rely on wireless connectivity to communicate and exchange data. This connectivity enables us to create smarter homes, cities, and industries, enhancing efficiency and convenience.

Mobile Communication

The advent of wireless technology paved the way for mobile communication networks. Thanks to wireless networks, we can make calls, send text messages, and access the internet using our smartphones, regardless of our location. This level of connectivity has transformed the way we communicate and stay connected with the world.

Remote Work

Wireless technology has become a lifeline for remote work and telecommuting. With wireless internet access, individuals can work from home, cafes, or anywhere with a stable connection. This flexibility has opened up new opportunities, allowing people to achieve a better work-life balance and eliminating geographical barriers.

The Future of Wireless Technology

As wireless technology continues to evolve, we can expect even more exciting advancements in the future. With the rollout of 5G networks, we can anticipate faster speeds, lower latency, and improved connectivity. This will unlock new possibilities, such as autonomous vehicles, augmented reality, and smart cities, further transforming the way we live and interact with technology.

Wireless technology has undoubtedly revolutionized the way we connect and interact with the world around us. Its advantages, such as enhanced mobility, easy connectivity, and scalability, have made it an indispensable part of our daily lives. As we embrace the future, we can look forward to wireless technology continuing to shape our society and unlock new realms of innovation.

Remember, wireless technology is not just a convenience; it’s a catalyst for progress.

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Essay On 5g Technology: Free Samples Available for Students

• Updated on  
• Dec 29, 2023

Congratulations to the world on the evolution of technology; from the first general-public computer named INIAC in 1945 to 5g technology in 2022, technology has greatly improved and has eased our lives. 5g technology is the advanced version of the 4g LTE (Long Term Evolution) mobile broadband service. We have all grown up from traditional mobile top-ups to digital recharges. According to sources, 5g is 10 times faster than 4g; a 4g connection has a download speed of 1 GBPS (Gigabyte Per Sec) and 5g has 10 GBPS. Below we have highlighted some sample essay on 5g technology.

Table of Contents

• 1 Essay on 5G Technology in 250 words
• 2.0.1 Conclusion
• 3 Benefits of 5G
• 4 10 Lines to Add to Your Essay on Technology

Also Read: Short Speech on Technology for School Students Short Essay on 5g Technology

The fifth generation or 5g technology for mobile networks was deployed all over the world in 2019, with South Korea becoming the first country to adopt it on a large scale. In mobile or cellular networks, the service or operating areas are divided into geographical units termed cells. The radio waves connect all the 5g mobile devices in a cell with the telephone network and the Internet. 

5g is 10 times faster than its predecessor, 4g, and can connect more devices in a particular area. Not only this, it also introduces new technologies such as Massive MIMO (Multiple Input, Multiple Output), beamforming, and network slicing. Before switching to 5g, make sure to remember that 5g is not compatible with 4g devices.

Also Read: Essay on Health and Fitness for Students

Essay on 5G Technology in 250 words

The fifth generation of networks is the 5G network and this network promises to bring faster internet speed, lower latency, and improved reliability to mobile devices. In India, it is expected to have a significant impact on several industries such as healthcare, education, agriculture, entertainment, etc.

5G carries a lot of features such as:-

• Higher speeds: – The 5G network will have wider bandwidth which will allow for more data to flow. Hence, it will result in higher download and upload speeds.
• More capacity :- 5G network, in comparison to 4G, will have greater capacity to hold more network devices. This is very essential as the number of network devices increases each day.
• Lower latency: – 5G network will have much lower latency. This is essential for many tasks such as video conferencing or even online gaming which is a known profession these days. 

Due to all these, a lot of things will have a positive impact. Connectivity will improve and enable even the most rural areas to become connected to the rest of the world. 5G technology will help revolutionise the healthcare industry in India in ways such as telemedicine, remote surgeries, real-time patient monitoring, etc. 

