how to format an essay uk

Basic essay structure

Improve your writing

Organise your essays to demonstrate your knowledge, show your research and support your arguments

Essays are usually written in continuous, flowing, paragraphed text and don’t use section headings. This may seem unstructured at first, but good essays are carefully structured.

How your assignment content is structured is your choice. Use the basic pattern below to get started.

Essay structure

An essay consists of three basic parts:, introduction.

The essay itself usually has no section headings. Only the title page, author declaration and reference list are written as headings, along with, for example, appendices. Check any task instructions, and your course or unit handbook, for further details.

Content in assignment introductions can vary widely. In some disciplines you may need to provide a full background and context, whereas other essays may need only a little context, and others may need none.

An introduction to an essay usually has three primary purposes:

• To set the scene
• To tell readers what is important, and why
• To tell the reader what the essay is going to do (signposting)

A standard introduction includes the following five elements:

• A statement that sets out the topic and engages the reader.
• The background and context of the topic.
• Any important definitions, integrated into your text as appropriate.
• An outline of the key points, topic, issues, evidence, ideas, arguments, models, theories, or other information, as appropriate. This may include distinctions or contrasts between different ideas or evidence.
• A final sentence or two which tells the reader your focal points and aims.

You should aim to restrict your introduction to information needed for the topic and only include background and contextual information which helps the reader understand it, or sets the scene for your chosen focal points.

In most essays you will have a considerable range of options for your focus. You will be expected to demonstrate your ability to select the most relevant content to address your focal points.

There are some exceptions. For example, if an assignment brief specifically directs the essay focus or requires you to write broadly about a topic. These are relatively rare or are discipline-specific so you should check your task instructions and discipline and subject area conventions.

Below are examples of an opening statement, a summary of the selected content, and a statement at the end of the introduction which tells the reader what the essay will focus on and how it will be addressed. We've use a fictional essay.

The title of our essay is: 'Cats are better than dogs. Discuss.'

To submit this essay you also would need to add citations as appropriate.

Example of opening statements:

People have shared their lives with cats and dogs for millenia. Which is better depends partly on each animal’s characteristics and partly on the owner’s preferences.

Here is a summary of five specific topics selected for the essay, which would be covered in a little more detail in the introduction:

• In ancient Egypt, cats were treated as sacred and were pampered companions.
• Dogs have for centuries been used for hunting and to guard property. There are many types of working dog, and both dogs and cats are now kept purely as pets.
• They are very different animals, with different care needs, traits and abilities.
• It is a common perception that people are either “cat-lovers” or “dog-lovers”.
• It is a common perception that people tend to have preferences for one, and negative beliefs about and attitudes towards, the other.

Example of closing statements at the end of the introduction:

This essay will examine both cats’ and dogs’ behaviour and abilities, the benefits of keeping them as pets, and whether people’s perceptions of their nature matches current knowledge and understanding.

Main body: paragraphs

The body of the essay should be organised into paragraphs. Each paragraph should deal with a different aspect of the issue, but they should also link in some way to those that precede and follow it. This is not an easy thing to get right, even for experienced writers, partly because there are many ways to successfully structure and use paragraphs. There is no perfect paragraph template.

The theme or topic statement

The first sentence, or sometimes two, tells the reader what the paragraph is going to cover. It may either:

• Begin a new point or topic, or
• Follow on from the previous paragraph, but with a different focus or go into more-specific detail. If this is the case, it should clearly link to the previous paragraph.

The last sentence

It should be clear if the point has come to an end, or if it continues in the next paragraph.

Here is a brief example of flow between two summarised paragraphs which cover the historical perspective:

It is known from hieroglyphs that the Ancient Egyptians believed that cats were sacred. They were also held in high regard, as suggested by their being found mummified and entombed with their owners (Smith, 1969). In addition, cats are portrayed aiding hunters. Therefore, they were both treated as sacred, and were used as intelligent working companions. However, today they are almost entirely owned as pets.

In contrast, dogs have not been regarded as sacred, but they have for centuries been widely used for hunting in Europe. This developed over time and eventually they became domesticated and accepted as pets. Today, they are seen as loyal, loving and protective members of the family, and are widely used as working dogs.

There is never any new information in a conclusion.

The conclusion usually does three things:

• Reminds your readers of what the essay was meant to do.
• Provides an answer, where possible, to the title.
• Reminds your reader how you reached that answer.

The conclusion should usually occupy just one paragraph. It draws together all the key elements of your essay, so you do not need to repeat the fine detail unless you are highlighting something.

A conclusion to our essay about cats and dogs is given below:

Both cats and dogs have been highly-valued for millenia, are affectionate and beneficial to their owners’ wellbeing. However, they are very different animals and each is 'better' than the other regarding care needs and natural traits. Dogs need regular training and exercise but many owners do not train or exercise them enough, resulting in bad behaviour. They also need to be 'boarded' if the owner is away and to have frequent baths to prevent bad odours. In contrast, cats do not need this level of effort and care. Dogs are seen as more intelligent, loyal and attuned to human beings, whereas cats are perceived as aloof and solitary, and as only seeking affection when they want to be fed. However, recent studies have shown that cats are affectionate and loyal and more intelligent than dogs, but it is less obvious and useful. There are, for example, no 'police' or 'assistance' cats, in part because they do not have the kinds of natural instincts which make dogs easy to train. Therefore, which animal is better depends upon personal preference and whether they are required to work. Therefore, although dogs are better as working animals, cats are easier, better pets.

Download our basic essay structure revision sheet

Download this page as a PDF for your essay structure revision notes

Better Essays: Signposting

Paragraphs main body of an assessment

Essay and dissertation writing skills

Planning your essay

Writing your introduction

Structuring your essay

• Writing essays in science subjects
• Brief video guides to support essay planning and writing
• Writing extended essays and dissertations
• Planning your dissertation writing time

Structuring your dissertation

• Top tips for writing longer pieces of work

Advice on planning and writing essays and dissertations

University essays differ from school essays in that they are less concerned with what you know and more concerned with how you construct an argument to answer the question. This means that the starting point for writing a strong essay is to first unpick the question and to then use this to plan your essay before you start putting pen to paper (or finger to keyboard).

A really good starting point for you are these short, downloadable Tips for Successful Essay Writing and Answering the Question resources. Both resources will help you to plan your essay, as well as giving you guidance on how to distinguish between different sorts of essay questions. 

You may find it helpful to watch this seven-minute video on six tips for essay writing which outlines how to interpret essay questions, as well as giving advice on planning and structuring your writing:

Different disciplines will have different expectations for essay structure and you should always refer to your Faculty or Department student handbook or course Canvas site for more specific guidance.

