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Case Studies in Sport and Exercise Psychology

An Official Journal of the Association for Applied Sport Psychology

Indexed in: ProQuest, EBSCOhost, EBSCO A-to-Z, Google Scholar

Online ISSN: 2470-4857

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Volume 8 (2024): Issue 1 (Jan 2024)

About cssep.

Case Studies in Sport and Exercise Psychology ( CSSEP ) is a journal focused on providing practitioners, scholars, students, and instructors with case studies demonstrating different approaches and methods relevant to applied sport and exercise psychology. CSSEP is jointly published by the Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP) and Human Kinetics as an online, peer-reviewed journal. It publishes continuously in one regular issue; case studies in special issues are also published continuously. CSSEP is searchable in libraries and databases. Since its inception in 2017, CSSEP has covered a wide variety of issues and topics that arise in the profession, from diverse sport-and-exercise contexts all around the world. Our unique collection of case studies is continually being updated and extended to ensure that the approaches and methods of psychological practice in diverse settings are showcased, unpacked, and understood by practitioners and user groups worldwide.

CSSEP is a forum for scientifically driven case studies, broadly defined to include both research and reports on practice. The journal is open to the use of diverse practical and methodological approaches derived from the international community. Manuscripts considered for publication in CSSEP will present approaches and results from high-quality systematic interventions, with each case study demonstrating practical and academic rigor that goes beyond description of processes to consider interpretive qualities and relevance outside of a single context. Case studies focusing on the implementation of empirical research are encouraged, but authors should note that manuscripts with a primary focus on original empirical research, even if in applied settings, are likely to be more suitable to other journals.

To assist authors considering a submission to CSSEP , it is suggested that case studies will begin with reflections on the context and the key agents involved, with special attention paid to the authors, their approach to practice, their philosophy, and a brief outline of the experiences that have helped shape and evolve their particular approach (strategies). Then, after a detailed explanation of the case itself and the focal interventions and outcomes, there will be a strong focus on reflection. Authors are required to reflect on their experience, the effectiveness of their approach, things they would do differently, and major lessons learned. In addition to more traditional case studies, the editorial team welcome submissions that may address the following:

• How empirical research has been used to develop systematic interventions in sport and/or exercise psychology practice
• For case work to move beyond an ‘individual’ lens to work that may be at more of a group/organizational level and/or to include key stakeholders (e.g., parents, support staff, caregivers, clinicians)
• Professional practice processes that practitioners work through (e.g., confidentiality, systemic/culture issues, barriers to entry, media and management of social media, working to contract)

The editorial team are acutely aware that many practitioners may not be able to disseminate their wealth of knowledge given that they are situated in applied practice where time is precious, rather than in academic environments where dissemination/publication is often a requirement of tenure. To support the development of manuscripts from a wider network of authors we propose two approaches:

• For practitioners to work with another individual (possibly) from an academic background to co-author a manuscript. Specifically, the manuscript could be generated via an interview with the practitioner who would be detailing their approach to practice.
• For individuals who are considering a submission but may lack the confidence and/or time to curate the work, we encourage them to liaise with one of the editorial board members to facilitate any necessary (re)shaping of the work so it conforms to CSSEP ’s requirements. If there is uncertainty regarding whom to contact, please liaise with the Editor in the first instance.

The online journal serves as a searchable library of cases. Cases can be purchased individually, or users can access all cases with an individual or institutional subscription. Subscriptions provide subscribers full access to the journal’s content, as well as to digital archives of back volumes.

If you wish to contact the Editor for any reason (e.g., becoming a reviewer, interest in joining the editorial board, issue about journal policy), please e-mail Richard Thelwell at [email protected] .

Special Issues

The editorial team are keen to receive expressions of interest for special issues (SIs). In the first instance, individuals are required to submit a short document (no more than 2 pages) to the Editor. The document should include the rationale for the SI (how it fits with CSSEP ’s mission), suggested guest co-editors (with associated short CVs—additional 2 pages each), structure of the SI (intended number of manuscripts), and intended time periods for submissions, reviews, and completion. The documentation will then be reviewed by at least one of the Associate Editors and a further member of the editorial board prior to a final decision being made by the Editor.

Once a special issue has been announced and a call for papers issued, the Editor will meet with the Guest Editors to outline the expectations for the manuscript-handling and -review process. Specifically, this will include training on the ScholarOne Manuscripts™ review system and a meeting with the Editor regarding the preferred number, quality, and timeliness of reviews. Although the process will be led by the Guest Editors, it will be overseen by the Editor, who will also conduct a final review of manuscripts prior to final acceptance. All peer reviews are blind to all reviewers as per the normal process for CSSEP .

• Ethics Policy

Please visit the Ethics Policy page for information about the policies followed by CSSEP.

Richard Thelwell University of Portsmouth, UK

Editors Emeriti

Stewart Cotterill (2016–2019) AECC University College, UK

Robert Schinke (2020–2021) Laurentian University, Canada

Associate Editors

Svenja Wachsmuth Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Germany

Rebecca Zakrajsek University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA

Editorial Board

Rebecca Busanich, Saint Catherine University, USA

Megan Byrd, Georgia Southern University, USA

Gillian Cook, Liverpool John Moores University, UK

Muhammad Deen, MD Performance, Malaysia

Jana Fogaça, California State University, Long Beach, USA

Adam Gledhill, Leeds Beckett University, UK

San-Fu Kao, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan

Nichola Kentzer, The Open University, UK

Gretchen Kerr, University of Toronto, Canada

Carsten Hvid Larsen, University of Southern Denmark, Denmark

Charlie Maher, Cleveland Indians/Rutgers University, USA

Neha Malhotra, National Youth Sports Institute, Singapore

Alister McCormick, Plymouth Marjon University, UK

Thierry Middleton, University of Portsmouth, UK

Alessandro Quartiroli, University of Wisconsin–La Crosse, USA

Duncan Simpson, IMG Academy, USA

Tshepang Tshube, University of Botswana, Botswana

Paula Watson, Made Up to Move Ltd., UK

Stacy Winter, St Mary’s University, Twickenham, UK

Human Kinetics Staff Julia Glahn, Senior Journals Managing Editor

Prior to submission, please carefully read and follow the submission guidelines detailed below. Authors must submit their manuscripts through the journal’s ScholarOne online submission system. To submit, click the button below:

Page Content

Authorship guidelines, manuscript guidelines, preparation of figures and tables, open access, desk rejection policy, additional resources.

• Open Access Resource Center
• Figure Guideline Examples
• Copyright and Permissions for Authors
• Editor and Reviewer Guidelines

The Journals Division at Human Kinetics adheres to the criteria for authorship as outlined by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors ( http://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/roles-and-responsibilities/defining-the-role-of-authors-and-contributors.html ). Each author should have participated sufficiently in the work to take public responsibility for the content. Authorship credit should be based only on substantial contributions to all of the following:

a. Substantial contributions to the conception or design of the work or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the work b. Drafting the work or revising it critically for important intellectual content c. Final approval of the version to be published d. Agreement to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved

All conditions must be met. Individuals who do not meet the above criteria may be listed in the acknowledgments section of the manuscript.

