research topics related to health and fitness

Physical Fitness Research Paper Topics

Looking for captivating physical fitness research paper topics ? You’ve come to the right place! This page is your ultimate resource, providing an extensive list of research paper topics that delve into the fascinating world of physical fitness. With ten categories, each containing ten unique physical fitness research paper topics, you’ll discover a wide range of subjects to explore, analyze, and present in your research. From exercise physiology to nutrition, psychology to biomechanics, this comprehensive list covers various dimensions of physical fitness. So, whether you’re passionate about understanding the effects of exercise on cardiovascular health or exploring the role of nutrition in athletic performance, these topics will ignite your curiosity and help you embark on a rewarding research journey in the realm of physical fitness.

100 Physical Fitness Research Paper Topics

The field of physical fitness offers a rich landscape for research, providing numerous opportunities for students to explore various aspects of human health, exercise, and performance. This comprehensive list of physical fitness research paper topics is designed to inspire and guide health science students in their quest for compelling research ideas. The list is divided into ten categories, each containing ten unique topics, offering a diverse range of subjects to delve into. Whether you are interested in the physiological, psychological, or social aspects of physical fitness, there is something for everyone in this extensive compilation.

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Exercise Physiology

• The impact of different exercise modalities on cardiovascular health.
• Effects of resistance training on muscle strength and hypertrophy.
• The role of aerobic exercise in improving cognitive function.
• Exploring the physiological mechanisms behind exercise-induced fatigue.
• Exercise and its impact on metabolic disorders such as diabetes.
• The influence of exercise on bone health and prevention of osteoporosis.
• Effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on athletic performance.
• The relationship between exercise and immune function.
• Exploring the effects of exercise on sleep quality and duration.
• The impact of exercise on mental health and well-being.

Nutrition and Physical Fitness

• The role of macronutrients in optimizing athletic performance.
• Exploring the effects of different diets on body composition and fitness.
• The influence of nutritional supplements on exercise recovery and performance.
• The impact of hydration status on exercise performance and physiological responses.
• Nutritional strategies for optimizing muscle glycogen storage and utilization.
• Exploring the relationship between nutrition, gut microbiota, and physical fitness.
• The effects of fasting and intermittent fasting on exercise adaptations.
• Nutritional considerations for vegan and vegetarian athletes.
• The role of antioxidants in mitigating exercise-induced oxidative stress.
• Investigating the effects of pre- and post-exercise nutrition timing on performance and recovery.

Psychology of Exercise

• The psychological benefits of physical activity on stress reduction.
• Exploring the motivational factors influencing exercise adherence.
• The role of exercise in improving body image and self-esteem.
• Examining the relationship between exercise and cognitive function in older adults.
• The impact of exercise on mood disorders such as depression and anxiety.
• Investigating the psychological effects of team sports participation.
• Exploring the psychological strategies for enhancing exercise performance.
• The influence of exercise on cognitive and academic performance in students.
• The role of exercise in promoting healthy aging and cognitive longevity.
• Psychological factors influencing exercise behavior among different populations.

Biomechanics and Kinetics

• Investigating the biomechanics of human gait and its implications for injury prevention.
• The role of biomechanical analysis in optimizing sports performance.
• Understanding the mechanics of resistance training exercises for muscle activation.
• Examining the biomechanical factors influencing running economy and performance.
• Biomechanical analysis of joint loading during different types of exercise.
• The influence of footwear on biomechanics and injury risk in athletes.
• Exploring the mechanics of human balance and stability during exercise.
• The role of motion capture technology in studying human movement patterns.
• Biomechanical analysis of sports-specific movements and injury prevention.
• Investigating the mechanics of plyometric training and its impact on power development.

Sports Medicine and Injury Prevention

• Exploring the most common sports-related injuries and their prevention strategies.
• The role of rehabilitation and physical therapy in sports injury recovery.
• Investigating the effects of preventive measures on reducing concussion risk in contact sports.
• Understanding the biomechanics of common overuse injuries in athletes.
• Exploring the psychological factors influencing injury rehabilitation and return to sport.
• The impact of sports specialization on injury risk and long-term athlete development.
• Investigating the efficacy of different injury prevention programs in specific sports.
• The role of bracing and protective equipment in injury prevention.
• Exploring the influence of environmental factors on injury risk in outdoor sports.
• The effects of fatigue on injury occurrence and prevention in sports.

Physical Fitness Assessment and Testing

• Evaluating the validity and reliability of different fitness assessment methods.
• The role of body composition analysis in assessing physical fitness and health.
• Investigating the accuracy of wearable fitness trackers in monitoring exercise intensity.
• Examining the utility of field-based fitness tests in predicting athletic performance.
• Comparing the effectiveness of laboratory-based and field-based fitness assessments.
• Exploring novel approaches to assessing muscular strength and power.
• The role of cardiovascular fitness testing in predicting health outcomes.
• Investigating the assessment of flexibility and its relationship with injury risk.
• Examining the utility of functional movement screening in assessing physical fitness.
• Evaluating the psychometric properties of self-report physical activity questionnaires.

Exercise Prescription and Training Programs

• The effects of different exercise intensity and duration on fitness outcomes.
• Investigating the impact of periodization models on long-term athletic development.
• Optimizing resistance training program design for muscle hypertrophy.
• The role of concurrent training in maximizing strength and endurance gains.
• Exploring the benefits of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) in various populations.
• Examining the effects of different exercise modalities on body composition changes.
• Investigating the efficacy of exercise programs for older adults in improving functional capacity.
• The impact of exercise programming on cardiovascular health and disease prevention.
• Exploring the effects of exercise on insulin sensitivity and metabolic health.
• The role of exercise prescription in promoting weight loss and weight management.

Exercise and Special Populations

• Investigating the effects of exercise on pregnancy outcomes and maternal health.
• Exercise interventions for individuals with chronic diseases such as diabetes and cardiovascular disorders.
• The impact of exercise on bone health in postmenopausal women.
• Exploring exercise programs for individuals with physical disabilities.
• The role of exercise in managing symptoms and improving quality of life in cancer patients.
• Exercise interventions for individuals with mental health conditions such as depression and anxiety.
• Investigating the effects of exercise on cognitive function in children and adolescents.
• The impact of exercise on sleep quality and patterns in different populations.
• Exercise programs for older adults to enhance mobility, balance, and functional independence.
• The role of exercise in promoting well-being and reducing stress in the workplace.

Exercise and Public Health

• Investigating the impact of physical activity interventions on population health outcomes.
• The role of exercise in preventing and managing non-communicable diseases.
• Examining the socioeconomic factors influencing physical activity levels in different populations.
• Exploring the effectiveness of community-based exercise programs in promoting health.
• The impact of built environment and neighborhood design on physical activity levels.
• Investigating the relationship between physical fitness and academic performance in school settings.
• Exploring strategies to promote physical activity in sedentary populations.
• The role of exercise in reducing healthcare costs and burden on the healthcare system.
• Investigating the effects of policy and environmental changes on physical activity promotion.
• The role of exercise in promoting healthy aging and preventing age-related chronic diseases.

Emerging Trends and Innovations in Physical Fitness

• Investigating the effects of wearable technology on exercise motivation and behavior change.
• Exploring the potential of virtual reality in enhancing exercise experiences.
• The impact of exergaming on physical activity levels and health outcomes.
• Investigating the use of artificial intelligence in personalized exercise prescription.
• Exploring the effects of biofeedback techniques on performance and exercise adherence.
• The role of genomics in understanding individual responses to exercise.
• Investigating the effects of mind-body exercise modalities on physical and mental well-being.
• Exploring the potential of outdoor adventure and nature-based activities in promoting physical fitness.
• The impact of social media and online platforms on exercise motivation and support.
• Investigating the effects of environmental factors on exercise performance and adherence.

This comprehensive list of physical fitness research paper topics offers a vast array of possibilities for students to explore in their research endeavors. From exercise physiology to sports medicine, psychology to emerging trends, there are numerous avenues to delve into the fascinating field of physical fitness. Whether you have a specific interest in a particular category or wish to explore cross-disciplinary topics, this list provides a solid foundation for selecting a compelling research topic. So, let your curiosity guide you, and embark on a journey of discovery and knowledge in the realm of physical fitness research.

Physical Fitness: Exploring the Range of Research Paper Topics

Physical fitness is a multidimensional concept that encompasses various aspects of health, performance, and well-being. As a student of health sciences, delving into the realm of physical fitness research can provide you with a rich opportunity to explore a wide range of captivating topics. From understanding the physiological adaptations to exercise to investigating the psychological aspects of physical activity, the field of physical fitness offers an expansive landscape for research. In this article, we will explore the diverse range of physical fitness research paper topics, providing you with a comprehensive understanding of the exciting possibilities that lie ahead.

Exercise Physiology: Unraveling the Mysteries of Human Performance

Exercise physiology is a fundamental area of study within physical fitness research. It focuses on understanding how the body responds and adapts to exercise. One fascinating research area within exercise physiology is the investigation of physiological adaptations to different types of exercise. You can explore the effects of various exercise modalities, such as aerobic training, resistance training, or high-intensity interval training, on cardiovascular health, muscular strength, endurance, and body composition. Additionally, examining the impact of exercise on metabolic disorders, bone health, immune function, and fatigue can provide valuable insights into the physiological mechanisms underlying human performance.

Psychology of Physical Activity: Understanding the Mind-Body Connection

Understanding the psychological aspects of physical activity is crucial for promoting and maintaining engagement in exercise. The psychology of physical activity encompasses a broad range of physical fitness research paper topics that explore the factors influencing exercise motivation, adherence, and the interplay between physical activity and mental health. You can investigate the role of motivation in initiating and sustaining exercise behavior, exploring strategies to enhance exercise adherence and overcome barriers to physical activity participation. Furthermore, exploring the relationship between exercise and mental health outcomes, such as depression, anxiety, stress management, and cognitive function, can shed light on the potential psychological benefits of physical fitness.

Sports Nutrition: Fueling the Body for Optimal Performance

Nutrition plays a critical role in supporting physical fitness and performance. Researching the impact of nutrition on exercise performance and recovery is a dynamic field within the realm of physical fitness. You can explore topics such as the influence of macronutrient composition on endurance or strength performance, the effects of hydration on exercise capacity, the role of dietary supplements in enhancing athletic performance, and the timing and composition of pre- and post-exercise meals. Investigating the nutritional requirements of specific populations, such as athletes, older adults, or individuals with chronic diseases, can provide valuable insights into optimizing nutrition strategies for diverse populations.

Injury Prevention and Rehabilitation: Ensuring Safe and Effective Exercise

Injury prevention and rehabilitation are essential components of physical fitness research. Exploring topics related to injury prevention and rehabilitation can encompass a wide range of areas, including the identification of risk factors for exercise-related injuries, the development of effective training programs to reduce injury rates, the investigation of rehabilitation techniques to facilitate recovery and return to physical activity, and the evaluation of preventive strategies in specific populations. Understanding the mechanisms underlying injuries and developing strategies to mitigate their occurrence can contribute to safer and more effective exercise practices.

Exercise Prescription and Programming: Tailoring Fitness Interventions

Exercise prescription and programming focus on the design and implementation of exercise interventions tailored to individual needs and goals. This research area encompasses topics such as the development of personalized exercise programs for different populations, the optimization of training variables (intensity, duration, frequency) for specific outcomes, the evaluation of novel training methods and technologies, and the use of wearable devices and digital technologies in exercise prescription. Investigating exercise prescription and programming can provide valuable insights into the most effective strategies for achieving desired fitness outcomes, improving overall health and well-being, and promoting behavior change.

Biomechanics and Movement Analysis: Exploring Human Motion

Biomechanics and movement analysis involve the study of human motion and the forces that act upon the body during physical activities. This research area explores topics such as the mechanics of joint movement, muscle function, gait analysis, balance and coordination, and the effects of external factors on movement performance. Investigating biomechanics and movement analysis can contribute to a deeper understanding of optimal movement patterns, injury mechanisms, ergonomics, and the development of assistive devices or rehabilitation strategies.

Environmental and Occupational Health: Exploring the Impact of Work and Environment on Health

Environmental and occupational health focuses on the effects of work and environmental factors on human health and well-being. This research area encompasses topics such as the impact of physical activity in occupational settings, the effects of environmental pollutants on health outcomes, the role of physical fitness in occupational performance, and the development of strategies to promote a healthy work environment. Investigating environmental and occupational health can provide insights into the relationship between physical fitness, work-related factors, and overall health and safety.

Public Health and Health Promotion: Advancing Population Health

Public health and health promotion research aim to improve the health and well-being of populations through disease prevention, health education, and promotion of healthy behaviors. This research area explores topics such as the impact of physical fitness on chronic disease prevention, the effectiveness of health promotion interventions in promoting physical activity, strategies for increasing physical activity in underserved populations, and the development of policies to support physical fitness initiatives. Investigating public health and health promotion can contribute to the development of evidence-based interventions and policies to enhance population health.

Geriatric Exercise Science: Enhancing Health in Aging Populations

Geriatric exercise science focuses on promoting health and functional independence in older adults through exercise and physical activity. This research area explores topics such as the effects of exercise on age-related declines in muscle strength, balance, and mobility, the role of physical activity in preventing age-related chronic diseases, and the development of exercise programs for older adults with specific health conditions. Investigating geriatric exercise science can provide valuable insights into maintaining health and well-being in aging populations and improving the quality of life for older adults.

The field of physical fitness research offers a vast array of topics to explore, ranging from exercise physiology and psychology of physical activity to sports nutrition, injury prevention and rehabilitation, exercise prescription and programming, biomechanics and movement analysis, environmental and occupational health, public health and health promotion, and geriatric exercise science. By choosing a research topic that aligns with your interests and career aspirations, you can contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the field while gaining a deeper understanding of the intricacies of physical fitness. Embrace the opportunities that physical fitness research presents and let your passion for health science drive your exploration of these captivating topics.

Choosing Physical Fitness Research Paper Topics

Selecting an engaging and relevant research topic is a crucial step in the process of writing a research paper on physical fitness. With a wide range of possibilities within the field, it can be challenging to narrow down your focus and identify a topic that aligns with your interests and academic goals. In this section, we will provide expert advice on how to choose physical fitness research paper topics that are compelling, meaningful, and contribute to the existing knowledge in the field.

• Identify Your Interests : Start by reflecting on your personal interests within the realm of physical fitness. Consider the aspects of exercise, health, performance, or well-being that fascinate you the most. Are you passionate about exercise physiology, psychology of physical activity, sports nutrition, injury prevention and rehabilitation, exercise prescription and programming, biomechanics and movement analysis, environmental and occupational health, public health and health promotion, or geriatric exercise science? By identifying your interests, you can focus on areas that resonate with you and spark your curiosity.
• Stay Informed : Keep up-to-date with the latest research and advancements in the field of physical fitness. Subscribe to academic journals, attend conferences, and follow reputable websites and research institutes dedicated to exercise science. By staying informed, you will gain insights into current trends, emerging topics, and gaps in knowledge that may inspire your research interests.
• Conduct a Literature Review : Before finalizing your research topic, conduct a comprehensive literature review to explore existing studies, theories, and gaps in knowledge. Identify areas where further research is needed or where conflicting findings exist. A literature review will help you refine your research question and ensure that your topic contributes to the existing body of knowledge.
• Consult with Faculty or Experts : Reach out to your faculty members or experts in the field for guidance and advice. They can provide valuable insights, suggest potential research directions, and help you refine your research topic. Utilize their expertise to gain a deeper understanding of the field and identify relevant research questions.
• Consider Practical Applications : Think about the practical applications and implications of your research topic. How can your findings contribute to real-world situations, enhance practice, or inform policy decisions? Identifying the practical significance of your research can add value and relevance to your study.
• Balance Specificity and Feasibility : Strive for a research topic that is specific enough to provide depth and focus but also feasible within the constraints of your research project. Consider the available resources, time, and access to data or participants when determining the scope of your research topic. Finding the right balance will ensure that your research is manageable and achievable within the given timeframe.
• Collaborate and Network : Collaborate with peers, researchers, or professionals in the field to broaden your perspective and generate new ideas. Engaging in discussions and exchanging thoughts with others can spark creativity and open doors to potential research collaborations.
• Think Outside the Box : Don’t be afraid to think outside the box and explore innovative or unconventional research topics within physical fitness. Consider interdisciplinary approaches or emerging areas of research that intersect with exercise science, such as technology, digital health, or social determinants of health. Embracing innovative ideas can lead to exciting discoveries and contribute to the evolution of the field.
• Consider Ethical Considerations : When choosing a research topic, consider the ethical implications and potential risks associated with your study. Ensure that your research adheres to ethical guidelines and protects the rights and well-being of participants. Consulting with ethics committees or institutional review boards can help ensure that your research is conducted ethically and responsibly.
• Seek Feedback and Refine Your Topic : Once you have identified a potential research topic, seek feedback from mentors, peers, or academic advisors. They can provide constructive criticism, suggest modifications, or help you clarify your research objectives. Use their input to refine your research topic and ensure that it aligns with your academic goals and the requirements of your research paper.

Choosing a research topic in the field of physical fitness requires careful consideration and alignment with your interests, academic goals, and the existing knowledge in the field. By following these expert tips, you can select a compelling research topic that contributes to the advancement of knowledge, engages your passion, and offers opportunities for meaningful exploration. Embrace the journey of research and let your curiosity drive you to uncover new insights in the fascinating world of physical fitness.

How to Write a Physical Fitness Research Paper

Writing a research paper on physical fitness requires careful planning, organization, and adherence to academic conventions. In this section, we will provide you with expert advice on how to write a compelling and well-structured physical fitness research paper. By following these guidelines, you can effectively communicate your research findings, contribute to the existing body of knowledge, and showcase your understanding of the subject matter.