However, broadly speaking, all essays share the following features:

Essays need an introduction to establish and focus the parameters of the discussion that will follow. You may find it helpful to divide the introduction into areas to demonstrate your breadth and engagement with the essay question. You might define specific terms in the introduction to show your engagement with the essay question; for example, ‘This is a large topic which has been variously discussed by many scientists and commentators. The principle tension is between the views of X and Y who define the main issues as…’ Breadth might be demonstrated by showing the range of viewpoints from which the essay question could be considered; for example, ‘A variety of factors including economic, social and political, influence A and B. This essay will focus on the social and economic aspects, with particular emphasis on…..’

Watch this two-minute video to learn more about how to plan and structure an introduction:

The main body of the essay should elaborate on the issues raised in the introduction and develop an argument(s) that answers the question. It should consist of a number of self-contained paragraphs each of which makes a specific point and provides some form of evidence to support the argument being made. Remember that a clear argument requires that each paragraph explicitly relates back to the essay question or the developing argument.

• Conclusion: An essay should end with a conclusion that reiterates the argument in light of the evidence you have provided; you shouldn’t use the conclusion to introduce new information.
• References: You need to include references to the materials you’ve used to write your essay. These might be in the form of footnotes, in-text citations, or a bibliography at the end. Different systems exist for citing references and different disciplines will use various approaches to citation. Ask your tutor which method(s) you should be using for your essay and also consult your Department or Faculty webpages for specific guidance in your discipline. 

Essay writing in science subjects

If you are writing an essay for a science subject you may need to consider additional areas, such as how to present data or diagrams. This five-minute video gives you some advice on how to approach your reading list, planning which information to include in your answer and how to write for your scientific audience – the video is available here:

A PDF providing further guidance on writing science essays for tutorials is available to download.

Short videos to support your essay writing skills

There are many other resources at Oxford that can help support your essay writing skills and if you are short on time, the Oxford Study Skills Centre has produced a number of short (2-minute) videos covering different aspects of essay writing, including:

• Approaching different types of essay questions  
• Structuring your essay  
• Writing an introduction  
• Making use of evidence in your essay writing  
• Writing your conclusion

Extended essays and dissertations

Longer pieces of writing like extended essays and dissertations may seem like quite a challenge from your regular essay writing. The important point is to start with a plan and to focus on what the question is asking. A PDF providing further guidance on planning Humanities and Social Science dissertations is available to download.

Planning your time effectively

Try not to leave the writing until close to your deadline, instead start as soon as you have some ideas to put down onto paper. Your early drafts may never end up in the final work, but the work of committing your ideas to paper helps to formulate not only your ideas, but the method of structuring your writing to read well and conclude firmly.

Although many students and tutors will say that the introduction is often written last, it is a good idea to begin to think about what will go into it early on. For example, the first draft of your introduction should set out your argument, the information you have, and your methods, and it should give a structure to the chapters and sections you will write. Your introduction will probably change as time goes on but it will stand as a guide to your entire extended essay or dissertation and it will help you to keep focused.

The structure of  extended essays or dissertations will vary depending on the question and discipline, but may include some or all of the following:

• The background information to - and context for - your research. This often takes the form of a literature review.
• Explanation of the focus of your work.
• Explanation of the value of this work to scholarship on the topic.
• List of the aims and objectives of the work and also the issues which will not be covered because they are outside its scope.

The main body of your extended essay or dissertation will probably include your methodology, the results of research, and your argument(s) based on your findings.

The conclusion is to summarise the value your research has added to the topic, and any further lines of research you would undertake given more time or resources. 

Tips on writing longer pieces of work

Approaching each chapter of a dissertation as a shorter essay can make the task of writing a dissertation seem less overwhelming. Each chapter will have an introduction, a main body where the argument is developed and substantiated with evidence, and a conclusion to tie things together. Unlike in a regular essay, chapter conclusions may also introduce the chapter that will follow, indicating how the chapters are connected to one another and how the argument will develop through your dissertation.

For further guidance, watch this two-minute video on writing longer pieces of work . 

Systems & Services

Access Student Self Service

• Student Self Service
• Self Service guide
• Registration guide
• Libraries search
• OXCORT - see TMS
• GSS - see Student Self Service
• The Careers Service
• Oxford University Sport
• Online store
• Gardens, Libraries and Museums
• Researchers Skills Toolkit
• LinkedIn Learning (formerly Lynda.com)
• Access Guide
• Lecture Lists
• Exam Papers (OXAM)
• Oxford Talks

Latest student news

CAN'T FIND WHAT YOU'RE LOOKING FOR?

Try our extensive database of FAQs or submit your own question...

Ask a question

• 301 Academic Skills Centre
• Study skills online

Essay structure and planning

Information on how to structure and plan your essay.

What is an essay?

An essay is a focused, academic discussion of a particular question, problem or issue.

Many of you have been writing essays for years, and are probably good at it. That's great, and everything you look at here will build on and develop those skills.

But it's worth asking: are there different things expected of a university essay from those for school, college, or other contexts?

The obvious answer is yes, and it takes time and effort to learn the range of writing skills needed to produce university essays effectively.

There are all sorts of reasons why essays are common forms of assessment. They allow you to explore a problem in-depth, express yourself concisely and precisely, and debate other people's published opinions on a topic.

They're also a good warm-up for traditional forms of academic publication, such as a journal article.

Academic essays usually follow an established organisational structure that helps the writer to express their ideas clearly and the reader to follow the thread of their argument.

An essay's structure is guided by its content and argument so every essay question will pose unique structural challenges.

301 Recommends: Glossary of Instruction Words

Our Essay Structure and Planning workshop will outline how to analyse your essay question, discuss approaches logically structure all your ideas, help you make your introductions and conclusions more effective, and teach how to link your ideas and ensure all essay content flows logically from the introduction. The Putting it into Practise workshop  

Have a look at our  Glossary of Essay Instruction Words (PDF, 100KB) , or watch this short  Study Skills Hacks video  on identifying the tasks in a question to help you identify what is required.

Planning stages

Essay writing is a process with many stages, from topic selection, planning and reading around, through to drafting, revising and proofreading.

Breaking the task down and creating a clear plan with milestones and intermediate deadlines will allow you to focus attention more fully on the writing process itself when you put your plan into action either as part of an assignment or an exam.