Authors who use artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted technologies (such as Large Language Models [LLMs], chatbots, or image creators) in their work must indicate how they were used in the cover letter and the work itself. These technologies cannot be listed as authors as they are unable to meet all the conditions above, particularly agreeing to be accountable for all aspects of the work.

All Human Kinetics journals require that authors follow our manuscript guidelines in regards to use of copyrighted material, human and animal rights, and conflicts of interest as specified in the following link: https://journals.humankinetics.com/page/author/authors

Before writing and submitting a case, please see " Writing Manuscripts for Case Studies in Sport and Exercise Psychology " and " Conducting and Publishing Case Study Research in Sport and Exercise Psychology " for guidelines. In addition, review the sample case study " One-to-One Support With a Professional Rugby League Player: A Case for Referral? "

Cases must be submitted electronically in Microsoft Word format (.docx) at the CSSEP submission site on ScholarOne ( https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/hk_cssep ). Cases should follow the style guidelines set forth in the latest (7th) edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , be double-spaced, use a standard 12-point Times New Roman font, and use 1-in. margins on all sides throughout. Submitted manuscripts must include an abstract of no more than 150 words. Subheadings should be used throughout the manuscript to help organize the content and guide the reader. The manuscript itself should include the following sections:

Context: A reflection on the context and the key agents underpinning the case study. In particular, the paper should be clearly focused on the authors, their practice approach and philosophy, and briefly outline experiences that have helped shape and evolve their particular case-study approach. The Case: Explaining, in detail, the case itself and the focal interventions (tactics) and outcomes. Reflections: Authors will be required to reflect on personal experience, personal approach, things that could have been done differently to enhance the case, and recommendations for future practice.

All manuscripts should be presented as concisely as possible, and preference is to receive manuscript submissions to CSSEP that are 15–25 pages in length (4,000–6,000 words), exclusive of supplementary materials. If submitting authors have concerns with the space limitations, they are encouraged to contact the Editor in the first instance.

The writing style should be clear and engaging. Authors can achieve this by presenting their ideas in an orderly manner and by expressing them smoothly and precisely. The authors should establish a tone that conveys the essential points of the work in an interesting and systematic manner while engaging readers in their idiosyncratic approach.

Continuous line numbering should be included throughout the manuscript. Any identifying information on the title page or in the content of the manuscript must be removed or concealed prior to submission, as the journal uses a blind review process.

Submitting a case for review indicates that the authors (a) have not previously or concurrently submitted their manuscript to another journal, (b) agree to transfer copyright to Human Kinetics on acceptance, and (c) acknowledge that where appropriate, they have followed proper institutional review-board procedures at their respective institutions. Authors are also responsible for obtaining permissions for any copyrighted work such as figures or tables included in their paper.

Authors whose cases require supplementary materials such as additional documents, files, or video not contained in the case itself should seek preliminary approval from the Editor before submission.

Case submissions meeting these criteria will be subject to blind review. Reviews will be returned to authors within approximately 60 days.

Resolution of digital images should be 300 dpi at full size for photos and 600 dpi for line art. Figures or photos should be submitted as .jpg or .tif files. Although our online articles support color figures, bear in mind that the journal prints in black and white, and most color files will be printed in black and white. Make sure that any color figures submitted will be interpretable in grayscale/black and white. Format tables using the Table Layout function in Word rather than aligning columns in text with tabs and spaces or using text boxes. See additional figure guidelines here .

Human Kinetics is pleased to allow our authors the option of having their articles published Open Access. In order for an article to be published Open Access, authors must complete and return the Request for Open Access form and provide payment for this option. To learn more and request Open Access, click here .

Before full review, submissions are examined at the editorial level. The manuscript will be sent out for full blind review if either the Editor or the Associate Editors believe that the case warrants full review. If the Editor or Associate Editor assigned to the manuscript believes that the submission has extensive flaws or is inconsistent with the mission and focus of the journal, the submission will receive a desk rejection.

Individuals

Online subscriptions.

Individuals may purchase online-only subscriptions directly from this website. To order, click on an article and select the subscription option you desire for the journal of interest (individual or student, 1-year or 2-year), and then click Buy. Those purchasing student subscriptions must be prepared to provide proof of student status as a degree-seeking candidate at an accredited institution. Online-only subscriptions purchased via this website provide immediate access to all the journal's content, including all archives and Ahead of Print. Note that a subscription does not allow access to all the articles on this website, but only to those articles published in the journal you subscribe to. For step-by-step instructions to purchase online, click here .

Please note that this journal will be online only as of 2024.

Institutions

Institution subscriptions must be placed directly with our customer service team. To review format options and pricing, visit our Librarian Resource Center . To place your order, contact us . 

Peer reviewing is a collaborative process that provides both scrutiny and feedback on manuscripts submitted to CSSEP by independent experts within the field of applied sport and exercise psychology. Click here to read more about serving as a reviewer for CSSEP . 

Please visit the Ethics Policy for more information.

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Members may access CSSEP online in the Member Area under Publications.

Case Studies in Sport and Exercise Psychology ( CSSEP ), jointly published by the Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP) and Human Kinetics, is an online, peer-reviewed journal and searchable library focused on providing practitioners, students, and instructors with case studies showing different approaches (strategies) and methods (tactics) relevant to sport and exercise psychology applied research and consultation, covering a wide variety of issues and topics that arise in the profession from around the world.

CSSEP is a forum for scientifically driven case studies, broadly defined. The journal is open to the use of diverse practical and methodological approaches, derived from the international community. Manuscripts considered for publication in CSSEP will present approaches and results from high quality empirical research and/ or systematic interventions. Each case study must demonstrate practical and academic rigour that goes beyond description of processes to interpretive qualities and relevance outside of a single context.

This unique collection of case studies is continually updated online and covers important emerging and established areas of sport and exercise psychology. Case studies will begin with reflections on the context and the key agents involved, with special attention paid to the author(s), their approach to practice, their philosophy, and a brief outline of the experiences that have helped to shape and evolve their particular approach (strategies). Then, once explaining, in detail, the case itself and the focal interventions (tactics) and outcomes, there will be a strong focus on reflection. The authors will be required to reflect on their experience, the effectiveness of their approach, things they would do differently, and major lessons learnt.

MANUSCRIPT SUBMISSIONS Visit https://journals.humankinetics.com/page/authors/cssep for more information.

EDITOR Richard Thelwell University of Portsmouth, UK [email protected] (term ends December 31, 2024)

JOURNAL AWARDS FOR CSSEP For both the Paper of the Year Award and Reviewer of the Year Award, the Associate Editor (AE) of the Case Studies in Sport and Exercise Psychology  ( CSSEP ) will propose two papers/reviewers.

Available awards include:

• Paper of the Year Award
• Reviewer of the Year Award

Learn More About CSSEP  Awards

Watch the video "Getting Published in JASP, JSPA, and CSSEP."