• Define Your Research Objective : Start by clearly defining the objective of your research paper. What is the specific question or problem that your study aims to address? Clearly articulate your research objective to guide your literature review, data collection, and analysis.
• Conduct a Comprehensive Literature Review : Before diving into the writing process, conduct a thorough literature review to familiarize yourself with existing research on the topic. Identify key theories, methodologies, and findings that will inform your study. Analyze and critically evaluate the literature to identify gaps in knowledge that your research can fill.
• Develop a Solid Research Methodology : Outline your research methodology, including the study design, sample size, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques. Clearly explain how you will collect and analyze data to answer your research question. Ensure that your methodology is rigorous, ethical, and aligned with the standards of your academic institution.
• Organize Your Paper : A well-organized research paper follows a logical structure. Start with an introduction that provides background information, states the research question, and outlines the significance of your study. Follow this with a literature review that synthesizes existing research and highlights the gaps in knowledge. Next, present your research methodology, including the sample characteristics, data collection procedures, and statistical analysis methods. Present your findings in a clear and concise manner, using tables, graphs, or charts as appropriate. Finally, conclude your paper by summarizing your findings, discussing their implications, and suggesting avenues for future research.
• Write Clearly and Concisely : Use clear and concise language to convey your ideas. Avoid jargon or technical terms that may be unfamiliar to your readers. Explain complex concepts in a way that is accessible to a broad audience. Ensure that your writing is well-structured, with paragraphs that flow logically and smoothly.
• Support Your Arguments with Evidence : Back up your arguments and claims with credible evidence. Use scholarly sources, peer-reviewed articles, and reputable databases to support your statements. Include proper citations and references to acknowledge the work of other researchers and avoid plagiarism.
• Analyze and Interpret Your Findings : Once you have collected and analyzed your data, interpret the results in the context of your research question. Discuss the implications of your findings and consider alternative explanations or limitations of your study. Engage in critical thinking and provide thoughtful insights based on your analysis.
• Address Limitations : Acknowledge the limitations of your study and discuss potential sources of bias or confounding factors. This demonstrates a critical understanding of the research process and adds credibility to your work. Suggest areas for future research that can overcome these limitations and contribute to further knowledge in the field.
• Follow Proper Formatting and Citation Style : Adhere to the formatting guidelines specified by your academic institution or the journal you intend to submit your research paper to. Use the appropriate citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, and ensure consistency throughout your paper. Pay attention to details, such as margins, font size, headings, and references.
• Revise and Edit : Before submitting your research paper, revise and edit it thoroughly. Check for grammar and spelling errors, sentence structure, and overall coherence. Read your paper aloud or ask a colleague to review it for clarity and flow. Make necessary revisions to improve the quality and readability of your paper.

Writing a physical fitness research paper requires careful planning, diligent research, and effective communication of your findings. By following these guidelines, you can craft a well-structured and informative paper that contributes to the field of physical fitness. Embrace the process of writing and view it as an opportunity to share your knowledge, insights, and passion for the subject matter. With dedication and attention to detail, your research paper can make a valuable contribution to the body of knowledge in physical fitness.

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• Research article
• Open access
• Published: 16 November 2020

Exercise/physical activity and health outcomes: an overview of Cochrane systematic reviews

• Pawel Posadzki 1 , 2 ,
• Dawid Pieper   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0715-5182 3 ,
• Ram Bajpai 4 ,
• Hubert Makaruk 5 ,
• Nadja Könsgen 3 ,
• Annika Lena Neuhaus 3 &
• Monika Semwal 6  

BMC Public Health volume  20 , Article number:  1724 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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Sedentary lifestyle is a major risk factor for noncommunicable diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer and diabetes. It has been estimated that approximately 3.2 million deaths each year are attributable to insufficient levels of physical activity. We evaluated the available evidence from Cochrane systematic reviews (CSRs) on the effectiveness of exercise/physical activity for various health outcomes.

Overview and meta-analysis. The Cochrane Library was searched from 01.01.2000 to issue 1, 2019. No language restrictions were imposed. Only CSRs of randomised controlled trials (RCTs) were included. Both healthy individuals, those at risk of a disease, and medically compromised patients of any age and gender were eligible. We evaluated any type of exercise or physical activity interventions; against any types of controls; and measuring any type of health-related outcome measures. The AMSTAR-2 tool for assessing the methodological quality of the included studies was utilised.

Hundred and fifty CSRs met the inclusion criteria. There were 54 different conditions. Majority of CSRs were of high methodological quality. Hundred and thirty CSRs employed meta-analytic techniques and 20 did not. Limitations for studies were the most common reasons for downgrading the quality of the evidence. Based on 10 CSRs and 187 RCTs with 27,671 participants, there was a 13% reduction in mortality rates risk ratio (RR) 0.87 [95% confidence intervals (CI) 0.78 to 0.96]; I 2  = 26.6%, [prediction interval (PI) 0.70, 1.07], median effect size (MES) = 0.93 [interquartile range (IQR) 0.81, 1.00]. Data from 15 CSRs and 408 RCTs with 32,984 participants showed a small improvement in quality of life (QOL) standardised mean difference (SMD) 0.18 [95% CI 0.08, 0.28]; I 2  = 74.3%; PI -0.18, 0.53], MES = 0.20 [IQR 0.07, 0.39]. Subgroup analyses by the type of condition showed that the magnitude of effect size was the largest among patients with mental health conditions.

There is a plethora of CSRs evaluating the effectiveness of physical activity/exercise. The evidence suggests that physical activity/exercise reduces mortality rates and improves QOL with minimal or no safety concerns.

Trial registration

Registered in PROSPERO ( CRD42019120295 ) on 10th January 2019.

Peer Review reports

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines physical activity “as any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that requires energy expenditure” [ 1 ]. Therefore, physical activity is not only limited to sports but also includes walking, running, swimming, gymnastics, dance, ball games, and martial arts, for example. In the last years, several organizations have published or updated their guidelines on physical activity. For example, the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans, 2nd edition, provides information and guidance on the types and amounts of physical activity that provide substantial health benefits [ 2 ]. The evidence about the health benefits of regular physical activity is well established and so are the risks of sedentary behaviour [ 2 ]. Exercise is dose dependent, meaning that people who achieve cumulative levels several times higher than the current recommended minimum level have a significant reduction in the risk of breast cancer, colon cancer, diabetes, ischemic heart disease, and ischemic stroke events [ 3 ]. Benefits of physical activity have been reported for numerous outcomes such as mortality [ 4 , 5 ], cognitive and physical decline [ 5 , 6 , 7 ], glycaemic control [ 8 , 9 ], pain and disability [ 10 , 11 ], muscle and bone strength [ 12 ], depressive symptoms [ 13 ], and functional mobility and well-being [ 14 , 15 ]. Overall benefits of exercise apply to all bodily systems including immunological [ 16 ], musculoskeletal [ 17 ], respiratory [ 18 ], and hormonal [ 19 ]. Specifically for the cardiovascular system, exercise increases fatty acid oxidation, cardiac output, vascular smooth muscle relaxation, endothelial nitric oxide synthase expression and nitric oxide availability, improves plasma lipid profiles [ 15 ] while at the same time reducing resting heart rate and blood pressure, aortic valve calcification, and vascular resistance [ 20 ].

However, the degree of all the above-highlighted benefits vary considerably depending on individual fitness levels, types of populations, age groups and the intensity of different physical activities/exercises [ 21 ]. The majority of guidelines in different countries recommend a goal of 150 min/week of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity (or equivalent of 75 min of vigorous-intensity) [ 22 ] with differences for cardiovascular disease [ 23 ] or obesity prevention [ 24 ] or age groups [ 25 ].

There is a plethora of systematic reviews published by the Cochrane Library critically evaluating the effectiveness of physical activity/exercise for various health outcomes. Cochrane systematic reviews (CSRs) are known to be a source of high-quality evidence. Thus, it is not only timely but relevant to evaluate the current knowledge, and determine the quality of the evidence-base, and the magnitude of the effect sizes given the negative lifestyle changes and rising physical inactivity-related burden of diseases. This overview will identify the breadth and scope to which CSRs have appraised the evidence for exercise on health outcomes; and this will help in directing future guidelines and identifying current gaps in the literature.

The objectives of this research were to a. answer the following research questions: in children, adolescents and adults (both healthy and medically compromised) what are the effects (and adverse effects) of exercise/physical activity in improving various health outcomes (e.g., pain, function, quality of life) reported in CSRs; b. estimate the magnitude of the effects by pooling the results quantitatively; c. evaluate the strength and quality of the existing evidence; and d. create recommendations for future researchers, patients, and clinicians.

Our overview was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42019120295) on 10th January 2019. The Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of interventions and Preferred Reporting Items for Overviews of Reviews were adhered to while writing and reporting this overview [ 26 , 27 ].

Search strategy and selection criteria

We followed the practical guidance for conducting overviews of reviews of health care interventions [ 28 ] and searched the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (CDSR), 2019, Issue 1, on the Cochrane Library for relevant papers using the search strategy: (health) and (exercise or activity or physical). The decision to seek CSRs only was based on three main aspects. First, high quality (CSRs are considered to be the ‘gold methodological standard’) [ 29 , 30 , 31 ]. Second, data saturation (enough high-quality evidence to reach meaningful conclusions based on CSRs only). Third, including non-CSRs would have heavily increased the issue of overlapping reviews (also affecting data robustness and credibility of conclusions). One reviewer carried out the searches. The study screening and selection process were performed independently by two reviewers. We imported all identified references into reference manager software EndNote (X8). Any disagreements were resolved by discussion between the authors with third overview author acting as an arbiter, if necessary.

We included CSRs of randomised controlled trials (RCTs) involving both healthy individuals and medically compromised patients of any age and gender. Only CSRs assessing exercise or physical activity as a stand-alone intervention were included. This included interventions that could initially be taught by a professional or involve ongoing supervision (the WHO definition). Complex interventions e.g., assessing both exercise/physical activity and behavioural changes were excluded if the health effects of the interventions could not have been attributed to exercise distinctly.

Any types of controls were admissible. Reviews evaluating any type of health-related outcome measures were deemed eligible. However, we excluded protocols or/and CSRs that have been withdrawn from the Cochrane Library as well as reviews with no included studies.

Data analysis

Three authors (HM, ALN, NK) independently extracted relevant information from all the included studies using a custom-made data collection form. The methodological quality of SRs included was independently evaluated by same reviewers using the AMSTAR-2 tool [ 32 ]. Any disagreements on data extraction or CSR quality were resolved by discussion. The entire dataset was validated by three authors (PP, MS, DP) and any discrepant opinions were settled through discussions.

The results of CSRs are presented in a narrative fashion using descriptive tables. Where feasible, we presented outcome measures across CSRs. Data from the subset of homogeneous outcomes were pooled quantitatively using the approach previously described by Bellou et al. and Posadzki et al. [ 33 , 34 ]. For mortality and quality of life (QOL) outcomes, the number of participants and RCTs involved in the meta-analysis, summary effect sizes [with 95% confidence intervals (CI)] using random-effects model were calculated. For binary outcomes, we considered relative risks (RRs) as surrogate measures of the corresponding odds ratio (OR) or risk ratio/hazard ratio (HR). To stabilise the variance and normalise the distributions, we transformed RRs into their natural logarithms before pooling the data (a variation was allowed, however, it did not change interpretation of results) [ 35 ]. The standard error (SE) of the natural logarithm of RR was derived from the corresponding CIs, which was either provided in the study or calculated with standard formulas [ 36 ]. Binary outcomes reported as risk difference (RD) were also meta-analysed if two more estimates were available. For continuous outcomes, we only meta-analysed estimates that were available as standardised mean difference (SMD), and estimates reported with mean differences (MD) for QOL were presented separately in a supplementary Table  9 . To estimate the overall effect size, each study was weighted by the reciprocal of its variance. Random-effects meta-analysis, using DerSimonian and Laird method [ 37 ] was applied to individual CSR estimates to obtain a pooled summary estimate for RR or SMD. The 95% prediction interval (PI) was also calculated (where ≥3 studies were available), which further accounts for between-study heterogeneity and estimates the uncertainty around the effect that would be anticipated in a new study evaluating that same association. I -squared statistic was used to measure between study heterogeneity; and its various thresholds (small, substantial and considerable) were interpreted considering the size and direction of effects and the p -value from Cochran’s Q test ( p  < 0.1 considered as significance) [ 38 ]. Wherever possible, we calculated the median effect size (with interquartile range [IQR]) of each CSR to interpret the direction and magnitude of the effect size. Sub-group analyses are planned for type and intensity of the intervention; age group; gender; type and/or severity of the condition, risk of bias in RCTs, and the overall quality of the evidence (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) criteria). To assess overlap we calculated the corrected covered area (CCA) [ 39 ]. All statistical analyses were conducted on Stata statistical software version 15.2 (StataCorp LLC, College Station, Texas, USA).

The searches generated 280 potentially relevant CRSs. After removing of duplicates and screening, a total of 150 CSRs met our eligibility criteria [ 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 100 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 106 , 107 , 108 , 109 , 110 , 111 , 112 , 113 , 114 , 115 , 116 , 117 , 118 , 119 , 120 , 121 , 122 , 123 , 124 , 125 , 126 , 127 , 128 , 129 , 130 , 131 , 132 , 133 , 134 , 135 , 136 , 137 , 138 , 139 , 140 , 141 , 142 , 143 , 144 , 145 , 146 , 147 , 148 , 149 , 150 , 151 , 152 , 153 , 154 , 155 , 156 , 157 , 158 , 159 , 160 , 161 , 162 , 163 , 164 , 165 , 166 , 167 , 168 , 169 , 170 , 171 , 172 , 173 , 174 , 175 , 176 , 177 , 178 , 179 , 180 , 181 , 182 , 183 , 184 , 185 , 186 , 187 , 188 , 189 ] (Fig.  1 ). Reviews were published between September 2002 and December 2018. A total of 130 CSRs employed meta-analytic techniques and 20 did not. The total number of RCTs in the CSRs amounted to 2888; with 485,110 participants (mean = 3234, SD = 13,272). The age ranged from 3 to 87 and gender distribution was inestimable. The main characteristics of included reviews are summarised in supplementary Table  1 . Supplementary Table  2 summarises the effects of physical activity/exercise on health outcomes. Conclusions from CSRs are listed in supplementary Table  3 . Adverse effects are listed in supplementary Table  4 . Supplementary Table  5 presents summary of withdrawals/non-adherence. The methodological quality of CSRs is presented in supplementary Table  6 . Supplementary Table  7 summarises studies assessed at low risk of bias (by the authors of CSRs). GRADE-ings of the review’s main comparison are listed in supplementary Table  8 .

Study selection process

There were 54 separate populations/conditions, considerable range of interventions and comparators, co-interventions, and outcome measures. For detailed description of interventions, please refer to the supplementary tables . Most commonly measured outcomes were - function 112 (75%), QOL 83 (55%), AEs 70 (47%), pain 41 (27%), mortality 28 (19%), strength 30 (20%), costs 47 (31%), disability 14 (9%), and mental health in 35 (23%) CSRs.

There was a 13% reduction in mortality rates risk ratio (RR) 0.87 [95% CI 0.78 to 0.96]; I 2  = 26.6%, [PI 0.70, 1.07], median effect size (MES) = 0.93 [interquartile range (IQR) 0.81, 1.00]; 10 CSRs, 187 RCTs, 27,671 participants) following exercise when compared with various controls (Table 1 ). This reduction was smaller in ‘other groups’ of patients when compared to cardiovascular diseases (CVD) patients - RR 0.97 [95% CI 0.65, 1.45] versus 0.85 [0.76, 0.96] respectively. The effects of exercise were not intensity or frequency dependent. Sessions more than 3 times per week exerted a smaller reduction in mortality as compared with sessions of less than 3 times per week RR 0.87 [95% CI 0.78, 0.98] versus 0.63 [0.39, 1.00]. Subgroup analyses by risk of bias (ROB) in RCTs showed that RCTs at low ROB exerted smaller reductions in mortality when compared to RCTs at an unclear or high ROB, RR 0.90 [95% CI 0.78, 1.02] versus 0.72 [0.42, 1.22] versus 0.86 [0.69, 1.06] respectively. CSRs with moderate quality of evidence (GRADE), showed slightly smaller reductions in mortality when compared with CSRs that relied on very low to low quality evidence RR 0.88 [95% CI 0.79, 0.98] versus 0.70 [0.47, 1.04].

Exercise also showed an improvement in QOL, standardised mean difference (SMD) 0.18 [95% CI 0.08, 0.28]; I 2  = 74.3%; PI -0.18, 0.53], MES = 0.20 [IQR 0.07, 0.39]; 15 CSRs, 408 RCTs, 32,984 participants) when compared with various controls (Table 2 ). These improvements were greater observed for health related QOL when compared to overall QOL SMD 0.30 [95% CI 0.21, 0.39] vs 0.06 [− 0.08, 0.20] respectively. Again, the effects of exercise were duration and frequency dependent. For instance, sessions of more than 90 mins exerted a greater improvement in QOL as compared with sessions up to 90 min SMD 0.24 [95% CI 0.11, 0.37] versus 0.22 [− 0.30, 0.74]. Subgroup analyses by the type of condition showed that the magnitude of effect was the largest among patients with mental health conditions, followed by CVD and cancer. Physical activity exerted negative effects on QOL in patients with respiratory conditions (2 CSRs, 20 RCTs with 601 patients; SMD -0.97 [95% CI -1.43, 0.57]; I 2  = 87.8%; MES = -0.46 [IQR-0.97, 0.05]). Subgroup analyses by risk of bias (ROB) in RCTs showed that RCTs at low or unclear ROB exerted greater improvements in QOL when compared to RCTs at a high ROB SMD 0.21 [95% CI 0.10, 0.31] versus 0.17 [0.03, 0.31]. Analogically, CSRs with moderate to high quality of evidence showed slightly greater improvements in QOL when compared with CSRs that relied on very low to low quality evidence SMD 0.19 [95% CI 0.05, 0.33] versus 0.15 [− 0.02, 0.32]. Please also see supplementary Table  9 more studies reporting QOL outcomes as mean difference (not quantitatively synthesised herein).

Adverse events (AEs) were reported in 100 (66.6%) CSRs; and not reported in 50 (33.3%). The number of AEs ranged from 0 to 84 in the CSRs. The number was inestimable in 83 (55.3%) CSRs. Ten (6.6%) reported no occurrence of AEs. Mild AEs were reported in 28 (18.6%) CSRs, moderate in 9 (6%) and serious/severe in 20 (13.3%). There were 10 deaths and in majority of instances, the causality was not attributed to exercise. For this outcome, we were unable to pool the data as effect sizes were too heterogeneous (Table 3 ).

In 38 CSRs, the total number of trials reporting withdrawals/non-adherence was inestimable. There were different ways of reporting it such as adherence or attrition (high in 23.3% of CSRs) as well as various effect estimates including %, range, total numbers, MD, RD, RR, OR, mean and SD. The overall pooled estimates are reported in Table 3 .