However, like any other innovation, 5G does come with some concerns. There are certain concerns regarding the security of the 5G network, hence Indian Government needs to ensure that this network is safe from all the cyber threats. Also, although not proven, there are some concerns regarding the effects of 5G radiation on health. 

There is no doubt that 5G technology holds immense potential for India. And although there are many challenges to its deployment, the Indian Government and other industry experts should work together to over come these challenges and make the most of this technology.

350 Word Essay on 5g Technology

How significantly technology has improved. 50 years back nobody would have imagined that a mobile connection would allow us to connect anywhere in the world. With 5g technology, we can connect virtually anywhere with anyone in real-time. This advanced broadband connection offers us a higher internet speed, which can reach up to two-digit gigabits per second (Gbps). This increase in internet speed is achieved through the use of higher-frequency radio waves and advanced technologies.

The world of telecommunication is evolving at a very fast pace. 3g connectivity was adopted in 2003, 4g in 2009, and 5g in 2019. the advent of 5G technology represents an enormous leap forward, promising to reshape the way we connect, communicate, and interact with the digital world. 

The 5th Generation of mobile networks stands out from its predecessors in speed, latency, and the capacity to support a larger array of devices and applications. 5g speed is one of the most remarkable features, which allows us to download large amounts of files from the internet in mere seconds. Not only this, it also allows us smoother streaming of HD content and opens the door to transformative technologies.  Augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) experiences, which demand substantial data transfer rates, will become more immersive and accessible with 5G.

What is the difference between 5g and 4g?

The difference between 5g and 4g technologies clearly highlighted in their speed, latency, frequency bands, capacity and multiple other uses.

• The average downloading speed of 4g connectivity was 5 to 1000 Mbps (megabytes per sec). But with 5g, this speed increases 10 times.
• 4G networks had a latency of around 30-50 milliseconds and 5g reduces latency to as low as 1 millisecond or even less.
• 4G networks mainly use lower frequency bands below 6 GHz, but,  5g utilizes a broader range of frequencies, including lower bands (sub-6 GHz) and higher bands (millimeter waves or mmWave).
• 4g was well-suited for broadband applications like web browsing, video streaming, and voice calls. 5g is capable of supporting a large number of applications from smart cities, critical communication services, and applications that demand ultra-reliable low-latency communication.

Benefits of 5G

• Lower Latency: 5G Network will have extremely lower latency compared to that of 4G LTE. This will result in a much more smoother experience in terms of real time communication such as video conferencing or online gaming.
• Faster Speeds : 5G Network is expected to peak at high speeds of around 10 Gbps which is extremely high as compared to that of 4G LTE. This will result in high download as well as upload speeds and much smoother video streaming, etc.
• New Applications: Some applications that were not possible with 4G LTE will now be possible because of 5G such as remote surgery, augmented reality, etc.
• More Capacity: 5G bands can support Much more devices as compared to 4G LTE networks. This is extremely important as the number of connected grows everyday.

Also Read: Essay on Farmer for School Students

10 Lines to Add to Your Essay on Technology

Here are 10 simple and easy quotes on 5g technology. You can add them to your essay on 5g technology or any related writing topic to impress your readers.

• 5g technology is the fifth generation of mobile or cellular networks.
• 5g offers significantly higher download speeds, reaching several gigabits per second.
• 5g technology’s ultra-low latency is one of the most striking features, which can reduce delays to as little as 1 millisecond.
• 5G utilizes a diverse spectrum, including both lower bands (sub-6 GHz) and higher bands (mmWave).
• The increased speed and low latency of 5G support emerging technologies like augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR).
• It enables a massive Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystem, connecting a vast number of devices simultaneously.
• 5G is essential for applications requiring real-time responsiveness, such as autonomous vehicles and remote surgery.
• The deployment of 5G networks is underway globally, transforming how we connect and communicate.
• Smart cities leverage 5G to enhance efficiency through interconnected systems and sensors.
• As the backbone of the digital era, 5G technology is driving innovation and shaping the future of connectivity.

