climate change mitigation case study pdf

An official website of the United States government

Here’s how you know

Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States.

Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock ( Lock A locked padlock ) or https:// means you’ve safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites.

JavaScript appears to be disabled on this computer. Please click here to see any active alerts .

Case Studies for Climate Change Adaptation

Search Case Studies according to

• area of interest
• geographic region
• level of government

A list of case studies related to climate change adaptation. Select a tab below to view case studies for a particular interest.

Air Quality

Water management, waste management & emergency response, public health.

• Adaptation Planning

• Climate Change Adaptation Resource Center (ARC-X) Home
• Your Climate Adaptation Search
• Implications of Climate Change
• Adaptation Strategies
• Case Studies
• Federal Funding & Technical Assistance
• Underlying Science
• EPA Contacts & State Websites

• Reference Manager
• Simple TEXT file

People also looked at

Original research article, climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies for small holder farmers: a case of nyanga district in zimbabwe.

• 1 Department of Space Science and Applied Physics, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
• 2 Discipline of Geography, School of Agricultural, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa
• 3 Meteorological Services Department of Zimbabwe, Corner Bishop Gaul/Hudson, Harare, Zimbabwe
• 4 Geography Department, Bindura University of Science Education, Bindura, Zimbabwe

Climate change encompassing mostly hydro-meteorological hazards is a reality affecting the world in diverse ways. It is manifesting in various ways such as increases in frequency and intensity of floods, droughts, and extreme temperatures. In recent years, climate change has induced droughts, other extreme weather events and meteorological disasters in many countries including Zimbabwe. Effective management of climate change induced challenges require localized strategies which may vary from one part of the world to another and even within a country. In view of the need to understand localized impacts and responses to climate change, the main objectives of the study were to (i) assess the impact of climate change on livelihoods and food security, (ii) identify and evaluate adaptation and mitigation strategies that small holder farmers in Ward 17, Nyanga, Zimbabwe have developed. The research used both qualitative and quantitative approaches with data collection methods comprising of questionnaires (56), observations and interviews (8). The tools were used to gather information which included encounters with extreme weather events, climatic trends as well as adaptive responses. The findings showed that climate change had a significant negative impact on the livelihoods and food security status of small holder farmers in ward 17 of Nyanga district. The identified climate change adaptation strategies implemented in the study area included food aid, use of traditional grains and other drought resistant crops, early planting, multiple planting, barter trade and livelihood diversification. The mitigation strategies used included afforestation and reforestation programs, avoiding veld fires and preservation of wetlands. The research identified challenges to climate change adaptation which include lack of markets to sell farming produce, inefficient institutions, poverty and high climate variability and increased uncertainty in the behavior of seasons. The findings of this study indicated the need for similar assessment in other parts of the country as impacts of climate change and responses thereof should vary from place to place.

Introduction

Global warming during the 20th Century in Africa has been estimated at between 0.26 and 0.5°C per decade ( IPCC, 2007 ). This trend is expected to continue and even to increase significantly, with a consequent impact on livelihoods. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC, 2007 ), a medium-high emission scenario would see an increase in annual mean surface air temperatures of between 3 and 4°C by 2080. This implies difficult times ahead for local people that depend directly/indirectly on agriculture especially rain fed agriculture for their livelihoods and have few assets or strategies to cope with the changes to come. Other observed effects of climate change include reduced reliability of rainfall, increased frequency of extreme events such as prolonged dry spells, droughts and floods as well as poor intra-season spatial and temporal distribution of seasonal rainfall. In Zimbabwe, recorded temperatures have risen by about 1°C over the last 40 years of the twentieth century, while rainfall and runoff decreased by ~20 and 30 percent, respectively ( Watson et al., 1998 ). The frequency of droughts has also increased from once per decade to about once every 3 years in Zimbabwe ( FAO, 2004 ). Unganai (2009) points out that rainfall exhibits considerable spatial and temporal variability characterized by shifts in the onset of rains and increases in the frequency and intensity of heavy rainfall activity. This significantly compromise crop production especially for small holder farmers who depend heavily on agriculture and lack in irrigation and water harvesting technologies. Small holder farmers, whose livelihood depends on the use of natural resources and rain fed agriculture, are likely to suffer most the brunt and adverse effects of climate change ( IPCC, 2001b ). With rain fed agriculture failing, the situation is worsened by lack of other sources of any income needed to buy food supplements in the area of study ( Deressa and Rashid, 2010 ). Hence drought and climate change often turn into disasters since the copying mechanisms in the region are limited in capacity ( Gwimbi, 2009 ).

According to the Zimbabwe Draft Response to Climate Change (2013), the government of Zimbabwe regards climate change as a potential threat which undermines positive development made so far in the country in meeting the developmental goals like the millennium development goal number one which was aimed at eradicating extreme hunger and poverty. Zimbabwe has demonstrated its willingness to contribute to the preservation of the global climate for sustainable development through the formulation of the Zimbabwe National Environmental Policy and Strategies which broadly covers issues to do with climate change. However, Chagutah (2010) noted that capacity in African counties is limited by high levels of poverty and underdevelopment and Zimbabwe is not an exception. The study on the impact of climate change on the local populations' livelihoods is increasingly forwarded as an urgent research need. Bunce et al. (2010) noted that the African continent is increasingly becoming a major global food crisis spot if there are no efforts to address climate change at the local level. As Nath and and Behera (2011 ) argue that local assessment of vulnerability enables a better understanding of how and why communities respond to the same type of environmental stress in ways that are different. As such the impact of climate change across the globe also differs. With this in mind, it becomes imperative as Nath and and Behera (2011 ) notes, to understand the actual dynamics of climate change impact and responses at the lowest levels of the society, such as households, communities and districts so as to influence responsive relief interventions.

Climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies vary from place to place even within the same country. Understanding of strategies employed in an area is important for modification and adoption of strategies in other areas. Studies which look at area specific responses are important for creating a national and global database for climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies. In light of this, while other studies have looked at strategies such as in Bikita ( Mushore et al., 2013 ) and recently in Chipinge ( Mavhura et al., 2017 ) it is also important to understand how climate change is being tackled in other areas such as Nyanga District in the eastern parts of Zimbabwe. To the best of our knowledge, no emphasis has been placed on these climatic transformations which are threatening the sustainability of subsistence or smallholder agriculture in Nyanga. Nyanga is located in the semi-arid climatic regions hence understanding adaptation and mitigation strategies in such a dry area would benefit wetter areas as they adjust to projected decline in rainfall. The objectives of this study are thus to (i) assess the impact of climate change on livelihoods and food security, (ii) identify climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies employed in Ward 17 of Nyanga District in Zimbabwe, and (iii) highlight the ward level challenges to climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies.

Methodology

Description of the study area.

Nyanga district is located in Manicaland province in the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe ( Figure 1 ). The district consists of 31 wards. Ward 17 of the district consists of 12 villages. The target population comprises of communal farmers in Ward 17 of Nyanga District. ZIMSTAT (2012) , indicated that Nyanga Rural District has a population of 126 577. Ward 17, which is under study has a total population of 10,605 of which 4,040 are males and 6,555 females. The Ward has a total of 1,370 households. The larger part of the district is located in Natural Farming Region 1, but Ward 17 is located in natural Natural Farming Region 4, which is characterized by low and erratic rainfall. The type of vegetation is characterized by thorn bushes, baobab trees and acacia, implying that the area generally receives low rainfall. There are prominent agricultural practices which are primarily subsistence farming.

Figure 1 . Location of Zimbabwe in Africa (A) , study area in Zimbabwe (B) , and map of Ward 17 of Nyanga District (C) .

Target Population

One thousand three hundred and seventy (1,370) households were too large to work with due to shortage of time and financial resources. Saunders et al. (2003) suggested that a sample size can be defined by using 10–20% of the targeted population. A total of 56 subsistence farmers was selected using simple random sample and purposive sampling technique. This sample was large enough to make some generalizations about the ward since the respondents were selected from different spaced households.

Research Instruments

For a comprehensive evaluation of the effectiveness of strategies in mitigation and adaptation to climate change programs in food insecurity reduction, multiple data collection techniques were needed. The data collection instruments used include questionnaires, interviews and observations. The usage of multiple data collection tools was meant to ensure that the weakness of one tool would be covered by another. During field surveys, observations were made to identify information on poverty levels, evidence of adaptation and mitigation as well as livelihood strategies.

The questionnaires were designed to solicit information from the general villagers. The questionnaire focused on issues such as: adaption and mitigation, types of crops grown, food intakes per day, type of livestock and other assets or resources owned by the farmers and involved in helping the farmers. The challenges being faced in implementing new farming methods were also of interest.

Structured interview guides were designed to solicit the same information from key informant members of the community. The purpose of key informant interviews was to collect information from a wide range of people including community leaders, professionals, or residents especially the elderly who had historical glimpse of weather and climate change and have first-hand knowledge about the community. Observation guides were also designed to help the researcher to obtain information based on related indicators that would be seen while moving around the area. This was used by the researcher to identify some of the issues that may not be aired out clearly during interviews and questionnaires.

The usability of the instruments was tested before use for actual data collection, known as pre-testing. Questionnaire was tested at a random office at Environment Management Agency while interview guides were administered in the ward before the actual data collection. This helped to check the reliability and validity of these instruments as well as to ensure that the tools were clear enough to gather data covering all the objectives. Correction and rephrasing of issues which were confusing to the respondents were done.

