Proportion
3.3.1. gender difference analysis.
A structural equation model was used to investigate gender differences in the mediating effect of DPA between VVGE and PB, and the model included grade as a control variable. First, a model test was conducted on male and female students, and the results showed that the model fit was good in the two samples, which could be compared across groups ( Table 5 ). Next, the unconstrained Model M 0 was constructed on this basis (the male and female students had the same shape, and the path coefficient was freely estimated). The measurement weights Model M 1 was constructed based on model M 0 (the factor loading of latent variables in the two groups of models was restricted to remain unchanged across the groups). The two models fit well. The model comparison showed a significant difference between M 0 and M 1 [Δχ 2 = 20.55, p < 0.001], indicating that the model measurement coefficients of the male and female groups had cross-group inequalities. Further tests found cross-group differences in the loading coefficients of factors 1 and 2 on VVGE and the loading coefficients of peer barriers on IP. Therefore, the above coefficients were freely estimated to establish Model M 2 with equal measurement weights across groups. Finally, the structural weights Model M 3 is constructed based on M 2 (the path coefficients in the two groups of models are restricted to remain unchanged across groups). The results showed that both M 2 and M 3 models fit well, and the model comparison revealed a significant difference between M 2 and M 3 [Δχ 2 = 57.14, p < 0.001]. Further tests revealed that the path coefficients of DPA on IP and EP differed across the groups ( Table 5 , Figure 2 ). The predictive effect of DPA on IP in boys ( β = 0.31, p < 0.001) was significantly higher than that in girls ( β = 0.28, p < 0.001). However, the predictive effect of DPA on EP was significantly lower in boys ( β = 0.37, p < 0.001) than in girls ( β = 0.41, p < 0.001).
Gender differences in mediating role of deviant peer affiliation. Note: The path coefficient is male outside the brackets and female inside the brackets; the load coefficient between each latent variable and its index, the residual error and error of all variables, and the control variable coefficient are omitted to simplify the model. * p < 0.05, *** p < 0.001.
Fitting index of multi-cohort model for multi-cohort analysis of gender difference.
Model | χ /df | CFI | GFI | IFI | TLI | RMSEA | SRMR |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M | 4.52 | 0.97 | 0.98 | 0.97 | 0.94 | 0.06 | 0.05 |
M | 7.15 | 0.95 | 0.96 | 0.95 | 0.92 | 0.08 | 0.06 |
M | 5.97 | 0.96 | 0.97 | 0.96 | 0.93 | 0.05 | 0.05 |
M | 5.81 | 0.95 | 0.97 | 0.95 | 0.93 | 0.05 | 0.05 |
M | 5.79 | 0.96 | 0.97 | 0.96 | 0.93 | 0.05 | 0.05 |
M | 5.77 | 0.95 | 0.96 | 0.95 | 0.93 | 0.05 | 0.05 |
Note: M male and M female were male and female models.
This study investigated the grade difference of the mediating role of DPA in VVGE and PB used for the cross-group comparison of the structural equation model and considered gender as a control variable in the model. The participants were divided into elementary school, junior high school, and senior high school according to their grades, and the grade differences in the intermediary model were investigated. First, the samples were divided into school sections for the model test. The results showed that the models of the three samples fit well and could be compared across groups ( Table 6 ). Next, the unconstrained model M 4 (three groups of models have the same shape, and the path coefficient can be estimated freely) was built. Further, the measurement coefficient Model M 5 (limiting the factor load of latent variables in three groups of models to be constant across groups) was built. Both models fit well, and the comparison of the models showed a significant difference between Models M 4 and M 5 [Δχ 2 = 45.66, p < 0.001], indicating that the measurement coefficients of the three groups of models were unequal across groups. Further tests showed cross-group differences in the load coefficient of factor 1 and factor 2 on VVGE, the load coefficient of factor 2 on DPA, and the load coefficient of peer obstacles on IP. Therefore, the above coefficients were estimated freely, and Model M 6 with equal measurement weights s across groups was established. Finally, a structural weights Model M 7 was built based on M 6 (the path coefficient among the three models is limited to be unchanged across groups). The results showed that the M 6 and M 7 models fit well, and the comparison indicated that M 6 and M 7 had significant differences [Δχ 2 = 110.07, p < 0.001]. Further examination showed that cross-group differences existed between the path coefficients of DPA on IP and EP and VVGE on EP ( Table 6 , Figure 3 ). For instance, the predictive effect of DPA on IP was significantly higher at the elementary school level ( β = 0.39, p < 0.001) than at the senior high school level ( β = 0.31, p < 0.001), and significantly higher at the senior high school level than at the junior high school level ( β = 0.22, p < 0.001). Further, the predictive effect of DPA on EP was significantly higher at the elementary level ( β = 0.41, p < 0.001) than at the junior high school level ( β = 0.33, p < 0.001), but considerably lower than that at the senior high school level ( β = 0.47, p < 0.001). The direct effect of VVGE on EP was significantly lower at the senior high school level ( β = 0.06, p = 0.217) than at the elementary school level ( β = 0.21, p < 0.001) and junior high school ( β = 0.24, p < 0.001).