Related Articles

Ans: 5g technology is the advanced generation of the 4g technology. It’s a mobile broadband service, which allows users to have faster access to the internet. Our everyday tasks on the internet will be greatly improved using 5g technology. 5g is 10 times faster than its predecessor, 4g and can connect more devices in a particular area. Not only this, it also introduces new technologies such as Massive MIMO (Multiple Input, Multiple Output), beamforming, and network slicing. Before switching to 5g, make sure to remember that 5g is not compatible with 4g devices.

Ans: 4g technology has a download speed of 5 to 10 Gbps. This broadband service is 10 times faster than its predecessor, 4g.

Ans: 5g is an advanced version of the 4g connectivity in terms of speed, latency, frequency bands, capability, and uses. 4G networks had a latency of around 30-50 milliseconds and 5g reduces latency to as low as 1 millisecond or even less.

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With an experience of over a year, I've developed a passion for writing blogs on wide range of topics. I am mostly inspired from topics related to social and environmental fields, where you come up with a positive outcome.

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• Wireless Technology

Wireless Technology - Essay Example

• Subject: Miscellaneous
• Type: Essay
• Level: Ph.D.
• Pages: 2 (500 words)
• Downloads: 10
• Author: hcarter

Extract of sample "Wireless Technology"

Running head: WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY Wireless Technology 21 December Wireless technologies are becoming commonplace. Millions of businesses and individuals use the benefits of wireless technologies to raise their efficiency, productivity, and speed up their decision-making processes. This paper provides a brief insight into the wireless standards that could convince a business owner to adopt wireless technology. The link between wireless technology and productivity is discussed. The paper evaluates positions and employees that could make best use of wireless technology.

The benefits of wireless technologies in different types of situations are discussed, too. Wireless Technologies Wireless technologies are becoming commonplace. Millions of individuals and businesses apply to the benefits of wireless technology, to raise the efficiency and productivity of their decisions. That wireless technology benefits businesses and improves their productivity is undeniable. Unfortunately, not all business owners are willing to accept and deploy effective wireless systems in their organizations.

Wireless technologies speed up data transmission and are more secure compared with hardware wired mechanisms. The multitude of wireless technology standards makes it possible to find the best solution for each and every worker. The use of wireless technologies is particularly useful for the complex organizations, which comprise numerous departments and are being dispersed over a large territory: in this case, wireless technologies are the only possible way to improving interconnectedness and sharedness of knowledge and data between all levels of the organization’s performance.

The current state of technology provides an extensive list of wireless technologies and standards, which facilitate the choice of the best wireless solution. The use of Wi-Fi, HomeRF and Bluetooth favor the implementation of wireless technologies in business and help businesses to meet their data transmission needs. “Wi-Fi is the most widely used wireless technology at present. It is an IEEE 802.11b wireless standard and can transmit data up to 11 Mbps” (Wells, 2009, p.81). The use of improved Wi-Fi versions is possible, too: for example, WiFi/g and WiFi5 exemplify a relatively new standard of connectivity and can transmit data at almost 54 Mbps (Wells, 2009).

Apparently, there is no need to wait until wireless technologies “settle down”. They have already become an essential ingredient of daily business routine. Undoubtedly, wireless networks can enhance productivity and efficiency within organizations. This is, actually, one of the principal arguments in favor of wireless technologies implementation in the workplace. The link between using wireless technology and improving productivity is easy to see. The growing popularity of wireless technologies grows at the intersection of the two different business realities: on the one hand, employees are becoming dependent on constant interpersonal contacts/ communication and require constant access to computer data to perform their duties successfully (Philips, 2002).

On the other hand, these employees often fail to accomplish their workplace tasks if they are being tied to wired computer equipment, which cannot move with them (Philips, 2002). The task is particularly difficult for manufacturing facilities, where employees need regular access to the newest manufacturing data and, simultaneously, need to keep their eye on the manufacturing process. The use of wireless technologies enhances the efficiency of business operations. Here, globalization adds complexity to the issue: while companies are going global and want to meet the demands of the international market, connectivity and 24-hour customer support is becoming the key to continuous market success (Philips, 2002).