Data Collection Procedures

The researcher acquired approval from the Ward 17 Councilor and village heads before embarking on the study after vividly explaining the objectives and aim of the study to community leaders. After clearing issues which have something to do with permission and approval the researcher went on to the participants of the farmer's questionnaire. The researcher also made appointments with key informants from, Environment Management Agency (EMA), Agricultural and Technical Extension (AGRITEX) officers, non-governmental organizations which offer climate related technical assistance to farmers and ward 17 village heads. Key informants were composed of one individual from EMA, two from AGRITEX, three village heads and two from Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). The selection of these key informants is based on their proximity to Ward 17 and also the in depth knowledge on the problem under study. After the appointments had been done the researcher conducted face to face interviews with above mentioned key informants ( Table 1 ). Before the interview meeting with the key informants, the researcher practiced and familiarized with the script and questions to ensure there were no biases and confusion during the interview. The researcher also observed the types of crops which were under cultivation to evaluate if the varieties are resilient to climate change and variability.

Table 1 . Distribution of respondents.

Three key informants consisting of one from the Ministry of Environment and Climate Change specifically from EMA and two from Agriculture Extension (AGRITEX) Office were targeted and reached and the other two were targeted from NGOs which are doing a DRR/disaster risk reduction program in the ward. Both were reached through interviews to provide information on climate change and its effects on food security and livelihoods in the area of study ( Table 1 ). They also elaborated the work being done by government through the role they are playing in reducing the effects of climate change. The AGRITEX officers provided information on the implementation of adaptation and coping mechanisms as well as accounts of vulnerabilities of people on the ground to the effects of climate change.

Reliability and Validity

Reliability and validity were ensured through the use of multiple instruments referred to as triangulation and in this study questionnaire, interviews and observations were utilized. Validity was catered for by cross checking for consistency. Triangulation is a powerful technique that facilitates validation of data through cross verification from more than two instruments ( Kimchi et al., 1991 ). In this study information from questionnaires, interviews and observations were validated by inter-comparison. Similar data from these different sources were compared to check for consistence and collect as much information from all the methods used as possible. Errors and suspicious data from any of the methods were identified and corrected using information from the other complementary sources.

Data Analysis Procedure

The collected data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel as well as Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) where simple descriptive statistics were obtained and results were summarized as graphs and pie charts for discussions. Quantitative data from the questionnaires were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS), Microsoft excel and were analyzed thematically. Transcripts from interviews were analyzed using the participant's own words and without preconceived classification. The participant's language and phrases were examined; categorized and recurrent themes were identified. Recurrent themes are the similar and consistent ways people think about, and give accounts on concerning particular issues. For open ended questionnaires, the researcher looked into the themes as they emerged from the data as they were coded and then put into conceptual categories and the results were described.

Responses collected using the different instruments mentioned above were sorted into classes namely climate change adaptation strategies, mitigation strategies, impact of climate change to livelihoods, challenges to climate change mitigation and adaptation and impact of drought mitigation strategies.

The first analysis involved identification and assessment of the effectiveness of climate change adaptation strategies. The percentages of the participants who view each of the technique as effective or otherwise were recorded. The second analysis involved identification of climate change mitigation strategies in use and counting of the number of people who pointed out each of the strategies in Ward 17 of the Nyanga District. Another analysis was done which identified challenges faced in adaptation and mitigation of climate change in Ward 17 of the Nyanga District and counting the number of people who pointed out each as a challenge.

Presentation and Discussion of Research Findings

Climate change is affecting a variety of socio-economic activities in Zimbabwe including Ward 17 of Nyanga District. The evidence include rising temperature, increased frequency of floods, dry spells, droughts and other extreme events ( Releifweb, 2011 ; Brazier, 2015 ). While the economy of Zimbabwe strongly relies on agriculture which is largely rain-fed, hydro-meterological extremes are compromising productivity. For instance, the start and end of season have increasingly become uncertain making it difficult to decide on setting planting dates and selecting crop varieties to grow ( Mushore et al., 2017 ). Even in a season where rainfall totals are within or exceed long term average, quality of the season is causing decline in productivity such as through prolonged and frequent mid season dry spells. The combination of declining trend in rainfall and rising temperatures has meant increase of evapo-transpiration speeding up crop growth cycles and affecting proper maturity of crops ( Manatsa et al., 2017 ). Livestock production has also not been spared by adverse impacts of diminishing water resources and severely high temperatures not suitable for animals during some periods ( Mutekwa, 2009 ). In view of these challenges, communities embark on a variety of efforts to survive within the changing climate (adaptation) and to reduce further changes in climate (mitigation). In the context of background changes in climate, based on information gathered using qualitative and quantitative techniques, adaptation and mitigation efforts applied in Ward 17 of Nyanga District are discussed in this section.

Livelihoods Strategies Employed to Curb Climate Change Impacts in Ward 17 of Nyanga District in Zimbabwe

As noted from Figure 2 , 40% of the respondents are into food and cash crop production, 38% are into barter and petty trade and 22% are into livelihoods diversification ( Figure 2 ). This did not mean that some respondents are not involved in all the three livelihood strategies. The people in the area mainly rely on food and cash crop production, petty trade and barter trade and livelihoods diversification which include migration to Mozambique, selling of livestock for them to get money to supplement food requirements. This reduces their ability to productively carry out their farming activities in the coming seasons thus making them more vulnerable to food insecurity and other negative effects of climate change as they spent their time doing other off farm livelihoods activities. Sometimes they sell their livestock which reduce their draft power to meet their immediate food needs at the expense of their long time coping mechanisms. This makes some of the adaptations less effective and less sustainable. This observation confirms De Waal (1990) 's assumption that people's need to consume food drives their actions. Consequently it results in depleted draft power, which in turn limits the farmers' capacity to farm productively in the coming seasons thus making them more vulnerable to food insecurity, a phenomenon echoed by the AGRITEX officer. This therefore reverses the development made by the people confirming Davidson et al. (2003) who noted that climate change will affect the achievement of the MDGs in particular the one to do with achieving alleviating hunger and poverty.

Figure 2 . Livelihood strategies of respondents (multiple response) n = 58.

As a result food security continues to deteriorate in the area. This was confirmed by Bunce et al. (2010) who noted that Africa has become a place for food crises. As such events mainly affect the poor and the situation is exacerbated by poor governance of the available resources ( Feyissa, 2007 ). Climate change undermines the government's capacity to cope with the rising demands for food in Africa as food production is very low particularly in Zimbabwe. Food security is really an issue in ward 17 as it is a semi-arid region and the circumstances are being worsened by the adverse effects of climate change. Most of the families in the study have at least one or two meals a day. Thus they rely mostly on handouts from NGOs. Crops like groundnuts ( Arachis hypogaea ) and round nuts ( Vigna subterranea ) are prominent there and in a way they improve on nutrition circles since they are rich in proteins.

Climate Change Adaptation Strategies Used in Ward 17 of Nyanga District in Zimbabwe

Most of the small holder farmers rely on food aid, using small grains like sorghum which are drought resistant, use of short seasoned varieties, barter trade, multiple cropping, livelihood diversification, dry planting, and early planting as climate change copying and adaptation strategies. Most of the adaptation strategies are sustainable as the smallholder farmers seem to favor them since they are less costly and are Indigenous Knowledge System/IKS based. This is usually the second response to climate change as it is hinged on finding alternative ways for instance; initiatives and policies to reduce the susceptibility of people and the environment to the harsh effects of climate change. Adaptation is usually divided into two broad categories namely ethno-science and techno-science ( Matanga and Jere, 2011 ). Ethno-science comprise of techniques based on local people's knowledge of their physical environment while techno-science involves modern technologies. Farmers in ward 17 villages use both methods for its adaptation to climate change. However, the former are mostly used as the method is not expensive like the latter. Figure 3 shows that 25% of the respondents opted for early planting because it is less costly. This shows that the respondents indicated that they are willing to take up any kind of adaptation strategy if it proves to be less costly, thus they encouraged AGRITEX and EMA to carry out adaptation and mitigation strategies which can be at zero budget.

Figure 3 . Adaptation strategies (multiple responses) n = 58.

Ethno-Science Adaptive Measures

Ethno-science is most commonly expressed as Indigenous Knowledge Systems ( Matanga and Jere, 2011 ) and it usually consist of adaptation methods such as growing of drought tolerant crops, multiple planting, early planting, barter trade, planting, hiring labor, selling, and begging.

Growing Drought Tolerant Crops or Small Grains

Growing of drought tolerant small grain crops such as millet, sorghum, and rapoko is usually done to curb issues of low and unreliable rainfall ( Chazovachii et al., 2010 ), which are caused by climate change. Current weather conditions are making it impossible to grow maize which is the staple cereal for Zimbabwe and for villagers of ward 17, since the area does not have enabling conditions for the crop to have a good yield as it is an arid area. As a result, small grain crops are suitable because they can survive in dry conditions. This is helpful because it will mostly ensure the availability of food even during drought seasons.

This is in contrast with the findings of this research as the dominant food crop being grown is maize. The majority of the subsistence farmers prefer to grow maize crops even in marginal areas like Ward 17, resulting in persistent food shortages. Although, some households now shift from maize to sorghum, there is need for awareness campaigns and education from AGRITEX on the importance of small grains in marginal areas. Also lack of access to seeds such as millet and rapoko has contributed to the ineffectiveness of this climate change adaptation strategy.