Grade differences in mediating role of deviant peer affiliation. Note: Path coefficients outside parentheses are for elementary school, inside parentheses are for junior high school, and inside square brackets are for senior high school. The load coefficient between each latent variable and its index, the residual error and error of all variables, and the control variable coefficient are omitted to simplify the model. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.
Fitting index of multi-cohort model for multi-cohort analysis of grade difference.
Model | χ /df | CFI | GFI | IFI | TLI | RMSEA | SRMR |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M | 1.10 | 1.00 | 0.99 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.01 | 0.02 |
M | 2.04 | 0.99 | 0.98 | 0.99 | 0.98 | 0.04 | 0.03 |
M | 2.89 | 0.98 | 0.98 | 0.98 | 0.96 | 0.05 | 0.03 |
M | 2.01 | 0.99 | 0.99 | 0.99 | 0.98 | 0.02 | 0.02 |
M | 2.29 | 0.98 | 0.98 | 0.98 | 0.97 | 0.03 | 0.04 |
M | 1.99 | 0.99 | 0.98 | 0.99 | 0.98 | 0.02 | 0.03 |
M | 2.66 | 0.97 | 0.97 | 0.97 | 0.96 | 0.03 | 0.08 |
Note: M elementary school , M junior high school , and M senior high school are models with different school sections.
Childhood and adolescence are crucial periods of rapid individual development and tremendous change. This study was conducted with elementary, junior high, and senior high school students, focusing on the mechanisms of VVGE and DPA on PBs of children and adolescents and examining the differences by gender and grade.
First, the findings showed that VVGE positively and significantly predicted PB in children and adolescents, validating Research Hypothesis 1, which is consistent with previous research [ 19 , 20 , 21 ]. Regarding IPs, Kuss and Griffiths (2012) argue that the emergence of IPs may result from escapism and that players are attracted to games to escape from real-world problems [ 64 ]. Nonetheless, too much exposure is unhelpful and may exacerbate players’ emotional problems, such as anxiety and depression. Concerning EPs, violent video games are often fast-paced and offer frequent rewards or novel and enjoyable stimuli, which may contribute to the attention problems of child/adolescent players. According to the social learning theory, individuals can acquire undesirable behaviors in two ways: first, through observational learning, in which individuals receive unwanted behaviors by observing or imitating others’ undesirable behaviors. The other way is direct learning, in which individuals acquire undesirable behaviors through personal participation. During the game, child and adolescent players can develop unwanted behaviors by observing and imitating game non-player characters or directly manipulating game characters, which may lead to more EPs being exhibited by children and adolescents in real life.
Second, DPA mediated the relationship between VVGE and IP and EP, validating research Hypothesis 2 that VVGE affects PB by increasing children’s adolescents’ DPA. Games have a significant impact on children’s and adolescents’ peer interaction as a way of maintaining friendship. According to social network theory [ 65 ], individuals who are chronically exposed to violent games may be increasingly exposed to undesirable peers through a process of “selection”. The “selection” process refers to children and adolescents actively choosing peers with similar behaviors as their peers. Children and adolescents chronically exposed to violent video games tend to have more IPs or EPs. They may voluntarily join peers identical to them through a selection process based on similarity. The influence of undesirable peers on children and adolescents’ PB results from the interaction between children and adolescents and undesirable peers. This interaction is two-way, including the “socialization” process and the “selection” process. The process of “socialization” refers to children and adolescents making friends with peers who exhibit PB; they may develop similar behaviors under the influence of peer pressure and other factors. These two processes interact; children and adolescents who play games select peers with behavioral problems, and interactions with undesirable peers increase their own problem behaviors [ 66 ]. Simultaneously, friendships with undesirable peers tend to be unstable, and interactions with them tend to increase traditional peer rejection, which also increases the risk of IPs and EPs in children and adolescents.