Only wireless technologies can ensure a continuous provision of quality services and products to international customers. What employees can make the best use of wireless technologies is difficult to define. Wireless technologies seem to benefit all employees in all workplace situations, with no exception. Engineers successfully utilize wireless technologies to optimize their operations, reducing the costs of technology installation and maintenance (Becker, 2007). In manufacturing facilities, wireless technology enhances productivity and safety: for example, managers can use wireless technologies to monitor employee location on the plant floor (Becker, 2007).

Wireless technologies facilitate remote control of complex capital-intensive assets (Emmanouilidis, Liyanage & Jantunen, 2009). In retailing situations, employees can enhance their productivity through better communications, better access to essential business data, reduced costs of connection and increased connectivity between business and customers (AT&T, 2006). Financial services professionals welcome the adoption of wireless technologies in the workplace, as long as the latter enhance the security of financial information in the organization and improve the availability of data for financial analysis and reporting.

It goes without saying that wireless technologies move collaboration and cooperation between various organizational departments to the new level of quality thinking. All these benefits confirm the urgency and critical importance of wireless technologies for the future of business. Conclusion Wireless technologies have already become an essential component of everyday business performance. Wireless technology standards provide businesses with an opportunity to choose the best technology option.

That wireless technologies affect productivity is obvious: better communication and collaboration, constant access to business information, and improved security of data transmission add value to any business operation. All employees in all business situations can benefit from wireless technologies. Manufacturing facilities need wireless to enhance safety of their operations, sales management requires wireless to contact customers and suppliers worldwide, financial managers benefit from quick access to financial information.

Wireless technologies move collaboration and cooperation between various organizational departments to the new level of quality thinking. All these benefits confirm the urgency and critical importance of wireless technologies for the future of business.ReferencesAT&T. (2006). The wireless advantage: Industry brief. AT&T. Retrieved from http://www.att.com/Common/merger/files/pdf/Wirelesscasestudies.pdf Becker, J. (2007). Going wireless. Chemical Engineering, 114(12), 34-39. Emmanoulidis, C., Liyanage, J.P. & Jantunen, E. (2009). Mobile solutions for engineering asset and maintenance management.

Journal of Quality in Maintenance Engineering, 15(1), 92-105. Philips, J.T. (2002). Welcome to the new wireless culture. Information Management Journal, 36(1), 64-68. Wells, Q. (2009). Guide to digital home technology integration. Boston: Cengage Learning.

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Interoperability is Key to Effective Emergency Communications

During National Public Safety Telecommunicators Week, we’re sharing updates on S&T efforts focused on getting first responders the information they need quickly.

When it comes to communicating emergency information to and among first responders, interoperability is a problem. In some cases, emergency responders cannot talk to some parts of their own agencies—let alone communicate with agencies in neighboring cities, counties, or states. And when time is of the essence, the results can be catastrophic. But there are other factors that can impede response, and we are keenly focused on addressing each of these with technological solutions.

The 9/11 Commission Report speaks at great length about the issues the lack of interoperability caused. As a result of the Commission Report, there was a significant reorganization of response capabilities, which included the creation of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and, soon after, the Science and Technology Directorate (S&T). We've been on the case ever since, working for and with responders to better understand and deliver on their technology needs.

While all these organizations are working to find a solution, we have multiple efforts underway to support new technologies to help correct for these gaps. For instance, our First Responder Capability portfolio and Technology Centers work with responders across the country on communications solutions. But the challenges are formidable, as jurisdictions manage their own technology across 6,000 911 call centers nationwide.

Wireless: The Wave of the Future

Let’s face it. The future of communications is going to be wireless, and that extends to emergency communications, too.