Of all 16 domains of the AMSTAR-2 tool, 1876 (78.1%) scored ‘yes’, 76 (3.1%) ‘partial yes’; 375 (15.6%) ‘no’, and ‘not applicable’ in 25 (1%) CSRs. Ninety-six CSRs (64%) were scored as ‘no’ on reporting sources of funding for the studies followed by 88 (58.6%) failing to explain the selection of study designs for inclusion. One CSR (0.6%) each were judged as ‘no’ for reporting any potential sources of conflict of interest, including any funding for conducting the review as well for performing study selection in duplicate.

In 102 (68%) CSRs, there was predominantly a high risk of bias in RCTs. In 9 (6%) studies, this was reported as a range, e.g., low or unclear or low to high. Two CSRs used different terminology i.e., moderate methodological quality; and the risk of bias was inestimable in one CSR. Sixteen (10.6%) CSRs did not identify any studies (RCTs) at low risk of random sequence generation, 28 (18.6%) allocation concealment, 28 (18.6%) performance bias, 84 (54%) detection bias, 35 (23.3%) attrition bias, 18 (12%) reporting bias, and 29 (19.3%) other bias.

In 114 (76%) CSRs, limitation of studies was the main reason for downgrading the quality of the evidence followed by imprecision in 98 (65.3%) and inconsistency in 68 (45.3%). Publication bias was the least frequent reason for downgrading in 26 (17.3%) CSRs. Ninety-one (60.7%) CSRs reached equivocal conclusions, 49 (32.7%) reviews reached positive conclusions and 10 (6.7%) reached negative conclusions (as judged by the authors of CSRs).

In this systematic review of CSRs, we found a large body of evidence on the beneficial effects of physical activity/exercise on health outcomes in a wide range of heterogeneous populations. Our data shows a 13% reduction in mortality rates among 27,671 participants, and a small improvement in QOL and health-related QOL following various modes of physical activity/exercises. This means that both healthy individuals and medically compromised patients can significantly improve function, physical and mental health; or reduce pain and disability by exercising more [ 190 ]. In line with previous findings [ 191 , 192 , 193 , 194 ], where a dose-specific reduction in mortality has been found, our data shows a greater reduction in mortality in studies with longer follow-up (> 12 months) as compared to those with shorter follow-up (< 12 months). Interestingly, we found a consistent pattern in the findings, the higher the quality of evidence and the lower the risk of bias in primary studies, the smaller reductions in mortality. This pattern is observational in nature and cannot be over-generalised; however this might mean less certainty in the estimates measured. Furthermore, we found that the magnitude of the effect size was the largest among patients with mental health conditions. A possible mechanism of action may involve elevated levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor or beta-endorphins [ 195 ].

We found the issue of poor reporting or underreporting of adherence/withdrawals in over a quarter of CSRs (25.3%). This is crucial both for improving the accuracy of the estimates at the RCT level as well as maintaining high levels of physical activity and associated health benefits at the population level.

Even the most promising interventions are not entirely risk-free; and some minor AEs such as post-exercise pain and soreness or discomfort related to physical activity/exercise have been reported. These were typically transient; resolved within a few days; and comparable between exercise and various control groups. However worryingly, the issue of poor reporting or underreporting of AEs has been observed in one third of the CSRs. Transparent reporting of AEs is crucial for identifying patients at risk and mitigating any potential negative or unintended consequences of the interventions.

High risk of bias of the RCTs evaluated was evident in more than two thirds of the CSRs. For example, more than half of reviews identified high risk of detection bias as a major source of bias suggesting that lack of blinding is still an issue in trials of behavioural interventions. Other shortcomings included insufficiently described randomisation and allocation concealment methods and often poor outcome reporting. This highlights the methodological challenges in RCTs of exercise and the need to counterbalance those with the underlying aim of strengthening internal and external validity of these trials.

Overall, high risk of bias in the primary trials was the main reason for downgrading the quality of the evidence using the GRADE criteria. Imprecision was frequently an issue, meaning the effective sample size was often small; studies were underpowered to detect the between-group differences. Pooling too heterogeneous results often resulted in inconsistent findings and inability to draw any meaningful conclusions. Indirectness and publication bias were lesser common reasons for downgrading. However, with regards to the latter, the generally accepted minimum number of 10 studies needed for quantitatively estimate the funnel plot asymmetry was not present in 69 (46%) CSRs.

Strengths of this research are the inclusion of large number of ‘gold standard’ systematic reviews, robust screening, data extractions and critical methodological appraisal. Nevertheless, some weaknesses need to be highlighted when interpreting findings of this overview. For instance, some of these CSRs analysed the same primary studies (RCTs) but, arrived at slightly different conclusions. Using, the Pieper et al. [ 39 ] formula, the amount of overlap ranged from 0.01% for AEs to 0.2% for adherence, which indicates slight overlap. All CSRs are vulnerable to publication bias [ 196 ] - hence the conclusions generated by them may be false-positive. Also, exercise was sometimes part of a complex intervention; and the effects of physical activity could not be distinguished from co-interventions. Often there were confounding effects of diet, educational, behavioural or lifestyle interventions; selection, and measurement bias were inevitably inherited in this overview too. Also, including CSRs only might lead to selection bias; and excluding reviews published before 2000 might limit the overall completeness and applicability of the evidence. A future update should consider these limitations, and in particular also including non-CSRs.

Conclusions

Trialists must improve the quality of primary studies. At the same time, strict compliance with the reporting standards should be enforced. Authors of CSRs should better explain eligibility criteria and report sources of funding for the primary studies. There are still insufficient physical activity trends worldwide amongst all age groups; and scalable interventions aimed at increasing physical activity levels should be prioritized [ 197 ]. Hence, policymakers and practitioners need to design and implement comprehensive and coordinated strategies aimed at targeting physical activity programs/interventions, health promotion and disease prevention campaigns at local, regional, national, and international levels [ 198 ].

Availability of data and materials

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no raw data were analysed during the current study. All information in this article is based on published systematic reviews.

Abbreviations

Adverse events

Cardiovascular diseases

Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews

Cochrane systematic reviews

Confidence interval

Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation

Hazard ratio

Interquartile range

Mean difference

Prediction interval

Quality of life

Randomised controlled trials

Relative risk

Risk difference

Risk of bias

Standard error

Standardised mean difference

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Gillespie LD, Robertson MC, Gillespie WJ, Sherrington C, Gates S, Clemson LM, Lamb SE. Interventions for preventing falls in older people living in the community. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;9.

Gorczynski P, Faulkner G. Exercise therapy for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;5.

Grande AJ, Keogh J, Hoffmann TC, Beller EM, Del Mar CB. Exercise versus no exercise for the occurrence, severity and duration of acute respiratory infections. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;6.

Grande AJ, Reid H, Thomas EE, Nunan D, Foster C. Exercise prior to influenza vaccination for limiting influenza incidence and its related complications in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;8.

Grande AJ, Silva V, Andriolo BNG, Riera R, Parra SA, Peccin MS. Water-based exercise for adults with asthma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;7.

Gross A, Kay TM, Paquin JP, Blanchette S, Lalonde P, Christie T, Dupont G, Graham N, Burnie SJ, Gelley G, et al. Exercises for mechanical neck disorders. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;1.

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Han A, Judd M, Welch V, Wu T, Tugwell P, Wells GA. Tai chi for treating rheumatoid arthritis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004;3.

Han S, Middleton P, Crowther CA. Exercise for pregnant women for preventing gestational diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;7.

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PP wrote the protocol, ran the searches, validated, analysed and synthesised data, wrote and revised the drafts. HM, NK and ALN screened and extracted data. MS and DP validated and analysed the data. RB ran statistical analyses. All authors contributed to writing and reviewing the manuscript. PP is the guarantor. The authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Supplementary Information

Additional file 1:.

Supplementary Table 1. Main characteristics of included Cochrane systematic reviews evaluating the effects of physical activity/exercise on health outcomes ( n  = 150). Supplementary Table 2. Additional information from Cochrane systematic reviews of the effects of physical activity/exercise on health outcomes ( n  = 150). Supplementary Table 3. Conclusions from Cochrane systematic reviews “quote”. Supplementary Table 4 . AEs reported in Cochrane systematic reviews. Supplementary Table 5. Summary of withdrawals/non-adherence. Supplementary Table 6. Methodological quality assessment of the included Cochrane reviews with AMSTAR-2. Supplementary Table 7. Number of studies assessed as low risk of bias per domain. Supplementary Table 8. GRADE for the review’s main comparison. Supplementary Table 9. Studies reporting quality of life outcomes as mean difference.

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Posadzki, P., Pieper, D., Bajpai, R. et al. Exercise/physical activity and health outcomes: an overview of Cochrane systematic reviews. BMC Public Health 20 , 1724 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-09855-3

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Cardiovascular and associated metabolic disease.

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Physical activity and health: current issues and research needs

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Adrianne E Hardman, Physical activity and health: current issues and research needs, International Journal of Epidemiology , Volume 30, Issue 5, October 2001, Pages 1193–1197, https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/30.5.1193

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A substantial body of evidence now demonstrates the burden of ill-health attributable to sedentary living. This is most compelling for coronary heart disease (CHD) and, combined with the high prevalence of inactivity, 1 provides the rationale for Professor Morris's claim that exercise is 'today's best buy in public health'. 2 Besides a reduced risk of CHD, evidence is secure for many other health gains from physical activity; these include a reduced risk of stroke, 3, 4 type II diabetes, 5, 6 colon cancer, 7, 8 and hip fracture. 9, 10 There is evidence enough to justify the further development of public health policies to promote physical activity. The difficulty is with the specifics of what to promote and prescribe.

This paper is concerned with future contributions by research to an evidence-based rationale for exercise recommendations—both to the public at large and to individuals. It is clear that physically active people have a lower disease risk than sedentary individuals but the components of activity which determine particular health gains are poorly understood. Thus the 'dose-response' relationships for physical activity are the subject of current research interest. Intuitively, these will not be the same for different health outcomes and this is one reason why further study of the associated mechanisms is important. Understanding the underlying mechanisms will clarify the relative importance of intensity, frequency, duration and mode of exercise for specified health gains. It will also help us to distinguish the effects of exercise per se from those of co-existing behaviours and to identify stages of life during which levels of particular types of activity are critical for given health outcomes. This paper presents a personal view of research needs.

How important is intensity?

The rate of energy expenditure (in oxygen uptake units) of common physical activities is expressed in METS. One MET is equivalent to the resting metabolic rate, assumed to be 3.5 ml oxygen per kg of body mass per minute.

Oxygen uptake reserve is obtained by subtracting one MET (3.5 ml . kg .–1 min –1 ) from the maximal oxygen uptake.

Its importance in the epidemiology of physical activity is evidenced by data from British civil servants. 12 Whereas only frequent vigorous exercise (defined as liable to entail peaks of energy expenditure of ≥7.5 kcal.min –1 [31.5 kJ.min –1 ]) was associated with protection against heart attack in men aged 45–54 at entry, there was a dose-response relationship for a lesser degree of such exercise (either <2 sessions per week or not so intense, e.g. 'fairly brisk' walking for >30 min. per day) among older men aged 55–64 at entry. Thus, for example, older men reporting moderately intense activity such as 'much stair climbing' (not judged sufficiently vigorous to be included in the 'vigorous aerobic' cluster of activities) showed a coronary rate which was significantly lower than that in less active men. Protection among younger men was limited to those reporting frequent vigorous aerobic exercise. This finding suggests that the key features of cardio-protective exercise include its intensity relative to individual capacity. V • O 2 max declines, on average, by about 10% per decade in middle-aged and older people, 13 so exercise of a given MET value represents a higher relative intensity for older people. Where the number of individuals surveyed permit, one approach 14 may be to express the MET value of the activity in relation to age-related average values for oxygen uptake reserve.

Frequency of exercise

Recent recommendations 15, 16 are for exercise on '… most, preferably all, days of the week', underlining the importance of frequent exercise. This notion reflects increasing recognition of the acute effects of exercise, i.e. altered physiological or metabolic responses lasting between several hours and a few days after a session of exercise. These include a decrease in blood pressure, 17 improved insulin sensitivity 18 and decreases in plasma triglycerides. 19 The time-courses over which they disappear are poorly understood, however. Some information is available, for example the attenuation of the postprandial rise in plasma triglycerides following a standard high-fat meal has been reported to disappear within 60 hours of an exercise session. 20 Improved insulin sensitivity may persist for a little longer. 21 More information is required, however, as the duration of these effects dictates the frequency with which exercise sessions must be taken if favourable postprandial responses are to be maintained. Similarly, the determinants of the magnitude of acute effects of exercise need to be elucidated. Theoretically, this may be enhanced by training 22 because training permits more frequent and longer exercise sessions to be accomplished without fatigue. To the author's knowledge, this proposition has seldom been tested. 23

Pattern of exercise

Epidemiological studies have found an inverse relationship between the total energy expended in leisure time physical activity and health outcomes. These include a lower risk of all-cause mortality, 24 cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, 24, 25 type II diabetes, 6 hypertension, 26 and site-specific cancers. 27, 28 Some activities contributing to high totals of energy expenditure seem likely to have been performed at least partly on an intermittent basis, for example walking, 29 climbing stairs, 25, 30 gardening, 29 and repair work. 24 Survey evidence therefore suggests that several short sessions of moderate physical activity during the day influence health outcomes in a positive manner, at least when they contribute to a high total energy expenditure.

Scientific evidence for the efficacy of this pattern of exercise as a means of eliciting chronic (training) effects is limited however, both in the number of randomly controlled trials (three to the author's knowledge) and scope (the only common outcome measure was fitness). 31 Evidence is limited to scientific studies with outcome measures primarily of fitness and/or fatness. Only one study reported the effect of exercise pattern on acute health-related responses. This found similar reductions in plasma triglycerides with three, 10-minute bouts of brisk walking at intervals during the day and one, 30-minute bout in sedentary people consuming normal meals. 32

Further research is clearly required before the principle of accumulating exercise in short bouts throughout the day can be endorsed with confidence.

Energy expenditure and energy turnover

The product of intensity, frequency and duration of exercise—sometimes described as the total 'volume' of exercise (a difficult term)—yields the total gross energy expenditure. Some evidence points to this as an important determinant of health gains. In addition to the surveys referred to above, this includes the finding from the US Runners' Health Study that running mileage was six times more important in predicting high density lipoprotein cholesterol concentration than running speed. 33 This was not the case for associations with blood pressure or waist circumference, however, where running speed was the more important determinant. 33 Total energy expenditure may also be the main determinant of some acute effects of exercise. Two examples are relevant. First, the increase in glucose disposal rate was similar following exercise at 50% or 75% V • O 2 max when the total energy expended was held constant. 34 Second, the attenuation of postprandial plasma triglycerides by prior exercise was strikingly similar following a long bout of low intensity exercise and a shorter bout of moderate exercise expending the same energy. 35 This topic, again under-researched, is related to that of the accumulation of exercise (referred to above) because that enshrines the notion that the total energy expenditure is all-important.

Of course, in free-living people, an increased level of physical activity is invariably associated with an increase in energy intake so that energy turnover is increased. Speculatively, a higher energy turnover may constitute a metabolically desirable state because of effects on the pathways concerned with the disposition, storage and degradation of muscle energy substrates. Evidence for the health gains from such a state include the finding that men who were classified as obese by body mass index (BMI) but who had a high level of physical fitness had lower cardiovascular and total mortality rates than lean men who were unfit. 36 Similarly, although both high BMI and a high energy intake were associated with increased risk of colon cancer among inactive people, this was not the case among physically active individuals. 8 This finding suggests that a high energy intake does not confer increased risk of this cancer in the presence of a high expenditure.

The suggestion that a high energy turnover is metabolically advantageous is not new. The term 'metabolic fitness' was introduced by Després and Lamarche, 37 on the basis of a series of studies showing that change to plasma lipoprotein lipids and body fatness were achieved through high-volume, low intensity training in the absence of increases in V • O 2 max. Efforts to test this hypothesis through comparing the effects of 'lifestyle' activity with those of traditional exercise programmes have recently been reported 38– 40 but information is needed for a variety of health outcomes in different populations.

Over the last decade, epidemiological data on physical activity (a behaviour) has been complemented by findings based on physical fitness (a set of attributes related to the ability to perform exercise). These studies show a dose-response relationship so that, although men in the highest fitness groups consistently show the lowest coronary attack and total mortality rates, moderate levels of fitness also confer a statistically significant and clinically important reduction in risk. 41, 42 Physical fitness, because it is probably a more objective measure than physical activity is an attractive outcome measure. Its use could be extended of course if it could be measured satisfactorily outside the laboratory. A low-cost, rapid, non-intimidating method for this would allow large surveys with the statistical power to detect, for example, effects in sub-groups and effects of specific activities. Walking tests such as the UKK Institute's 2 km protocol 43 are attractive for both practical and theoretical reasons. Performance on these tests measures not only functional capacity (V • O 2 max, the most frequently used laboratory measure), but also endurance. This is defined as the capability to sustain aerobic exercise using a high proportion of V • O 2 max. Endurance is more sensitive to changes in physical activity level than V • O 2 max and, because it derives largely from metabolic adaptations in muscle, may be a more important determinant of related health gains.

As mentioned, epidemiological studies show associations between fitness and a variety of health outcomes. The need to elucidate the relationships between the 'dose' and pattern of activity and the health outcome has been mentioned above. Fitness (particularly endurance) is labile and so rather easily changed through short-term interventions. It therefore offers a means of studying these dose-response relations indirectly (but inexpensively), serving a link between the behaviour and health outcomes.

Most epidemiological studies have classified physical activities according to estimated energy expenditure—either totals or threshold rates. Recommendations to the public (whether direct or via health professionals), however, need to promote activities rather than energy expenditures. Walking is an obvious example. It is popular, inexpensive and carries a low risk of injury. It is often the most commonly reported activity, particularly among women 44 and older men. 12 Some landmark studies, including those by Professor Morris's group, 12 have published separate analyses for walking. 25 In British civil servants brisk walking accounted for over half of the exercise which was protective against heart attack in 55–64-year-old men. 12 Protection from attack among fairly brisk walkers was not significantly affected by controlling for participation in sports and cycling or for a lot of other CHD predictive factors. In recent years more data has become available, however. In the US Nurses Health Study, for example, walking was inversely associated with coronary events; women in the highest quintile group for walking (≥3 h per week at a brisk pace) had a multivariate relative risk of 0.65 (95% CI : 0.47–0.91). 45 Similarly, healthy older men in the Honolulu Heart Study who walked >1.5 miles per day had half the coronary risk of those who walked <0.25 miles per day. 46 Walking has also been reported to be associated with a lower risk of type II diabetes 47 (independently of participation in vigorous activity).