Finally, the study’s results found that the effects of DPA on IP and EP showed significant gender and grade differences, partially validating research Hypothesis 3. Regarding gender, boys’ IPs were more likely to be influenced by DPA. Generally, boys are less flexible and lack cognitive and emotional coping skills and regulation when dealing with interpersonal relationships than girls [ 34 ], which may lead to more psychological distress in boys when dealing with DPA. Girls’ EPs are more likely to be influenced by DPA. On the one hand, girls are typically more precocious than boys. They are more likely to be exposed to older mixed-sex groups. Further, adolescent girls are more sensitive to social appraisal concerns and more dependent on intimate relationships as a source of self-evaluation and self-worth [ 67 ]. A qualitative study found that college girls’ drinking behavior is more often driven by pressure to impress their male peers [ 68 ], suggesting that girls are more likely to engage in more EPs out of the need for approval and influence from undesirable peers. On the other hand, boys have a greater tendency toward EPs than girls, and their EPs are more likely to be influenced by a combination of other factors, such as hormones and personality [ 69 ]. Concerning grade differences, elementary school students’ IPs were affected more by DPA. Early adolescence is a critical transition period for individual development, during which essential changes in the individual are often accompanied by changes in the social environment. Simultaneously, individuals become more independent in the face of their parents, where dependence on parents is replaced by reliance on peers, and they are more susceptible to peer influence [ 70 , 71 ]. Additionally, children in elementary school tend to show a one-off imbalance in their psychological development due to their young age. Simultaneously, they have low self-centeredness and self-control; they are more susceptible to peer pressure and more likely to develop IPs. The EPs of senior high school students are affected more by DPA. It has been found that undesirable peer influences play an important role in developing PB in middle and late adolescence [ 27 ]. In senior high school, peer interaction has become an important way for senior high school students to meet their social needs and plays an important role in learning and life. Simultaneously, the character and hobbies of peers are gradually becoming essential criteria for choosing friends, and individuals who interact with undesirable peers often tend to misbehave. Aggression and popularity are often intertwined during interactions with undesirable peers [ 72 ]. Therefore, senior high school students in unwanted peer groups may adopt destructive behaviors to maintain friendships.
This study is an effort to explore the role of DPA between VVGE and PB, as well as gender and grade differences in a large sample (more than 2000 people), covering children and adolescents from different grades in elementary school, junior high school, and senior high school. In the term of theoretical aspect, this study explores the role of social factors in the relationship between VVGE and children and adolescents’ PBs and made clear the differences in both gender and grade, which deepens our understanding of the impact of VVGE on children and adolescents’ PBs and helps to explain its potential impact mechanism. In practice, this can also bring some thinking for the education of children and adolescents. As one of the common entertainment tools for children and adolescents, violent video games have a certain negative impact on children and adolescents’ social interaction and PBs. At the same time, the DPA of children and adolescents significantly affects their IPs and EPs. Therefore, in terms of family, parents should supervise children’s network use, cultivate children’s healthy network use habits, and avoid excessive addiction to video games. At the same time, they should also pay attention to children’s social interaction, guide children to establish healthy and positive peer groups, and reduce communication with bad peers. In school, first of all, teachers and mental health experts should pay attention to network security, to educate and guide children and adolescents to correctly understand the violent factors in video games. Secondly, we should pay attention to the harm of students’ bad companions and help students to establish a healthy and positive circle of friends. In addition, parents and schools should pay attention to the differences among primary, middle, and high school students in educating and guiding children and adolescents. In the social aspect, we can create a healthy network environment for children and adolescents by improving the game classification system and combating the illegal dissemination of harmful information.
Although the current study yielded important and practical findings on the targeted intervention and guidance, several limitations should be noted. First, this study is a cross-sectional study, which is not plausible to make a causal inference. In the future, longitudinal studies can be applied to clarify the causal relationship between variables. Second, all variables in the study are self-reported and may be affected by common method bias. Therefore, a more comprehensive data collection method should be adopted. Thirdly, video games are one of the common entertainment tools for children and adolescents and are regarded as an important factor affecting the psychosocial development of children and adolescents. This study only focuses on the impact of VVGE on children and adolescents’ PBs. Future research can further discuss the differences between different video game content. Finally, future researchers should consider more potential impact factors. In this study, we found that there are significant gender and age differences in the mediating role of DPA between violent video game exposure and problem behaviors, and the development of peer relationships in children and adolescents is affected by the individual growth environment (such as parent–child relationship, school atmosphere) [ 12 , 73 ]. Therefore, examining environmental factors such as family and school helps us understand the role of deviant peer affiliation.