Multiple Cropping to Increase Chances of Getting Yield in Harsh Climatic Conditions

This involves planting a variety of crops such that if other crop types fail due to the given weather conditions the surviving crops would act as safety nets. Thus, they mix crops like pumpkins, maize and beans together. This helps in promoting soil fertility as the legumes are nitrogen fixing crops. Again they create soil cover which helps in soil moisture retention and preservation. Multiple cropping ensured families would get some yields to harvest even when other crops fail. In Maereka, Kuwenyi, Chimonyo, and Dzimbiti villages, they usually multi and mix crops especially groundnuts ( Arachis hypogaea ), round nuts ( Vigna subterranea ), cow peas, sugar beans, maize, sorghum, rapoko, and millet, most of which are drought tolerant.

Early Planting to Take Advantage of Early Rains and Full Length of Season

Based on the deep knowledge of their agro-ecological conditions by local people and expectation of a good rainfall season (based on indigenous indicators) crops are planted as soon as the first rains fall. CARE (2009) however, noted that some people in ward 17 village avoid this method as it can be risky since there can be some instances when the rains would go away after they had planted and that would be wastage of seeds. Some would want to practice this method but might face hindrances like lack of inputs such as seeds during the time of the first rains.

Dry Planting to Counter Uncertainty in Start of Season

Farmers prepare the land and saw their crops in September and October before the rainfall come. It is also known in the district as kupandira in the local Manyika dialect. This is done so that when the rains come the already sowed seeds will sprout with the first rains. Itis done to counter the unpredictability of rain. The types of crops which are normally dry planted include maize, ground nuts ( Arachis hypogaea ) and round nuts ( Vigna subterranea ) and rapoko. This method gives smallholder farmers a chance to focus on other off farm activities like petty trade if it is properly done. This method also helps in moisture preservation, thus making crops thrive even in dry conditions.

Barter Trade in Exchange for Food Items in Times of Deficit or Poor Crop Yields

Barter trade is also another way which people in ward 17 are using to adapt to the effects of climate change. Since they mostly grow small grain crops they usually do not have crops like maize and their households' gardens do not grow much to sustain them with vegetables, tomatoes or onions. Therefore, they have to practice barter trade within Nyanga District. One bucket of approximately 10 kg of millet and sorghum can be barter traded with 2 kg of sugar or a bar of washing soap, or vegetables, or tomatoes, or onions, or beans, or fish with people from Chimonyo village. Poultry or livestock is usually traded with maize from areas like Mutare or Mutasa. The major setback with this adaptation method is that, sometimes the villagers may be treated unfairly in terms of the standard valuation of livestock and other asserts. In some situations livestock may be exchanged for very small quantities of grains for example a heifer can be exchanged with 500 kg of maize.

Livelihood Diversification to Sustain Lives Even When Agricultural Production Is Limited

Casual labor, selling and begging are some of the livelihood diversification strategies which they employ. People in ward 17 especially in Chimonyo village usually go to nearby areas like Muozi and Nyanga Forests to work as casual or full time laborers so as to get money or other basic commodities they would be in need of. However, in some cases whereby drought would have hit hard, selling labor can be less practical as the areas people usually go to work would also be affected. This then means that the sustainability of the livelihoods is threatened. Some will be involved in activities of buying and selling clothes or household equipment and utensils that they get from urban areas or across the border, most notably from Mozambique.

Others take another unreliable source of livelihood strategy which is begging for food or money. Begging better known as kutsunza or kupemh a in the manyika dialect, is one of the least practiced adaptation method to climate change. This is so because rarely people will have excess supply of agricultural produce to spare. However, begging reduce one's self esteem as one has to reduce his or her pride so that the potential donors can sympathize with them and give them something. Also most vulnerable households can benefit from chieftain granary reserve as it is still being practiced by the local chief Saunyama. The findings are in tandem with the notion that there is need for the agricultural sector to diversify and start producing sorghum, millet, rapoko, sweet potatoes, cassava and yams at a large scale to meet the country's food requirements to ensure food security in Zimbabwe in the wake of climate change ( Mudimu, 2003 ).

Techno-Science Adaptive Methods

Techno-science adaptation methods include small supplementary feeding and reliance on food aid. Africa as a continent given that it is still developing, lacks the capacity and resources to adapt to climate change for this requires a lot of money. Zimbabwe's government therefore as one of the Third world countries has weak inter- and intra-sectoral co-ordination in as far as climate change is concerned Gukurume (2013) . Therefore, the country has narrow capacity for climate change policy analysis, implementation and has limited resources to fund climate change adaptation and mitigation programmes. Adaptation to climate change more often than not heavily depends on donor funds.

Food Aid Programmes

Various NGOs in Nyanga district particularly ward 17; most notably World Food Program (WFP) are involved in food aid programmes whereby the community will be given food free of charge or on food for work basis. Out of all the adaptation measures most of the community members seem to favor this intervention method. However, it has dangers of making the community develop donor dependency syndrome. It is progressive in situations whereby the community has to do food for work. For instance in 2020 villagers were promised to go for food for work programs, in which case the community would benefit at the same time developing their community through a development initiative such as building of a bridge or repairing eroded roads.

Food aid can also be in form of supplementary feeding programs which are also significant in adapting to climate change in Chimonyo and Kuwenyi villages this is whereby schools especially primary schools receive food aid from the government or NGOs. The community would be responsible for preparing and feeding pupils in school. This initiative has a double impact of alleviating the education and health sector at the same time as it acts as a pull factor of sending children to school. This was also supported by Munro and Scoular (2012) who stated that unsustainable relief on vulnerable households lasted for only a few days before the next distribution date due to inadequate quantities during the 1991/2 drought in Zimbabwe. Besides aid create a donor syndrome which does not create a sense of innovativeness in trying to cope with the ills of climate change.

Climate Change Mitigation Implemented Strategies in Ward 17 of Nyanga District

Figure 4 shows that about 56.8% of the respondents prefer reforestation as a mitigation strategy. And 43.2% of the respondents are mainly into forestry preservation by avoiding veld fires. Mitigation is a process that involves humans reducing their anthropogenic causes of climate change and this is usually through limiting pollutants such as carbon dioxide. The African continent is so unfortunate that it only contributes about 3.8% of the total GHGs ( Bjurström and Polk, 2011 ) yet its inhabitants and resources are the most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. People in ward 17 in Nyanga contribute to the mitigation of climate change by planting and maintaining the already existing indigenous and exotic trees in their homesteads. And they also mitigate by avoiding veld fires.

Figure 4 . Prominent mitigation strategies (multiple response) n = 58, Source: primary data.

This will assist in providing and enhancing adequate carbon sinks for GHGs. Besides that, trees are very important for life. They protect the soil from erosion, provide food and shelter for some animals as well as medicines to mention but a few. The main reforestation strategy which can affect the sustainability of the mitigation strategies is the use of gum trees in forests. They have an advantage in that they grow fast, but they make use of the underground water source and deplete it. The other issue is that if you clear a gum forest you can never use that land for crop production since they produce chemicals which affect soil structure in the long run.

Challenges Faced in Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation in Ward 17

The respondents are facing quite a number of drawbacks in trying to reduce the impacts of climate change and this has contributed to the ineffectiveness of some of the adaptation and mitigation strategies. The respondents pointed out that poverty, inefficient institutions for example EMA and AGRITEX, increased frequency of extreme weather events and remoteness of the area were the major challenges faced in trying to mitigate the impacts of droughts as shown in Figure below.

From Figure 5 households clearly face a major challenge of increased weather and climate variability or extreme weather events. Thus, extreme weather events are now rampant as a result of climate change and that droughts are becoming more frequent in the area as a result of global warming. The increase in extreme weather events proved to be one of the major challenges as it is one of the more unpredictable challenges. This is evidenced by the fact that the farmers testified that every other season is unique to itself, such that the farmer should be prepared to change at each and every season to meet the ever changing seasonal trends. The human activities are also a critical issue in exacerbating vulnerability to climate change, ranging from anthropogenic climate change at one extreme to local deforestation ( Munro and Scoular, 2012 ).

Figure 5 . Challenges faced by Farmers (multiple response) n = 58.

Climate variability acts as a dynamic pressure which worsens the vulnerability of rural populations to natural slow onset disasters like drought. Climate changes are a threat to rural agricultural livelihoods through increased drought frequency. In particular, climate change may configure drought, which may lead to decrease in agricultural yield since it is associated with an increasing drought frequency.

For the majority of the population, absolute lack of assets and means of livelihood and precarious economies with low coping or adaptive capacity present one key factor that configures risk to drought. Poverty is the major problem which is exacerbated by drought effects as indicated by Maphosa (1994) . The households are very poor in such a way that they rely on food handouts because of food insecurity. The respondents mentioned that due to lack of capital and collateral security they do not access loans and they do not have access to inputs such as fertilizer, seeds and farming equipment.

During the research, the households revealed that there are limited markets for their produce especially vegetables and drought resistant crops such as millet and rapoko so the majority cultivated maize for food production. A similar finding was reported by Chazovachii et al. (2010) , who stated that there is no market for drought resistant crops and people are only relying on the local market. This implies that the livelihoods in the area are still threatened and a lot still needs to be done to alleviate and cope with the adverse impacts of climate change. They said the ears of millet, rapoko and sorghum plants might not ripe at the same time thus they may have to be more than one harvest hence, the majority of villagers opted for maize which is the staple crop.