S&T has been sponsoring research across a number of areas, based on findings in the S&T “Study on Mobile Device Security” Report, which concluded that targeted research and development (R&D) could inform standards to improve security and resilience of critical mobile communications networks. As a result, S&T’s Mobile Security R&D Program established the Secure and Resilient Mobile Network Infrastructure (SRMNI) project and has efforts underway to establish standards for secure voice and video capability for communications across the 3G, 4G, and 5G networks.

Last year, interagency discussions were held that included S&T, Cybersecurity & Infrastructure Security Agency, and the U.S. Department of Defense, among others, to identify lab testing requirements for 5G Emergency Communications interoperability. Then, in early spring of 2024, S&T and MITRE demoed new features in the new 5G ecosystem critical to DHS components and first responder use cases and continued to conduct engineering analysis and lab-based research to identify potential gaps. Research will be ongoing.

So, we are trending forward but are still working on helping aid improvements across traditional networks.

Connectivity is Key

As it stands, CAD-to-CAD (computer-aided dispatch) communications are the key to interoperability and resilience between government agencies responding to emergencies. Once the 911 call or text is answered, the information is sent to CAD, which is used to send the right resource to the right location. Public safety agencies have different CAD systems that don’t always efficiently share information. The result is ineffective and costly interoperable issues across communications systems.

In 2021, S&T funded a successful CAD-to-CAD interoperability pilot project run by the Integrated Justice Information Systems (IJIS) Institute to apply a single standard across municipalities to achieve interoperability. This pilot was successful in testing this theory by applying specifications across three localities – two in New Hampshire and one in Vermont, all three reliant on an InfoCAD™ environment hosted in the Amazon GovCloud. Through testing of two use cases – a three- or four-alarm fire and a medical emergency – IJIS demonstrated a viable solution in a live environment.  

Our Office of Mission and Capability Support will be conducting market research within the next few months on CAD-to-CAD Interoperability Compliance / Conformance testing. This upcoming effort is part of a five-year research & development portfolio under S&T’s Critical Infrastructure Security & Resilience Research (CISRR) Program, which is funded by the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) of 2021. The objective is to build upon the previous work done by the SRMNI project to establish interoperability functional specifications and develop a model for wide-scale implementation of these standards.

Location, Location, Location

Out-of-date Voice-over-IP (VoIP) phone numbers, connected to the Internet by design, are another issue that can create emergence response delays. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) requires VoIP telephone service providers to maintain a subscriber’s verified street address as a dispatchable location to the 911 community. If a call is placed for emergency services and there is a lack of cellular coverage, the VoIP address should serve as backup. But these addresses aren’t being updated when moves are made.

The result is first responders routed to the wrong place during emergencies. Our Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) program released a solicitation in 2023 calling for a solution to help identify whether a call to 911 is coming from a different location than the registered location. We will have more information available on this later this spring, but the aim is to better enable VoIP service providers to provide a valid, dispatchable address.

By helping to advance CAD-to-CAD interoperability testing, seeking a solution to assist with address accuracy through VoIP, and planning for mobile interoperability solutions of the future, we at S&T are hopeful that we can help support first responders and the telecommunicators that assist them get services to the people that need them more efficiently.

Learn more about other S&T efforts to help provide technology solutions to improve emergency response communications .

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Nokia sees double-digit fall in January-March sales as weak market for 5G technology prevails

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HELSINKI (AP) — Wireless and fixed-network equipment maker Nokia on Thursday reported a smaller-than-expected profit and a double-digit fall in sales in the first quarter due to a market weakened by a lack of clients investing in 5G technology.

The Espoo, Finland-based company reported a net profit of 501 million euros ($535 million) for the January-March period, up 46% from 342 million euros a year earlier. The figure was still lower than analysts had expected.

One-off gains from Nokia’s licensing business contributed to the profit.

Net income attributable to shareholders was 497 million euros, up from from 332 million euros a year earlier. Nokia’s sales were down 20% at 4.7 billion euros.