These observations are consistent with reports that moderate levels of fitness, associated with a reduction in all-cause mortality, are attainable through brisk or fast walking. 48, 49 Bearing in mind that sedentary people seldom exert themselves at more than 30–35% of V • O 2 max, 50 such walking is sufficiently vigorous to improve fitness in a majority of people whose health is at risk because of their inactivity.

Walking is especially suitable for older people and the functional gains it elicits will likely improve quality of life. It is plainly acceptable for them, and carries a low risk of injury. In 13 weeks of training by walking, only one injury was sustained among 57 healthy men and women their 70s. 51 Among older people, regular walking has been associated with lower rates of hospitalization, 52 lower plasma triglycerides and higher bone mineral density. 53

Because it is accessible to all but the very frail, more information on the specific benefits from walking—according to pace and distance—is sorely needed.

Studies of the associations between physical activity habits and disease outcomes must be complemented by research into the underlying mechanisms. Not only does this increase confidence that such associations may be causal but it helps us to understand the relative importance of the different components of exercise as mediators of specified health gains. For cardiovascular disease much is known of the potential contribution from exercise-induced changes to blood lipids, with recent information about considerable effects on the dynamic postprandial phase. Other mechanisms must be involved, however, because patients with CHD get improved myocardial perfusion (and decreased risk of further episodes) without net regression. 54

Recent findings suggest effects on the acute phases of the disease. (This would be concordant with observations that only continuing, current exercise confers a lower risk; past exercise has no effect. 12, 55 ) These include improved flow-mediated dilatation. 56 There may be links here with lipoprotein metabolism because flow-mediated dilatation is impaired by high plasma triglycerides, in proportion to concentration. 57

Mechanisms need elucidating in other areas, for instance skeletal health. Is the lower risk of hip fracture among physically active older women due to a decreased risk of falling and/or to an effect on bone mineral density? Is physical activity level particularly important during the years when bone formation predominates? The relationship between physical activity and a reduced risk of colon cancer is among the most consistent finding in the epidemiological literature. Is the mechanism systemic (reduced growth-promoting milieu) or local (increased colonic peristalsis)? Women who regularly engage in exercise may have a lower risk of breast cancer. 58 Speculation on potential mechanisms has involved endocrine factors and/or improved weight maintenance. Depending on the answers to such questions, some forms and regimens of exercise may be more effective than others in the achievement of particular objectives.

Physical inactivity is a waste of human potential for health and well-being and its high prevalence is a cause for concern. Its potential contribution to positive health (not merely the absence of disease but associated with a capacity to enjoy life and to withstand challenges 16 ) is considerable. So much is known—yet we need to understand much more. The effective 'dose' of exercise needed to elicit effects likely to be of clinical importance must be defined and this information translated into practical advice readily understood by the population at risk. Ten years after Professor Morris's plea for 'physiology and epidemiology to get together', 12 the need for co-operative efforts from these disciplines is even more urgent.

'Thank you'

I thank Professor Morris for posing thought-provoking questions and for stimulating discussion of these. His contributions—to research, to the National Fitness Survey for England, and to the development of public health policies—are valued by so many. It continues to be an education and a privilege to work with him.

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Articles on Fitness

Displaying 1 - 20 of 232 articles.

Days are getting shorter and colder. 6 tips for sticking to your fitness goals

Juliana S. Oliveira , University of Sydney ; Anne Tiedemann , University of Sydney ; Cathie Sherrington , University of Sydney , and Leanne Hassett , University of Sydney

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Paying people to exercise can be motivating, but the financial rewards don’t have to last forever to work

Marc Mitchell , Western University

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Corneel Vandelanotte , CQUniversity Australia

How to keep a new year’s resolution: ask yourself why you’re doing it

Abigail Parrish , University of Sheffield and Kimberley Jane Bartholomew , University of East Anglia

Wanting to ‘move on’ is natural – but women’s pandemic experiences can’t be lost to ‘lockdown amnesia’

Holly Thorpe , University of Waikato ; Grace O'Leary , University of Waikato ; Mihi Joy Nemani , University of Waikato , and Nida Ahmad , University of Waikato

Why are my muscles sore after exercise? Hint: it’s nothing to do with lactic acid

Robert Andrew Robergs , Queensland University of Technology and Samuel L. Torrens , Queensland University of Technology

The science behind building healthy habits can help you keep your New Year’s resolution

Scott Lear , Simon Fraser University

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Stuart Phillips , McMaster University

How to jump-start your New Year with cold weather running

Kurt Michael Downes , University of Windsor and Kevin Milne , University of Windsor

How to keep your physical and mental health on track during the holidays

Lifestyle changes can reduce dementia risk by maintaining brain plasticity — but the time to act is now

Saskia Sivananthan , McGill University and Laura Middleton , University of Waterloo

Focusing on functional fitness in your 20s and 30s can help you stay ready for anything — and many exercises can help you achieve it

Sinead Roberts , University of Westminster

Treadmill, exercise bike, rowing machine: what’s the best option for cardio at home?

Lewis Ingram , University of South Australia ; Hunter Bennett , University of South Australia , and Saravana Kumar , University of South Australia

Three rules for adding weight to your backpack that will boost the benefits of exercise

Jen Wilson , Nottingham Trent University and Athalie Redwood-Brown , Nottingham Trent University

What can you do to speed up your metabolism?

Nick Fuller , University of Sydney

Planks and wall sits are best for lowering blood pressure – here are six more reasons they’re such great exercises

Alex Walker , University of East London and Jamie Edwards , University of East London

How your genes may determine whether you can be an endurance athlete

Henry Chung , University of Essex ; Dan Gordon , Anglia Ruskin University , and Justin Roberts , Anglia Ruskin University

How to train your body for hot weather if you are active or work outdoors

Anthony Bain , University of Windsor

Can’t afford a gym membership or fitness class? 3 things to include in a DIY exercise program

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• Coronavirus
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Top contributors

Professor of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University

Reader in Exercise and Health Physiology, University of Hertfordshire

Associate Professor, Cardiorespiratory Exercise Physiology, Anglia Ruskin University

Professor of Nutritional Physiology, Anglia Ruskin University

Senior Lecturer in Sport and Exercise Science, Swansea University

Senior Lecturer in Sport and Exercise, Teesside University

Professor of Physical Activity, Lifestyle, and Population Health, University of Sydney

Senior Lecturer in Physiology, University of Westminster

Director of Sport, Performance and Health, Heriot-Watt University

Clinician Scientist, Canada Research Chair in Injury Prevention and Physical Activity for Health, Sport Medicine Physician, Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry, Western University

Associate Professor in Neuromuscular Physiology, Liverpool John Moores University

Postdoctoral fellow, Behavioural Medicine Lab, School of Exercise Science, Physical & Health Education, University of Victoria

Lecturer in Biomechanics and Strength and Conditioning, Teesside University

Lecturer in Sport, Health & exercise Science, University of Stirling

Professor in Public Health Data Science, Swansea University

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The Top 10 Most Interesting Exercise Science Research Topics

The field of exercise science is rapidly growing as new technologies like computer visualization and biotracking deepen our understanding of human physiology. New technologies allow us to better prevent injuries, allowing athletes to push their limits beyond what we thought possible. Thanks to this, there is no shortage of exercise science research topics to write about.

In this article, we’ll show you 10 great examples of exercise science research topics. If you are pursuing a degree in this field, you’ll learn better ways of finding good exercise science research paper topics and how to develop stronger exercise science research questions for your projects.

Find your bootcamp match

What makes a strong exercise science research topic.

Strong exercise science research topics are timely and relevant. Leading researchers and sports institutions should still be discussing them at the time you are writing your research paper. The Strength and Conditioning Journal is a great place to find some of the latest activity research topics including articles on different health benefits, health issues, preventive interventions, and rehabilitation after injury.

Your topic should be broad enough to find enough strong sources, but narrow enough to stand out. Controversial topics are acceptable if you have enough evidence to back up your research. If it’s your first paper, consider approaching a less complex topic. You can also ask your teacher for suggestions if you are struggling to find strong university-level topics. Remember to follow the guidelines for choosing a topic set by your institution.

Tips for Choosing an Exercise Science Research Topic

• Choose a topic that intrigues you. A personally interesting topic will motivate you during the research process. If you have a personal connection to what you are researching, you will have a much easier time writing about it.
• Narrow your topic. By picking a specific subject, you will have an easier time finding credible sources to support your research. By reducing the number of books and articles to read and only choosing literature that is immediately relevant to your topic idea, you also won’t have to spend as much effort before starting to write.
• Talk to your teacher or academic advisor. Your teachers are great resources you have at your disposal. They have experience choosing topics for college students and will most likely be able to help you pick a topic you’ll find engaging to research.
• Look through journals to find exciting topics. Review topics published in the journals like the Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. These research journals publish the latest fitness research papers and can help you find a topic that interests you.
• Consider the research interests of your teacher. It’ll be convenient if your research topic matches their expertise, as they’ll be able to provide you with better feedback during your research process.

What’s the Difference Between a Research Topic and a Research Question?

A research topic is a specific area of study. Sprains in adult athletes or rehabilitation for brain injuries, for example, are research topics. A research question is a way to add new knowledge to that area of study. Examples of research questions would be “What is the role of nutrition in the recovery of sprains in athletes?” or “What is the effect of cardio exercises on adults with brain injuries?”

The goal of your research should be focused around answering the research question. Your answer will help you and others to understand the topic better. Research questions tend to be more specific than the research topics in exercise science.

How to Create Strong Exercise Science Research Questions

To create strong exercise science research questions, you should first become familiar with the topic the question concerns. The answer to your research question should be supported by previous studies done on the topic. Reading previously published studies will help you learn more while preventing you from doing any redundant research.

The scientific method helps exercise scientists better understand their field. Your question should start with how, why, when, or what questions. The scope of your question must be manageable in relation to how long you have to answer it.

Questions that require in-depth experiments may be beyond your reach if you only have a week. Before choosing the question that will lead your research, consider the time it will take you to answer it.

Top 10 Exercise Science Research Paper Topics

1. benefits of resistance training for reducing the negative consequences of aging.

Metabolic resistance training can counter the adverse effects of aging. According to a 2019 study by the Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, only nine percent of older adults in the United States practice any form of resistance or weight lifting exercises. Metabolic resistance training for elderly residents has become a recently popular topic, as it has been proven to increase muscle mass and muscle strength and relieve intervertebral joint pain.

2. Determining the Minimal Amount of Physical Exercise Required to Maintain Strength and Stamina

Long periods of physical inactivity harm physical fitness. Scientists want to know how much physical exercise can prevent the loss of muscle strength. The British Journal of Sports Medicine published an article that took an in-depth look into the negative effects of sedentary behavior . There are plenty of physiology research topics about improving daily life with an active lifestyle.

3. Effect of a Low-Carbohydrate Ketogenic Diet on Body Mass on Olympic Weightlifting Athletes

Exercise scientists have realized the impact of nutrition on endurance, body composition, and recovery. This has led to theories being tested of controversial ideas in nutrition and measuring their effects on muscle strength. 

For example, a study by the Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research shows that ketogenic diets reduce mass without compromising performance . If you are interested in becoming a nutritionist , researching the role of nutrition in relation to physical activity could be beneficial for your future career.

4. The Effect of Exercise on the Gut Microbiome

The role of exercise on the gut microbiome is an exciting topic in exercise science. In 2019, researchers found some proof that regular exercise increased gut bacteria and contributed to the health of the gut microbiome, as mentioned in a study that was published in Exercises and Sport Science Reviews.

The gut microbiome produces a wide range of biomolecules, including neurotransmitters, that regulate mood and anxiety. Researchers believe that healthy gut bacteria can improve our mental fitness and health. Their research also leads them to believe that gut bacteria can improve the body’s ability to fight inflammatory illnesses and certain types of cancer.

5. Wearable Technology for Health Monitoring and Sport Performance

Smartwatches pack sensors that can track your movement patterns, heart rate, and oxygen levels. In recent years, these bio trackers have become increasingly affordable and easy to use. Researchers at the School of Kinesiology at the University of Michigan have used these sensors to track elderly patients and alert their caregivers in real-time.

In sports, kinesiologists use this technology to measure aerobic speed and the onset of fatigue. With a degree in kinesiology , you can work with elite athletes and improve their athletic performance using these technologies.

6. Optimizing Human Movement Potential for Elite Athletes

Exercise scientists study the biomechanics of human movement to improve the body’s longevity. Understanding the human body allows researchers to develop primary injury prevention methods.

Personal trainers help athletes achieve extraordinary performance without the risk of musculoskeletal injury. If you want to become a certified personal trainer , physiology research paper topics in relation to this topic may be of interest to you.

7. Equity in Sports

Exercise scientists are also concerned with the social aspects of sports. Many athletes live under adverse conditions and need to make extra efforts to match the achievements of others. Equity in sports is currently a very important exercise science topic. Researchers find solutions to increase access to professional sports by improving policies to prevent racism, sexism, and other forms of discrimination.

If you want to become a sports agent or an athletic director, look for physiology research topics in relation to equity in sports. Becoming a sports manager takes a certain level of education in the professional fitness industry, such as a graduate degree in sports management .

8. Effect of Bike Commuting on Insulin Sensitivity, Cardiorespiratory Fitness, and Adipose Tissue

Exercise scientists look for solutions to public health problems like diabetes and obesity. A study published in the British Journal of Sports Medicine found that commuting by bike has a significant impact on insulin sensitivity , improving cardiovascular fitness, and reducing belly fat.

With cardiometabolic health such as cardiovascular disease, being an urgent topic in the United States, considering the prevalence of obesity, there is plenty of research on the subject, making it a great initial topic.

9. Reducing Lower Back Pain by Increasing Physical Activity

With athletes having a high sports injury risk, and many injuries causing severe back pain, pain management has become an important topic in exercise science. Exercise scientists research ways to reduce pain using principles in kinesiology and found that increasing physical activity can reduce lower back pain , according to a study published in the British Journal of Sports Medicine.

10. Applications of Kinesiology in the Treatment of Movement Dysfunctions

Exercise scientists have been studying the relationship between movement and neuroplasticity for a long time. Physical activity during rehabilitation for stroke patients or patients with brain injuries has proven to reduce movement dysfunctions. Understanding the effects of exercise on neural networks is an important research topic in the field of rehabilitation.

Other Examples of Exercise Science Research Topics & Questions

Exercise science research topics.

• Assessment of the use of virtual reality rehabilitating brain-injured or stroke patients
• The role of caffeine as a sports performance enhancer for optimal performance
• Current and future perspectives on the effects of nutrition on physical exercise performance
• Hormonal responses in older men to metabolic resistance training
• Comparison of occupational physical activity and leisure physical activity on cardiovascular fitness

Exercise Science Research Questions

• What are the benefits of physical activity for cognitive health?
• What is the impact of VR training on human body composition testing?
• What are the advantages of wearing an elevation training mask during physical exercise?
• What are the physiological causes of mental fatigue on endurance performance?
• How does physical exercise improves mental health and academic performance in university students?

Choosing the Right Exercise Science Research Topic

When choosing the right exercise science research topic, consider researching topics that you are already familiar with, as your existing knowledge may help you with your research. You could also ask your academic advisor, other staff in the department of exercise science, or even physical therapy professionals about current trends in exercise science and injury recovery.

Physical fitness and training performance are common themes in exercise science research. Recent articles published by the British Journal of Sports Medicine or the Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research are a great place to start. Make sure you choose a manageable research topic. Your teacher can help you make sure your research topic is relevant before you begin.

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Exercise Science Research Topics FAQ

Exercise science is important because it tries to find solutions to problems concerning the optimal performance of athletes and the general health of the human population. Exercise science also helps develop new rehabilitation methods for injury recovery and pain management.

Yes, kinesiology is a STEM discipline that studies exercise and movement. Breakthroughs in kinesiology come from scientific research and the use of the scientific method. It is a wing of the department of exercise science of many universities.

The average salary of an exercise physiologist is $50,280 per year, which is above the national average, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics. About half of all exercise physiologists are self-employed, while others work in hospitals, spas, and physical therapy offices.

With a Bachelor’s Degree in Exercise Science, you can get a job as a physical therapist or a fitness instructor. With a graduate degree in exercise science, you can become a sports agent or an athletic director.

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Sunday, April 7, 2024

Short-term incentives for exercise can lead to sustained increases in activity

NIH-supported study shows certain perks can spur long-term behavior change in adults with cardiovascular disease risks

Adults with heart disease risks who received daily reminders or incentives to become more active increased their daily steps by more than 1,500 after a year, and many were still sticking with their new habit six months later, according to a study supported by the National Institutes of Health that published in Circulation .

The improvements, which also resulted in an extra 40 minutes of moderate exercise each week, correlated with a 6% reduced risk of premature death and a 10% reduced risk of cardiovascular-related deaths, compared to data from prior studies. The Department of Health and Human Services recommends that most adults should get at least 150 minutes of moderate aerobic exercise per week, such as brisk walking, or 75 minutes of vigorous exercise, like fast cycling, or a combination of the two, paired with twice-weekly strength sessions.

Researchers found that while a simple daily reminder was effective in helping people move more, offering financial incentives or point-based rewards, such as in a game, was even more effective. However, combining the two incentives proved most effective. Participants who got both were still logging improvements in activity levels six months after the rewards stopped.

“Even moderate exercise can drastically reduce cardiovascular risk, so finding low-cost ways to get people moving and stay in a fitness program that they can do at home is a huge win for public health,” said Alison Brown, Ph.D., R.D., a program officer at the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), part of NIH.

The study took place between 2019 and 2024. Researchers followed more than 1,000 adults at elevated risk for major cardiovascular events. All participants received a wearable fitness tracker, which connected to an online health portal and enabled researchers to count their baseline daily step count. Participants then set a goal to increase their daily steps by 33%, 40%, 50%, or any amount greater than 1,500 steps from their starting point. After they set their goals, participants were randomized into one of four groups.

Three groups offered incentives, including game-like rewards, financial rewards, or a combination of the two. In the game group, each participant received points every week and kept them by meeting their daily step goals. On days they failed to meet their goals they lost points. Participants with enough points moved up a level and participants who failed to meet goals moved down a level. A family member or friend could act as a participant’s “support crew” and receive weekly updates about their progress. At the end of the study, adults who reached the highest levels by meeting their daily step goals received trophies. In the financial group, each participant received $14 each week, but lost $2 a day if they did not meet their step targets. The third group received game-like and financial incentives.

The fourth group – a control group – received no incentives but got the fitness tracker, along with daily messages that noted their step count. Each intervention lasted for 12 months followed by a six-month follow-up period where all participants received the same information as controls.