From the findings, physical geographic location and remoteness of the ward makes it more vulnerable to inaccessibility of useful climate change information since the area is in Region 4 and 5 and is isolated far from other areas like Growth Points. The poor road networks and communication networks makes the area inaccessible. The road is very poor in such a way that the donors and investors shun away from this ward. The households are isolated and marginalized therefore development and other opportunities will not be attained. Isolation due to a lack of infrastructure may limit choices and coping strategies during times of stress and other climate change related disasters like drought.

There is lack of integration and coordination among Government departments, NGOs and other institutions in disaster management. Institutions face a number of challenges which include political interference, lack of resources and lack of coordination in climate change and drought management. During the interviews respondents stated that only a few benefit from programmes since the institutions are always bickering with each other and battling for supremacy, therefore this made them ineffective. The households were benefitting from institutions at a lesser extent since most of the assistance is helpful in the short run but in the long run there are persistent food shortages and the adverse impacts of climate change persist.

After a consideration of the research findings we deduced that climate change negatively affects livelihoods and food security in rural communities which rely on rain fed agriculture as shown by the situation in ward 17 of Nyanga district. The people in the area of study rely on rain fed agriculture as their source of livelihood and the continuous poor yields obtained mean that the people face food challenges. As a result, the majority of the people in the area of study are vulnerable to food insecurity and their livelihoods are threatened as they have limited or no lasting coping strategies with the food challenges they face. The respondents noted that in the late 1980s and 1990s serve for the 1992 drought; people could harvest large quantities of maize as well as crops like sunflowers ground nuts (Vigna subterranea) and round nuts (Vigna subterranea) which attracted a lot of people to the area. As noted by the respondents, back then, the people could afford to choose nutritional food unlike in the present day that the people now consider looking for nutritional food as a luxury not as a basic need. The small holder farmers' livelihoods are being negatively affected by the changes in climate and weather. This is evidenced by the fact that most indicated that they no longer take three meals per day as they used to do, some only take one but the majority are now having two meals per day citing that this is caused by the change in climate which is affecting food output during harvesting.

The challenges in the mitigation and adaptation to climate change are rampant and the coping methods are very limited because of the state of development and resource scarcity especially in Sub-Saharan Africa and ward 17 is not an exception. The coping mechanisms are limited due to institutional poverty in state institutions like the EMA, which makes the efforts to cope difficult to achieve. As shown, the effects of climate change have been increasing and are getting worse over time. About mitigation strategies the farmers were mainly interested in talking of avoiding veld fires and reforestation in which the forests act as carbon sinks. Most farmers indicated that these mitigation strategies are less costly to them thus they opted for them.

Recommendations

As a contribution toward alleviating climate change effects to small holder farmers in the study area, the following recommendations are suggested:

➢The government should take a bottom up approach toward alleviation of climate change effects by working with community based leadership structures.

➢Government should give adequate resource prioritization to climate line institutions like AGRITEX and EMA so as to educate and inform the rural people with adequate copying information.

➢The government should work hand in hand with other development agencies so as to share or pool resources together in order to mitigate and adapt to climate change.

➢In this regard the government is recommended to put up effective measures in ensuring access of small holder farmers to credit and small loan facilities to improve output and livelihoods.

The research findings of this study show that climate change negatively affects livelihoods and food security in rural communities which rely on rain fed agriculture as shown by the situation in ward 17 of Nyanga district. The climate change adaptation strategies in Ward 17 in Nyanga District are food aid, use of small grains and other drought resistant crops, early planting, multiple planting, barter trades and livelihood diversification. The mitigation strategies used include afforestation and reforestation programs, avoiding veld fires and preservation of wetlands. The research identified challenges to climate change adaptation which include lack of markets to sell farming produce, inefficient institutions, poverty and sudden change of weather, seasons and climate trends. The research recommends that the government should increase resource availability to the AGRITEX and EMA which are line ministries toward agriculture and climate change as this is how some of the challenges can be resolved.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics Statement

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by Bindura University of Science Education. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author Contributions

TDM conceptualized the paper and was involved in literature review, tool design and data collection, analysis, paper writing and response to reviewers. TM was involved in literature review, tool design and data collection, analysis, paper writing and response to reviewers. MM, LM, EMat, EMas, CM, JG, and GM were involved in review of tools, data collection, analysis and preparation of manuscript which was an iterative process. All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

1. Bjurström A., and Polk M. (2011). Physical and economic bias in climate change research: a scientometric study of IPCC Third Assessment Report. Clim. Change 108, 1–22. doi: 10.1007/s10584-011-0018-8

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

2. Brazier A. (2015). CLimate Change in Zimbabwe. Facts for Planners and Decision Makers . Harare: Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung.

3. Bunce M., Brown K., and Rosendo S. (2010). Policy misfits, climate change and cross-scale vulnerability in coastal Africa: how development projects undermine resilience. Environ. Sci. Policy 13, 485–497. doi: 10.1016/j.envsci.2010.06.003

4. CARE (2009). Mainstreaming Climate Change Adaptation: A Practioners' Handjournal . Hà N?i: CAREInternational.

5. Chagutah (2010). Climate Change Vulnerability and Adaptation Preparedness in Southern Africa: Zimbabwe Country Report 2010 . Berlin: Heinrich Boll Stiftung.

6. Chazovachii B., Chigwenyu A., and Mushuku A. (2010). Adaptation of climate resilient rural livelihoods through growing of small grains in Munyaradzi communal area. Gutu District. Afr. J. Agric. Res. 7, 1335–1345. doi: 10.5897/AJAR10.921

7. Davidson K., Daly T., and Arber S. (2003). Exploring the social worlds of older men, in Gender and Ageing: Changing Roles and Relationships , eds S. Arber, K. Davidson, and J. Ginn (New York, NY: McGraw Hill), 168–185.

Google Scholar

8. De Waal A. (1990). A re-assessment of entitlement theory in the light of the recent famines in Africa. Dev. Change 21, 469–490. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7660.1990.tb00384.x

9. Deressa T. T., and Rashid M. (2010). Economic impact of climate change on crop production in ethiopia: evidence from cross-section measures. J. Afr. Econ. 4, 529–554. doi: 10.1093/jae/ejp002

10. FAO (2004). Food Insecurity and Vulnerability in Nepal: Profiles of Seven Vulnerability Groups, ESA Working Paper No. 04-10 . Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations, 48.

11. Feyissa R. (2007). The Sub-Saharan African agriculture: potential, challenges and opportunities, in Africa Can Feed Itself (Oslo), 103.

12. Gukurume S. (2013). Climate change, variability and sustainable agriculture in Zimbabwe's rural communities. Russ. J. Agric. Soc. Econ. Sci. 14, 89–100. doi: 10.18551/rjoas.2013-02.10

13. Gwimbi P. (2009). Cotton farmers' vulnerability to climate change in Gokwe District (Zimbabwe): impact and influencing Factors. JÀMBÁ J. Disaster Risk Stud. 2, 81–92. doi: 10.4102/jamba.v2i2.17

14. IPCC (2001b). Climate Change 2001: Synthesis Report, in Contribution of Working Groups I, II, and III to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , eds R. T. Watson and the Core Writing Team (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 398.

15. IPCC (2007). Climate change 2007: the physical science basis, in Agenda (Durban), 333.

16. Kimchi J., Polivka B., and Stevenson J. S. (1991). Triangulation: operational definitions. Nurs. Res. 40, 364–366. doi: 10.1097/00006199-199111000-00009

17. Manatsa D., Mushore T., and Lenouo A. (2017). Improved predictability of droughts over southern Africa using the standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index and ENSO. Theor. Appl. Climatol. 127, 259–274. doi: 10.1007/s00704-015-1632-6

18. Maphosa B. (1994). Lessons from the 1992 drought in Zimbabwe. Nord. J. Afr. Stud. 3, 6–6.

19. Matanga E., and Jere S. (2011). The Effectiveness of Ethno-Science Based Strategies in Drought Mitigation in Mberengwa District of Southern Zimbabwe . Clarion, PA: Clarion University of Pennsylvania.

20. Mavhura E., Manatsa D., and Matiashe M. (2017). Adapting smallholder farming to climate change and variability: household strategies and challenges in Chipinge district, Zimbabwe. Clim. Change 3, 903–913. Available online at: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Adapting-smallholder-farming-to-climate-change-and-Mavhura-Manatsa/57fc6503cbd8f001928979b83336224d0b446050

21. Mudimu G. (2003). Zimbabwe Food Security Issues Paper. London: ODI Forum for Food Security in Southern Africa . Available online at: http://www.odi.org.uk/Food-Security-Forum/docs/ZimbabweCIPfinal.pdf (accessed April 3, 2020).