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Volume 8 (2024): Issue 1 (Jan 2024)

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Sports Psychology in Athletics for Athletes, Coaches, and Sports Parents

Case Studies In Sports Psychology

March 3, 2016 By Patrick Cohn Leave a Comment

How To Have Effortless Speed in Races

New this week, I’m introducing a video series called “Mindset for Sports: Case Studies in Sports Psychology.”

In this sports psychology case study series, you’ll learn about the challenges and mental training solutions of real life athletes I’ve worked with to improve their mental game (the names have been changed for privacy).

In my first case study, you’ll learn about a club swimmer named John. John is a 15-year-old who wants to qualify for a national championship.

John’s biggest challenge was not performing in meets as well as he was capable of in practice. In other words, his race times were slower than his practice times.

As a matter of fact, this is the number one reason why athletes engage in mental coaching or get our CD programs –when they under perform in competition compared to practice.

In this case study video, you’ll learn why effortless speed is so important for swimmers, runners, rowers, triathletes, or any sport that requires speed.

Watch the video below to hear what Dr. Cohn has to say about Having Effortless Speed in Races. Don’t forget to subscribe to our YouTube channel to be updated on all our latest videos!

After you watch the video, please comment below. I’m particularly interested in your feedback about this approach to helping you improve your mental game.

If you’re interested in learning more how personal mental coaching can improve your mindset for sports contact us today!

Read more about my personal mental coaching programs by clicking the link below:

Sports Psychology Coaching for Athletes

The Fearless Athlete is 14-day step-by-step easy-to-apply mental training program designed to help you overcome the mental barriers of perfectionism, fear of failure, and learn to perform with unbeatable trust. You learn how to overcome performance anxiety, trust your practice and perform freely in competition. This program consists of 2 audio CD’s and a workbook you use for just 15 minutes a day! Each copy comes with two premium bonuses that you can download immediately!

Read More at Peak Performance Sports…

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Case Studies in Sport and Exercise Psychology Latest Publications

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Embedding Perceptual–Cognitive Training in the Athlete Environment: An Interdisciplinary Case Study Among Elite Female Goalkeepers Preparing for Tokyo 2020

Goalkeepers play a very specific and crucial role in water polo. They rely on advanced perceptual–cognitive (P–C) skills to make fast and accurate decisions. However, their daily training environment often lacks stimulation and representativeness of game demands. This was exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic, where noncontact practices became the “new normal.” In the Canadian Women’s National Team preparation for the 2020 Olympics, goalkeepers’ P–C training was made a priority. Led by the team’s mental performance consultant and experts from transdisciplinary fields, the initiative began with an evaluation of a broad range of P–C skills in goalkeepers. Leading up to the Olympics, a series of P–C activities (i.e., anticipatory training using video occlusion, eye–hand coordination, and visuomotor drills) were adopted based on ecological dynamics principles. Virtual reality technology and constraints-focused tools were used to enrich and diversify the goalkeepers’ daily trainings environment. This case study reports the evaluation of P–C skills, the context, and the way in which the P–C activities were implemented, as well as their holistic impact on goalkeepers. Reflections and limitations are also shared to encourage interdisciplinary efforts in sport psychology and increase awareness among mental performance consultants about the importance of psycho-perceptual-motor skill training for mental performance.

Brazilian Gymnastics in a Crucible: A Media Data Case Study of Serial Sexual Victimization of the Brazilian Men’s Gymnastics Team

Elite gymnastics sport culture is presently under global scrutiny. Largely ignited by the highly publicized case of serial sexual abuses in USA Gymnastics, multiple national gymnastics teams have disclosed stories of athlete abuse. Our author team utilized media data to investigate the serial sexual abuses that occurred on the Brazilian Men’s Gymnastics Team. Using media data to conceptualize athlete maltreatment is novel and facilitated our holistic interpretation of athlete maltreatment across multiple levels of athletes’ developmental systems. The authors traced the media coverage temporally and identified four overarching themes: (a) uncovering the case (subthemes—the Brazilian sport context; the Brazilian men’s gymnastics context; the club context), (b) before abuse was identified (subthemes—the coach–athlete dyad: before disclosure; the athlete: a lost childhood; social connectivity: isolation; the gymnastics system: mechanisms of abuse), (c) when abuse was recognized (subthemes—the coach–athlete dyad: athlete resistance; the athlete: identifying the impact; social connectivity: building connections; the gymnastics system: consequences of abuse), and (d) the legacy of abuse (subthemes—the coach–athlete dyad: ongoing abuses; the athlete: cyclical victimization; social connectivity: expanding connections; the gymnastics system: after abuse). Utilizing media data facilitated our culturally contextualized interpretation of athlete abuse to present tailored recommendations for practitioners.

Experiencing the Social Environment of a Canoe Kayak Club: A Case Study of a Special Olympics Program

For individuals with an intellectual disability, emerging adulthood (18–25 years) may be a disruptive time with an abrupt ending to programming and services after adolescence. This study critically explores the social environment and experiences of individuals involved in a Special Olympics paddling program for emerging adult athletes with an intellectual disability. Using an instrumental case study design, multiple qualitative methods were implemented including photography, videography, observations, and interviews. The participants included four athletes (one female and three male; three with autism spectrum disorder, one with mild intellectual disability), three fathers, a coach, a program coordinator, and an administrator. Analyses were guided by interpretivism and the quality parasport participation framework. The findings highlight how the limited staff training and preparation, the complexity of providing such a program, and parental hidden labor in their adult children’s sport involvement influence the social environment. Implications for coaching practices include the importance of communication strategies and coach education.

“A Blank Slate”: Preparing for Tokyo 2021 During COVID-19

This article presents a case study of an applied consultancy experience with WL, an Olympic athlete preparing for Tokyo 2021. WL sought psychological support after decreases in performance and well-being forced them to consider their future as an athlete. COVID-19 and the lockdown of the United Kingdom were highly influential to the consultancy process, providing WL with the opportunity to explore their identity in the absence of sport. WL framed their emergence from the lockdown as a “Blank Slate,” which was a critical moment allowing them to “find themselves on and off the mat.” The sport psychologist’s existential philosophy is presented and discussed in detail. Furthermore, reflections are provided by WL’s strength and conditioning coach about the referral process and by WL themself about the efficacy of the interventions. The importance of supporting both the person and the performer when working with aspiring Olympic athletes is also discussed.

Case Studies of Olympic Medalist Coach–Athlete Relationships: A Retrospective Analysis Prior to and During the Olympics

The Olympics is a unique and challenging performance setting that tests the strength of the coach–athlete relationship. The purpose of this study was to investigate the coach–athlete relationship prior to and during the Olympics with Olympic-medal-winning athletes and their coaches. Qualitative research methods were implemented where three Olympic medalist coach–athlete dyads participated in semistructured interviews. Data collection included three separate interviews (athlete, coach, and coach–athlete) for each dyad. Cross-case analysis identified three lower order themes related to creating an athlete-centered environment: (a) empowering effective decision making, (b) open and honest communication, and (c) mental cue-based instruction and feedback. In addition, three lower order themes related to developing a caring supportive relationship emerged: (a) developed trust, (b) commitment, and (c) gratitude. Results indicated that coaches and athletes perceived that their success at the Olympics Games was influenced by the strength of the coach–athlete relationship that was developed over multiple years prior to the Olympics.