In sum, this study found that VVGE can affect the social interaction of children and adolescents, thereby increasing their PBs, and this effect has gender and age differences. In terms of gender, although boys generally show more EPs in their daily lives, their IPs are more susceptible to peer influence, while girls are the opposite. In terms of age, the influence of peers presents different characteristics in different age groups. The IP of primary school students is more susceptible to DPA, while the EP of high school students is more susceptible to DPA.
The authors would like to thank all the students who participated in this study. The authors would like to thank all the researchers who helped with data collection.
This work was supported by the Chongqing Federation of Social Science [grant numbers 2020SZ29].
Conceptualization M.W., Y.L. and S.C.; data curation, M.W., Y.L. and S.C.; formal analysis, M.W. and S.C.; funding acquisition, Y.L.; investigation, M.W., Y.L. and S.C.; methodology, M.W., Y.L. and S.C.; project administration, Y.L.; resources, Y.L.; supervision, Y.L.; writing—original draft preparation, M.W.; writing—review and editing, M.W. and Y.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and approved Research Project Ethical Review Application Form, Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University of China (H22074, 4 July 2022).
Informed consent was obtained from all subjects and their parents involved in the study.
Conflicts of interest.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Cautions against oversimplification of complex issue
WASHINGTON — There is insufficient scientific evidence to support a causal link between violent video games and violent behavior, according to an updated resolution (PDF, 60KB) adopted by the American Psychological Association.
APA’s governing Council of Representatives seated a task force to review its August 2015 resolution in light of many occasions in which members of the media or policymakers have cited that resolution as evidence that violent video games are the cause of violent behavior, including mass shootings.
“Violence is a complex social problem that likely stems from many factors that warrant attention from researchers, policymakers and the public,” said APA President Sandra L. Shullman, PhD. “Attributing violence to video gaming is not scientifically sound and draws attention away from other factors, such as a history of violence, which we know from the research is a major predictor of future violence.”
The 2015 resolution was updated by the Council of Representatives on March 1 with this caution. Based on a review of the current literature, the new task force report (PDF, 285KB) reaffirms that there is a small, reliable association between violent video game use and aggressive outcomes, such as yelling and pushing. However, these research findings are difficult to extend to more violent outcomes. These findings mirror those of an APA literature review (PDF, 413KB) conducted in 2015.
APA has worked for years to study the effects of video games and other media on children while encouraging the industry to design video games with adequate parental controls. It has also pushed to refine the video game rating system to reflect the levels and characteristics of violence in these games.
APA will continue to work closely with school officials and community leaders to raise awareness about the issue, the resolution said.
Kim I. Mills
(202) 336-6048
The relationship between violent video games exposure and school behavior problems in qatari schools, the hitman study violent video game exposure effects on aggressive behavior, hostile feelings, and depression, violent video games and aggression, research summary of negative effects of violent video games, the impact of video games on minors: a review of aggressive and prosocial research, research on the effects of violent video games: a critical analysis, adults who play violent video games and their normative beliefs about aggression, content analysis of the 18-year evolution of violence in video game magazines, violent video game exposure and physical aggression in adolescence: tests of the general aggression model, the changing face of aggression: the effect of personalized avatars in a violent video game on levels of aggressive behavior, 98 references, video game violence: a review of the empirical literature, video games and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the laboratory and in life., effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: a meta-analytic review of the scientific literature, violent video games and hostile expectations: a test of the general aggression model, violent video games: the newest media violence hazard., the effects of violent video game habits on adolescent aggressive attitudes and behaviors., the effects of video game play on young children's aggression, fantasy, and prosocial behavior, cognitive tempo, violent video games, and aggressive behavior in young boys, video games and aggression in children, video game playing and its relations with aggressive and prosocial behaviour., related papers.
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Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: a meta-analytic review of the scientific literature ...
violent video game use published between 2000 and 2013. This process yielded four1 meta-analyses conducted since the 2005 resolution and directly rele- vant to the task force's charge to evaluate the literature related to violence in video games and interactive media (Anderson et al., 2010; Ferguson 2007a, 2007b; Ferguson & Kilburn, 2009).
Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: A meta‐analytic review of the scientific literature. Psychological Science , 12 , 353-359. 10.1111/1467-9280.00366 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
The majority of Task Force members concluded that no new empirical research has been published since the Technical Report on the Review of the Violent Video Game Literature by the 2015 APA Task Force on Violent Media, that substantially alters the report's general conclu-sions. In addition, three meta-analyses, published between January 2014 ...