22. Munro V. E., and Scoular J. (2012). Abusing vulnerability? contemporary law and policy responses to sex work in the UK. Fem. Legal Stud. 20, 189–206. doi: 10.1007/s10691-012-9213-x

23. Mushore T., Manatsa D., Pedzisai E., Muzenda-Mudavanhu C., Mushore W., and Kudzotsa I. (2017). Investigating the implications of meteorological indicators of seasonal rainfall performance on maize yield in a rain-fed agricultural system: case study of Mt. Darwin District in Zimbabwe. Theor. Appl. Climatol. 129, 1167–1173. doi: 10.1007/s00704-016-1838-2

24. Mushore T. D., Mudavanhu C., and Makovere T. (2013). Effectiveness of drought mitigation strategies in Bikita District, Zimbabwe. Int. J. Environ. Protect. Policy . 1, 101–107. doi: 10.11648/j.ijepp.20130104.19

25. Mutekwa V. T. (2009). Climate change impacts and adaptation in the agricultural sector: the case of smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe. J. Sustain. Dev. Africa 11, 237–256. Available online at: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Climate-change-impacts-and-adaptation-in-the-the-of-Mutekwa/13a2ffccb5d0dcb6aaca0809d8451bd42101ca89

26. Nath P. K., and Behera B. (2011). A critical review of impact adaptation to climate change in developed and developing economies. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 13, 141–162. doi: 10.1007/s10668-010-9253-9

27. Releifweb (2011). Heat Waves in Zimbabwe Exacerbating Impact of Urban Water Shortages . Available online at: https://reliefweb.int/report/zimbabwe/heat-waves-zimbabwe-exacerbating-impact-urban-water-shortages (accessed February 17, 2020).

28. Saunders M., Lewis P., and Thornhill A. (2003). Research Methods Forbusiness Students . Essex: Prentice Hall: Financial Times.

29. Unganai L. (2009). Adaptation to climate change among agropastoral systems: case for Zimbabwe. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 6:412045. doi: 10.1088/1755-1307/6/41/412045

30. Watson R. T., Zinyowera M. C., Moss R. H., and Dokken D. J. (1998). The Regional Impacts of Climate Change . Geneva: IPCC.

31. ZIMSTAT (2012). Census, 2012. https://www.google.com/search?sxsrf=ALeKk00VcpFBaP9nsOad0VLr–nwBR-rIA:1626019753043&q=Harare&stick=H4sIAAAAAAAAAONgVuLQz9U3SMtLT1vEyuaRWJRYlAoA6mUl5RUAAAA&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiUhpzOs9vxAhX67XMBHVs6A_wQmxMoAzAcegQIIBAF Harare: Zimbabwe Statistics Agency.

Keywords: climate change, Nyanga district, rainfall, agriculture, mitigation, Zimbabwe

Citation: Mushore TD, Mhizha T, Manjowe M, Mashawi L, Matandirotya E, Mashonjowa E, Mutasa C, Gwenzi J and Mushambi GT (2021) Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies for Small Holder Farmers: A Case of Nyanga District in Zimbabwe. Front. Clim. 3:676495. doi: 10.3389/fclim.2021.676495

Received: 05 March 2021; Accepted: 06 July 2021; Published: 06 August 2021.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2021 Mushore, Mhizha, Manjowe, Mashawi, Matandirotya, Mashonjowa, Mutasa, Gwenzi and Mushambi. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Terence Darlington Mushore, tdmushore@science.uz.ac.zw ; mushoret@ukzn.ac.za

This article is part of the Research Topic

Climate Risk Management in Smallholder Agriculture

Library » Publication

Climate change mitigation in developing countries: brazil, china, india, mexico, south africa, and turkey.

One of the most contentious issues in the debate over global climate change is the perceived divide between the interests and obligations of developed and developing countries. Equity demands that developed countries-the source of most past and current emissions of greenhouse gases-act first to reduce emissions. That principle is embedded in the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and in the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, which sets binding emission targets for developed countries only. With the Protocol now likely to enter into force, the focus will turn increasingly to the question of developing country emissions.

Addressing climate change in developing countries poses a fundamentally different challenge. For most, emission reduction is not a viable option in the near term. With income levels far below those of developed countries-and per capita emissions on average just one-sixth those of the industrialized world-developing countries will continue to increase their emissions as they strive for economic growth and a better quality of life. But their steadfast resistance to the idea of limiting their emissions has led to claims in some quarters that developing countries are not doing their fair share. Indeed, the Bush administration, in rejecting Kyoto, declared the Protocol unfair to the United States because it does not mandate action by large developing countries.

Accepting emission limits, however, is not the only measure of whether a country is contributing to climate change mitigation. Efforts that serve to reduce or avoid greenhouse gas emissions, whether or not undertaken in the name of climate protection, nonetheless contribute to climate mitigation. These efforts can occur across virtually every sector of an economy. This report seeks to document and quantify the climate mitigation resulting from such efforts in six developing countries-Brazil, China, India, Mexico, South Africa, and Turkey.

The report demonstrates that efforts undertaken by these six countries have reduced their emissions growth over the past three decades by approximately 300 million tons a year. Further, it finds that many of these efforts are motivated by common drivers: economic development and poverty alleviation, energy security, and local environmental protection. Put another way, there are multiple drivers for actions that reduce emissions, and they produce multiple benefits. The most promising policy approaches, then, will be those that capitalize on natural synergies between climate protection and development priorities to simultaneously advance both.

Just as equity demands that developed countries act first, the physical workings of our planet demand that in time developing countries limit and, ultimately, reduce their emissions as well. The search for consensus on an equitable sharing of responsibility must begin with a fair accounting of how nations already are contributing to this common effort. The authors and the Pew Center gratefully acknowledge Charles Feinstein, Alan Miller, Jiahua Pan, Cedric Philibert, and Leena Srivastava for their review of previous drafts of this report.

Executive Summary

Greenhouse gas emissions from developing countries will likely surpass those from developed countries within the first half of this century, highlighting the need for developing country efforts to reduce the risk of climate change. While developing nations have been reluctant to accept binding emissions targets, asking that richer nations take action first, many are undertaking efforts that have significantly reduced the growth of their own greenhouse gas emissions. In most cases, climate mitigation is not the goal, but rather an outgrowth of efforts driven by economic, security, or local environmental concerns. This study attempts to document the climate mitigation resulting from such efforts in six key countriesBrazil, China, India, Mexico, South Africa, and Turkeyand to inform policy-making aimed at further mitigation in these and other developing nations.

The six countries examined here reflect significant regional, economic, demographic, and energy resource diversity. They include the worlds two most populous nations, a major oil exporter, Africas largest greenhouse gas emitter, and the country with the largest expanse of tropical forest. While their circumstances vary widely, these countries share common concerns that have motivated actions resulting in reduced greenhouse gas emissions growth. Primary among these concerns are economic growth, energy security, and improved air quality. The analysis presented here demonstrates that actions taken by these countries to achieve these and other goals have reduced the growth of their combined annual greenhouse gas emissions over the past three decades by nearly 300 million tons a year. If not for these actions, the annual emissions of these six countries would likely be about 18 percent higher than they are today. To put these figures in perspective, if all developed countries were to meet the emission targets set by the Kyoto Protocol, they would have to reduce their emissions by an estimated 392 million tons from where they are projected to be in 2010.1

The six case studies identify a broad range of mitigation activities and potentials:

Brazil’s  annual emissions are 91 million tons, or 10 percent lower than they would be if not for aggressive biofuels and energy efficiency programs aimed at reducing energy imports and diversifying energy supplies. A tax incentive for buyers of cars with low-powered engines, adopted to make transportation more affordable for the middle class, accounted for nearly 2 million tons of carbon abatement in the year 2000. If alcohol fuels, renewable electricity, cogeneration, and energy efficiency are encouraged in the future, carbon emissions growth could be further cut by an estimated 45 million tons a year by 2020. Deforestation, however, produces almost twice as much carbon dioxide as the energy sector. Government policy, with few exceptions, indirectly encourages emissions growth in the forestry sector.

China  has dramatically reduced its emissions growth rate, now just half its economic growth rate, through slower population growth, energy efficiency improvements, fuel switching from coal to natural gas, and afforestation. Emissions growth has been reduced over the past three decades by an estimated 250 million tons of carbon per year, about one-third of China’s current emissions. Continued policies for economic reform, efficiency, and environmental protection could reduce emissions growth by an additional 500 million tons a year in 2020.

India’s  growth in energy-related carbon dioxide emissions was reduced over the last decade through economic restructuring, enforcement of existing clean air laws by the nation’s highest court, and renewable energy programs. In 2000, energy policy initiatives reduced carbon emissions by 18 million tons-over 5 percent of India’s gross carbon emissions. About 120 million tons of additional carbon mitigation could be achieved over the next decade at a cost ranging from $0-15 per ton. Major opportunities include improved efficiency in both energy supply and demand, fuel switching from coal to gas, power transmission improvements, and afforestation.

Mexico  was the first large oil-producing nation to ratify the Kyoto Protocol. Major factors affecting Mexican greenhouse gas emissions are population growth, economic development, energy supply growth, technological change, and land use change. Mexico has begun to reduce deforestation rates, switch to natural gas, and save energy, reducing annual emissions growth over the last decade by 5 percent, or 10 million tons of carbon per year. Mexican carbon dioxide emissions are projected to grow 69 percent by 2010, but alternative strategies could cut this growth by 45 percent.

South Africa’s  post-Apartheid government places its highest priority on development and meeting the needs of the poor. Over one-third of the nation’s households are not even connected to a power grid. Yet, emissions growth could be reduced 3-4 percent a year by 2010 through efforts to reform the economy and improve energy efficiency. The government is already taking steps to phase out subsidies to its unusual, carbon-intensive coal liquefaction industry and to open the country to natural gas imports. As in many other developing countries, the absence of rigorous and publicly available studies of future energy use and greenhouse gas emissions remains an obstacle to future emissions mitigation.