1. Understand the question

• Is the question open-ended or closed? If it is open-ended you will need to narrow it down. Explain how and why you have decided to limit it in the introduction to your essay, so the reader knows you appreciate the wider issues, but that you can also be selective.
• If it is a closed question, your answer must refer to and stay within the limits of the question (ie specific dates, texts, or countries).
• What can you infer from the title about the structure of the essay?

2. Brainstorm for ideas

• What you know about the topic – from lectures, reading etc
• What you don't know about the topic, but need to find out to answer the question
• Possible responses or answers to the question – any ideas about your conclusion.
• Consider using a mind map to organise your thoughts…

3. Make a plan

• Planning your essay makes it more likely that you have a coherent argument
• It enables you to work out a logical structure and an endpoint for your argument before you start writing
• It means you don't have to do this type of complex thinking at the same time as trying to find the right words to express your ideas
• It helps you to commit yourself to sticking to the point!

The Hourglass essay

If you're stuck on an overall structure for your essay, try this simple model for organising a typical academic essay. An hourglass essay introduces a broad area, before narrowing the focus towards the specific question that you are answering. It finishes by placing that narrow area back into a wider context. 

Introduction: the funnel of the hourglass

Set the scene and lead your reader into your essay by introducing the broad area of interest and then narrowing towards your specific focus:

• Start broad with a hook to catch the reader's attention
• Provide some context for the hook. What does your project add to it?
• Focus on the narrow area of your essay: can you summarise it in a single sentence mission statement?

Body: the stem of the hourglass

The body of your essay should be as narrow and focused as possible. Body paragraphs will take one sub-topic at a time and provide a logical flow of ideas for your reader:

• Start each paragraph with a topic sentence to tell your reader what it will cover
• Fill your paragraph with a range of supporting evidence and examples
• Finish your paragraph with a final wrapping-up sentence to summarise and/or link ahead

Conclusion: the base of the hourglass

Your chance to reinforce your key messages and go out with a bang:

• Revisit your mission statement: how have you addressed it?
• Summarise the main points of your argument or findings
• Finish with a broader scope, explaining how your topic might inform future research or practice, or where gaps remain

301 Recommends: Essay Planning Template

Use this template (google doc) to plan a structure for your essay, paying particular attention to the ways in which you have broken down the topic into sub-themes for your body paragraphs. 

Top tips and resources

• Start planning early, leave your plan for a couple of days, and then come back to it. This may give you a fresh perspective.
• It is often easiest to write the introduction last, but when you are planning your essay structure make sure you have your mission statement.
• A good plan will make it much easier to write a good essay. Invest the time in making a plan that works.
• Check what your tutor wants, but it is often best to focus on one element in great detail, rather than discuss several aspects superficially.
• Make sure you allow time to proofread your work before submission!

Internal resources

• Library Research and Critical Thinking - Referencing
• English Language Teaching Centre (ELTC)– Language Resources  

External resources

• Royal Literary Fund–  Writing Essays
• University of Reading–  Planning and structuring your essay
• Cottrell, S (2008) The Study Skills Handbook. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan
• Bailey, S (2003) Academic Writing: A Practical Guide for Students. Routledge
• Reading University–  Study Resources
• University of Manchester–  Academic Phrasebank

Related information

Academic Skills Certificate

Scientific writing and lab reports

Proofreading

Be the first to hear about our new and upcoming workshops!

The 301 Academic Skills Centre newsletter is a fortnightly email for study skills, mathematics and statistics.

Be the first to find out about our:

• new and upcoming workshops,
• special events and programmes, and
• new and relevant online materials and resources.

Sheffield is a research university with a global reputation for excellence. We're a member of the Russell Group: one of the 24 leading UK universities for research and teaching.

• Undergraduate courses
• Postgraduate courses
• Foundation courses
• Apprenticeships
• Part-time and short courses
• Apply undergraduate
• Apply postgraduate

Search for a course

Search by course name, subject, and more

• Undergraduate
• Postgraduate
• (suspended) - Available in Clearing Not available in Clearing location-sign UCAS

Fees and funding

• Tuition fees
• Scholarships
• Funding your studies
• Student finance
• Cost of living support

Why study at Kent

Student life.

• Careers and employability
• Student support and wellbeing
• Our locations
• Placements and internships
• Year abroad
• Student stories
• Schools and colleges
• International
• International students
• Your country
• Applicant FAQs
• International scholarships
• University of Kent International College
• Campus Tours
• Applicant Events
• Postgraduate events
• Maps and directions
• Research strengths
• Research centres
• Research impact

Research institutes

• Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology
• Institute of Cyber Security for Society
• Institute of Cultural and Creative Industries
• Institute of Health, Social Care and Wellbeing

Research students

• Graduate and Researcher College
• Research degrees
• Find a supervisor
• How to apply

Popular searches

• Visits and Open Days
• Jobs and vacancies
• Accommodation
• Student guide
• Library and IT
• Partner with us
• Student Guide
• Student Help
• Health & wellbeing
• Student voice
• Living at Kent
• Careers & volunteering
• Diversity at Kent
• Finance & funding
• Life after graduation

Essay writing

The following guide has been created for you by the  Student Learning Advisory Service . For more detailed guidance and to speak to one of our advisers, please book an  appointment  or join one of our  workshops . Alternatively, have a look at our  SkillBuilder  skills videos. 

The following series of short videos (below) give step by step guidance, with examples, on how to go about researching and writing an essay, from start to finish. You can watch one or all of them in any order. 

• Accessibility Tools
• The home of current students
• Academic Life
• Centre for Academic Success
• Blog and Top Tips

Tips and Tricks for Structuring your Essay

• Student News
• IT Service Desk
• Study Spaces
• Postgraduate Research
• Students' Union

A typical assignment has an introduction, a main body and a conclusion. The purpose of the introduction is to signpost everything that a reader can expect from the assignment. The main body is where this will be delivered, and the conclusion provides a summary of the main points, perhaps guiding us to further reading or investigation. It might be useful to visualise the final draft of your assignment using the diagram below.

The main body is framed by an introduction that sets out your argument and a conclusion that recaps your argument and restates your thesis. The paragraphs in the main body each take a step forward in order to progress the argument.

For more in-depth information on structuring each section, click on the tabs below.

Writing an introduction can be the most difficult part of your assignment because it is where you lay out everything you will cover in what follows. The purpose of an introduction is to clearly tell the reader about the main themes and concepts in your assignment, as well as how you are going to approach them. Key to academic writing are clarity and predictability so the introduction should act as a signpost, or an essay map; after reading the introduction, the reader should understand what your essay will be about, what you are going to say, and what conclusion you will reach. The structure we suggest below will help you include and organise the key information.