Transitioning Concussion Care to Mental Health Care: A Case Study of an Elite Athlete

Athletes with recent concussion experience a constellation of physical (e.g., headache, nausea), cognitive (e.g., memory problems, difficulty concentrating), sleep, and emotional (e.g., anxiety, depressed mood) symptoms after injury. Mental health changes may also be a product of typical maturation in adolescents/young adults, making mood disruption difficult to disentangle from concussion sequelae. In this case study, we present the case of a high-achieving 18-year-old female rower whose concussion clinical trajectory exhibits this type of difficulty. Specifically, we provide a detailed chronological summary of the athlete’s visits with a multidisciplinary concussion team. We highlight in this case study (a) an individualized, biopsychosocial model of concussion care and (b) subtle aspects of her clinical presentation that led the clinical team to transition her treatment focus from concussion specific to formal mental health care.

Pavel Datsyuk: Learning, Development, and Becoming the “Magic Man”

Who is the “Magic Man” (https://youtu.be/5EgNF6X2MJs?t=78)? In 2017, Pavel Datsyuk was named as one of the 100 greatest National Hockey League players in ice hockey history. His Detroit Red Wings teammate Niklas Kronwall quipped, “Pav is the Magic Man for a reason. He does things out there with the puck that no one else can do.” This statement begs the questions: When, where, and how did Pavel learn those creative skills? To gain insight into how the “Magic Man,” Pavel Datsyuk, acquired such sophisticated yet unorthodox skills, we endeavored to investigate the preprofessional years of Pavel’s development. Utilizing a case study methodology and leaning on the theoretical framework of ecological dynamics, we sought to examine the ecological niche that helped shape Pavel’s learning in development. Our case study highlights the ecological nature of the development of expertise and the nonlinear impact ecological constraints had on the development of Pavel’s expertise.

Developing an Applied Profile for Assessing the Perceived Effectiveness of Athletes’ Psychological Strategies: A Case Study at the Australian Institute of Sport

Existing tools measuring athletes’ psychological strategies have various practical limitations including (a) not capturing the perceived effectiveness of psychological strategies in pursuing desirable outcomes; (b) overlooking stages of competitive involvement, such as before training or the night before competition; (c) and being predominantly paper-based. In the present case study, the author explains the process of developing an alternative assessment tool called the Profile of Psychological Strategies (ProPS). This new profile aims to measure athletes’ perceptions of which strategies they use, to pursue which desirable outcomes, and how effectively. The ProPS has its theoretical roots in Fletcher and Sarkar’s approach to developing psychological resilience and was developed based on an adapted version of Radhakrishna’s Sequence for Instrument Development. This case study can be useful both for sport experts looking for a practical and flexible way to measure athletes’ psychological strategies and for those aiming to develop their own applied assessment tool.

“Caught in the Headlights”: A Reflective Account of the Challenges Faced by a Neophyte Practitioner Working With a National Squad

This article provides a neophyte practitioner’s account of providing psychological support to a national team for the first time. The practitioner felt “caught in the headlights” due to his lack of preparation for the range of organizational issues he encountered. In this confessional tale, experiential knowledge gained by the practitioner is shared through the presentation of self-reflections from the 6-month period when he supported the squad. While the practitioner’s time with this national squad was limited, it gave him a sense of the micropolitical landscape of the sporting organization and illuminated some of the complexities and dilemmas that characterize applied sport psychology practice. These reflections are offered to guide other aspiring professionals during their initial training experiences.

An Existential Counseling Case Study: Navigating Several Critical Moments With a Professional Football Player

The current article presents a reflective case study following an applied service delivery experience with a 21-year-old professional footballer. The primary aim of the intervention was to support the client while facing several critical moments (breakdown in relationships, identity, and contract negotiations). This support involved creating a confidential space for her to discuss her values, beliefs, and identity while considering some of the tensions and dilemmas experienced while considering her future. Throughout this process, the first author adopted an existential counseling approach to practice and utilized the Four Dimensions of Existence and Emotional Compass as hermeneutic devices to analyze the client’s presenting challenges. The working relationship lasted for 3 months and spanned eight online sessions. Reflections on practitioner individuation and the value of adopting an existential approach to service delivery are provided.

Psychiatric Aspects of Extreme Sports: Three Case Studies

Extreme sports, defined as sporting or adventure activities involving a high degree of risk, have boomed since the 1990s. These types of sports attract men and women who can experience a life-affirming transcendence or “flow” as they participate in dangerous activities. Extreme sports also may attract people with a genetic predisposition for risk, risk-seeking personality traits, or underlying psychiatric disorders in which impulsivity and risk taking are integral to the underlying problem. In this report, we attempt to illustrate through case histories the motivations that lead people to repeatedly risk their lives and explore psychiatry’s role in extreme sports. A sports psychiatrist can help with therapeutic management, neuromodulation of any comorbid psychiatric diagnosis, and performance enhancement (eg, risk minimization) to cultivate improved judgment which could include identifying alternative safer recreational options. Because flirting with death is critical to the extreme sports ethos, practitioners must gain further understanding of this field and its at-risk participants.

INTRODUCTION

Extreme sports are leisure activities that involve major risk to life and limb. The lay perception that extreme sports participants are primarily thrill-seeking, adrenaline-addicted youths may be oversimplified. Investigators have narrowed the definition to refer only to sporting activities during which “a mismanaged mistake or accident would most likely result in serious injury or death.” 1 , 2

Participation in extreme sports may suggest a powerful, life-affirming, and enhancing transcendent primal drive akin to attainment of a “flow experience.” 3 Conquering the “death wish” (Thanatos drive), overcoming paralyzing fear, and searching for a transformative or “life wish” (Eros drive) are considered integral motivators for the extreme sportsperson. 1 , 2 , 4 Available leisure time; abundant finances; and sophisticated yet affordable equipment attract upper and middle class participants, enabling them to temporarily escape constrained socially acceptable and defined roles and to explore nature and challenge themselves to transcend fear. 5 , 6 Gender factors likely play a role in extreme sports. Women have overlapping, but different, motivators for extreme sports involvement, although we are not aware of any strong evidence that addresses this issue. 7 Some extreme sports activities have been codified and fall under the umbrella of the X Games, 8 whereas others such as wingsuit flying and ice climbing are too challenging and life-endangering to fully integrate into a field that proudly defines itself by bravado.