The ongoing weakness in the telecom equipment market, where operators are cutting back on investments into 5G and other technology because of economic uncertainty and high financing costs, prevailed in the first quarter “as expected,” Nokia’s CEO Pekka Lundmark said.

“However, we have seen continued improvement in order intake, meaning we remain confident in a stronger second half and achieving our full-year outlook,” Lundmark said in a statement.

Nokia is one of the world’s main suppliers of 5G, the latest generation of broadband technology, along with Sweden’s Ericsson, China’s Huawei and South Korea’s Samsung. Earlier this week, Nordic rival Ericsson reported on similar market difficulties, with a major drop in sales in the first quarter.

“While we are conscious of the broader economic environment, considering the on-going order intake strength, we expect Network Infrastructure will return to net sales growth for full year 2024 with a stronger second-half performance,” Lundmark said, referring to the situation at Nokia’s biggest business unit by sales.

He said the mobile network unit, Nokia’s second biggest business entity, was impacted by particularly low levels of spending in 5G technology in North America and India during the first quarter.

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Jessica Grose

Get tech out of the classroom before it’s too late.

By Jessica Grose

Opinion Writer

Jaime Lewis noticed that her eighth-grade son’s grades were slipping several months ago. She suspected it was because he was watching YouTube during class on his school-issued laptop, and her suspicions were validated. “I heard this from two of his teachers and confirmed with my son: Yes, he watches YouTube during class, and no, he doesn’t think he can stop. In fact, he opted out of retaking a math test he’d failed, just so he could watch YouTube,” she said.

She decided to do something about it. Lewis told me that she got together with other parents who were concerned about the unfettered use of school-sanctioned technology in San Luis Coastal Unified School District, their district in San Luis Obispo, Calif. Because they knew that it wasn’t realistic to ask for the removal of the laptops entirely, they went for what they saw as an achievable win: blocking YouTube from students’ devices. A few weeks ago, they had a meeting with the district superintendent and several other administrators, including the tech director.

To bolster their case, Lewis and her allies put together a video compilation of clips that elementary and middle school children had gotten past the district’s content filters.

Their video opens on images of nooses being fitted around the necks of the terrified women in the TV adaptation of “The Handmaid’s Tale.” It ends with the notoriously violent “Singin’ in the Rain” sequence from “A Clockwork Orange.” (Several versions of this scene are available on YouTube. The one she pointed me to included “rape scene” in the title.) Their video was part of a PowerPoint presentation filled with statements from other parents and school staff members, including one from a middle school assistant principal, who said, “I don’t know how often teachers are using YouTube in their curriculum.”

That acknowledgment gets to the heart of the problem with screens in schools. I heard from many parents who said that even when they asked district leaders how much time kids were spending on their screens, they couldn’t get straight answers; no one seemed to know, and no one seemed to be keeping track.

Eric Prater, the superintendent of the San Luis Coastal Unified School District, told me that he didn’t realize how much was getting through the schools’ content filters until Lewis and her fellow parents raised concerns. “Our tech department, as I found out from the meeting, spends quite a lot of time blocking certain websites,” he said. “It’s a quite time-consuming situation that I personally was not aware of.” He added that he’s grateful this was brought to his attention.

I don’t think educators are the bad guys here. Neither does Lewis. In general, educators want the best for students. The bad guys, as I see it, are tech companies.

One way or another, we’ve allowed Big Tech’s tentacles into absolutely every aspect of our children’s education, with very little oversight and no real proof that their devices or programs improve educational outcomes. Last year Collin Binkley at The Associated Press analyzed public records and found that “many of the largest school systems spent tens of millions of dollars in pandemic money on software and services from tech companies, including licenses for apps, games and tutoring websites.” However, he continued, schools “have little or no evidence the programs helped students.”

It’s not just waste, very likely, of taxpayer money that’s at issue. After reading many of the over 900 responses from parents and educators to my questionnaire about tech in schools and from the many conversations I had over the past few weeks with readers, I’m convinced that the downsides of tech in schools far outweigh the benefits.