The 'funnel' introduction has three distinct sections, moving from general to specific information, and guides the reader through your main argument:

General or Contextual Information:

This is where you give the background information that relates to your assignment question. You can concentrate on the broad themes that you will establish, perhaps by giving some key facts (statistics, for example) that will act as a 'hook' to interest the reader. This section is about contextualising the information you are going to discuss in the next part of your introduction.

Definitions and Key Concepts:

This part of your introduction will orientate your reader. You will need to introduce the key concepts that form the basis of your argument and let the reader know how these are related to the themes you introduce in the first part of the introduction. It might be useful to think about this section of the introduction as signalling to the reader what steps you will take to discuss those themes.

Thesis Statement:

This section will form the end of your introduction and will provide the detailed 'essay map' for your reader. You will make the main claim of your essay in the thesis statement (that is, what is the main conclusion you will reach), and you will outline the steps you are going to take to reach that conclusion (that is, what is the development of your main argument).

A common question about introductions is 'how long should they be?'. There is not a simple answer; it will depend on the length of your assignment. As a guide, lots of departments suggest that you should aim for an introduction of around 10% of your overall word count. Similarly, although the funnel structure is comprised of three parts, this does not mean that your introduction will be split into three paragraphs. How you organise it will depend on the flow of your ideas and the length of your assignment.

The paragraphs in the main body of your assignment act as building blocks for your argument. This means that their structure is crucial for enabling your reader to follow that argument.  Just as the overall structure of your assignment has a clear beginning, middle, and end, so does each paragraph. You will usually see this structure referred to as the 'topic sentence', the 'supporting sentences', and the 'summary sentence'.

Topic Sentences

The topic sentence (sometimes called the 'paragraph header') outlines what the reader can expect from the rest of the paragraph; that is, it introduces the argument you will be making and gives some indication of how you will make it. Another way to think about this is that the topic sentence tells the reader what the theme of the paragraph will be (the main idea that underpins the paragraph) and outlines the lens through which you are going to explore that theme (what you are going to say about your main idea).

It is useful for you to check that each of your topic sentences is linked in some way to the thesis statement contained in your introduction. Are you following the ideas you laid out in your thesis statement? By referring back to the thesis statement, you can make sure that your argument remains focused on answering the question (rather than drifting) and that you are covering the information you introduced at the beginning of the assignment. In some cases, the topic sentence may not introduce an argument. This occurs when the purpose of the paragraph is to provide background information or describe something. This is okay too, as long as the content of the paragraph is needed to support your thesis statement in some way.

Tip : The topic sentence may not be the first sentence in the paragraph if you include a linking sentence to your previous paragraph, but it should definitely be placed close to the start of the paragraph.

Supporting Sentences

The supporting sentences are where you put together your main argument. They develop the idea outlined in the topic sentence and contain your analysis of that idea. Your supporting sentences will usually contain your references to the literature in your discipline which you will use to build your own argument. You may also include facts and figures, counter arguments, and your judgements on how useful the literature is for your topic. The key to using supporting sentences to form a good paragraph lies in the 'Four Rs':

• Are the supporting sentences relevant ? Each of them should explore and develop the idea you have introduced in your topic sentence.
• Are they related ? Although you should not repeat the same idea throughout a paragraph, you do need to make sure that each of your supporting sentences is linked. This will help you provide multiple examples, counter arguments, and analysis of the theme of the paragraph. Think of each supporting sentence as a link in the chain of your argument.
• Are the supporting sentences in the right order ? You will need to make an active decision about the way you present the argument in the paragraph; for example, you might present your research chronologically, or perhaps you prefer to discuss the argument and then the counter argument (so grouping together the relevant pieces of information).
• And, of course, any ideas that are not your own need to be clearly referenced . Good referencing, according to the referencing style used by your department, is essential to academic integrity.

Summary Sentences

The summary sentence is important because it helps you tie together the arguments made in your supporting statements and comment on the point made in your topic sentence. This will be where you provide your reader with your judgement on the information contained in the paragraph. In that sense, the summary sentence is your conclusion for the particular point made in the paragraph – you will tell the reader why the point is important and perhaps give an indication of how it is linked to your overall thesis.

Tip : At the end of each paragraph, try asking yourself 'So What?': 'So what is the point of what I've said?'; 'so what is the conclusion I've reached based on the information included in the paragraph?'. This question will help you see whether you have been critical rather than simply descriptive.

The flow within and between paragraphs is important for a coherent structure. You can strengthen the flow by ensuring your argument proceeds logically and by using language that signals to the reader how your argument is progressing, and how you want them to interpret what you are saying:

Logical Order

Broadly following the structures outlined above will help you put together a logical paragraph structure. However, you also need to think about the flow of information in your assignment as a whole. Remember that each paragraph should make a point, discuss that point, and conclude the point before moving on to make a new point. This means that your assignment will be made up of chunks of information and it makes sense to organise those chunks in relation to each other.

Signalling Language

There are many words and phrases you can use to help your reader interpret information. If you focus on using effective transitions in your paragraphs, you will be able to better demonstrate your understanding of the relationship between the ideas you are discussing, and your writing will flow more easily. This is because your reader will be guided between points rather than having to make the links themselves. Below are some of the most common examples of transition words and phrases, though you can find many websites with further examples (university writing centres  such as this one are usually reliable sources, though remember to use your judgement):

Tip : There are other techniques you can use to improve the flow of both your argument and style. Cohesive devices like pronouns, word families, and recap words help the reader. In addition, structured reasoning can support your argument. You can find a range of courses which explore these devices in detail by going to the website for the Centre for Academic Success .

The conclusion should be easy to write because you do not have to discuss any new information (in fact, you should not introduce any new points in this part of your assignment). In reality, though, it can be a struggle to decide what to include in your conclusion. Using the framework in the diagram can help you effectively bring your argument to a close. This is an inverse structure of your introduction: in the conclusion you are moving from specific information to broader information.

In the 'Restate' section of a conclusion, it is a good idea to remind the reader of your thesis statement. You can paraphrase your thesis statement in order to remind the reader of the central claim of the assignment and how you set out to demonstrate this claim.

You can then broaden the discussion to provide a 'Recap' of your main argument. This does not mean repeating yourself; rather, you will give a brief synopsis of each part of your main argument, with a reminder of how it links to your main claim. This will help consolidate your argument in the reader's mind and confirm that you have answered your own thesis.

Finally, the 'Suggest' section can help you place your work within the wider scholarship of your discipline. You might, for example, make suggestions for further research based on gaps you have identified.