BASE jumping (jumping from Buildings, Antennas, Spans, and Earth), for example, involves often-illegal risk-taking extreme sport jumping activities and is associated with a fearfully high mortality rate (see Table 1 ). The term was coined by “the two Phils,” Phil Smith and Phil Mayfield, after their initial parachute-assisted jump in January 1981 from a Houston building. 9 , 10 It is worth noting that many sports, including those integrated into the Winter and Summer Olympic Games, share risk factors with extreme sports that place participants at risk for major injury (luge and downhill skiing are two examples). The 2010 death of third-generation Georgian luge competitor Nodar Kumaritashvili during practice at the Vancouver Winter Olympic Games is testament to this fact. 11

Extreme sports and morbidity/mortality risk

Geneticists have explored possible links between a propensity for high-risk activities and genetic markers. The putative connection of polymorphisms of the D4 subtype of the dopamine 2 receptor, a G protein-coupled receptor that inhibits adenylyl cyclase, with risk-taking, novelty-seeking behavior in humans and other living organisms is a link from a teleologic perspective. 12 – 15 The work of Thomson and associates 14 with skiers and snowboarders is especially intriguing. Dopamine is the neurotransmitter most associated with “action,” addiction, and substance abuse. There is a clear link between risk taking and the adrenaline/dopamine/endorphin surge experienced by extreme sports participants. This surge is like the phenomenon seen in gambling and risk-heavy professions such as financial trading, which continually entice participants back to their chosen “edge work.” 16

For participants with severe hyperactive/impulsive attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), extreme sports can be fairly calming and can even provide therapeutic neuromodulation with “positive” reinforcement potential elicited by dopamine, serotonin, epinephrine, endorphins, and stress hormone hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activation, which produces a state of optimal arousal. 17 , 18 The dopamine and norepinephrine neurotransmitter surge may help to modulate behavior, reversing under-activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and dysregulation of multiple brain pathways involved in the attentional and impulse control processes. 19 , 20 Cloninger’s work on personalities 21 regarding four dimensions of human behavior (harm avoidance, reward dependence, novelty seeking, and perseverance) serves as a helpful template with which to evaluate the personality structures of those who actively participate in extreme sports. Similarly, Zuckerman’s Sensation Seeking Scale, now in its fifth iteration, 22 which evaluates four different subscales of thrill and adventure seeking, disinhibition, experience seeking, and boredom susceptibility, provides an excellent framework with which to assess the behavioral traits and functioning of extreme sports participants.

A suicidal level of risk taking may be present in extreme athletes. Dean Potter, a pioneering free climber, slackline walker, and “free BASER,” frequently referred to death. He stated, “You are playing with death then and it feels so good.” About wingsuit flying he said, “[It] turns the impossible into the possible,” and “Instead of dying, I’m flying.” He earned the grudging admiration of rangers and throngs of climbing visitors at Yosemite National Park, where he completed many of his most audacious feats. 23 , 24

Likelihood of affective disturbance or diathesis is much higher in this risk-taking population. Extreme sports participation may serve as a temporary antidepressant, lifting mood at least on a short-term basis, perhaps not dissimilar to the way the anesthetic agent ketamine can potentially help in the setting of resistant depression. 25 The combination of an endogenous “rush” of multiple neurotransmitters and physical activity greatly amplifies the protective and healthy effect that people involved in “safe” sporting exercise also experience. 26

Bike motocross (BMX) participants describe the degree to which an athlete’s desire to pull a never-before-seen trick or stunt outweighs conventional calculations of risk. 27 Participants in this sport, an X Games favorite, tend to idealize, romanticize, and mythologize extravagant risk taking as “highly motivational passion.” Descriptions include:

“‘We are not normal people. … In the best sense of the word, we are childlike.’” 27

“His mind was ‘so trigger.’” 27

There is a naïve explorer’s curiosity vis-à-vis the severe pain response as exemplified by ex-BMX racer TJ Lavin, who said, “I didn’t know we could slam like that,” after breaking both legs. 27

When champion BMX biker Dave Mirra retired from BMX in 2011, he said of his younger competitors, “They’ll die. Just like I would when I was younger. I would have died to win.” 27 In February 2016, Mirra committed suicide by gunshot wound in his car after an argument with friends. A postmortem examination identified chronic traumatic encephalopathy attributable to innumerable concussions sustained during his freestyle BMX career. 28

More than 300 BASE jumping-related deaths were recorded between 1981 and 2016; interest in the sport accelerated after 2000 with increased coverage and financial rewards associated with the sport. 29 The number of wingsuit deaths is unknown, but many of the most prominent proponents and pioneers of this field have died, including Dean Potter and Mark Sutton, who was famous for parachuting as James Bond into the stadium at the opening ceremony for the 2012 London Summer Olympic Games. 30

CASE PRESENTATIONS

Here we present three cases. To our knowledge, none of the three extreme sport participants described here sought mental health treatment, but we were familiar with each of them. We describe them posthumously, to illustrate the complex constellation of social and psychological factors that probably influenced and motivated each extreme sports participant. In Table 2 we compare these three cases.

Case presentation comparisons

ADHD = attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; SUDs= substance use disorders.

Case 1: “Allan”

“Allan,” a 48-year-old married father of 3 teenagers, was a successful businessman and a “pillar of society.” He had a multitude of business and family responsibilities, and he may have felt trapped in his societal roles. Perhaps in an effort to escape these psychological shackles, Allan became a regular “weekend warrior” at a local hang-gliding site. He was extremely careful with his equipment, meticulously prepared, and had a strong awareness about local wind patterns. He died of severe injuries sustained after being buffeted by a strong, unexpected gust of wind that threw him against a cliff face and caused a crash. His death was perceived as a major tragedy by his family and community.

The crash location was associated with well-known risk; at least three serious injury events occurred each year at the site, and yet Allan, like many other thrill seekers, was willing to take this risk. 31 People at his funeral emphasized that he loved the excitement and sense of freedom the flights provided. Grief management, counseling, and individual and family support cannot replace the ongoing role that Allan would have had as a father, husband, and community leader.

Case 2: Dean Potter

Dean Potter, the youngest of three sons, was born in the Midwest to a military father and a free-spirited mother, an RN and a yoga teacher who had embraced an alternative lifestyle. 32

His father was described as a deeply caring, family-oriented man. His mother was described as flighty. When he was seven years old, Dean’s parents separated and had shared custody of the children. His first climbing experience was as a four-year-old in the West Bank while his father was a peace keeper in the Middle East. 33

Dean described his childhood as difficult. In school, he was often in trouble, largely because of his challenges with attention and impulsivity. His family did not seek therapy or psychiatry to address his behaviors, which were consistent with combined-type ADHD. Dean was also painfully shy, withdrawn, and socially isolated from peers. He described himself as having resentment toward others as a youth because he felt excluded and shunned, although his feelings may have been only partially based in reality. Dean finally established his first friendship when he and another boy snuck into a restricted area on his father’s Air Force base in New Boston, NH, by climbing a 200-foot cliff. 34 Dean easily and fearlessly climbed the cliff without a rope and established his life’s path. He described rock climbing and free soloing (climbing without safety gear or ropes—a fall causes serious injury or death) as “perfect,” spiritual experiences. 32 Dean went to college in NH and continued to struggle to find a peer group with which he could mesh. 32

Despite not feeling at ease, Dean forced himself to participate in team sports. He summarized his attitude toward his crew team as “destroy everybody and establish my dominance.” 35 Shortly after Dean left school and started rock climbing full time at age 20, he found himself drifting around the western US, finally settling down in the Yosemite National Park area. He described several vivid spiritual dreams and hallucinations, which began in early childhood, that involved flight and ravens. He had vivid hallucinations, or visions, of being a shamanistic raven in an area of Hueco Tanks State Park near El Paso, TX, that is sacred to Native Americans and to climbers. Many of his peers thought these visions were brought on by substance use, but, although he did “dabble,” Dean denied these claims. Over time, despite his proficiency and ability to climb at high skill levels, his ability to gain prominence in traditional climbing circles was limited, causing him to become somewhat disillusioned.