Before the study began, participants in all groups logged an average of about 5,000 daily steps, or 2.4 miles. After 12 months, they increased their daily step count by more than 1,500, or three-fourths of a mile.

Compared to the control group, the game-incentive group walked an extra 538 steps from their baseline amount, while those who received financial incentives walked an extra 492. The group who received both incentives averaged 868 extra steps and maintained an average 576 more daily steps six months later. Adults in the single interventions kept their physical activity increases, but the gains didn’t differ significantly from the average 1,200 extra steps people in the control group took 18 months after the start of the study.

Still, “The interventions created immediate benefits for participants – and they worked,” said Alexander C. Fanaroff, M.D., a study author, an expert in behavior change, and an interventional cardiologist and assistant professor of medicine in the Division of Cardiology at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. “Research shows it’s easier to think about today instead of the future, whether it’s exercising more to support long-term heart health or saving for a future goal, like college or retirement.”

Researchers said people wanting to change their behavior, especially around exercise, can focus on the same principles used in the study, which created immediate benefits or rewards for movement. For example, there are exercise apps that provide daily reminders and rewards for meeting personal health goals, people could enlist family and friends for support, and even create scenarios where they lose money by giving it away if they don’t meet their targets. Healthcare systems and organizations could also use tactics in the study to help patients increase physical activity levels . The research was supported by NHLBI grant R61/ R33HL141440 .

Reference: Fanaroff AC, Patel MS, Chokshi N, et al. Effects of gamification, financial incentives, or both to increase physical activity among patients at high risk of cardiovascular events: The BE ACTIVE randomized controlled trial. Circ . 2024; doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.124.069531.

About the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI): NHLBI is the global leader in conducting and supporting research in heart, lung, and blood diseases and sleep disorders that advances scientific knowledge, improves public health, and saves lives. For more information, visit https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/ .

About the National Institutes of Health (NIH): NIH, the nation's medical research agency, includes 27 Institutes and Centers and is a component of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. NIH is the primary federal agency conducting and supporting basic, clinical, and translational medical research, and is investigating the causes, treatments, and cures for both common and rare diseases. For more information about NIH and its programs, visit www.nih.gov .

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Benefits of Physical Activity

Obesity and Excess Weight Increase Risk of Severe Illness; Racial and Ethnic Disparities Persist

Food Assistance and Food Systems Resources

Immediate Benefits

Weight management, reduce your health risk, strengthen your bones and muscles, improve your ability to do daily activities and prevent falls, increase your chances of living longer, manage chronic health conditions & disabilities.

Regular physical activity is one of the most important things you can do for your health. Being physically active can improve your brain health , help manage weight , reduce the risk of disease , strengthen bones and muscles , and improve your ability to do everyday activities .

Adults who sit less and do any amount of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity gain some health benefits. Only a few lifestyle choices have as large an impact on your health as physical activity.

Everyone can experience the health benefits of physical activity – age, abilities, ethnicity, shape, or size do not matter.

Some benefits of physical activity on brain health [PDF-14.4MB] happen right after a session of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. Benefits include improved thinking or cognition for children 6 to 13 years of age and reduced short-term feelings of anxiety for adults. Regular physical activity can help keep your thinking, learning, and judgment skills sharp as you age. It can also reduce your risk of depression and anxiety and help you sleep better.

Both eating patterns and physical activity routines play a critical role in weight management. You gain weight when you consume more calories through eating and drinking than the amount of calories you burn , including those burned during physical activity.

To maintain your weight:  Work your way up to 150 minutes a week of moderate physical activity, which could include dancing or yard work. You could achieve the goal of 150 minutes a week with 30 minutes a day, 5 days a week.

People vary greatly in how much physical activity they need for weight management. You may need to be more active than others to reach or maintain a healthy weight.

To lose weight and keep it off: You will need a high amount of physical activity unless you also adjust your eating patterns and reduce the amount of calories you’re eating and drinking. Getting to and staying at a healthy weight requires both regular physical activity and healthy eating.

See more information about:

• Getting started with weight loss .
• Getting started with physical activity .
• Improving your eating patterns .

Learn more about the health benefits of physical activity  for children, adults, and adults age 65 and older.

See these tips  on getting started.

The good news [PDF-14.5MB]  is that  moderate physical activity , such as brisk walking, is generally  safe for most people .

Cardiovascular Disease

Heart disease and stroke are two leading causes of death in the United States. Getting at least 150 minutes a week of moderate physical activity can put you at a lower risk for these diseases. You can reduce your risk even further with more physical activity. Regular physical activity can also lower your blood pressure and improve your cholesterol levels.

Type 2 Diabetes and Metabolic Syndrome

Regular physical activity can reduce your risk of developing type 2 diabetes  and metabolic syndrome. Metabolic syndrome is some combination of too much fat around the waist, high blood pressure, low high-density lipoproteins (HDL) cholesterol, high triglycerides, or high blood sugar. People start to see benefits at levels from physical activity even without meeting the recommendations for 150 minutes a week of moderate physical activity. Additional amounts of physical activity seem to lower risk even more.

Infectious Diseases

Physical activity may help reduce the risk of serious outcomes from infectious diseases, including COVID-19, the flu, and pneumonia. For example:

• People who do little or no physical activity are more likely to get very sick from COVID-19 than those who are physically active. A CDC systematic review [PDF-931KB] found that physical activity is associated with a decrease in COVID-19 hospitalizations and deaths, while inactivity increases that risk.
• People who are more active may be less likely to die from flu or pneumonia. A CDC study found that adults who meet the aerobic and muscle-strengthening physical activity guidelines are about half as likely to die from flu and pneumonia as adults who meet neither guideline.

Some Cancers

Being physically active lowers your risk for developing several common cancers .  Adults who participate in greater amounts of physical activity have reduced risks of developing cancers of the:

• Colon (proximal and distal)
• Endometrium
• Esophagus (adenocarcinoma)
• Stomach (cardia and non-cardia adenocarcinoma)

If you are a cancer survivor, getting regular physical activity  not only helps give you a better quality of life, but also improves your physical fitness.

Learn more about Physical Activity and Cancer

As you age, it’s important to protect your bones, joints, and muscles – they support your body and help you move. Keeping bones, joints, and muscles healthy can help ensure that you’re able to do your daily activities and be physically active.

Muscle-strengthening activities like lifting weights can help you increase or maintain your muscle mass and strength. This is important for older adults who experience reduced muscle mass and muscle strength with aging. Slowly increasing the amount of weight and number of repetitions you do as part of muscle strengthening activities will give you even more benefits, no matter your age.

Everyday activities include climbing stairs, grocery shopping, or playing with your grandchildren. Being unable to do everyday activities is called a functional limitation. Physically active middle-aged or older adults have a lower risk of functional limitations than people who are inactive.

For older adults, doing a variety of physical activity improves physical function and decreases the risk of falls or injury from a fall . Include physical activities such as aerobic, muscle strengthening, and balance training. Multicomponent physical activity can be done at home or in a community setting as part of a structured program.

Hip fracture is a serious health condition that can result from a fall. Breaking a hip have life-changing negative effects, especially if you’re an older adult. Physically active people have a lower risk of hip fracture than inactive people.

See physical activity recommendations for different groups, including:

• Children age 3-5 .
• Children and adolescents age 6-17 .
• Adults age 18-64 .
• Adults 65 and older .
• Adults with chronic health conditions and disabilities .
• Healthy pregnant and postpartum women .

An estimated 110,000 deaths  per year could be prevented if US adults ages 40 and older increased their moderate-to-vigorous physical activity by a small amount. Even 10 minutes more a day would make a difference.

Taking more steps a day also helps lower the risk of premature death from all causes. For adults younger than 60, the risk of premature death leveled off at about 8,000 to 10,000 steps per day. For adults 60 and older, the risk of premature death leveled off at about 6,000 to 8,000 steps per day.

Regular physical activity can help people manage existing chronic conditions and disabilities. For example, regular physical activity can:

• Reduce pain and improve function, mood, and quality of life for adults with arthritis.
• Help control blood sugar levels and lower risk of heart disease and nerve damage for people with type 2 diabetes.
• Health Benefits Associated with Physical Activity for People with Chronic Conditions and Disabilities [PDF-14.4MB]
• Key Recommendations for Adults with Chronic Conditions and Disabilities [PDF-14.4MB]

Active People, Healthy Nation SM is a CDC initiative to help people be more physically active.

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How Exercise Strengthens Your Brain

Physical activity improves cognitive and mental health in all sorts of ways. Here’s why, and how to reap the benefits.

By Dana G. Smith

Growing up in the Netherlands, Henriette van Praag had always been active, playing sports and riding her bike to school every day. Then, in the late-1990s, while working as a staff scientist at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in San Diego, she discovered that exercise can spur the growth of new brain cells in mature mice. After that, her approach to exercise changed.

“I started to take it more seriously,” said Dr. van Praag, now an associate professor of biomedical science at Florida Atlantic University. Today, that involves doing CrossFit and running five or six miles several days a week.

Whether exercise can cause new neurons to grow in adult humans — a feat previously thought impossible, and a tantalizing prospect to treat neurodegenerative diseases — is still up for debate . But even if it’s not possible, physical activity is excellent for your brain, improving mood and cognition through “a plethora” of cellular changes, Dr. van Praag said.

What are some of the benefits, specifically?

Exercise offers short-term boosts in cognition. Studies show that immediately after a bout of physical activity, people perform better on tests of working memory and other executive functions . This may be in part because movement increases the release of neurotransmitters in the brain, most notably epinephrine and norepinephrine.

“These kinds of molecules are needed for paying attention to information,” said Marc Roig, an associate professor in the School of Physical and Occupational Therapy at McGill University. Attention is essential for working memory and executive functioning, he added.

The neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin are also released with exercise, which is thought to be a main reason people often feel so good after going for a run or a long bike ride.

The brain benefits really start to emerge, though, when we work out consistently over time. Studies show that people who work out several times a week have higher cognitive test scores, on average, than people who are more sedentary. Other research has found that a person’s cognition tends to improve after participating in a new aerobic exercise program for several months.

Dr. Roig added the caveat that the effects on cognition aren’t huge, and not everyone improves to the same degree. “You cannot acquire a super memory just because you exercised,” he said.

Physical activity also benefits mood . People who work out regularly report having better mental health than people who are sedentary. And exercise programs can be effective at treating people’s depression, leading some psychiatrists and therapists to prescribe physical activity. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s recommendation of 150 minutes of moderate aerobic activity or 75 minutes of vigorous aerobic activity per week is a good benchmark.

Perhaps most remarkable, exercise offers protection against neurodegenerative diseases. “Physical activity is one of the health behaviors that’s shown to be the most beneficial for cognitive function and reducing risk of Alzheimer’s and dementia,” said Michelle Voss, an associate professor of psychological and brain sciences at the University of Iowa.

How does exercise do all that?

It starts with the muscles. When we work out, they release molecules that travel through the blood up to the brain. Some, like a hormone called irisin, have “neuroprotective” qualities and have been shown to be linked to the cognitive health benefits of exercise, said Christiane Wrann, an associate professor of medicine at Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School who studies irisin . (Dr. Wrann is also a consultant for a pharmaceutical company, Aevum Therapeutics, hoping to harness irisin’s effects into a drug.)

Good blood flow is essential to obtain the benefits of physical activity. And conveniently, exercise improves circulation and stimulates the growth of new blood vessels in the brain. “It’s not just that there’s increased blood flow,” Dr. Voss said. “It’s that there’s a greater chance, then, for signaling molecules that are coming from the muscle to get delivered to the brain.”

Once these signals are in the brain, other chemicals are released locally. The star of the show is a hormone called brain-derived neurotrophic factor, or B.D.N.F., that is essential for neuron health and creating new connections — called synapses — between neurons. “It’s like a fertilizer for brain cells to recover from damage,” Dr. Voss said. “And also for synapses on nerve cells to connect with each other and sustain those connections.”

A greater number of blood vessels and connections between neurons can actually increase the size of different brain areas. This effect is especially noticeable in older adults because it can offset the loss of brain volume that happens with age. The hippocampus, an area important for memory and mood, is particularly affected. “We know that it shrinks with age,” Dr. Roig said. “And we know that if we exercise regularly, we can prevent this decline.”

Exercise’s effect on the hippocampus may be one way it helps protect against Alzheimer’s disease, which is associated with significant changes to that part of the brain. The same goes for depression; the hippocampus is smaller in people who are depressed, and effective treatments for depression , including medications and exercise, increase the size of the region.

What kind of exercise is best for your brain?

The experts emphasized that any exercise is good, and the type of activity doesn’t seem to matter, though most of the research has involved aerobic exercise. But, they added, higher-intensity workouts do appear to confer a bigger benefit for the brain.

Improving your overall cardiovascular fitness level also appears to be key. “It’s dose-dependent,” Dr. Wrann said. “The more you can improve your cardiorespiratory fitness, the better the benefits are.”

Like Dr. van Praag, Dr. Voss has incorporated her research into her life, making a concerted effort to engage in higher intensity exercise. For example, on busy days when she can’t fit in a full workout, she’ll seek out hills to bike up on her commute to work. “Even if it’s a little,” she said, “it’s still better than nothing.”

Dana G. Smith is a Times reporter covering personal health, particularly aging and brain health. More about Dana G. Smith

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Low cardiorespiratory fitness in youth associated with decreased work ability throughout adulthood, finds 45-year study

by University of Jyväskylä

A study from the University of Jyväskylä confirms the concerns raised in the public domain about how young people's decreased fitness may affect their future work ability. The association of low youth cardiorespiratory fitness and adulthood decreased work ability persisted until the end of working life, which predicts substantial societal costs.

In the 45-year study published in JAMA Network Open , the participant's baseline physical fitness was measured in school between the ages of 12 and 19. Work ability was self-assessed twice during working life, between the ages of 37 and 44 and then between the ages of 57 and 64.

Low cardiorespiratory fitness in adolescence was associated with decreased work ability and higher rates of absence due to illness in the middle of working life and with decreased work ability at the end of working life. Low musculoskeletal fitness or high body mass was not associated with adulthood work ability.

The study is the first to demonstrate the association of youth cardiorespiratory fitness with adulthood work ability in working men and women. Recently, studies among Swedish men have shown that low fitness in youth increases the risk of chronic disability in adulthood.

"The finding is worrying, even though work ability is a multifaceted concept with numerous factors affecting it," says doctoral researcher Perttu Laakso. "Given that the participants in the study were born in the 1960s and had a higher average youth cardiorespiratory level compared to today's adolescents, the finding is even more worrisome."

"It can be assumed that the risk of decreased work ability is higher among today's adolescents."

For the individual, lowered work ability , sick leave , and premature retirement are linked to decreased quality of life and also result in a higher economic burden at the societal level.

The results of the study highlight the importance of physical fitness assessment in childhood and adolescence. By monitoring the physical fitness of children and adolescents, those at high risk can be identified early, and preventive strategies can be implemented.

To improve cardiorespiratory fitness , Laakso encourages children, adolescents, and their families to increase physical activity in everyday life . Increasing the number of mandatory physical education classes in schools should also be discussed. In addition, he would look for easier access to organized sports so as to prevent dropouts from organized physical activity, which is common in adolescence.

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109 Health and Fitness Topics

The world of physical activity, health, and wellness is an excellent theme to write about. Exercise and fitness research topics encompass aspects like physical activity, nutrition, mental well-being, and lifestyle choices. Look at our fitness & gym topics to gain new insights about this subject!

🤸 7 Best Health and Fitness Topics

🏆 best exercise topics to write about, 🎓 interesting health and fitness topics, 💡 simple gym essay topics, ❓ more exercise and fitness research topics.