IOE Writing Centre

Organise, Structure and Edit

• Introduction
• Linking and Transitions
• Editing Tips
• Reducing the word count
• Example Paragraphs
• Tutor Feedback on Organisation

Follow the basic steps below, or use the menu on the left for more detail.

• First, make an outline plan for each paragraph, and then select the information, examples and comments for each point.
• Try to make sure you only have one main point per paragraph.
• Sometimes you will find that you need to delete some of the information . Just save it onto a different word document, and perhaps you can use it in a different essay.
• Make sure this essay is focused on the title , with the main points discussed well and in detail, rather than many different minor points. Everything should be clearly relevant, and less is more!
• To see the structure, the reader also needs to know how each paragraph connects to the previous one. It can help to add transition phrases, to show how each idea flows on from the previous one.

Further reading: Editing Tips ; Linking and Transitions ; Paragraphs ; Introduction ;  Conclusion ; Titles and Instructions

IOE Writing Centre Online

Self-access resources from the Academic Writing Centre at the UCL Institute of Education.

Anonymous Suggestions Box

Information for Staff

Academic Writing Centre

Academic Writing Centre, UCL Institute of Education [email protected] Twitter:   @AWC_IOE Skype:   awc.ioe

Essay writing: Home

• Introductions
• Conclusions
• Analysing questions
• Planning & drafting
• Revising & editing
• Proofreading
• Essay writing videos

Essay writing

Being able to write a good essay is a key skill to master if you want to succeed at university. Here you find our top tips for creating effective essays to maximise your grades! These pages will give you a good idea of what is needed in each section of an essay as well as providing an idea of the stages of writing one.

Essay Writing Workshops

Printable guide.

Click on the link above or the image to download the PDF.

External essay writing resources

• 100 Editing and Proofreading Tips for Writers Blog post from Duncan Koerber, writing and communications expert and co-author of "Clear, Precise, Direct: Strategies for Writing"
• The Academic Phrasebank Excellent resource from the University of Manchester that says it provides you with the 'nuts and bolts' of academic phraseology.
• ASK- Assignment Survival Kit Includes Assignment Schedule Calculator to help you manage your time through the different stages of writing an essay.
• Assignment structures and samples Excellent subject specific information from Monash University.
• Business English for Success Online textbook by Scott Maclean. Not just for business students. Good sections on the writing process.

Related books and eBooks from our collection

• Next: Introductions >>
• Last Updated: Nov 3, 2023 3:17 PM
• URL: https://libguides.hull.ac.uk/essays
• Login to LibApps
• Library websites Privacy Policy
• University of Hull privacy policy & cookies
• Website terms and conditions
• Accessibility
• Report a problem

Information Literacy Resource Bank

Writing critically and structuring your essay.

  This interactive tutorial gives a comprehensive guide to writing the first draft of an essay and writing in an academic style. It explores how to write critically and use evidence appropriately. It also looks at essay structure, paragraph structure, and how to write effective sentences. This resource is part of the Essay survival guide series of tutorials written for undergraduate students.

No comments.

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

• Log in
• Site search

How to write an essay

Essay writing is an inevitable part of the student experience. To achieve top grades on these assignments, discover how to compose a well-written essay

You might think you know how to write a good essay from your time at school but writing an essay at undergraduate level is a whole new ball game. Taking the time to properly plan your work can lead to higher marks, with lecturers welcoming a logical structure that clearly demonstrates your understanding of the subject.

However, knowing where to begin and how to go about completing the assignment is not always easy - especially if you're still adjusting to university life and you haven't written at undergraduate level before.

'There is an art (and a bit of a science) to every type of writing,' says Dr Rushana Khusainova, lecturer in marketing at the University of Bristol. 'By mastering the art of academic essay writing, you'll also be mastering the skill for writing general and business emails, reports, etc. Overall, it's a vital skill to have.'

Katherine Cox, professor and head of department for humanities and law at Bournemouth University agrees. 'Getting feedback on your development is a key part of developing as a student. Essay writing is an excellent opportunity for formal feedback on your progress, and like any skill it needs practice and polish.'

Here we'll cover the seven main points of planning and executing a well-written essay:

• understanding the question
• researching and gathering helpful resources
• putting together an essay plan
• writing the essay
• tackling the introduction and conclusion
• reviewing what you’ve written.

Mastering how to write an essay early on will also help you prepare for  writing your dissertation  in your final year.

Understand the question

The first step in tackling an essay is to make sure that you understand what is being asked of you.

'I recommend that you read and re-read the essay question,' advises Dr Khusainova. 'With each time, the question will feel clearer.' Break it down into its component parts and pay particular attention to instruction words, for example, 'explain', 'discuss', 'outline' - what do these mean in practice? What are you being asked to do? Be aware that essays take several different forms and a 'compare and contrast' essay requires a different approach to an analytical ('analyse') or argumentative ('critically examine') essay.

For example, the question, 'Compare and contrast the representation of masculinity in two James Bond films from the 1960s and 2000s', can be classified like this:

• instruction (i.e. compare and contrast)
• topic (i.e. the representation of masculinity)
• focus (i.e. in two James Bond films)
• further information (i.e. from the 1960s and 2000s).

'Take coloured pens and highlight each sub-question or sub-task within the essay brief,' explains Dr Khusainova. 'Write bullet points for all sub-questions of the essay. I would recommend using pen and paper. Research suggests that when we use pen and paper to write down our thoughts, our brain structures information in a more efficient way.'

Ask yourself:

• What is significant about the question and its topic?
• What existing knowledge do you have that will help you answer this question?
• What do you need to find out?
• How are you going to successfully address this question?
• What logical sequence will your ideas appear in?

If you still don't understand the question or the complexity of the response expected from you, don't be afraid to ask for clarification from your lecturer or tutor if you need it. If you have questions, speak up when the essay is set rather than leaving it too late.

Gather resources

With so much information available, it's vital that you only look for directly relevant material when researching. Decide where the gaps in your knowledge and understanding are, and identify the areas where you need more supporting evidence. Make a list of keywords that describe the topic and use them to search with.

Useful resources include:

• course material
• lecture notes
• library books
• journal articles

Engage in active reading and keep organised with effective note-taking. Once you've done your research, create a mind map. Carefully note the key theories, information and quotes that will help you to answer all components of the question. Consider grouping these into three or four main themes, including only the most significant points. You must be ruthless and exclude ideas that don't fit in seamlessly with your essay's focus.

Create an essay plan

'You can write an essay without planning, but I'm not sure you can write a good essay without planning,' says Katherine.