But Dean did have a competitive drive to be famous, well recognized, and unique; consequently, he cultivated a passion for riskier, more life-endangering activities such as free soloing, high-lining, BASE jumping, and wingsuiting. Worldwide attention, accolades, and sponsorships were finally available to him. In public, Dean presented a spiritual and charismatic persona. However, accomplishing these feats necessitated access to a primal motivation that led to his nickname, “The Dark Wizard.” 36 , 37 Fiercely competitive and proud, he was prepared to go to extreme lengths to protect and extend his records and accomplishments. Impulsively climbing in illegal national park sites cost him and his then-wife several sponsors including Patagonia, loyal supporters, and alienation of potential backers. 38

Potter died in 2015 while attempting a risky, illegal, and never-before-performed wingsuit flight through a notch on a granite face at Yosemite National Park; an acolyte, 29-year-old Graham Hunt, also was killed. 23 , 24 , 39 Potter was 43 years old and had inspired generations of young climbers and extreme sports enthusiasts.

Case 3: Dan Osman

Dan Osman was born in Orange County, CA, in 1963. He had a strong genetic and environmentally supportive background in risk-taking. His father was a former SWAT team officer and detective. His mother was a former world-champion rodeo barrel racer and a horse trainer. A paternal descendant of Samurai families in the Takeuchi Clan, Dan was trained in the Samurai Bushido code of ethics by his father and studied aikido and kung fu, but he did not feel worthy of the katana sword he received in 1994. Dan probably had untreated, fairly severe combined ADHD and as a child was nicknamed, “Danny I forgot.” 40

When Dan discovered rock climbing at the age of 12, he considered himself a slow learner, taking 8 years to achieve the elite Yosemite grade of 5.12. 40 , 41 Dan became known for his bold (some would say senseless), reckless climbing, ice climbing, free soloing, and speed climbing (to which his many YouTube videos attest). 42 Because some ascending routes he pioneered were subsequently downgraded in terms of difficulty, Dan increased the challenge by working on speed free soloing, once racing up a 400-foot rock face, ropeless, in 4 minutes, 25 seconds. While bolting a new route in Lake Tahoe, he discovered his love of falling and began to engage in large roped falls. As time progressed, he became bolder and enjoyed mastering falling and associated fears and other emotions. 40 Dan often encouraged others to attempt his feats, and when his 25-year-old friend Bobby Tarver died during a jump, Dan quickly dismissed the event as “pilot error.” 43 Although Dan was often credited with being meticulous and extremely focused when it came to his rope jumps and solo climbs, the rest of his life was marked by impulsivity, disorganization, forgetfulness, illegal jumps, brushes with the law, and episodes of brief jail time.

Friends began to refer to him as being on “DANO time,” as he often arrived hours or even days later than expected. His father eventually told Dan that he would no longer bail him out for his continued minor legal infractions such as unpaid parking and traffic tickets. Friends picked up the slack, but Dan’s Bohemian lifestyle did not make it easy for him to maintain relationships or care for his daughter. Part-time carpentry and climbing were not lucrative occupations. 40

Dan was excited to be included in the Guinness World Records for speed free climbing, and for rope jumping 1000 feet. Aware of the danger, after the record jump he stated on video, “I’ll give my guardian angels some time off because they’ve been doing a heck of a job.” 42

After being released from a brief incarceration, Dan returned to Yosemite and the site of a jump he had performed several months earlier to take down the rigging and ropes. He must have noticed that winter snows and intermittent freezes had substantially damaged his rope system. Dan could not resist his impulses despite warnings from friends and attempted an 1100-foot fall. This time, the rope broke at the 900-foot mark, the spot at which the safety knot had been tied from his autumn jump. Dan died in 1998 at age 35, leaving a young daughter. 43

MANAGING RISK IN EXTREME SPORTS

Overlearning and practicing skills safely until they become automatic is critical when people participate in high-risk, high-skill activities such as mountain or boulder climbing, alpinism, and other extreme sports. The only way to succeed is to keep practicing toward the goal of reaching the top. It often takes a long time to unlock the sequence of movements to complete the combination required for a particular climb.

The process of practicing in grueling, risky conditions often is just as rewarding for a dedicated climber as the goal of reaching the top or succeeding at any highly challenging task. An essential part of this process is mindfulness, the quieting of the mind. As a free climber pointed out, “It puts me into a position where I can concentrate and be more mindful than any other thing I do. … The act of climbing without a rope has been very valuable, in that it’s been one of the things I can go do that truly forces me to quiet my mind.” 44 Another participant points out, “… it’s such a hyper-focused and, at the same time, calming experience.” 44

Extreme sports are generally performed outdoors in natural settings. Conditions must be close to perfect to complete an activity or a climb. However, small variabilities in temperature, humidity, sweat response, and light are always factors. For this reason, many successful climbs are completed at night in colder but more predictable and consistent conditions. When conditions are less than ideal, failure; conscious, prudent withdrawal from a climbing attempt; or severe injury or death are much more likely.

In our opinion there is a notable difference between impulsive high-risk takers and cutting-edge, expert, pioneering extreme sport proponents. Both types of participants risk injury and death while exploring their outer skill limits. Highly trained extreme sport expert proponents have developed the skill set to manage the frustration associated with deferred gratification and have learned to channel rather than be driven by their impulsivity. Climbers such as those who may die on Mount Everest or while free soloing spend years and thousands of hours developing their skills to the point at which they feel ready to attempt a task that is at the peak of their perceived difficulty scale. They believe their level of preparation lowers risk despite the many variables that heighten risk.

Expert proponents probably turn away from an activity if conditions are not perfect. They use ropes to climb the most difficult sections numerous times before gaining the expertise and confidence to even attempt a climb without ropes. Peter Croft and Alex Honnold, who was the first person to free solo climb the most difficult central route up the El Capitan vertical rock formation in Yosemite National Park in June 2017, are both proponents of this approach.