Turkey’s high rate of energy-related carbon emissions growth is expected to accelerate, with emissions climbing from 57 million tons in 2000 to almost 210 million tons in 2020. Carbon intensity in Turkey is higher than the western developed nation average. Energy-intensive, inefficient industries remain under government control with soft budget constraints, contributing to undisciplined energy use. Planned industrial privatizations may close the oldest and most inefficient operations and modernize surviving ones. Elimination of energy price subsidies could stimulate energy conservation, reducing energy and emissions growth below current projections.

Taken together, these six country studies support four broad conclusions:

• Many developing countries are already taking action that is significantly reducing their greenhouse gas emissions growth.
• These efforts are driven not by climate policy but by imperatives for development and poverty alleviation, local environmental protection, and energy security.
• Developing nations offer large opportunities for further emissions mitigation, but competing demands for resources may hamper progress.
• Developing countries can use policies to leverage human capacity, investment, and technology to capture large-scale mitigation opportunities, while simultaneously augmenting their development goals.

The six case studies also identified common barriers to climate mitigation. In many cases, the lack of good data impedes efforts to identify and realize mitigation potential. Insufficient human capacity-to analyze energy and emission futures, identify mitigation opportunities, execute economic reforms, and cultivate investment opportunities-represents another significant barrier. In most countries, public control of at least a portion of energy resources works against emissions mitigation by preventing the emergence of more efficient private actors. Finally, a range of concerns-from the absence of transparency and rule of law to the extra risk associated with nontraditional energy investment-impedes investment and technology transfer that would contribute to emission mitigation.

The experiences of these six countries have implications for future policy at multiple levels-for national efforts within developing countries, for the evolving international climate framework, and for other bilateral or multilateral efforts aimed at encouraging emission reduction in developing countries.

One broad lesson, given the diversity of drivers and co-benefits, is the need at both the national and international levels for flexible policy approaches promoting and crediting a broad range of emission reduction and sequestration activities. Other policy priorities include: continuing to promote market reforms, such as more realistic energy pricing, that can accelerate economic growth while reducing emissions growth; working within developing countries and through bilateral and multilateral efforts to improve investment environments and create stronger incentives for climate-friendly investments; targeting capacity-building assistance to most effectively capitalize on natural synergies between climate mitigation and other development priorities; and supporting policies that address both climate and local environmental needs, such as improving air quality and reducing deforestation.

While this analysis has documented significant greenhouse gas mitigation in key developing countries, energy use and emissions will continue to climb as these countries attain higher levels of development. Far greater efforts to reduce emissions in both developed and developing countries will be required in the coming decades to avert the worst consequences of global climate change. These efforts must include stronger national policies as well as an evolving international regime that ensures adequate efforts by all major emitting countries. By highlighting the current and potential contribution of developing countries to emission mitigation, this report aims to enhance the prospects for stronger international cooperation toward the shared goal of climate protection.

Download Publication (pdf, 591 KB)

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Springer Nature - PMC COVID-19 Collection

A review of the global climate change impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures

Kashif abbass.

1 School of Economics and Management, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210094 People’s Republic of China

Muhammad Zeeshan Qasim

2 Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Xiaolingwei 200, Nanjing, 210094 People’s Republic of China

Huaming Song

Muntasir murshed.

3 School of Business and Economics, North South University, Dhaka, 1229 Bangladesh

4 Department of Journalism, Media and Communications, Daffodil International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Haider Mahmood

5 Department of Finance, College of Business Administration, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, 173, Alkharj, 11942 Saudi Arabia

Ijaz Younis

Associated data.

Data sources and relevant links are provided in the paper to access data.

Climate change is a long-lasting change in the weather arrays across tropics to polls. It is a global threat that has embarked on to put stress on various sectors. This study is aimed to conceptually engineer how climate variability is deteriorating the sustainability of diverse sectors worldwide. Specifically, the agricultural sector’s vulnerability is a globally concerning scenario, as sufficient production and food supplies are threatened due to irreversible weather fluctuations. In turn, it is challenging the global feeding patterns, particularly in countries with agriculture as an integral part of their economy and total productivity. Climate change has also put the integrity and survival of many species at stake due to shifts in optimum temperature ranges, thereby accelerating biodiversity loss by progressively changing the ecosystem structures. Climate variations increase the likelihood of particular food and waterborne and vector-borne diseases, and a recent example is a coronavirus pandemic. Climate change also accelerates the enigma of antimicrobial resistance, another threat to human health due to the increasing incidence of resistant pathogenic infections. Besides, the global tourism industry is devastated as climate change impacts unfavorable tourism spots. The methodology investigates hypothetical scenarios of climate variability and attempts to describe the quality of evidence to facilitate readers’ careful, critical engagement. Secondary data is used to identify sustainability issues such as environmental, social, and economic viability. To better understand the problem, gathered the information in this report from various media outlets, research agencies, policy papers, newspapers, and other sources. This review is a sectorial assessment of climate change mitigation and adaptation approaches worldwide in the aforementioned sectors and the associated economic costs. According to the findings, government involvement is necessary for the country’s long-term development through strict accountability of resources and regulations implemented in the past to generate cutting-edge climate policy. Therefore, mitigating the impacts of climate change must be of the utmost importance, and hence, this global threat requires global commitment to address its dreadful implications to ensure global sustenance.

Introduction

Worldwide observed and anticipated climatic changes for the twenty-first century and global warming are significant global changes that have been encountered during the past 65 years. Climate change (CC) is an inter-governmental complex challenge globally with its influence over various components of the ecological, environmental, socio-political, and socio-economic disciplines (Adger et al.  2005 ; Leal Filho et al.  2021 ; Feliciano et al.  2022 ). Climate change involves heightened temperatures across numerous worlds (Battisti and Naylor  2009 ; Schuurmans  2021 ; Weisheimer and Palmer  2005 ; Yadav et al.  2015 ). With the onset of the industrial revolution, the problem of earth climate was amplified manifold (Leppänen et al.  2014 ). It is reported that the immediate attention and due steps might increase the probability of overcoming its devastating impacts. It is not plausible to interpret the exact consequences of climate change (CC) on a sectoral basis (Izaguirre et al.  2021 ; Jurgilevich et al.  2017 ), which is evident by the emerging level of recognition plus the inclusion of climatic uncertainties at both local and national level of policymaking (Ayers et al.  2014 ).

Climate change is characterized based on the comprehensive long-haul temperature and precipitation trends and other components such as pressure and humidity level in the surrounding environment. Besides, the irregular weather patterns, retreating of global ice sheets, and the corresponding elevated sea level rise are among the most renowned international and domestic effects of climate change (Lipczynska-Kochany  2018 ; Michel et al.  2021 ; Murshed and Dao 2020 ). Before the industrial revolution, natural sources, including volcanoes, forest fires, and seismic activities, were regarded as the distinct sources of greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as CO 2 , CH 4 , N 2 O, and H 2 O into the atmosphere (Murshed et al. 2020 ; Hussain et al.  2020 ; Sovacool et al.  2021 ; Usman and Balsalobre-Lorente 2022 ; Murshed 2022 ). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) struck a major agreement to tackle climate change and accelerate and intensify the actions and investments required for a sustainable low-carbon future at Conference of the Parties (COP-21) in Paris on December 12, 2015. The Paris Agreement expands on the Convention by bringing all nations together for the first time in a single cause to undertake ambitious measures to prevent climate change and adapt to its impacts, with increased funding to assist developing countries in doing so. As so, it marks a turning point in the global climate fight. The core goal of the Paris Agreement is to improve the global response to the threat of climate change by keeping the global temperature rise this century well below 2 °C over pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5° C (Sharma et al. 2020 ; Sharif et al. 2020 ; Chien et al. 2021 .

Furthermore, the agreement aspires to strengthen nations’ ability to deal with the effects of climate change and align financing flows with low GHG emissions and climate-resilient paths (Shahbaz et al. 2019 ; Anwar et al. 2021 ; Usman et al. 2022a ). To achieve these lofty goals, adequate financial resources must be mobilized and provided, as well as a new technology framework and expanded capacity building, allowing developing countries and the most vulnerable countries to act under their respective national objectives. The agreement also establishes a more transparent action and support mechanism. All Parties are required by the Paris Agreement to do their best through “nationally determined contributions” (NDCs) and to strengthen these efforts in the coming years (Balsalobre-Lorente et al. 2020 ). It includes obligations that all Parties regularly report on their emissions and implementation activities. A global stock-take will be conducted every five years to review collective progress toward the agreement’s goal and inform the Parties’ future individual actions. The Paris Agreement became available for signature on April 22, 2016, Earth Day, at the United Nations Headquarters in New York. On November 4, 2016, it went into effect 30 days after the so-called double threshold was met (ratification by 55 nations accounting for at least 55% of world emissions). More countries have ratified and continue to ratify the agreement since then, bringing 125 Parties in early 2017. To fully operationalize the Paris Agreement, a work program was initiated in Paris to define mechanisms, processes, and recommendations on a wide range of concerns (Murshed et al. 2021 ). Since 2016, Parties have collaborated in subsidiary bodies (APA, SBSTA, and SBI) and numerous formed entities. The Conference of the Parties functioning as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA) convened for the first time in November 2016 in Marrakesh in conjunction with COP22 and made its first two resolutions. The work plan is scheduled to be finished by 2018. Some mitigation and adaptation strategies to reduce the emission in the prospective of Paris agreement are following firstly, a long-term goal of keeping the increase in global average temperature to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels, secondly, to aim to limit the rise to 1.5 °C, since this would significantly reduce risks and the impacts of climate change, thirdly, on the need for global emissions to peak as soon as possible, recognizing that this will take longer for developing countries, lastly, to undertake rapid reductions after that under the best available science, to achieve a balance between emissions and removals in the second half of the century. On the other side, some adaptation strategies are; strengthening societies’ ability to deal with the effects of climate change and to continue & expand international assistance for developing nations’ adaptation.