• Fitness Tracker Product Feasibility Study
• The Benefits of Physical Fitness and Nutrition
• Fitness Plan: Cardiorespiratory Endurance, Muscular Strength, Flexibility
• Role of Nutrition in Supporting Fitness and Exercise
• Physical Activity and Fitness in Facilitation Techniques
• Health Clubs and Fitness Centers Popularity
• Family Fitness Night Activities Project
• Analysis of the Fitness Club Industry Target The fitness and existence center will encompass top-of-the-line gear in free weights, machine weights, and aerobic machines.
• Controllable vs. Non-controllable Costs for Fitness In the majority of cases, a manager of a fitness center that is one in a chain does not have many options regarding the budget or the whole organization’s funds
• The Impact of Fitness on Academic Achievement This paper examines the relationship between fitness and learning attainments of different-age individuals to expand knowledge on its direct interconnection.
• Health and Fitness Industry Licensure and Certification Certification that many sports institutions require has to educate and prepare a person for a professional training career and possible work-related crisis situations.
• Health and Spa Tourism: Focusing on Body Fitness Health and Spa Tourism is growing at a very high rate in the world today. The governments should invest heavily in this industry as a way of creating employment opportunities.
• Cardiorespiratory Fitness Plan and Its Benefits Additional benefits of the cardiorespiratory fitness plan include enhancement of self-esteem as it aims at reducing stress while increasing energy levels.
• White Muscle Versus Red Muscle Fitness The paper states that one of the most important factors of an athlete’s genetic giftedness is the predominance of fast (white) or slow (red) muscle fibers.
• Growth Strategy for Fitness Business The successful development of a fitness business requires a well-elaborated growth strategy that include starting, the foundation, a team, leaders, and expanding an organization.
• Social Media for Fitness Trackers The time after the rigorous lockdowns amidst the COVID-19 pandemic presents a great market for fitness trackers.
• Aspects of Fitness in Adolescents It is vital to maintain an active life in adolescence because it can affect their future. There are obstacles preventing teenagers from playing sports.
• Programming Philosophy and Fitness Phases in Sports Built from blocks, the advanced programming method aims to increase competitiveness by adding and maintaining fitness phases more strategically.
• Improving Data Collection from Fitness Trackers Fitness trackers, when launched, attracted numerous potential buyers associated with sports, fitness, or nutrition.
• Astra Plc Health and Fitness App Astra Plc is intending to launch a new fitness and health app in an attempt to diversify its portfolio in the next three months.
• Fitness and Its Impact on Wellbeing Regular physical activity has a major influence on human health. Fitness can help people reduce the risk of a great number of diseases.
• Individual and Community Physical Fitness Importance People must engage in physical exercises as they play a key role in community health benefiting weight management, mental function, and energy regulation in the body.
• The Crucial Factors Affecting Health Fitness The article on global health highlights the crucial factors affecting health fitness; it outlines them with clarity. They are determinants of health and disease.
• Workout Plan for Successful Fitness Following a plan is fundamental for successful fitness and for a person to achieve great results they have to stick and adhere to the plan.
• Benefits of Mind and Body Awareness and Its Link to Total Fitness Total Fitness of the mind and body is one of the ideals that man is constantly striving to achieve. Two techniques that bring about mind and body awareness are Yoga and Pilates.
• Nutrition and Fitness Case Study: Phoebe, a College Freshman The principal target is the stabilization of blood sugar levels and nourishing the brain with the right type of food at the right times.
• Fitness and Nutritional Habits While many factors affect a person’s health, nutrition and fitness habits are among the major contributory factors.
• The Retaining Fitness Center Fitness Center is a suitable facility which helps the employees to exercise and as a result, they improve their health, job ethics and inculcate self confidence.
• Health, Fitness Organizations: Profit Center Programs The paper advocates the pursuit of profits in a health and fitness center and sees many advantages to the combining of profit motives and provision of qualitative health and fitness services.
• Fitness Workout Structure for Women The stretching phase starts with the hip extensions, 10 reps, 2 seconds for each. The given step is vital for the whole session as exercise belonging to it help to make muscles more pliable and ready for stress.
• Generational Health and Fitness: Strategic Position, Marketing, and Operations The strategic position of Generational Health and Fitness (GHF) is a low-cost fitness program offering cycling classes to residents of the local community.
• Business Plan: Generational Health and Fitness This business plan is prepared to provide details of the proposed business Generational Health and Fitness (GHF) which will operate in the fitness industry.
• Business Plan of Veteran Fitness Center This paper outlines a business proposal for a fitness center in Sharjah for military veterans who do not have health coverage for physical fitness.
• Bally Total Fitness: Promotion Strategy There are many factors, which have gone to contribute to the need by people to join the fitness clubs. Bally Total Fitness had to run several promotions, emphasizing the importance of body fitness.
• How Effective Is Fitness for Improving Blood Circulation
• Choosing the Best Fitness Exercises for the Best Outcome
• Monitoring and Promoting Physical Activity and Physical Fitness in Children
• Behavior Change With Fitness Technology in Sedentary Adults
• Fitness Factors Effecting Netball Performance
• Creatine’s Benefits and Disadvantages When It Comes to Bodybuilding and Fitness
• Dance and Fitness Concepts for the Physically Impaired
• Associations Between Aerobic Fitness and Cognitive Control in Adolescents
• Physical Fitness and Locomotor Skills in Children With Esophageal Atresia
• Body Figure Idealization and Body Appearance Pressure in Fitness Instructors
• Adaptive Walks With Noisy Fitness Measurements
• Basal Endogenous Steroid Hormones, Sex Hormone-Binding Globulin, Physical Fitness, and Health Risk Factors in Young Adult Men
• Aerobic Fitness and the Attentional Blink in Preadolescent Children
• Health-Related Physical Fitness and Quality of Life in Children and Adolescents With Isolated Left-to-Right Shunt
• Cardiorespiratory Fitness and Attentional Control in the Aging Brain
• Linking Media With Fitness Perceptions: The Effect of Media on Fitness and Body Image
• Disrupting the Fitness Industry: From High School Dropouts to Ivy League Biochemists to Fitness Models to Serial Entrepreneurs
• The Difference Between Skill, Ability, and Technique in Fitness
• Association Between Physical Fitness and Anxiety in Children: A Moderated Mediation Model of Agility and Resilience
• The Importance and Benefits of Personal Fitness, Nutrition, and the Steps You Should Take to Become Physically Fit
• Fitness Industry and Employee Motivation From a Manager’s Perspective
• Association Between Sleep Quality and Physical Fitness Components Among 13-14 Years Male Students
• The Physical and Mental Improvements as an Effect of Physical Fitness
• Cardio-Respiratory Fitness and Autonomic Function in Patients With Major Depressive Disorder
• Tinnitus and the Potential Adverse Effects on the Hearing of Fitness Instructors
• Aspirational Fitness Goers: Nike Brand
• Can Exercise Increase Fitness and Reduce Weight in Patients With Schizophrenia and Depression?
• Fitness Education: Other Benefits That Being Fit Provides
• Diet and Fitness Winning Tactics for Weight Loss
• Make Fitness Fun: Could Novelty Be the Key Determinant for Physical Activity Adherence?
• Physiological and Psychological Factors of Joining a Fitness Club
• Elderly’s Physical-Functional Fitness and Perceived Functional Capacity and Health After Participation in a Hydrotherapy Program
• Assessing Men’s and Women’s Preferences in Fitness Training
• Physical Fitness and Exercise During the COVID-19 Pandemic
• Health and Fitness Mistakes You Don’t Know You Are Making
• Does Cardiorespiratory Fitness Influence the Effect of Acute Aerobic Exercise on Executive Function?
• Cardiovascular Fitness: Offsets Decline in Cognitive Performance
• The Linkage Between Fitness, Nutrition, and Mind for Our Well-Being, Abundance, and Health
• Improving Team Performance Through Health and Fitness Programs
• Marketing Factors for the Fitness Industry in the UK
• Associations Between Physical Fitness and Brain Structure in Young Adulthood
• Gender, Fitness Habits, and Dieting Among College Students
• The Diet Mistakes Done by Fitness Enthusiasts
• How Health and Fitness Facilities Affect Communities
• Physical Fitness Facilities for Employees and Mandatory Fitness Breaks During the Work
• Marketing Strategies for the Fitness and Body Building Industry
• Fitness Club Industry and Marketing Analysis
• Comparing Aging and Fitness Effects on Brain Anatomy
• The Correlation Between Physical Fitness and Academic Success
• Determining the Fitness Consequences of Antipredation Behavior
• How Can Fitness Overcome Fast Food?
• Does Physical Fitness Improve Academic Success?
• How Can Fitness Clubs Leverage Social Media?
• What Are the Fitness Benefits of Running?
• How Does Fitness Affect Person’s Life and Health?
• What Can Regular Fitness Do for You?
• Is Fitness Becoming a Growth Industry?
• Why Is Fitness Important for Youth?
• How Does Physical Fitness Improve the Quality of Your Life?
• What Is the Most Important Element of Fitness?
• How Reliable Are Wearable Fitness Tracking Devices?
• What Is the Fastest Growing Fitness Trend?
• Why Is It Important to Develop the Community Fitness?
• How Do Health and Fitness Facilities Affect Communities?
• Why Is Fitness Important for Success?
• How Does the Physical Fitness Affect People’s Growth and Development?
• What Is the Most Popular Form of Fitness?
• Why Has Fitness Become So Popular Recently?
• How Does Fitness Affect the Brain?
• What Factors Contribute to a Successful Fitness Business?
• Is the Fitness Business Profitable?
• How Fast Is the Fitness Market Growing?
• What Are the Challenges of the Fitness Industry?

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Status of the research in fitness apps: A bibliometric analysis

a Ph.D. Student in Business Administration, Faculty of Economics, Complutense University of Madrid, Campus de Somosaguas. 28223, Pozuelo de Alarcón, Madrid, Spain

Maria Avello

b Department of Management and Marketing, Faculty of Economics, Complutense University of Madrid, Campus de Somosaguas, 28223, Pozuelo de Alarcón, Madrid, Spain

• • A bibliometric analysis of the fitness apps research field to gain insight into the state of the art.
• • Scopus and Web of Science were used to collect the data (481 records).
• • Statistical analysis and science mapping were used to analyze the data.
• • Provides basic data, research classifications and future research directions in the area.

Fitness applications have undergone considerable development in the last few years and becoming popular and significant in both academic and practical areas. However, contributions to the systematic mapping of this field continue to be lacking. This paper constitutes the first bibliometric study in this field to better understand the current state of research. We examined 481 records from databases Scopus and Web of Science (Core Collection) using several bibliometric analysis methods. All the records on this emerging topic were published between 2011 and 2019. We processed these records using statistical analysis and science mapping. The bibliometric analysis included the year of publication, journal name, citation, author, country, and particularly, research methodology. Additionally, we used the VOSViewer software to perform bibliometric mapping of co-authorship, co-citation of authors, and co-occurrence of keywords. This field of study, it was found, is currently in its precursor stage, contributing primarily to the fields of medicine, computer science, and health sciences. The United States appeared to have made the largest contribution to this field. However, author productivity, number of citations, and number of core journals all indicated a high degree of fragmentation of research in this filed. Remarkably, scientific research in this area is expected to progress tremendously over time. Overall, this study provides basic data and research classifications for the initial phase of research and research direction for future research in this area.

1. Introduction

With the global outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, almost every country is facing problems concerning the shortage of medical and healthcare resources, and people have become more aware of the importance of following a healthy lifestyle and incorporating physical exercise into their daily lives. As the most downloaded type of mobile health applications (mHealth apps), fitness apps can help people manage their nutritional intake, assist their participation in fitness and physical activities, and promote a healthy lifestyle. Therefore, these apps are gradually occupying the commercial mobile app market ( Beldad and Hegner, 2018 ).

Nowadays, fitness apps are rapidly developing in the commercial application market and are attracting the attention of academia ( Beldad and Hegner, 2018 ). Numerous studies have implemented empirical protocols to verify the results of using fitness apps for improving the level of physical activity and/or diet in users ( Schoeppe et al., 2017 ). However, from the academic side, it is still a novel and young area of research.

As a diverse field of research that is related to an emerging phenomenon, and with the integration of new technologies, the research available on fitness apps is still scarce. Both empirical research and theoretical orientation reviews, mostly focus on summarizing the functions and features of fitness apps and user perspectives. As a result, there appears to be a lack of more macro and objective quantitative research in this field. And the various types of literature are not as substantial or abundant compared to other mature areas of research. It is necessary to carry out a bibliometric study to know the main empirical and theoretical orientations in this case. The data obtained from the bibliometric analysis will be essential to assess the intensity and orientation of new lines of research ( Bartoli and Medvet, 2014 ). Moreover, it is essential to classify the existing research in the research field to track the research progress and research trends in the field ( Gaviria-Marin et al., 2019 ). Bibliometrics study can achieve this objective. It helps display past academic research activities and achievements visually.

To our knowledge, there is no bibliometric study in the field of fitness app research, even though this type of literature has been used widely in other fields in recent years ( Zanjirchi et al., 2019 ). Bibliometrics can supplement existing experiments and review studies, help researchers identify hidden research lines, hot issues, and research methods in the field, and reduce the problems of neglecting certain excellent articles due to the deviation of researchers' subjective judgments ( Zanjirchi et al., 2019 , Veloutsou and Mafe, 2020 ).

Therefore, this study offers a bibliometric study of the advancements in research on the mobile-fitness app. It is based on data from a bibliometric analysis. It seeks to assess the intensity and research topics dominant in the scientific community when it comes to this emerging phenomenon, focusing explicitly on the fitness segment of mHealth. This study also aims to provide relevant data and bibliometric indicators for the initial stage of fitness application research and provide primary data for advancing future research in this field. The data used in this study is obtained from two leading databases for scientific research: Scopus and Web of Science.

The research is organized as follows. First, a research background is provided. Second, the research methods and the sources of research data are outlined. Third, the results are presented and discussed. Finally, the main conclusions, limitations, and further opportunities for research are stated.

2. Background

2.1. mhealth apps and fitness apps.

Nowadays, mobile apps pertain to a wide range of topics and areas of users' personal and social lives and fulfill various purposes. The use of advanced medical information systems and telematics applications is one of them, which has resulted in the increased availability of medical services at lower overall costs ( Kao et al., 2018 ). Medical and sanitary institutions have begun to appreciate the potential of mHealth apps for communication with patients as well as for the utilization of mobile devices that are specifically designed to monitor specific biomedical data. mHealth is defined as the provision of medical care and health-related services through mobile communication devices that enable user-interaction capability ( Cummiskey, 2011 , Lupton, 2013 ). “Mobile Health (mHealth) has become an essential field for disease management, assessment of healthy behaviors, and for interventions on healthy behaviors” ( Mas et al., 2016, p. 32 ).

There are two main areas of implementation of mHealth apps: in professional medical practices (both on the side of doctors and patients; e.g., Skyscape, MySugr), and self-monitoring of healthy habits (e.g., MyFitnessPal). The first area has a field of an app exclusively in the healthcare field, involving the relationships between doctors and their patients. The second area represents fitness apps, which is the subject of this study, is concerned with the personal monitoring of the activities of individuals within the framework of adopting healthy lifestyles or disease prevention habits, and this category is often implemented through commercial apps that are developed without the supervision of medical administrations.

The term “fitness” has a wide semantic field: on the one hand, it refers to the practice of physical exercise to obtain or maintain good body shape and composition; on the other hand, more generally, it refers to a good state of vitality and physical well-being ( Corbin et al., 2000 ). Since the 1980s, academic as well as medical attention to Health-Related Physical Fitness (HRPF) has increased considerably. Fitness is understood within the HRPF framework, which is defined as a set of people's abilities to perform certain physical activities, their energy level to perform daily tasks, and their capacity to reduce the risk of diseases related to sedentarism ( Cheng and Chen, 2018 ).

2.2. Importance of fitness apps

The WHO warns of the development of non-communicable diseases, the pathologies of which are associated with unhealthy lifestyles and diets, as these diseases currently constitute a serious cause of death worldwide ( WHO, 2018 ). In particular, the WHO has established a set of minimum criteria for physical activity for different age groups as well as balanced dietary patterns to maintain optimal health conditions such that people can achieve a reduction in risk factors for non-communicable diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular ailments, and diabetes.

The high rate of obesity is one of the most worrying factors for health globally, particularly in developed countries, but also in emerging countries, with a drastic growth among children ( Anderson et al., 2019 ). For this reason, the WHO recommends avoiding a sedentary lifestyle and following balanced diets for all age groups. Interventions for population self-management, based on changes in lifestyle, are effective in reducing risk factors and the incidence of non-communicable diseases ( Burke et al., 2011 ).

The use of applications on mobile devices has become a key factor in helping and advising people on the adoption of healthy lifestyles in the 21st century. Although some clinicians lack confidence in the protocols and recommendations of fitness apps, these fitness apps have a great potential to be effective due to their ability to educate a large portion of the population on healthy habits at a low operating cost ( Blackman et al., 2013 ).

3. Methodology

The methodology used in this research work is depicted in Fig. 1 . It consists of four steps.

The general framework of methodology.

3.1. Step 1: Determining the field of study and database used

We identified “fitness app” as the field for this study with the aim of finding as many articles as possible on fitness-related apps closer to health behaviors than to a professional medical approach. However, in the compilation of the final set of articles, we also included those that, without being strictly articles on fitness apps, contained relevant keywords linked to the subject of study, even though they were papers dealing with other types of mHealth apps.

The data was obtained from two databases: Scopus and Web of Science Core Collection (WoS). These two databases are currently the leading sources for indexing scientific articles and allow for the collection of data from a large number of journals ( Adriaanse and Rensleigh, 2013 ).

Scopus owns high-quality and reliable coverage and complete data for each reference. It is the largest abstract and citation database for peer-review literature ( Zanjirchi et al., 2019 ). The WoS is also recognized by the scientific community as a digital bibliometric platform with high-quality literature, which can also provide metadata for bibliometric analysis and covers a wide range of disciplines ( Gaviria-Marin et al., 2019 , Hew, 2017 ).

The combination of more than one database for mining scientific data can provide more robust results for the bibliometric analysis ( de Oliveira et al., 2019 ) even though it makes it necessary to integrate the information from both databases with different structures and review the articles one by one.

3.2. Step 2: Mining of bibliometric data

Mining the data is the most basic and crucial step to obtain valuable and credible research results. The search for this study was conducted in April 2020 and included all relevant publications until the end of December 2019.

The study focused on scientific research related to personal care applications of fitness, using the keywords “ fitness app” and its plural form in English for searching through titles, abstracts, keywords, or topics. Our search criteria are detailed in Table 1 . These two keywords represent the technological concept (app) associated with the lifestyle (fitness), whose specific relationship makes the object of the present investigation. No more keywords related to the fitness industry were used (e.g., weight loss/running, dieting) since we wanted to examine which other specific categories were reviewed under the category of fitness apps in general. Our search does not have a low-time frame limit, and the aim is to learn about the starting time of research in this field ( Table 1 ).

Search criteria for the study field “fitness apps”.

*No low time frame limit was set, but articles published before 2010, while containing relevant keywords, were seen not to be relevant to the field.

After searching in the two databases separately, we performed a manual review of the titles and abstracts (also full text if necessary), excluding articles whose topics did not meet the criteria of the study, and subsequently removing duplicate literature. When the same article appeared in both databases, we opted to keep the references in Scopus because Scopus provides broader bibliographic information than WoS. The search returned 1095 records. We decided to keep the conference papers and meeting abstracts due to the youth and relative novelty of the field of study. After filtering out the irrelevant and incomplete records, we ended up with a total sample of 481 records ( Table 2 ).

Search results in academic databases.

3.3. Step 3: Analysis of bibliometric data

The records were then analyzed using bibliometric analysis. Bibliometrics is “the quantitative study of physical published units, or bibliographic units, or of the surrogates for either” ( Broadus, 1987, p. 376 ). The bibliometric analysis allows us to understand the intensity of the research available on a topic as well as the different research fields explored by the academic community.

The variables analyzed for the bibliometric study were the year of publication, author, country of institutional origin, language of publication, type of document, journal, number of citations, area of research, topics analyzed, and the research method used.

Additionally, bibliometric mapping was also conducted. The construction of bibliometric maps has always received attention in bibliometric studies ( Van Eck and Waltman, 2010 ). We used Vosviewer software to present the relation of co-citation, co-occurrence of keywords, etc.

3.4. Step 4: Grouping and analysis of trends

Finally, we summarized the current research hotspots and trends in this field, based on the content of these 481 articles and the information presented by the keywords of their authors, to inform and inspire further studies.

4.1. Publication frequency per year

The first article on fitness apps was published in 2011, and until 2014, the intensity of research was very low. 95.2% of the articles are published from 2014 onwards. In 2014, there was a significant increase in the number of publications, doubling the number of 2013 ( Table 3 ).

Frequency of publication of articles related to fitness apps per year.

These results represent a Price's Index of 89.4% until the end of 2019. Price's Index ( Price, 1970 ) refers to the percentage of references less than five-year-old. As the Price Index's value is relatively high, this area is considered to be novel and dynamic.