Two examples of successful, very high-risk athletes/stuntmen who enthralled the world were Felix Baumgartner, who free fell and parachuted from Earth’s stratosphere in October 2012 at speeds upwards of 800 miles per hour (Mach 1.2), and Luke Aikens, a third-generation skydiver who free fell from 25,000 feet into a net in July 2016. Sport and adventure psychologist Michael Gervais, PhD, a consultant on free fall attempts, perhaps put it best when he said, “Those that are pushing into territories that are yet to be conquered, we need them to tell us what is possible and truly explore what is not yet known.” 45 Baumgartner’s humble comment before he left the safety of his parachute capsule exemplified the extreme sports mindset when he said, “Sometimes you have to be up really high to understand just how small you are.” 46

THE ROLES FOR PRIMARY CARE AND SPORT PSYCHIATRY IN EXTREME SPORTS

Primary care physicians must become knowledgeable about extreme sports and the associated signs that warrant referral to therapists and psychiatrists. While taking patient histories, physicians should solicit descriptions of all leisure activities, not just “regular” sporting activities. Physicians who develop an alliance with physically healthy patients with incipient psychiatric illness can help to foster their long-term mental health.

The current role of the psychiatrist in extreme sports is probably underutilized and is evolving. Sports psychologists can help participants with motivation and mindfulness skills to prepare for highly risky situations. Participants in extreme sports are aware of their risks and most likely are somewhat contemptuous or dismissive of the role that mental health professionals may play other than in performance enhancement. Consequently, extreme sports enthusiasts may avoid accessing psychiatric services. There also is high risk for ego-syntonic polysubstance use, abuse, and dependence in this population. Substance use and abuse may play a part in the ability to overcome the fear of performing some of these activities. Extreme sports participants need to know that psychiatric services are available and that expressing their concurrent challenges, concerns, or traumas may prove helpful.

The ability to harness and even normalize a quasisuicidal “death wish” to perform these activities suggests that friends and family can encourage consultations with sport psychiatrists. At the very least, therapy may help participants articulate and understand the motivations at work and identify ways to minimize risk. Supportive involvement does not always denote agreement with the extreme project at hand. Support may lead to an intervention whereby an actively suicidal and perhaps manic or psychotic person can be hospitalized and stabilized or successfully treated as an outpatient. Identifying alternative yet high-action safer activities that extend survival may be considered in a therapeutic environment. Patients with associated Axis II disorders may benefit from interventions such as Dialectical Behavior Therapy.

Dean Potter’s articulation of this Icarus-like statement is telling: “I know it’s insane to think I could fly, but to make it possible, you truly have to believe in it—to go to a place that’s not accepted.” 47 Despite their life-endangering behaviors, most of these athletes do not intend to die, at least from an overt cognitive standpoint. Using medications to manage any underlying Axis I psychiatric disorder such as severe bipolar disorder with psychotic features, major depression, uncontrolled substance abuse or dependence, or severe hyperactive/impulsive ADHD may enable safer execution and fine-tuning of the choices these athletes make while participating in extraordinary activities. Psychiatry and sports psychiatrists, in particular, must acquire a deeper understanding of this fascinating field.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the anonymous reviewers of The Permanente Journal for their excellent suggestions.

Brenda Moss Feinberg, ELS, provided editorial assistance.

The author(s) have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

Case Studies In Sports Psychology – Video

How to have effortless speed in races.

New this week, I’m introducing a video series called “Mindset for Sports: Case Studies in Sports Psychology.”

In this sports psychology case study series, you’ll learn about the challenges and mental training solutions of real life athletes I’ve worked with to improve their mental game (the names have been changed for privacy).

In my first case study, you’ll learn about a club swimmer named John. John is a 15-year-old who wants to qualify for a national championship. John’s biggest challenge was not performing in meets as well as he was capable of in practice. In other words, his race times were slower than his practice times.

Watch the video below to hear what Dr. Cohn has to say about Having Effortless Speed in Races.

Video on Case Study

Related Sports Psychology Articles

• Athletes Who Focus on Avoiding Mistakes
• How Pro Athletes Improve Their Mental Game
• Managing the Many Roles Athletes Have

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For the last two decades, I’ve been working with athletes and helping them optimize their physical ability by teaching them the secrets of top performing athletes. Now, you too can learn how to regain that child-like fearless attitude.

Mental toughness is what separates the winner from the loser in any competition. Champion athletes train hard in practice, perform without fear in competition, and trust their skills in crunch-time.

The Fearless Athlete program is ideal for any athlete that wants to overcome fear of failure and uncover inhibiting perfectionistic traits; or for any coach or parent who wants to teach athletes to perform with trust and freedom in competition.

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Emotions and golf performance: An IZOF-based applied sport psychology case study

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• 1 Florida State University, USA.
• PMID: 16574814
• DOI: 10.1177/0145445503261174

A multiple case study investigation is reported in which emotions and performance were assessed within the probabilistic individual zone of optimal functioning (IZOF) model (Kamata, Tenenbaum,& Hanin, 2002) to develop idiosyncratic emotion-performance profiles. These profiles were incorporated into a psychological skills training (PST) intervention, with a focus on three emotional dimensions, that is, arousal, pleasantness, and functionality, and several psychological strategies employed during practice and competition. Two female varsity golfers at a major Division I university in the Southeast participated in the case study during the Spring 2002 season. The PST intervention resulted in enhanced emotional self-regulation skills and improved golf performance. Directions for future research into the IZOF model and implications for practical application of the model are discussed.

• Achievement*
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• Individuality*
• Internal-External Control
• Models, Psychological*
• Models, Statistical*
• Practice, Psychological
• Psychology, Applied
• Referral and Consultation
• Self Efficacy

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Sport and exercise psychology: practitioner case studies

• Faculty of Science & Health
• School of Sport, Health & Exercise Science
• University of Winchester
• University of Ulster

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• Case Study Psychology 75%
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T1 - Sport and exercise psychology

T2 - practitioner case studies

AU - Breslin, Gavin

A2 - Cotterill, Stewart

A2 - Weston, Neil James Vivian

PY - 2016/6/1

Y1 - 2016/6/1

N2 - Sport and Exercise Psychology focuses on the most current issues in the field, integrating research and practice to develop a coherent understanding of current knowledge, future research directions and applied implications within the field.This is the first book to include theory-based case studies for sport performance, exercise and skill acquisition in one publicationInternational authors dissect their case studies to highlight best practice/interventions in similar situationsThe theoretical basis behind each intervention is clearly explained, along with practical examples of how to work as a sport and exercise psychologistProvides content that is directly applicable to those students wishing to enter the profession via various national accreditation schemes, in addition to providing chartered psychologists with a text that can directly inform their reflections of their own practiseThe book is supported by an online learning environment that includes ‘talking heads’ videos for each chapter, further resources, questions and links to relevant external materials.

AB - Sport and Exercise Psychology focuses on the most current issues in the field, integrating research and practice to develop a coherent understanding of current knowledge, future research directions and applied implications within the field.This is the first book to include theory-based case studies for sport performance, exercise and skill acquisition in one publicationInternational authors dissect their case studies to highlight best practice/interventions in similar situationsThe theoretical basis behind each intervention is clearly explained, along with practical examples of how to work as a sport and exercise psychologistProvides content that is directly applicable to those students wishing to enter the profession via various national accreditation schemes, in addition to providing chartered psychologists with a text that can directly inform their reflections of their own practiseThe book is supported by an online learning environment that includes ‘talking heads’ videos for each chapter, further resources, questions and links to relevant external materials.