However, anthropogenic activities are currently regarded as most accountable for CC (Murshed et al. 2022 ). Apart from the industrial revolution, other anthropogenic activities include excessive agricultural operations, which further involve the high use of fuel-based mechanization, burning of agricultural residues, burning fossil fuels, deforestation, national and domestic transportation sectors, etc. (Huang et al.  2016 ). Consequently, these anthropogenic activities lead to climatic catastrophes, damaging local and global infrastructure, human health, and total productivity. Energy consumption has mounted GHGs levels concerning warming temperatures as most of the energy production in developing countries comes from fossil fuels (Balsalobre-Lorente et al. 2022 ; Usman et al. 2022b ; Abbass et al. 2021a ; Ishikawa-Ishiwata and Furuya  2022 ).

This review aims to highlight the effects of climate change in a socio-scientific aspect by analyzing the existing literature on various sectorial pieces of evidence globally that influence the environment. Although this review provides a thorough examination of climate change and its severe affected sectors that pose a grave danger for global agriculture, biodiversity, health, economy, forestry, and tourism, and to purpose some practical prophylactic measures and mitigation strategies to be adapted as sound substitutes to survive from climate change (CC) impacts. The societal implications of irregular weather patterns and other effects of climate changes are discussed in detail. Some numerous sustainable mitigation measures and adaptation practices and techniques at the global level are discussed in this review with an in-depth focus on its economic, social, and environmental aspects. Methods of data collection section are included in the supplementary information.

Review methodology

Related study and its objectives.

Today, we live an ordinary life in the beautiful digital, globalized world where climate change has a decisive role. What happens in one country has a massive influence on geographically far apart countries, which points to the current crisis known as COVID-19 (Sarkar et al.  2021 ). The most dangerous disease like COVID-19 has affected the world’s climate changes and economic conditions (Abbass et al. 2022 ; Pirasteh-Anosheh et al.  2021 ). The purpose of the present study is to review the status of research on the subject, which is based on “Global Climate Change Impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures” by systematically reviewing past published and unpublished research work. Furthermore, the current study seeks to comment on research on the same topic and suggest future research on the same topic. Specifically, the present study aims: The first one is, organize publications to make them easy and quick to find. Secondly, to explore issues in this area, propose an outline of research for future work. The third aim of the study is to synthesize the previous literature on climate change, various sectors, and their mitigation measurement. Lastly , classify the articles according to the different methods and procedures that have been adopted.

Review methodology for reviewers

This review-based article followed systematic literature review techniques that have proved the literature review as a rigorous framework (Benita  2021 ; Tranfield et al.  2003 ). Moreover, we illustrate in Fig.  1 the search method that we have started for this research. First, finalized the research theme to search literature (Cooper et al.  2018 ). Second, used numerous research databases to search related articles and download from the database (Web of Science, Google Scholar, Scopus Index Journals, Emerald, Elsevier Science Direct, Springer, and Sciverse). We focused on various articles, with research articles, feedback pieces, short notes, debates, and review articles published in scholarly journals. Reports used to search for multiple keywords such as “Climate Change,” “Mitigation and Adaptation,” “Department of Agriculture and Human Health,” “Department of Biodiversity and Forestry,” etc.; in summary, keyword list and full text have been made. Initially, the search for keywords yielded a large amount of literature.

Methodology search for finalized articles for investigations.

Source : constructed by authors

Since 2020, it has been impossible to review all the articles found; some restrictions have been set for the literature exhibition. The study searched 95 articles on a different database mentioned above based on the nature of the study. It excluded 40 irrelevant papers due to copied from a previous search after readings tiles, abstract and full pieces. The criteria for inclusion were: (i) articles focused on “Global Climate Change Impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures,” and (ii) the search key terms related to study requirements. The complete procedure yielded 55 articles for our study. We repeat our search on the “Web of Science and Google Scholars” database to enhance the search results and check the referenced articles.

In this study, 55 articles are reviewed systematically and analyzed for research topics and other aspects, such as the methods, contexts, and theories used in these studies. Furthermore, this study analyzes closely related areas to provide unique research opportunities in the future. The study also discussed future direction opportunities and research questions by understanding the research findings climate changes and other affected sectors. The reviewed paper framework analysis process is outlined in Fig.  2 .

Framework of the analysis Process.

Natural disasters and climate change’s socio-economic consequences

Natural and environmental disasters can be highly variable from year to year; some years pass with very few deaths before a significant disaster event claims many lives (Symanski et al.  2021 ). Approximately 60,000 people globally died from natural disasters each year on average over the past decade (Ritchie and Roser  2014 ; Wiranata and Simbolon  2021 ). So, according to the report, around 0.1% of global deaths. Annual variability in the number and share of deaths from natural disasters in recent decades are shown in Fig.  3 . The number of fatalities can be meager—sometimes less than 10,000, and as few as 0.01% of all deaths. But shock events have a devastating impact: the 1983–1985 famine and drought in Ethiopia; the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami; Cyclone Nargis, which struck Myanmar in 2008; and the 2010 Port-au-Prince earthquake in Haiti and now recent example is COVID-19 pandemic (Erman et al.  2021 ). These events pushed global disaster deaths to over 200,000—more than 0.4% of deaths in these years. Low-frequency, high-impact events such as earthquakes and tsunamis are not preventable, but such high losses of human life are. Historical evidence shows that earlier disaster detection, more robust infrastructure, emergency preparedness, and response programmers have substantially reduced disaster deaths worldwide. Low-income is also the most vulnerable to disasters; improving living conditions, facilities, and response services in these areas would be critical in reducing natural disaster deaths in the coming decades.

Global deaths from natural disasters, 1978 to 2020.

Source EMDAT ( 2020 )

The interior regions of the continent are likely to be impacted by rising temperatures (Dimri et al.  2018 ; Goes et al.  2020 ; Mannig et al.  2018 ; Schuurmans  2021 ). Weather patterns change due to the shortage of natural resources (water), increase in glacier melting, and rising mercury are likely to cause extinction to many planted species (Gampe et al.  2016 ; Mihiretu et al.  2021 ; Shaffril et al.  2018 ).On the other hand, the coastal ecosystem is on the verge of devastation (Perera et al.  2018 ; Phillips  2018 ). The temperature rises, insect disease outbreaks, health-related problems, and seasonal and lifestyle changes are persistent, with a strong probability of these patterns continuing in the future (Abbass et al. 2021c ; Hussain et al.  2018 ). At the global level, a shortage of good infrastructure and insufficient adaptive capacity are hammering the most (IPCC  2013 ). In addition to the above concerns, a lack of environmental education and knowledge, outdated consumer behavior, a scarcity of incentives, a lack of legislation, and the government’s lack of commitment to climate change contribute to the general public’s concerns. By 2050, a 2 to 3% rise in mercury and a drastic shift in rainfall patterns may have serious consequences (Huang et al. 2022 ; Gorst et al.  2018 ). Natural and environmental calamities caused huge losses globally, such as decreased agriculture outputs, rehabilitation of the system, and rebuilding necessary technologies (Ali and Erenstein  2017 ; Ramankutty et al.  2018 ; Yu et al.  2021 ) (Table ​ (Table1). 1 ). Furthermore, in the last 3 or 4 years, the world has been plagued by smog-related eye and skin diseases, as well as a rise in road accidents due to poor visibility.

Main natural danger statistics for 1985–2020 at the global level

Source: EM-DAT ( 2020 )

Climate change and agriculture

Global agriculture is the ultimate sector responsible for 30–40% of all greenhouse emissions, which makes it a leading industry predominantly contributing to climate warming and significantly impacted by it (Grieg; Mishra et al.  2021 ; Ortiz et al.  2021 ; Thornton and Lipper  2014 ). Numerous agro-environmental and climatic factors that have a dominant influence on agriculture productivity (Pautasso et al.  2012 ) are significantly impacted in response to precipitation extremes including floods, forest fires, and droughts (Huang  2004 ). Besides, the immense dependency on exhaustible resources also fuels the fire and leads global agriculture to become prone to devastation. Godfray et al. ( 2010 ) mentioned that decline in agriculture challenges the farmer’s quality of life and thus a significant factor to poverty as the food and water supplies are critically impacted by CC (Ortiz et al.  2021 ; Rosenzweig et al.  2014 ). As an essential part of the economic systems, especially in developing countries, agricultural systems affect the overall economy and potentially the well-being of households (Schlenker and Roberts  2009 ). According to the report published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, i.e., CH 4, CO 2 , and N 2 O, are increased in the air to extraordinary levels over the last few centuries (Usman and Makhdum 2021 ; Stocker et al.  2013 ). Climate change is the composite outcome of two different factors. The first is the natural causes, and the second is the anthropogenic actions (Karami 2012 ). It is also forecasted that the world may experience a typical rise in temperature stretching from 1 to 3.7 °C at the end of this century (Pachauri et al. 2014 ). The world’s crop production is also highly vulnerable to these global temperature-changing trends as raised temperatures will pose severe negative impacts on crop growth (Reidsma et al. 2009 ). Some of the recent modeling about the fate of global agriculture is briefly described below.