Price’s Law ( Price, 1963 ) proposes that the development of the scientific field follows an exponential growth, which doubles in size every 10–15 years. The development of the scientific field goes through four stages: the precursor stage, the exponential growth stage, the consolidation of the body knowledge stage, and the decrease in the production stage. As shown in Fig. 2 , publications in related fields underwent a growth process from 2011 to 2019. A linear mathematical adjustment of the measured values provided us with a correlation coefficient r = 0.964, which implies that 7.07% of variance failed to explain this fitting. In contrast, a mathematical adjustment to the exponential curve provides a coefficient r = 0.788, indicating an unexplained variance of 37.86%. This reveals that the data analyzed is more consistent with a linear fitting rather than an exponential one ( Fig. 2 ).

Growth of scientific production in fitness apps.

While the third stage of growth also showed a linear trend, the first contribution in this field was produced in 2011, and the exponential growth trend stage was not detected. So, research in this field is still in its precursor stage. Additionally, the number of publications in 2018–2019 was close to 50% of the total, exhibiting rapid growth. Although there was a small decline in 2019 compared to 2018, we expect the scientific production in this field to enter the exponential growth stage in the coming years.

4.2. Most productive and influential journals/conferences and type of documents

Articles on fitness apps are published in a wide range of journals, from medical and health-related ones to computer science-related ones. Out of the 481 records, 328 were published in academic journals, and 153 were published as conference proceedings. The publication source also indicates a great dispersion: there were 189 journals and 109 different conference proceedings in total Fig. 3 .

Type of documents.

Among all the relevant journals, eight journals have published three or more articles. However, only nine conference proceedings had more than one article. Compared to other fields of study, this number seems very small and indicates a low level of source concentration.

Table 4 presents the field's 18 most productive and influential journals, and Table 5 outlines the nine most productive conference proceedings.

The most productive journals in fitness app research.

The most productive conference proceedings.

JMIR mHealth and uHealth and Journal of Medical Internet Research have achieved a prominent position here, with a relatively high number of articles. Both are sister journals of JMIR Publications. It is worth noting that although only three articles were sourced from the International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, it ranked third overall in the number of citations.

Besides, 30% of the publications were from conference proceedings. The first and second positions by the number of publications came from the field of computer science. The high proportion may be explained by the fact that, although the importance of conference proceedings in areas such as the natural sciences is decreasing, they still play an important role in computer science, with nearly 20% of citations also distributed in the proceedings ( Michels and Fu, 2014 , Lisée et al., 2008 ). It also shows the importance of the development of fitness apps in the domain of computer applications.

Bradford’s Law ( Bradford, 1934 ) is a tool used in bibliometric studies to evaluate the concentration/dispersion factor of a set of publications. In essence, it allows the determination of the most productive nucleus in a particular subject. It postulates the existence of a small nucleus of journals that address the topic more broadly as well as a vast peripheral region that is divided into several zones with journals that have a decreasing representation in the subject studied ( Alvarado, 2016 ). The number of journals in the core and the number in the successive zones are in a ratio of 1: n: n 2 .

Therefore, journals included in the core have a comparatively high concentration of publication, while those involved in the surrounding areas are increasingly dispersed. Thus, we can see that there is an unequal distribution of articles in the journals. A large number of articles are found in a small number of journals. As shown in Fig. 4 and Table 6 , within the core of the ring, only 10 journals contained one-third of all published articles (109 records). Zone 1 comprises 70 journals, and zone 2 comprises 109 journals. Zona 2 contains a much smaller number of journals than the theoretical value (570). This result suggests the innovative and youthful nature of the field under study, which has not been considered in depth by many journals.

Dispersion in Bradford rings of scientific production related to fitness apps.

Publication dispersion zones under Bradford's Law.

4.3. Most cited articles

The number of citations is an important indicator of the influence and the attention presented by the scientific community. According to the results shown in Table 7 , a total of 28 articles received more than 60 citations—all from academic journals. This number is relatively low compared to other more mature fields of research.

Most Cited Articles.

The most cited article (598 citations) is a multidisciplinary review by Boulos M.N.K. et al., published in 2011, one of the first published articles in the field, followed by the research by Krebs P., Duncan D.T., published in 2015 with 316 citations.

4.4. Most productive and influential authors

A total of 1,776 authors have contributed to this field. The average number of authors per article was 3.69, which indicates the trend towards multi-author contributions in the field and a wide dispersion of research. Table 8 summarizes the first 30 authors in the list, with more than two contributions ( Table 8 ).

The most productive and influential authors in fitness app research.

The data source was Scopus.

In those cases where the information was not available at Scopus, we used the information provided by WoS.

The most productive authors in terms of the number of articles published are Oyibo K. and Vassileva J., both from the University of Saskatchewan (Canada), with 8 contributions. Third and fourth-ranked Gay V. and Leijdekkers P. are co-authors. In the scope of the subject of our study, they co-authored a total of six articles.

The work of the most productive authors does not attract the highest number of citations. The author, with the highest number of citations in the fitness apps field, is West J.H. His six articles have garnered a total of 655 citations. Three of them are ranked in the top ten most influential papers in Table 8 . They were all published in the journal with the most contributions in the field, Journal of Medical Internet Research .

The author with the highest h-index (78) is Salmon J., from Deakin University, whose research pertains to the fields of medicine, health professions, and nursing. However, the total number of citations for his three articles was only 35. No other author had an h-index above 20.

The high inconsistency in the number of citations, the number of author contributions, and the h-index show that no scholar or team of scholars has yet had a decisive influence on the field, which is also related to the fact that the field is still in the precursor stage of research.

Additionally, the authors in Table 8 are not widely dispersed in terms of institutional affiliation, with several authors (and close rankings) being from the same institution. This suggests that a high proportion of the top 30 productive authors are co-authors, as evidenced in Fig. 5 . It highlights that only four authors did not co-author papers with others. The remaining 26 authors make up the remaining nine clusters. Moreover, members in each group usually come from the same institutions or countries, with less cross-national/interregional cooperation.

Correlation in co-authorship (for top 30 authors with more than two contributions).

The authors' productivity data are much lower than the values suggested by Lotka’s Law ( Lotka, 1926 ). This law states that the number of authors making n contributions in a given period is approximately equal to the number of authors who make 1/n 2 contributions. Generally, the application of Lotka's Law gives the theoretical result that about 60% of authors make only one contribution in their field of study. In the field of research on fitness applications, the value of Lotka's Law is 92.62% ( Table 9 ). This confirms the huge dispersion of the field, which can be explained either by the novelty of the phenomenon or by a multidisciplinary approach.

Productivity of authors.

Additionally, the analysis of co-citation of authors shows the structure and connections of the co-cited authors, i.e., “which authors are cited together more frequently” ( Gaviria-Marin et al., 2019, p. 213 ). Fig. 6 shows the results of the analysis conducted using VOSviewer, and the number of citations for each author is indicated by the size of the colored dot ( Fig. 6 ).

Co-citation of authors.

Authors with more than 35 citations were clustered in five groups. Some of these authors did not contribute directly to our field. However, their articles are frequently cited by other authors in the fitness app research field.

Authors in Cluster 1 mainly tend to focus on research in the areas of social sciences, business, management and accounting, and mathematics. Sub-topics of interest to them include behavior change, physical activities, etc.

Authors in Cluster 2 primarily devote their research to the field of biochemistry, genetics and molecular biology, and health professions. Physical and health education is also one of the sub-topics they are interested in.

In Cluster 3, the main research interests include psychology, and besides, the authors have contributed to the areas of computer science, nursing, and decision making.

The main research interests of the authors of Cluster 4 lie in the arts and humanities, social sciences, computer science, and psychology. They have also undertaken certain interpretative explorations of technological acceptance.

Cluster 5 consisted of only two authors, Richard M Ryan and Edward L. Deci. They are also co-authors of articles with fairly high citations, and both of them have an h-index of no less than 150. Their main areas of research are psychology, in which self-determination theory and motivation are also a point of interest.

4.5. Most productive countries/regions

6 out of the 481 records did not specify the country/region of origin. Of the remaining 475 records, the countries that contributed the most were the United States (29.3%), the United Kingdom (11.2%), and Australia (10%). It should be noted that almost half of the studies were carried out in English-speaking countries. Among the Asian countries, China, India, and South Korea stood out. National/regional contributions are double counted when authors of the same article are affiliated with institutions from different countries ( Table 10 ) ( Fig. 7 ).

Most cited countries/regions.

Map of contributions by countries/regions.

4.6. Most productive fields of research

Our results show that the main research areas of study are medicine (23.95%), computer sciences (17.88%), behavioral sciences (6.7%), computer medicine (6.5%), and psychology (6.2%). Most articles contribute to more than one field ( Table 11 ).

Frequency of published articles by research field.

It seems that research in fitness apps has flourished through its study in the medical area, followed by its computational features. However, the study from the point of view of consumer behavior, integrated into the field of social sciences, seems not to have taken off yet. We predict significant growth in this domain as fitness apps become more popular, and communication through social networking sites goes viral, particularly among young people.

4.7. Most used research methods

The applied research methods allow the collection of empirical data to contribute to scientific knowledge. It is an important variable to understand the empirical orientations of research in this field of knowledge.

As shown in Table 12 , the most frequently used research method was the experiment. The experimental design was used in 24.5% of all research. Most of them were “in the wild” experiments, implemented on a small group of participants (n < 50) who were asked to use a fitness app, developed expressly for the research, for a short period. The second most used research method was the survey (18.5% of the articles), which allowed the evaluation of the user perspective and behavior with self-reported data.

Main research methods used.

*Out of the total 481 articles, 25 articles (5.2%) used multiple methods. Of these, 24 articles used two methods and one article used three methods.

The third-ranked research method was content analysis. The articles that used this method analyzed and evaluated the total or partial functionality of a range of fitness-related apps, their technical characteristics and the attributes that make them more valued by users, more effective in changing consumer behavior, etc. For example, Cowan et al. (2013) calculated a theoretical score for each of the 127 health and fitness applications to determine whether the applications included relevant aspects of the behavioral change theory.

The content analysis articles allow us to understand how fitness-related apps have evolved over the years and how researchers' focus has changed over that same period. By reviewing relevant articles, we found that behavior change techniques, gamification features, and consumer engagement strategies have been attracting attention, as shown in Fig. 8 . Fig. 8 summarizes articles on content analytics from 2012 to 2019 from West et al., 2012 , Cowan et al., 2013 , Direito et al., 2014 , Lister et al., 2014 , Edwards et al., 2016 , Rose et al., 2017 , Moral-Munoz et al., 2018 , Priesterroth et al., 2019 and Cotton and Patel (2019) .

Timeline of hot topics of content analysis articles.

5. Main topics analyzed and lines of research

5.1. keywords.

The analysis of the frequency of appearance of the keywords allows the reader to approach the main topics analyzed in the articles in this field. The analysis of the keywords selected by the authors allows the determination of which relationships are established between a field of research and others close to it ( Duran-Sanchez et al., 2016 ).

As shown in Table 13 , the terms “physical activity” and “mHealth” appear in 28.1% of all the contributions. Both keywords are the conceptual core of fitness app research. Physical activity is also related to the terms “exercise” (6.9%), “obesity” (1.7%), and “weight loss” (2.3%).

Frequency of occurrence of keywords (>6 times).

Portability is a concept associated with new devices for self-monitoring of activity: the terms “wearables” and “fitness tracker(s)” appeared in 3.1% and 4.8% of articles, respectively.

The principle of playful functions is reflected in the term “gamification,” with 3.33% of the articles, which is a factor that can increase user adherence to the programs.

Fig. 9 maps the correlation between the keywords. To make the map clearer, with more focus on the core of the field of study, we removed the keyword “app” and its various related forms from the mapping analysis.

Correlation map between keywords.

The most frequent keywords were located in five differentiated clusters.

Cluster 1, which we named “Digital mHealth” is mainly related to mHealth and eHealth (electronic health). They are platforms for fitness apps. Also included in this group are keywords such as privacy and security, which are all related to the technology and device issues of fitness applications.

Cluster 2, which we named “mHealth and fitness trackers,” is pretty similar to Cluster 1, with only an emphasis on fitness trackers and persuasive technology as well as health apps and wearable electronic devices.

Cluster 3, which we named “Physical activity, motivation, and social support,” comprises keywords such as physical activity, exercise, physical fitness, etc. Social support and motivation are also included in this group, which may be since these two are also important factors that support people to stick to physical activity ( Tang et al., 2015 ).

Cluster 4, which we named “Generalistic keywords,” is more macro in nature and contains a wide range of topics such as fitness, mobile, and public health.

Cluster 5, which we named “Behavior change and gamification,” includes keywords such as behavior change, gamification, wearables, and self-determination theory.

5.2. Main topics of research

Finally, based on all the information obtained as well as our thorough review of the contributions that are part of this bibliometric study, we now describe the main topics of research on the subject of fitness apps:

• 1) Descriptive studies of the possibilities of the applications and the quality of their functions. Most of the research is related exclusively to physical activity, alongside some studies on diet. For example, Li et al. (2019) analyzed the quality of nutritional recommendations of applications available in China for a healthy lifestyle, nutrition, and disease prevention.
• 2) Analysis of the quality and performance of the use of the apps concerning the objectives of the users. The performance is measured through an evaluation of different indicators, such as the level of physical activity or weight loss. In this criterion of research, the use of innovative features is particularly important. For example, Mata et al. (2018) tested the performance of the training planning function of the relevant apps and confirmed the high performance of these app-generated training and nutrition plans through expert validation.
• 3) Analysis of the benefit of the use of fitness apps for the chronically ill. Patients affected by severe chronic diseases can undergo improvement in their general condition through lifestyle improvements. For example, Bonato et al. (2019) analyzed the possibility of using an app for monitoring physical exercise routines for people affected by HIV. The apps are used to encourage patients to exercise to improve their general condition.
• 4) Examination of the use of fitness applications to encourage people with a specific need due to their socio-demographic profile to follow the minimum physical activity requirements established by the WHO. This includes the specific physical exercise needs that can be implemented through apps for the elderly ( Mas et al., 2016 ), children ( Tripicchio et al. 2017 ), or people with disabilities ( Pérez-Cruzado and Cuesta-Vargas, 2013 ).
• 5) Study of factors affecting user motivation to continue using Fitness Apps. Increasing user motivation is an integral part of a significant number of articles. Very high abandonment rates are observed in the use of these applications, and there is a lack of user engagement ( Bardus et al., 2016 ). Among the factors that may influence the use of the apps, some researchers are interested in the aesthetics of the user interface ( Bardus et al., 2016 ), social relations ( Lewis et al., 2019 ) and the personalization ( Zhou et al., 2018 ).
• 6) Exploration of the social problems associated with fitness apps. Some articles focus on the problems related to fitness apps and the adherence to hegemonic beauty canons. In this line of research, Honary et al. (2019) concluded that the use of these apps might increase social pressure to achieve unrealistic beauty ideals and could thus increase the incidence of eating problems, such as anorexia or excessive physical exercise. Another issue of concern relates to the privacy of and the large amount of personal data collected by these apps ( Adhikari et al., 2014 ).
• 7) Examination of fitness apps as complementary products to wearable devices. Wearable devices provide more accurate and convenient data for measuring people's daily activity levels. However, they are usually associated with relevant mobile apps for health data visualization and analysis. For example, Lee et al. (2019) concluded that children who use wearable devices with mobile app interventions increase their physical activity over time. The emergence of the Internet of Things (IoT) has provided more help to improve people's health behaviors. However, this then brings up the issue of information security and privacy. Thus, Bohé et al. (2019) offer complementary approaches for building a better IoT ecosystem.

6. Conclusions and limitations

This study aimed to present in detail the current state of research on fitness applications through an exhaustive bibliometric analysis and bibliometric mapping. The social function and health potential of fitness apps represent a recent and growing phenomenon, which justifies an increase in the intensity of scientific research in recent years. 89.4% of the contributions were published 2014 onwards when the usage of these apps had already been an important trend in the commercial market for several years. Several bibliometric indicators (e.g., distribution of years of publication, Price's index, author productivity, Bradford's Law, h-index, number of citations, source of publication, research areas, research methods, etc.) were analyzed to understand the main features and patterns of research on fitness apps. Moreover, the scientific mapping analysis of the co-occurring keywords, co-authors, and co-citing authors provided an additional analysis from a time-depth perspective.

In general, it is important to note the great dispersion of research, with a very high number of authors who have only made one contribution being a characteristic of a field of research that has not yet reached maturity. Research in this field is still in its precursor stage. Moreover, many of the studies have a relatively high number of co-authors. This situation is reflected in the indicator of author productivity, which is relatively low (Oyibo, K. and Vassileva, J. being the most active author with eight published articles). However, the most productive authors are not the most influential authors. West. J.H. has gained 655 citations for his four articles, ranking first for this field of study.

This dispersion of research is also reflected in the source of the publications. Although there is a specialized journal in mHealth (JMIR mHealth and uHealth), it can be found that submissions on fitness apps are distributed across a large number of academic journals and conference proceedings.

With this data and support from the analysis of scientific mapping, it can be concluded that authors or prestigious journals have not been integrated and the research references in this field are relatively fragmented, partly due to their novelty and multidisciplinary requirements but also due to the technical orientation of the developers to circumvent the basic health, social, and behavioral aspects of health, society, and behavior.

As in many other areas, the United States remains a prominent contributor in this area. China and India are the most productive in developing countries. These two countries are increasing their productivity and expanding their influence in various fields of scientific research at present.

The most common research method used in this field is the experimental procedure that measures behavioral changes or changes in health indicators after a period of use. The second most used method is the survey, followed by the analysis of content.

A considerable amount of literature is related to medicine, computer science, and healthcare. Many authors have also focused on this main area of research.

Additionally, physical activity was the most frequently occurring keyword. “Behavior change” linked to “physical activity” is also an important keyword. Specifically, it refers to concepts such as behavior change theory, behavior change techniques (e.g., goal setting, self-regulation), etc. However, relatively few studies on consumer behavior from a social science perspective have been found. It seems that consumer-related research has mainly focused on analyzing the optimization of the functionalities of mobile applications from a medical or computer science point of view and neglected the aspects intrinsic to consumer behavior such as the motivations for using fitness apps, the attitude towards them, or how social networks influence the choice of the app to be used. The fact that the keyword “motivation” appears only 8 times and all after 2018 is a clear indication of this finding.

Based on the generalization of all the information obtained and the review of the abstract and some of the full text, we found that the performance and function of fitness apps, the benefits for chronic disease treatment, the influence of using fitness app for public health, and factors of motivations of using fitness apps are currently popular research topics in this field. Future research could build on these directions and incorporate relevant issues from a social science perspective (e.g., consumer motivations, consumer engagement, consumer behavior, etc.) to further investigate on fitness applications.