SN - 978-1118686522

T3 - BPS Textbooks in Psychology

BT - Sport and exercise psychology

Sport Psychology Case Studies: Coaching High Performing Teams

This  month’s edition of Sport Psychology focuses on how to coach a team that has made it to the Performance Stage. This is the stage in which the team has come together around a set of goals and norms, allowing them to play as one unit rather than a group of individuals.

Looking back at the last article describing the Performing stage of team development , a few themes emerge. Results are a main emphasis as well as the right amount of focus on efficiencies in technique and tactics. Coaches do not need to put as much energy into helping the athletes find motivation. They are self (intrinsically) motivated in this stage. The athletes are a tight cohesive unit performing consistently at their best. When unforeseen challenges present themselves, the leaders on the team take control by directing and supporting others as needed.

For the coach, this stage can be relieving. It can also be a challenge to change efforts away from building and completely toward adjusting tactics and game plans. The coach needs to remove themselves from the social aspects of the team and invest completely in the dynamics of execution in the sport.  Here are some examples:

Performing Scenario #1

A basketball coach has been working all season with his team to find the right rhythm and pace of play to allow the individual strengths of each player to complement each other. The team is competing in the final two games of their conference before heading into playoffs. Throughout the season the coach has implemented a buddy system between veteran and rookie members of the team to create social unity off and on the court. The team also has a motto they recite in unison as they step on the court to remind them of their purpose for the season and the importance of today’s practice or game. All the athletes shared a role in creating it.

In the last two games, this coach is finding it challenging to step out of the role of team builder and controller even though the athletes are making plays and hitting shots consistently. The coach wants to tell the athletes where they should move and what they should do even after time-outs where each player on the court understood the play drawn up and their role. It is becoming frustrating for the athletes and they feel a little held back from the pace and flow that they would like to play.

It is clear that the coach has put in a lot of great work throughout the season. The athletes seem to be coming together at the right time of year and performing as a unit. At this point, the coach needs to allow the athletes to make their own decisions on the court. If standing during games adds to his over involvement and need to dictate to the athletes then perhaps the coach should sit. The key is for the coach to find a way during games to become aware enough to know what he needs to do to become more of an observer rather than a director. During stoppages of play, the coach should engage with the athletes to broaden their awareness of what’s happening on the court. The coach should also allow the athletes to share their own perspective in certain situations where risks were taken or mistakes were made. Perhaps the play would work if executed better. The main point is to allow the athletes to take over control as long as team play is emphasized and demonstrated by the athletes in the game and on the sidelines. Play calling will still be led by the coaching staff but the athletes will have the autonomy to make adjustments when executing as needed.

Performing Scenario #2

A college softball team has won their conference and now prepares for the college softball world series. Nerves and excitement are high with the athletes and coaching staff. During conference championships, the athletes played their best softball of the season. Now, the coaches are preparing for their first opponent in the world series.

While at practice, the coaches increase the intensity of their instructions by yelling louder and critiquing every mistake. The athletes’ body language seems tenser and their mistakes start to increase in the form of throwing errors and poor technique at the plate. The coaches are looking to find a way to find the high level of play the team showed the week before at their conference tournament.

First, it’s important to understand that teams will never play better than their best but they will play worse when the pressure is on and tension rises. Often, the perception of how important playoffs are to people creates negative impacts on athletes’ ability to perform. This team’s performance in conference was great enough to win and more importantly help the team play its best softball of the season. As they prepare for the first matchup of the playoffs, the focus of the coaching staff should be on support to maintain players’ confidence. One of the best ways to continue to be confident is to watch video of your best play. The team wants to continue to play at their best so it makes sense to show them what it looks like. Showing video to point out all the mistakes creates negative mental images. It’s the same as physical practice. You would want to repeatedly practice successful movements. The mind works the same way by wanting to repeat whatever is reinforced.

In the team’s preparation for the playoffs, it is also a great time to practice breathing techniques to help athletes gain control of their nerves. Put them in control of their situation rather than the situation controlling them. The coaches could practice with the athletes to model the behavior and adapt it for their own benefit. Breathing for performance is a gateway skill that should be followed by an intentional focus on the task at hand.

High performing teams enter a stage of development where they know what to do and have the confidence to do it. Tactical and technical improvements can be made but it’s best to make adjustments as simple as possible. When a team is performing, coaches can adjust their style to more of a macro perspective of observation and strategy. Put the right players in the right positions and allow them to own their performance.

After a season ends and a team disbands, it is important to add an element of closure. The Adjourning stage was added to Tuckman’s model to address these needs. At this point, reflection and celebration of the athlete’s accomplishments should be shared with them. A formal end to the roles and duties of that team should be communicated.

Want to learn more? Follow the articles below for the whole story!

Stage 1: Forming

Stage 2: Storming & Case Studies

Stage 3: Norming & Case Studies

Stage 4: Performing Introduction

About the author:  Brian Alexander is a mental skills coach who combines eight years of experience as an Olympic level water polo athlete, a master's degree in sport psychology, and business leadership training and coaching from The Ken Blanchard Companies to partner with athletes and performers of all ages and levels. "My passion is to empower others to succeed in life, athletics, performance, and daily activities. My personal mission statement is to be a genuine and honest leader who collaborates with and learns from others in order to find a mutual personal level of excellence physically, mentally, and spiritually."

Contact info for Brian Alexander:

Website:  www.athletementalskillscoach.com Twitter:  @BA_POS_MIND Facebook:  Athlete Mental Skills Coach LinkedIn:  www.linkedin.com/in/brianalexander3

About the Author

Brian Alexander is a mental skills coach who combines eight years of experience as an Olympic level water polo athlete, a master's degree in sport psychology, and business leadership training and coaching from The Ken Blanchard Companies to partner with athletes and performers of all ages and levels. "My passion is to empower others to succeed in life, athletics, performance, and daily activities. My personal mission statement is to be a genuine and honest leader who collaborates with and learns from others in order to find a mutual personal level of excellence physically, mentally, and spiritually."

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Sports Psychology Case Studies

For 10 years + we’ve been supporting athletes, coaches, parents and teams to gain a mental edge.  We hope that the following case studies give you a further appreciation of how we support people across different sports with our Sport Psychology Coaching and Consulting.

Supporting a Young Footballer to Overcome His Fears

Supporting a Batsman to Score More Runs

How to Cope with Performance Anxiety in Gymnastics

Supporting a Rugby Player to Overcome Self-Doubt

For further insights into Performance Psychology you could tune into the Demystifying Mental Toughness Podcast

Supporting a professional golfer go really low.

Supporting a Professional Motor Cyclist Overcome Injury and Regain Confidence

Supporting a Professional Rugby Player Rehabilitating from Injury

Developing A Fearless Approach With A Professional Footballer

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