Violent video game play is linked to increased aggression in players but insufficient evidence exists about whether the link extends to criminal violence or delinquency. ... The task force conducted a comprehensive review of the research literature published between 2005 and 2013 focused on violent video game use. This included four meta ...
Can Violent Video Games Be a Force for Good?' (2010) 14 Review of General Psychology 68, 74. 5 J Cohen, 'A Power Primer' (1992) 112 Psychological Bulletin 155, 157. 6 C Anderson et al, 'Violent Video Game Effects on Aggression, Empathy, and Prosocial Behavior in Eastern
Their findings mesh with a 2015 literature review conducted by the American Psychological Association, which concluded violent video games worsen aggressive behavior in older children, adolescents ...
Rushbrook (1986) reported a correlation between the amount of video game play and violent attitudes that were more favorable to war in a group of 5th to 11th grade males. In a questionnaire study of teenage boys (10th to 11th grade), Dominick (1984) found that video game playing was correlated with aggression.
This article presents a brief overview of existing research on the effects of exposure to violent video games. An updated meta-analysis reveals that exposure to violent video games is significantly linked to increases in aggressive behaviour, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, and cardiovascular arousal, and to decreases in helping behaviour.
Violence is a dominant theme in most of the popular video games. This article reviews the current literature on effects of violent video game exposure on aggression-related variables. Exposure to ...
Mechanisms of moral disengagement in violent video game play have recently received considerable attention among communication scholars. To date, however, no study has analyzed the prevalence of moral disengagement factors in violent video games. To fill this research gap, the present approach includes both a systematic literature review and a content analysis of moral disengagement cues ...
To date, however, no study has analyzed the prevalence of moral disengagement factors in violent video games. To fill this research gap, the present approach includes both a systematic literature review and a content analysis of moral disengagement cues embedded in the narratives and actual game play of 17 top-ranked first-person shooters (PC).
Abstract. The popularity of video games, especially violent video games, has reached phenomenal proportions. The theoretical line of reasoning that hypothesizes a causal relationship between violent video-game play and aggression draws on the very large literature on media violence effects. Additionally, there are theoretical reasons to believe ...
Over the last 30 years, the video game industry has grown into a multi-billion dollar business. More children and adults are spending time playing computer games, consoles games, and online games than ever before. Violence is a dominant theme in most of the popular video games. This article reviews the current literature on effects of violent video game exposure on aggression-related variables ...
Meta‐analyses have shown that violent video game play increases aggression in the player. The present research suggests that violent video game play also affects individuals with whom the player is connected. A longitudinal study (N = 980) asked participants to report on their amount of violent video game play and level of aggression as well ...
analytic review of the video-game research literature reveals that violent video games increase aggressive behavior in children and young adults. Experimental and nonexperimental studies with males and females in laboratory and field settings support this conclusion. Analyses also reveal that exposure to violent video games increases physiological
Violent video games and peers are critical environmental factors that affect children's and adolescents' PBs. Notably, in addition to risk and protective factors, PBT emphasizes the possible differences in PB by gender and age . ... Through literature review, we found that research on how violent video games affect PBs is limited, with ...
Games Communicate Violence: A Literature Review and Content Analysis of Moral Disengagement Factors, Communication Monographs, 81:3, 310-332, DOI: 10.1080/03637751.2014.922206
Based on a review of the current literature, the new task force report (PDF, 285KB) reaffirms that there is a small, reliable association between violent video game use and aggressive outcomes, such as yelling and pushing. However, these research findings are difficult to extend to more violent outcomes. These findings mirror those of an APA ...
Abstract. The popularity of video games, especially violent video games, has reached phenomenal proportions. The theoretical line of reasoning that hypothesizes a causal relationship between violent video-game play and aggression draws on the very large literature on media violence effects. Additionally, there are theoretical reasons to believe ...
The popularity of video games, especially violent video games, has reached phenomenal proportions. The theoretical line of reasoning that hypothesizes a causal relationship between violent video game play and aggression draws on the very large literature on media violence effects. Additionally, there are theoretical reasons to believe that video game effects should be stronger than movie or ...
The current video game literature is interpreted in terms of the general aggression model (GAM), and differences between violent video game exposure and violent television are also discussed. Over the last 30 years, the video game industry has grown into a multi-billion dollar business. More children and adults are spending time playing computer games, consoles games, and online games than ...
Violence in video games has come under increasing research attention over the past decade. Researchers in this area have suggested that violent video games may cause aggressive behavior among players. However, the state of the extant literature has not yet been examined for publication bias. The current meta-analysis is designed to correct for this oversight. Results indicated that publication ...