This article is useful in understanding the early state of research in the fitness app field. However, it is necessary to consider several limitations. One of the limitations of this study is the delimitation of the sample search criteria. In essence, the concept of fitness serves as a central reference for the applications that users utilize to perform self-monitoring of health-related factors, particularly the level of physical activity. The control of “diet” is another health factor that overshadows and is superimposed on the concept of fitness, but one that could also be considered as a separate field in future studies, or add it to the keyword search scope for getting more comprehensive results.

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Yali Liu: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data curation, Writing - original draft, Visualization. Maria Avello: Supervision, Project administration.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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225+ Fitness Topics to Write About And More

by David J. Sautter | Fitness Writing

Online personal training, fitness writing, and B2B fitness sales are just a few examples.

Whether you want to support your fitness business or you want to get started with a fitness blog, it’s a perfect time to set up shop and make your online presence known.

As a fitness writer, you’ll need to stay up-to-date on the latest trends and topics in the fitness industry so that you can produce content that your readers will love.

Quick Tips for Writing Your Fitness Blog Posts

Before we get jump into all of the fitness topics to write about, you might be wondering if your business needs a blog.

The quick answer is: Yes, yes, and yes.

You can read about why your business needs a blog in my post called, “ Does my fitness business need a blog? ”

Blogging is incredibly important for your authority, sales, and long-term business strategy. Once you start putting figurative pen to digital paper, here are several quick tips for writing your fitness blog posts:

Keep it Relevant to Your Business

Be sure to focus on topics that your readers will be interested in.

That means you need to include topics that are relevant to your niche or part of the fitness industry.

If you’re selling weight loss supplements, you probably wouldn’t want to write about the best fitness equipment to take with you while traveling.

Likewise, if you’re a personal trainer, stick to the topics your clients keep asking about.

These topics need to matter to your audience. Your readers should understand how they can benefit from reading your content.

This is how you’ll ensure they keep coming back for more.

Match the Language to the Audience

Write in a style that is relatable and easy to understand.

In general, write so that a middle school student will easily understand it.

I’d advise against using complicated fitness terms . The exception would be if you’re marketing to other business owners in your industry.

For example, if you provide personal trainers with fitness equipment that will make their jobs easier while coaching, you can use the fitness terms they would know.

If you’re not targeting others in the industry, it’s safe to assume that you should write for the layperson.

There’s a good chance that trying to sound educated with impressive words will turn off your readers, especially if they are just looking for something quick and simple.

Keep it Simple and Concise

Continuing with the point above, don’t overcomplicate things, just keep the information straight to the point.

There’s no need to fluff your pieces. It’s painfully obvious and your readers will quickly catch on.

Remember – you’re trying to get them interested in what you have to say, not hit a certain word count.

Grab Attention and Provide Value

The ever-tricky balancing act of attention and value.

Yes, you need to make sure your content is engaging but you also must give something of value to your readers.

Don’t churn out the same fitness post that’s been delivered by two dozen other fitness businesses.

Explore your niche. Consider your experience. Write what you know.

Most importantly, look for opportunities that other fitness websites have missed.

For example, how can you put a creative, clever, and genuine spin on a tried-and-true topic like, “How to Perform a Squat Correctly”?

Do you have a specific pneumonic device that helps you remember all the steps?

Do you have a system that is uniquely yours?

Do you have an above-and-beyond tutorial video that you know is better than most trainers out there?

Find their weaknesses and promote your strengths.

I elaborate on all of these points in my post, 7 Tips on How to Write an Interesting Blog .

Fitness Topics to Write About

Whether you’re having writer’s block, or you are just starting with your fitness blog, you’ll find plenty of fitness topics to get you going below.

Check back regularly as this list will be updated regularly, depending on what’s popular.

Current Events

What’s in the news when it comes to fitness? Trending current events related to health and wellness are always needed, especially if you have a hot take based on your expertise.

• COVID and the rise of at-home fitness
• How the pandemic has impacted the fitness industry
• The future of fitness
• Benefits of online personal training
• How to become an online personal trainer
• How to be a great personal trainer
• The business of fitness: franchising, starting your own studio, tips for success
• Annual competitions such as the Mr. Olympia and the Arnold Classic
• Popular / New fitness equipment gear
• Latest research and new studies in fitness
• Fitness fashion: what’s hot this year? What do you need in your closet?
• Inspirational stories about people who have overcome incredible odds
• The rise of bodyweight training
• How fitness is becoming more and more accessible
• Yoga and meditation continue to grow in popularity
• HIIT workouts still going strong
• Strength training becoming more mainstream
• Healthy eating trends for the year
• Podcasts about fitness and health (and guests on those podcasts)
• Books about fitness, health, nutrition, etc. that are popular right now
• Articles about body image and self-love that are going around social media
• Fitness challenges to do at home or at the gym

Controversial Fitness Topics

Everyone loves a good debate, especially when it comes to fitness.

The perfect example is the debate on whether eggs are good or bad. (Can you believe this is STILL going on?)

Here are some heavily debated fitness topics that are sure to bring traffic your way.

• Is spot reduction real?
• Is CrossFit dangerous?
• Does the keto diet actually work?
• Can you be fit and overweight?
• Should women weight train differently than men?
• Is sugar bad for you?
• The best time of day to work out
• How much water should you drink a day?
• Tips on how to get started with fitness
• How to create a sustainable workout routine that works for you
• How to make fitness a habit
• Best practices for working out
• Foods that help or hurt your fitness goals
• What are the best exercises for abs?
• The best exercises for weight loss
• Are cleanses healthy or unhealthy? How do you choose the right one?

Exercise and Workouts

If you’re starting a fitness blog about exercise and workouts, there is no shortage of things to write about.

The trick, as I mentioned above, is that you have to find new ways to present old and boring material.

Here are some fitness blog topics to write about focusing on exercises and workouts.

• Niche (trending) workouts such as CrossFit, pole dancing, barre, yoga, etc.
• How-To guides for complicated exercises
• Best exercises for seniors
• Workouts for stay-at-home moms
• How to start working out for beginners
• Easy workouts that can be done during your lunch break
• Sightseeing while jogging
• Home workouts that can be done while the kids are napping
• What are the best workouts to do in the least amount of time?
• Stretching routine for when you’re short on time
• How to get started with HIIT
• HIIT for beginners: a guide from start to finish
• What are the best exercises for getting abs
• Best exercises for building your booty
• Chest exercises for women
• The best shoulder exercises for men and women
• Absolute beginner’s guide to lifting weights
• The 20-minute workout challenge
• How to burn 500 calories in 30 minutes
• A beginner’s guide to working out at home
• The benefits of having a fitness coach
• Should you invest in a personal training session?
• Best exercises to do with resistance bands
• How to do push-ups correctly every time

Rest and Recovery

Can’t talk about working out without also mentioning the importance of rest and recovery.

• How much time do you need when recovering from an injury?
• What’s the optimal post-workout recovery time?
• What are the best recovery exercises for when you’re nursing a sore muscle?
• How much sleep do you need to recover from your workout?
• Getting enough protein after a tough workout session
• Can you overtrain?
• How to refuel after a workout
• The best post-workout snacks for fitness enthusiasts
• What are the benefits of foam rolling?
• Massage tips for self-myofascial release
• The importance of stretching after a workout
• Yoga poses for back pain
• Yoga for beginners: how can you get started?
• Pilates exercises for beginners
• How to foam roll your calves
• How to use a foam roller for your IT band
• The best post-workout stretches for people who are short on time
• Self-care tips for fitness enthusiasts

Tips for Training and Living the Lifestyle

Fitness goes beyond working out and eating well.

A lot of people are looking for tips and tricks on how to transition into the fitness lifestyle and make it who they are.

Here are some fitness topics focusing on commonly asked questions about making fitness a habit.

• The benefits of resistance training
• How do I choose a good gym?
• How to find the best yoga class for you
• Kids and fitness: tips for getting your children moving
• Living a healthy lifestyle as a busy person
• How to introduce your kids to working out
• How to make time to exercise
• Why is it essential to have a regular exercise program?
• Importance of variety in your workout
• Why is weight training important?
• What are the benefits of using a weight bench?
• Why should I be doing squats?
• What are the benefits of weightlifting?
• The importance of a warm-up before your workout session
• Tips for training outdoors when you live in a cold climate
• How to start a fitness routine without a gym membership

Fitness Gear, Equipment, and Clothing

Decades ago, the only thing you really had to know about gear and equipment was whether you were using dumbbells or a barbell and weight plates.

Now, there are hundreds of pieces of popular gear, tech, and equipment. Not to mention, fitness clothing for every type of workout.

• Most reliable fitness equipment and gear
• How to buy your first piece of fitness equipment
• What are the best fitness trackers?
• How to choose the right sports bra for your workout
• Best sneakers for CrossFit workouts
• What’s the difference between running shoes and cross-training shoes?
• What are the best clothes to wear to the gym?
• How to layer your clothing for a workout
• How to dress for running in cold weather
• Running gear essentials: what do you need?
• The benefits of having your own fitness equipment at home
• Why you should invest in high-quality fitness apparel and gear
• What are the best clothing brands for fitness?
• How to buy a treadmill for your home gym
• The best rowing machines for your home gym
• How to set up a home gym on a budget
• Best clothes for working out – what to wear and what to avoid
• How to dress for your body type
• What not to wear when working out
• How to make your own fitness clothing

Diet: Nutrition and Supplements

Just as popular (and fiercely debated) as exercise and training, diet and nutrition is the other piece of the fitness puzzle.

• How to meal prep on a budget
• Meal prepping for vegetarians/vegans
• Healthy eating tips for college students
• Dieting trends – everything from juice cleanses to the ketogenic diet
• Supplements – which ones are worth trying?
• Benefits of a certain vitamin, mineral, etc.
• Busting common nutrition myths such as “carbs make you fat” or “fat is bad for you”.
• How to eat before, during, and after a workout
• Healthy diet tips when you’re short on time
• How to read food labels
• What are the best foods to eat before a race?
• How to make your own sports drink
• Does sugar really make you fat?
• The effects of caffeine on the body
• Are energy drinks dangerous?
• How to eat healthy as a busy person
• Does organic food really make a difference in your health?
• Is it good or bad to count calories?
• Diet apps and tools
• How to meal prep for the week
• Healthy eating on a budget
• Pre-workout snacks: what are the best options?
• Post-workout meals: refueling properly
• Protein: what you need to know
• Should you be drinking protein shakes?
• What are the benefits of intermittent fasting?
• The keto diet explained
• The benefits of eating clean
• Carb cycling: what is it, and how does it work?
• Best pre-workout meals for men and women
• What to eat before a morning workout?

Travel Fitness

This one is my bread and butter. I traveled for 4 years straight, and all along the way, I realized something:

Travel fitness is exploding in popularity.

Here are some great travel fitness topics to write about.

• How to stay fit when traveling?
• How to make time to exercise while traveling
• Make fitness accessible: the top bodyweight workouts you can do anywhere
• What are the benefits of exercising outdoors?
• Tips for healthy eating while traveling or on the road
• How to stay fit on a road trip
• Best fitness apps for travelers
• Workout routines you can do in your hotel room
• Benefits of training outdoors when traveling (or at home)
• How to get a good workout in while traveling – no equipment needed!
• Park workouts for beginners – no equipment needed!
• How to find fitness classes in your destination
• Best yoga retreats around the world
• Top CrossFit gyms around the world
• Workout tips when you’re short on time while traveling
• How to stay motivated when traveling
• How to eat healthy while traveling
• Meal prepping for travel – tips, tricks and recipes!
• The best fitness classes around the world: what to try and where to go
• How I stayed fit while traveling for a year straight!
• Stretching tips when you’re traveling

Motivation and Mindset

We all get into a slump when we’re trying to actively make healthy changes happen.

Motivation and mindset are incredibly popular topics right now.

For example, think about the success and the sky-high daily website and podcast traffic of David Goggins and Jocko Willink.

Here are some motivation and mindset topics as they relate to health, fitness, and overall wellness.

• How to stay motivated when working out and/or dieting
• Benefits of meditation
• How fitness helps with mental health
• How exercising can be a stress reliever
• How to make working out a habit?
• How to be accountable to your fitness goals?
• What are some of the best ways to stay focused and driven?
• The power of positive thinking in fitness
• How do I overcome a weight loss plateau?
• Tracking your progress – how, why, and what to track
• Lifestyle and mental health: How fitness affects all aspects of life
• The effects of sleep on your fitness goals (or lack thereof)
• What are the best ways to get enough sleep?
• What is self-care and why is it important?
• How to deal with setbacks in your fitness journey (tips for picking yourself back up)
• Stress management – how can fitness help?
• How do you stick with a workout routine when life gets busy?
• How to stick with a fitness routine when you can’t get to the gym.
• Tips and tricks for training while dealing with injuries or pain.
• How do I overcome negative thinking?
• What are some positive affirmations that can help in terms of health, fitness, and wellness?
• How does exercise affect the mind and body?
• What are some ways to practice self-love?
• Can exercise help with anxiety and depression?
• The best way to relax after a long day
• The benefits of being a morning person
• How to make fitness a part of your lifestyle
• Can working out too much have negative effects?
• Why it’s important not to compare yourself to others in the fitness world.
• The benefits of having a workout buddy

What to Listen to During Your Workouts

• Best workout mixes for men and women
• Best fitness podcasts for men and women
• How to make your own workout mix
• Best motivational songs for working out
• How music affects the way you work out
• What are the best headphones for working out?
• Can you listen to music while you work out?
• What are the benefits of listening to music while working out?
• Podcasts and audiobooks for fitness enthusiasts

Local Fitness Topics

Here are some health and fitness topics to write about with a local spin.

• Best gyms in your city
• Best fitness classes in your city
• Best personal trainers in your city
• Finding a gym that fits your needs
• What are some of the unique fitness studios in your town?
• Where is the best place to run in your city?
• Fitness events in your city
• Yoga studios in your city
• CrossFit boxes in your city
• The best parks for fitness in your city
• Where to order healthy takeout in your town or city: what are the best options?
• How to find a workout buddy in your area
• What are some unique ways to work out in your city?
• What are some of the best local fitness products and services?
• The best places to buy workout clothes and gear in your city
• Where to get a healthy and nutritious meal in your town
• Best fitness apps for tracking workouts in your city
• How to find a running route in your city
• What are the best outdoor workout spots in your city?
• The most challenging hikes in your city

Have Enough Fitness Blog Topics to Write About?

There are a lot of trending fitness topics to write about. Keep an eye on this list, as it will be updated regularly!

Not interested in writing your fitness blogs?

I can help you with that!

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New study highlights the benefit of touch on mental and physical health

Through a large-scale analysis, researchers at the Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience have uncovered the ways in which consensual touch can benefit a person's physical and mental wellbeing.

You might recognize the comforting feeling when someone offers you a hug at the end of a stressful day or strokes your shoulder when you're feeling down. But the question remains: can touch really help you feel better, and does it matter who it's from or how they touch you? To explore these questions, researchers from the Social Brain Lab at the Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience and the University Hospital Essen conducted a large-scale analysis of studies exploring touch interventions.

The benefits of touch on mental and physical health

Does touch truly improve someone's wellbeing? It is an easy question to ask but more complicated to answer. Individual studies often only focus on specific instances and may contradict each other. Combining all these studies together for a large-scale analysis offers a clearer answer: yes, touch substantially improves both physical and mental wellbeing, for example via reduction of pain, anxiety, depression, and stress in adults. But in fact, those with physical or mental health problems (and therefore most in need of support) benefit even more from touch than healthy adults. "This is especially relevant considering how often touch interventions are overlooked" Packheiser, first author, adds.

"A key question of our study is to leverage the hundreds of individual studies out there to identify what type of touch works best," adds professor Keysers, director of the Social Brain Lab. "What if you don't have a friend or partner close by to hug you? Would touch from a stranger or even a machine also help? And how often? The study clearly shows that touch can indeed be optimized, but the most important factors are not necessarily those we suspect."

Interestingly, the person touching you, how they touch you, and the duration of their touch doesn't make a difference in terms of impact. A long-lasting massage by a therapist could therefore be just as effective as a quick hug offered by a friend. That is, until the frequency of the intervention is considered. The more often a touch intervention is offered, the greater the impact. A quick hug could therefore be even more impactful than a massage if it is offered more frequently.

Human or non-human touch?

The next question was whether touch intervention needs to be human at all. As it turns out, object or robot interventions can be equally effective at improving physical wellbeing. "There are lots of people in need of wellbeing improvements, perhaps because they're lonely but also because they may be inflicted by clinical conditions. These results indicate that a touch-robot, or even a simple weighted blanket has the potential to help those people," last author Frédéric Michon explains. However, the benefits of robot and object interventions are less effective for mental wellbeing. Mental health disorders like anxiety or depression might therefore require human touch after all, "perhaps suggestive of the importance for an emotional component associated with the touch," Michon point out.

While the researchers were equally curious about human-to-animal contact, studies exploring this question are still lacking. "It would be useful to see whether an animal's or pet's touch could improve wellbeing, and inversely if they also benefit from it, but unfortunately there simply aren't enough studies, or properly controlled ones, for us to draw any general conclusions on these topics," Michon clarifies.

Touch interventions across ages

When the team looked into the impact of touch on newborns, they found out that newborns also benefited significantly from touch. However, the person conducting the touch intervention was more important: the benefits of touch are higher when done by a parent instead of a healthcare worker. "This finding could be impactful," Packheiser adds. "Death rates due to premature births are high in some countries and the knowledge that a baby benefits more from the touch of their own parent offers another easily implementable form of support for the baby's health."

Due to a lack of studies, it proved difficult to draw conclusions about children and teenagers. "Large scale studies like this help us draw more general conclusions but they also help us identify where research is lacking," Michon explains. "We hope that our findings can steer future research to explore lesser-known questions. This includes animal touch, but also touch across ages, and in specific clinical settings like autistic patients, another category that has not been explored extensively."

• Alternative Medicine
• Mental Health Research
• Chronic Illness
• Mental Health
• Disorders and Syndromes
• Evidence-based medicine
• Hyperactivity
• Philosophy of mind
• Psychotherapy
• Psychiatric service dog

Story Source:

Materials provided by Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience - KNAW . Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Julian Packheiser, Helena Hartmann, Kelly Fredriksen, Valeria Gazzola, Christian Keysers, Frédéric Michon. A systematic review and multivariate meta-analysis of the physical and mental health benefits of touch interventions . Nature Human Behaviour , 2024; DOI: 10.1038/s41562-024-01841-8

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