Though tech’s incursion into America’s public schools — particularly our overreliance on devices — hyperaccelerated in 2020, it started well before the Covid-19 pandemic. Google, which provides the operating system for lower-cost Chromebooks and is owned by the same parent company as YouTube, is a big player in the school laptop space, though I also heard from many parents and teachers whose schools supply students with other types and brands of devices.

As my newsroom colleague Natasha Singer reported in 2017 (by which point “half the nation’s primary- and secondary-school students” were, according to Google, using its education apps), “Google makes $30 per device by selling management services for the millions of Chromebooks that ship to schools. But by habituating students to its offerings at a young age, Google obtains something much more valuable”: potential lifetime customers.

The issue goes beyond access to age-inappropriate clips or general distraction during school hours. Several parents related stories of even kindergartners reading almost exclusively on iPads because their school districts had phased out hard-copy books and writing materials after shifting to digital-only curriculums. There’s evidence that this is harmful: A 2019 analysis of the literature concluded that “readers may be more efficient and aware of their performance when reading from paper compared to screens.”

“It seems to be a constant battle between fighting for the students’ active attention (because their brains are now hard-wired for the instant gratification of TikTok and YouTube videos) and making sure they aren’t going to sites outside of the dozens they should be,” Nicole Post, who teaches at a public elementary school in Missouri, wrote to me. “It took months for students to listen to me tell a story or engage in a read-aloud. I’m distressed at the level of technology we’ve socialized them to believe is normal. I would give anything for a math or social studies textbook.”

I’ve heard about kids disregarding teachers who tried to limit tech use, fine motor skills atrophying because students rarely used pencils and children whose learning was ultimately stymied by the tech that initially helped them — for example, students learning English as a second language becoming too reliant on translation apps rather than becoming fluent.

Some teachers said they have programs that block certain sites and games, but those programs can be cumbersome. Some said they have software, like GoGuardian, that allows them to see the screens of all the students in their classes at once. But classroom time is zero sum: Teachers are either teaching or acting like prison wardens; they can’t do both at the same time.

Resources are finite. Software costs money . Replacing defunct or outdated laptops costs money . When it comes to I.T., many schools are understaffed . More of the money being spent on tech and the maintenance and training around the use of that tech could be spent on other things, like actual books. And badly monitored and used tech has the most potential for harm.

I’ve considered the counterarguments: Kids who’d be distracted by tech would find something else to distract them; K-12 students need to gain familiarity with tech to instill some vague work force readiness.

But on the first point, I think other forms of distraction — like talking to friends, doodling and daydreaming — are better than playing video games or watching YouTube because they at least involve children engaging with other children or their own minds. And there’s research that suggests laptops are uniquely distracting . One 2013 study found that even being next to a student who is multitasking on a computer can hurt a student’s test scores.

On the second point, you can have designated classes to teach children how to keyboard, code or use software that don’t require them to have laptops in their hands throughout the school day. And considering that various tech companies are developing artificial intelligence that, we’re meant to understand, will upend work as we know it , whatever tech skills we’re currently teaching will probably be obsolete by the time students enter the work force anyway. By then, it’ll be too late to claw back the brain space of our nation’s children that we’ve already ceded. And for what? So today’s grade schoolers can be really, really good at making PowerPoint presentations like the ones they might one day make as white-collar adults?

That’s the part that I can’t shake: We’ve let tech companies and their products set the terms of the argument about what education should be, and too many people, myself included, didn’t initially realize it. Companies never had to prove that devices or software, broadly speaking, helped students learn before those devices had wormed their way into America’s public schools. And now the onus is on parents to marshal arguments about the detriments of tech in schools.