When you have an idea of the points you're going to address in your essay, and a rough idea of the order in which these will appear, you're ready to start planning. There are two main ways to do this:

• Linear plans  - useful for essays requiring a rigid structure. They provide a chronological breakdown of the key points you're going to address.
• Tabular plans  - best for comparative assignments. You'll be able to better visualise how the points you're contrasting differ across several aspects.

Scrutinise the notes you've already made - including those from your evaluation of relevant materials from your literature search - and ensure they're placed into a logical order.

There are different approaches to planning an essay. Some students might prefer a step-by-step, structured approach, while others might find it helpful to begin in a more fluid way - jotting down keywords and ideas that they later develop into a more structured working plan.   Essay planning can take several forms, 'for example, you might try a mind map, a collage, or use headings. You might prefer to plan in written form or online. You'll also turn ideas over in your head - just remember to jot down these insights,' adds Katherine.

'In my experience most students find it helpful to start by writing an essay skeleton - a bullet pointed structure of the essay,' says Dr Khusainova.

'I also advise taking an inverted pyramid approach to the storyline. This is where you start broad and slowly narrow down your focus to the specific essay question.'

Write clearly and concisely

Most university essays are set with a word count and deadline in place. It's therefore important that you don't waste time or words on waffle. You need to write clearly and concisely and ensure that every sentence and paragraph works towards answering the essay question.

Aim to write a first draft where you cover everything in your plan. You can then refine and edit this in your second draft.

'A successful essay is one that answers all parts of the essay question,' explains Dr Khusainova. 'Also consider elements such as the level of critical thinking and whether it's written in a suitable style.

'One of the most important (and coincidentally, the most challenging) elements of essay writing is ensuring your assignment has a logical storyline. Make sure no idea is coming out of the blue and that the discussion flows logically.'

Also consider your method of referencing. Some institutions specify a preferred citation style such as The Harvard System. Whatever referencing system you're using ensure that you're doing so correctly to avoid plagiarism. It should go without saying that your writing needs to be your own.

If you need help Katherine points out 'you can turn to your tutors and your peers. Perhaps you can you organise a study group and discuss one another's ideas? It's tempting with new and emerging artificial intelligence technology to turn to these resources but they are in their infancy and not particularly reliable. A number of universities advise you to avoid these resources altogether.'

Carefully consider the introduction and conclusion

Starting an essay and writing an impactful conclusion are often the trickiest parts.

It can be useful to outline your introduction during the early stages of writing your essay. You can then use this as a frame of reference for your writing. If you adopt this approach be aware that your ideas will likely develop or change as you write, so remember to revisit and review your introduction in later stages to ensure it reflects the content of your final essay.

While the conclusion may not be the first thing you write, it's still helpful to consider the end point of your essay early on, so that you develop a clear and consistent argument. The conclusion needs to do justice to your essay, as it will leave the greatest impression on your reader.

On the other hand, if you're unsure what shape your argument may take, it's best to leave both your introduction and conclusion until last.

Evaluate what you've written

Once you've written and edited your essay, leave it alone for a couple of days if possible. Return to it with fresh eyes and give it a final check.

'Reading an essay out loud works well for some students,' says Dr Khusainova. 'Swapping drafts with a classmate could also work on some modules.'

Don't skip this step, final checks are important. This is when you can pick up on formatting and spelling errors and correct any referencing mistakes.

• Check that your introduction provides a clear purpose for your essay.
• Ensure that the conclusion provides a clear response to the essay question, summarising your key findings/argument. 
• Check the structure of your paragraphs for clear topic and link sentences. Are the paragraphs in a logical order with a clear and consistent line of argument that a reader can follow?
• Read your essay slowly and carefully. Writing has a rhythm - does your writing flow and is it correctly punctuated?
• Remove unnecessary repetition.
• Review the examples and evidence you've used. Is there enough to support your argument?

'Receiving feedback can be an emotional experience - so be honest with yourself,' advises Katherine. 'What is the feedback telling you - what are your strengths? What areas could you improve?'

Find out more

• Struggling with your workload? Here are  5 ways to manage student stress .
• Discover  how to revise for exams .
• Take a look at 7 time management tips for students .

How would you rate this page?

On a scale where 1 is dislike and 5 is like

• Dislike 1 unhappy-very
• Like 5 happy-very

Thank you for rating the page

Essay Success

Popular pages on the Skills website

Take a look at our selection of eLearning content designed to help you write your essay.

Understanding an assessment brief

Learn about the different parts of the assessment brief, how to use your assessment brief to plan and complete your assessments and where to get help if you don't understand the assignment brief.

• Estimated duration is 20 minutes.

Use Library Search to find academic information

Learn how to perform a search for different types of academic information in Library Search and how to use filters to make your results more relevant.

• Estimated duration is 15 minutes.

Read, take notes and use academic information in your assessments

Learn best practice tips for getting the most out of reading for academic purposes, identify different note taking strategies and know how to use the academic information your have found in your assessments. 

Evaluating Sources

Learn about appraising and evaluating the information you find to check for issues of Credibility, Relevance, Authority, Accuracy and Purpose.

Using evidence in your work

Learn how to paraphrase and summarise evidence correctly in your writing, why it's important to use in text citations and when to use direct quotations

Critical Writing

Learn about what critical thinking is, how to critically analyse, the benefits of critical thinking and the difference between critical and descriptive writing.

• Estimated duration is 20 minutes.

Tools for good academic writing

Learn about using an appropriate style for academic writing, writing objectively and with caution, showing the connections between your ideas and the importance of drafting and editing.

• Estimated duration is 40 minutes.

Approaching your essay

Learn how and when to get started with your first draft, how to structure paragraphs and essays, what to include in an introduction and conclusion and how you can use evidence to write objectively.

Using Microsoft Word to format your essay

Learn how to use the tools in MS Word to format your assessments. Topics include fonts, line spacing, paragraph alignment, indentations, margins, numbering, headers and footers, footnotes, spelling and grammar and word count.

Creating references using APA 7th Edition

Learn what the APA 7th style looks like in your work, how to use in-text citations, what you reference list is for and how to format you references.

Proofreading and editing

Learn about the purpose of proofreading your work and useful techniques for proofreading and editing.

How to eSubmit your work for marking

Learn how to submit a draft assignment, what an Originality Report is and how to find and interpret it, how to submit your work for marking and how to access your grades and feedback.

• Study and research support
• Academic skills

Quick Guide to Essay Writing

A quick guide to essay writing exploring the reasons why tutors ask students to write essays.

• Quick Guide to Essay Writing (PDF 2.09 MB) Download

• Anglia Ruskin University Library
• Library Support

Q. How do I format my essay?

• General FAQ
• Plagiarism and Good Academic Practice
• Search & Access
• 3 Accessibility
• 5 Accounts and Logins
• 22 Borrowing
• 8 Databases
• 4 Dissertations and Theses
• 8 Electronic Resources
• 2 Exam Papers
• 11 Finding resources
• 12 Library Facilities
• 9 Library Membership
• 3 Plagiarism and Good Academic Practice
• 38 Referencing and Citing
• 11 Requests
• 5 SCONUL Access
• 2 Study Rooms/Pods
• 11 Training
• 14 University Information
• 49 Using the library

Answered By: Elaine Pocklington Last Updated: May 15, 2023     Views: 4231

It is recommended that you use a font and text size that are legible and easy to read for your essay. If you are still unsure as to what to use, please speak to your Course Leader for advice. If you'd like more information on style and presentation - you may wish to read the Study Skills Plus guide on Formatting your Assignment  for more information.

• Share on Facebook

Was this helpful? Yes 0 No 22

Comments (0)

Library help, related topics.

• PRO Courses Guides New Tech Help Pro Expert Videos About wikiHow Pro Upgrade Sign In
• EDIT Edit this Article
• EXPLORE Tech Help Pro About Us Random Article Quizzes Request a New Article Community Dashboard This Or That Game Popular Categories Arts and Entertainment Artwork Books Movies Computers and Electronics Computers Phone Skills Technology Hacks Health Men's Health Mental Health Women's Health Relationships Dating Love Relationship Issues Hobbies and Crafts Crafts Drawing Games Education & Communication Communication Skills Personal Development Studying Personal Care and Style Fashion Hair Care Personal Hygiene Youth Personal Care School Stuff Dating All Categories Arts and Entertainment Finance and Business Home and Garden Relationship Quizzes Cars & Other Vehicles Food and Entertaining Personal Care and Style Sports and Fitness Computers and Electronics Health Pets and Animals Travel Education & Communication Hobbies and Crafts Philosophy and Religion Work World Family Life Holidays and Traditions Relationships Youth
• Browse Articles
• Learn Something New
• Quizzes Hot
• This Or That Game New
• Train Your Brain
• Explore More
• Support wikiHow
• About wikiHow
• Log in / Sign up
• Education and Communications
• College University and Postgraduate
• Academic Writing

How to Format an Essay

Last Updated: April 11, 2024 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Carrie Adkins, PhD and by wikiHow staff writer, Aly Rusciano . Carrie Adkins is the cofounder of NursingClio, an open access, peer-reviewed, collaborative blog that connects historical scholarship to current issues in gender and medicine. She completed her PhD in American History at the University of Oregon in 2013. While completing her PhD, she earned numerous competitive research grants, teaching fellowships, and writing awards. There are 11 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 86,461 times.

You’re opening your laptop to write an essay, knowing exactly what you want to write, but then it hits you—you don’t know how to format it! Using the correct format when writing an essay can help your paper look polished and professional while earning you full credit. There are 3 common essay formats—MLA, APA, and Chicago Style—and we’ll teach you the basics of properly formatting each in this article. So, before you shut your laptop in frustration, take a deep breath and keep reading because soon you’ll be formatting like a pro.

Setting Up Your Document

• If you can’t find information on the style guide you should be following, talk to your instructor after class to discuss the assignment or send them a quick email with your questions.
• If your instructor lets you pick the format of your essay, opt for the style that matches your course or degree best: MLA is best for English and humanities; APA is typically for education, psychology, and sciences; Chicago Style is common for business, history, and fine arts.

• Most word processors default to 1 inch (2.5 cm) margins.

• Do not change the font size, style, or color throughout your essay.

• Change the spacing on Google Docs by clicking on Format , and then selecting “Line spacing.”
• Click on Layout in Microsoft Word, and then click the arrow at the bottom left of the “paragraph” section.

• Using the page number function will create consecutive numbering.
• When using Chicago Style, don’t include a page number on your title page. The first page after the title page should be numbered starting at 2. [4] X Research source
• In APA format, a running heading may be required in the left-hand header. This is a maximum of 50 characters that’s the full or abbreviated version of your essay’s title. [5] X Research source

• For APA formatting, place the title in bold at the center of the page 3 to 4 lines down from the top. Insert one double-spaced line under the title and type your name. Under your name, in separate centered lines, type out the name of your school, course, instructor, and assignment due date. [6] X Research source
• For Chicago Style, set your cursor ⅓ of the way down the page, then type your title. In the very center of your page, put your name. Move your cursor ⅔ down the page, then write your course number, followed by your instructor’s name and paper due date on separate, double-spaced lines. [7] X Trustworthy Source Purdue Online Writing Lab Trusted resource for writing and citation guidelines Go to source

• Double-space the heading like the rest of your paper.

Writing the Essay Body

• Use standard capitalization rules for your title.
• Do not underline, italicize, or put quotation marks around your title, unless you include other titles of referred texts.

• A good hook might include a quote, statistic, or rhetorical question.
• For example, you might write, “Every day in the United States, accidents caused by distracted drivers kill 9 people and injure more than 1,000 others.”

• "Action must be taken to reduce accidents caused by distracted driving, including enacting laws against texting while driving, educating the public about the risks, and giving strong punishments to offenders."
• "Although passing and enforcing new laws can be challenging, the best way to reduce accidents caused by distracted driving is to enact a law against texting, educate the public about the new law, and levy strong penalties."

• Use transitions between paragraphs so your paper flows well. For example, say, “In addition to,” “Similarly,” or “On the other hand.” [12] X Research source

• A statement of impact might be, "Every day that distracted driving goes unaddressed, another 9 families must plan a funeral."
• A call to action might read, “Fewer distracted driving accidents are possible, but only if every driver keeps their focus on the road.”

Using References

• In MLA format, citations should include the author’s last name and the page number where you found the information. If the author's name appears in the sentence, use just the page number. [14] X Trustworthy Source Purdue Online Writing Lab Trusted resource for writing and citation guidelines Go to source
• For APA format, include the author’s last name and the publication year. If the author’s name appears in the sentence, use just the year. [15] X Trustworthy Source Purdue Online Writing Lab Trusted resource for writing and citation guidelines Go to source
• If you don’t use parenthetical or internal citations, your instructor may accuse you of plagiarizing.

• At the bottom of the page, include the source’s information from your bibliography page next to the footnote number. [16] X Trustworthy Source Purdue Online Writing Lab Trusted resource for writing and citation guidelines Go to source
• Each footnote should be numbered consecutively.