Holly Coleman, a parent of two who lives in Kansas and is a substitute teacher in her district, describes what students are losing:

They can type quickly but struggle to write legibly. They can find info about any topic on the internet but can’t discuss that topic using recall, creativity or critical thinking. They can make a beautiful PowerPoint or Keynote in 20 minutes but can’t write a three-page paper or hand-make a poster board. Their textbooks are all online, which is great for the seams on their backpack, but tangible pages under your fingers literally connect you to the material you’re reading and learning. These kids do not know how to move through their day without a device in their hand and under their fingertips. They never even get the chance to disconnect from their tech and reconnect with one another through eye contact and conversation.

Jonathan Haidt’s new book, “The Anxious Generation: How the Great Rewiring of Childhood is Causing an Epidemic of Mental Illness,” prescribes phone-free schools as a way to remedy some of the challenges facing America’s children. I agree that there’s no place for smartphones on a K-12 campus. But if you take away the phones and the kids still have near-constant internet connectivity on devices they have with them in every class, the problem won’t go away.

When Covid hit and screens became the only way for millions of kids to “attend” school, not having a personal device became an equity issue. But we’re getting to a point where the opposite may be true. According to the responses to my questionnaire, during the remote-school era, private schools seemed to rely far less on screens than public schools, and many educators said that they deliberately chose lower-tech school environments for their own children — much the same way that some tech workers intentionally send their kids to screen-free schools.

We need to reframe the entire conversation around tech in schools because it’s far from clear that we’re getting the results we want as a society and because parents are in a defensive crouch, afraid to appear anti-progress or unwilling to prepare the next generation for the future. “I feel like a baby boomer attacking like this,” said Lewis.

But the drawbacks of constant screen time in schools go beyond data privacy, job security and whether a specific app increases math performance by a standard deviation. As Lewis put it, using tech in the classroom makes students “so passive, and it requires so little agency and initiative.” She added, “I’m very concerned about the species’ ability to survive and the ability to think critically and the importance of critical thinking outside of getting a job.”

If we don’t hit pause now and try to roll back some of the excesses, we’ll be doing our children — and society — a profound disservice.

The good news is that sometimes when the stakes become clear, educators respond: In May, Dr. Prater said, “we’re going to remove access to YouTube from our district devices for students.” He added that teachers will still be able to get access to YouTube if they want to show instructional videos. The district is also rethinking its phone policy to cut down on personal device use in the classroom. “For me,” he said, “it’s all about how do you find the common-sense approach, going forward, and match that up with good old-fashioned hands-on learning?” He knows technology can cause “a great deal of harm if we’re not careful.”

Jessica Grose is an Opinion writer for The Times, covering family, religion, education, culture and the way we live now.

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Samsung owes $142 mln in wireless patent case, jury says

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Urbn 10,000 mAh MagTag review: This Rs 3,499 wireless power bank works like an extended battery for your phone

Urbn 10,000 mah magtag may not be the powerbank you have been looking for, but it will work like an extended battery for your smartphone..

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Urbn 10,000 mAh MagTag wireless power bank review 5/10

Extended batter

Easy to set up

Good ergonomics

Slow charging speeds

Weight of the device

• Power bank weighs over 200 grams, doubles device weight when attached
• Charging speeds are slow wirelessly but better with Type-C cable
• Product useful as an additional battery, despite added weight and slow wireless charging

Urbn MagTag wireless power bank is almost as heavy as your phone

Before I head into what the product is like, I want to talk about the design and ergonomics of the Urbn wireless MagTag power bank. The variant I have is black. I wouldn’t exactly call it a light product. It’s a solid slab of 10,000 mAh battery. It weighs a little over 200 grams, which is pretty much the weight of most smartphones these days. But this also means, with this power bank slapped onto your phone, the weight of the device pretty much doubles up.

It has a nice matte, rubber finish, which feels nice to touch and also adds grip to the device. On its face, the power bank has a button, which if you press once, triggers wireless charging. There are two LED notification lights on either side of this button that indicate the remaining charge left in the power bank. Long pressing this button allows you to disable wireless charging.