• If you’re using MLA format , this page will be titled “Works Cited.”
• In APA and Chicago Style, title the page “References.”

• If you have more than one work from the same author, list alphabetically following the title name for MLA and by earliest to latest publication year for APA and Chicago Style.
• Double-space the references page like the rest of your paper.
• Use a hanging indent of 0.5 inches (1.3 cm) if your citations are longer than one line. Press Tab to indent any lines after the first. [17] X Research source
• Citations should include (when applicable) the author(s)’s name(s), title of the work, publication date and/or year, and page numbers.
• Sites like Grammarly , EasyBib , and MyBib can help generate citations if you get stuck.

Formatting Resources

Expert Q&A

You might also like.

• ↑ https://www.une.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/392149/WE_Formatting-your-essay.pdf
• ↑ https://content.nroc.org/DevelopmentalEnglish/unit10/Foundations/formatting-a-college-essay-mla-style.html
• ↑ https://camosun.libguides.com/Chicago-17thEd/titlePage
• ↑ https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/paper-format/page-header
• ↑ https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/paper-format/title-page
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/chicago_manual_17th_edition/cmos_formatting_and_style_guide/general_format.html
• ↑ https://www.uvu.edu/writingcenter/docs/basicessayformat.pdf
• ↑ https://www.deanza.edu/faculty/cruzmayra/basicessayformat.pdf
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_formatting_and_style_guide/mla_in_text_citations_the_basics.html
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/in_text_citations_the_basics.html
• ↑ https://library.menloschool.org/chicago

About This Article

• Send fan mail to authors

Reader Success Stories

Maansi Richard

May 8, 2019

Did this article help you?

Jan 7, 2020

Featured Articles

Trending Articles

Watch Articles

• Terms of Use
• Privacy Policy
• Do Not Sell or Share My Info
• Not Selling Info

Don’t miss out! Sign up for

wikiHow’s newsletter

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, automatically generate references for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Referencing

A Quick Guide to Harvard Referencing | Citation Examples

Published on 14 February 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on 15 September 2023.

Referencing is an important part of academic writing. It tells your readers what sources you’ve used and how to find them.

Harvard is the most common referencing style used in UK universities. In Harvard style, the author and year are cited in-text, and full details of the source are given in a reference list .

Harvard Reference Generator

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

Be assured that you'll submit flawless writing. Upload your document to correct all your mistakes.

Table of contents

Harvard in-text citation, creating a harvard reference list, harvard referencing examples, referencing sources with no author or date, frequently asked questions about harvard referencing.

A Harvard in-text citation appears in brackets beside any quotation or paraphrase of a source. It gives the last name of the author(s) and the year of publication, as well as a page number or range locating the passage referenced, if applicable:

Note that ‘p.’ is used for a single page, ‘pp.’ for multiple pages (e.g. ‘pp. 1–5’).

An in-text citation usually appears immediately after the quotation or paraphrase in question. It may also appear at the end of the relevant sentence, as long as it’s clear what it refers to.

When your sentence already mentions the name of the author, it should not be repeated in the citation:

Sources with multiple authors

When you cite a source with up to three authors, cite all authors’ names. For four or more authors, list only the first name, followed by ‘ et al. ’:

Sources with no page numbers

Some sources, such as websites , often don’t have page numbers. If the source is a short text, you can simply leave out the page number. With longer sources, you can use an alternate locator such as a subheading or paragraph number if you need to specify where to find the quote:

Multiple citations at the same point

When you need multiple citations to appear at the same point in your text – for example, when you refer to several sources with one phrase – you can present them in the same set of brackets, separated by semicolons. List them in order of publication date:

Multiple sources with the same author and date

If you cite multiple sources by the same author which were published in the same year, it’s important to distinguish between them in your citations. To do this, insert an ‘a’ after the year in the first one you reference, a ‘b’ in the second, and so on:

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

A bibliography or reference list appears at the end of your text. It lists all your sources in alphabetical order by the author’s last name, giving complete information so that the reader can look them up if necessary.

The reference entry starts with the author’s last name followed by initial(s). Only the first word of the title is capitalised (as well as any proper nouns).

Sources with multiple authors in the reference list

As with in-text citations, up to three authors should be listed; when there are four or more, list only the first author followed by ‘ et al. ’:

Reference list entries vary according to source type, since different information is relevant for different sources. Formats and examples for the most commonly used source types are given below.

• Entire book
• Book chapter
• Translated book
• Edition of a book

Journal articles

• Print journal
• Online-only journal with DOI
• Online-only journal with no DOI
• General web page
• Online article or blog
• Social media post

Sometimes you won’t have all the information you need for a reference. This section covers what to do when a source lacks a publication date or named author.

No publication date

When a source doesn’t have a clear publication date – for example, a constantly updated reference source like Wikipedia or an obscure historical document which can’t be accurately dated – you can replace it with the words ‘no date’:

Note that when you do this with an online source, you should still include an access date, as in the example.

When a source lacks a clearly identified author, there’s often an appropriate corporate source – the organisation responsible for the source – whom you can credit as author instead, as in the Google and Wikipedia examples above.

When that’s not the case, you can just replace it with the title of the source in both the in-text citation and the reference list:

Harvard referencing uses an author–date system. Sources are cited by the author’s last name and the publication year in brackets. Each Harvard in-text citation corresponds to an entry in the alphabetised reference list at the end of the paper.

Vancouver referencing uses a numerical system. Sources are cited by a number in parentheses or superscript. Each number corresponds to a full reference at the end of the paper.

A Harvard in-text citation should appear in brackets every time you quote, paraphrase, or refer to information from a source.

The citation can appear immediately after the quotation or paraphrase, or at the end of the sentence. If you’re quoting, place the citation outside of the quotation marks but before any other punctuation like a comma or full stop.

In Harvard referencing, up to three author names are included in an in-text citation or reference list entry. When there are four or more authors, include only the first, followed by ‘ et al. ’

Though the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, there is a difference in meaning:

• A reference list only includes sources cited in the text – every entry corresponds to an in-text citation .
• A bibliography also includes other sources which were consulted during the research but not cited.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2023, September 15). A Quick Guide to Harvard Referencing | Citation Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 22 April 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/referencing/harvard-style/

Is this article helpful?

Jack Caulfield

Other students also liked, harvard in-text citation | a complete guide & examples, harvard style bibliography | format & examples, referencing books in harvard style | templates & examples, scribbr apa citation checker.

An innovative new tool that checks your APA citations with AI software. Say goodbye to inaccurate citations!