Decline in cereal productivity

Crop productivity will also be affected dramatically in the next few decades due to variations in integral abiotic factors such as temperature, solar radiation, precipitation, and CO 2 . These all factors are included in various regulatory instruments like progress and growth, weather-tempted changes, pest invasions (Cammell and Knight 1992 ), accompanying disease snags (Fand et al. 2012 ), water supplies (Panda et al. 2003 ), high prices of agro-products in world’s agriculture industry, and preeminent quantity of fertilizer consumption. Lobell and field ( 2007 ) claimed that from 1962 to 2002, wheat crop output had condensed significantly due to rising temperatures. Therefore, during 1980–2011, the common wheat productivity trends endorsed extreme temperature events confirmed by Gourdji et al. ( 2013 ) around South Asia, South America, and Central Asia. Various other studies (Asseng, Cao, Zhang, and Ludwig 2009 ; Asseng et al. 2013 ; García et al. 2015 ; Ortiz et al. 2021 ) also proved that wheat output is negatively affected by the rising temperatures and also caused adverse effects on biomass productivity (Calderini et al. 1999 ; Sadras and Slafer 2012 ). Hereafter, the rice crop is also influenced by the high temperatures at night. These difficulties will worsen because the temperature will be rising further in the future owing to CC (Tebaldi et al. 2006 ). Another research conducted in China revealed that a 4.6% of rice production per 1 °C has happened connected with the advancement in night temperatures (Tao et al. 2006 ). Moreover, the average night temperature growth also affected rice indicia cultivar’s output pragmatically during 25 years in the Philippines (Peng et al. 2004 ). It is anticipated that the increase in world average temperature will also cause a substantial reduction in yield (Hatfield et al. 2011 ; Lobell and Gourdji 2012 ). In the southern hemisphere, Parry et al. ( 2007 ) noted a rise of 1–4 °C in average daily temperatures at the end of spring season unti the middle of summers, and this raised temperature reduced crop output by cutting down the time length for phenophases eventually reduce the yield (Hatfield and Prueger 2015 ; R. Ortiz 2008 ). Also, world climate models have recommended that humid and subtropical regions expect to be plentiful prey to the upcoming heat strokes (Battisti and Naylor 2009 ). Grain production is the amalgamation of two constituents: the average weight and the grain output/m 2 , however, in crop production. Crop output is mainly accredited to the grain quantity (Araus et al. 2008 ; Gambín and Borrás 2010 ). In the times of grain set, yield resources are mainly strewn between hitherto defined components, i.e., grain usual weight and grain output, which presents a trade-off between them (Gambín and Borrás 2010 ) beside disparities in per grain integration (B. L. Gambín et al. 2006 ). In addition to this, the maize crop is also susceptible to raised temperatures, principally in the flowering stage (Edreira and Otegui 2013 ). In reality, the lower grain number is associated with insufficient acclimatization due to intense photosynthesis and higher respiration and the high-temperature effect on the reproduction phenomena (Edreira and Otegui 2013 ). During the flowering phase, maize visible to heat (30–36 °C) seemed less anthesis-silking intermissions (Edreira et al. 2011 ). Another research by Dupuis and Dumas ( 1990 ) proved that a drop in spikelet when directly visible to high temperatures above 35 °C in vitro pollination. Abnormalities in kernel number claimed by Vega et al. ( 2001 ) is related to conceded plant development during a flowering phase that is linked with the active ear growth phase and categorized as a critical phase for approximation of kernel number during silking (Otegui and Bonhomme 1998 ).

The retort of rice output to high temperature presents disparities in flowering patterns, and seed set lessens and lessens grain weight (Qasim et al. 2020 ; Qasim, Hammad, Maqsood, Tariq, & Chawla). During the daytime, heat directly impacts flowers which lessens the thesis period and quickens the earlier peak flowering (Tao et al. 2006 ). Antagonistic effect of higher daytime temperature d on pollen sprouting proposed seed set decay, whereas, seed set was lengthily reduced than could be explicated by pollen growing at high temperatures 40◦C (Matsui et al. 2001 ).

The decline in wheat output is linked with higher temperatures, confirmed in numerous studies (Semenov 2009 ; Stone and Nicolas 1994 ). High temperatures fast-track the arrangements of plant expansion (Blum et al. 2001 ), diminution photosynthetic process (Salvucci and Crafts‐Brandner 2004 ), and also considerably affect the reproductive operations (Farooq et al. 2011 ).

The destructive impacts of CC induced weather extremes to deteriorate the integrity of crops (Chaudhary et al. 2011 ), e.g., Spartan cold and extreme fog cause falling and discoloration of betel leaves (Rosenzweig et al. 2001 ), giving them a somehow reddish appearance, squeezing of lemon leaves (Pautasso et al. 2012 ), as well as root rot of pineapple, have reported (Vedwan and Rhoades 2001 ). Henceforth, in tackling the disruptive effects of CC, several short-term and long-term management approaches are the crucial need of time (Fig.  4 ). Moreover, various studies (Chaudhary et al. 2011 ; Patz et al. 2005 ; Pautasso et al. 2012 ) have demonstrated adapting trends such as ameliorating crop diversity can yield better adaptability towards CC.

Schematic description of potential impacts of climate change on the agriculture sector and the appropriate mitigation and adaptation measures to overcome its impact.

Climate change impacts on biodiversity

Global biodiversity is among the severe victims of CC because it is the fastest emerging cause of species loss. Studies demonstrated that the massive scale species dynamics are considerably associated with diverse climatic events (Abraham and Chain 1988 ; Manes et al. 2021 ; A. M. D. Ortiz et al. 2021 ). Both the pace and magnitude of CC are altering the compatible habitat ranges for living entities of marine, freshwater, and terrestrial regions. Alterations in general climate regimes influence the integrity of ecosystems in numerous ways, such as variation in the relative abundance of species, range shifts, changes in activity timing, and microhabitat use (Bates et al. 2014 ). The geographic distribution of any species often depends upon its ability to tolerate environmental stresses, biological interactions, and dispersal constraints. Hence, instead of the CC, the local species must only accept, adapt, move, or face extinction (Berg et al. 2010 ). So, the best performer species have a better survival capacity for adjusting to new ecosystems or a decreased perseverance to survive where they are already situated (Bates et al. 2014 ). An important aspect here is the inadequate habitat connectivity and access to microclimates, also crucial in raising the exposure to climate warming and extreme heatwave episodes. For example, the carbon sequestration rates are undergoing fluctuations due to climate-driven expansion in the range of global mangroves (Cavanaugh et al. 2014 ).

Similarly, the loss of kelp-forest ecosystems in various regions and its occupancy by the seaweed turfs has set the track for elevated herbivory by the high influx of tropical fish populations. Not only this, the increased water temperatures have exacerbated the conditions far away from the physiological tolerance level of the kelp communities (Vergés et al. 2016 ; Wernberg et al. 2016 ). Another pertinent danger is the devastation of keystone species, which even has more pervasive effects on the entire communities in that habitat (Zarnetske et al. 2012 ). It is particularly important as CC does not specify specific populations or communities. Eventually, this CC-induced redistribution of species may deteriorate carbon storage and the net ecosystem productivity (Weed et al. 2013 ). Among the typical disruptions, the prominent ones include impacts on marine and terrestrial productivity, marine community assembly, and the extended invasion of toxic cyanobacteria bloom (Fossheim et al. 2015 ).

The CC-impacted species extinction is widely reported in the literature (Beesley et al. 2019 ; Urban 2015 ), and the predictions of demise until the twenty-first century are dreadful (Abbass et al. 2019 ; Pereira et al. 2013 ). In a few cases, northward shifting of species may not be formidable as it allows mountain-dwelling species to find optimum climates. However, the migrant species may be trapped in isolated and incompatible habitats due to losing topography and range (Dullinger et al. 2012 ). For example, a study indicated that the American pika has been extirpated or intensely diminished in some regions, primarily attributed to the CC-impacted extinction or at least local extirpation (Stewart et al. 2015 ). Besides, the anticipation of persistent responses to the impacts of CC often requires data records of several decades to rigorously analyze the critical pre and post CC patterns at species and ecosystem levels (Manes et al. 2021 ; Testa et al. 2018 ).

Nonetheless, the availability of such long-term data records is rare; hence, attempts are needed to focus on these profound aspects. Biodiversity is also vulnerable to the other associated impacts of CC, such as rising temperatures, droughts, and certain invasive pest species. For instance, a study revealed the changes in the composition of plankton communities attributed to rising temperatures. Henceforth, alterations in such aquatic producer communities, i.e., diatoms and calcareous plants, can ultimately lead to variation in the recycling of biological carbon. Moreover, such changes are characterized as a potential contributor to CO 2 differences between the Pleistocene glacial and interglacial periods (Kohfeld et al. 2005 ).

Climate change implications on human health

It is an understood corporality that human health is a significant victim of CC (Costello et al. 2009 ). According to the WHO, CC might be responsible for 250,000 additional deaths per year during 2030–2050 (Watts et al. 2015 ). These deaths are attributed to extreme weather-induced mortality and morbidity and the global expansion of vector-borne diseases (Lemery et al. 2021; Yang and Usman 2021 ; Meierrieks 2021 ; UNEP 2017 ). Here, some of the emerging health issues pertinent to this global problem are briefly described.

Climate change and antimicrobial resistance with corresponding economic costs

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is an up-surging complex global health challenge (Garner et al. 2019 ; Lemery et al. 2021 ). Health professionals across the globe are extremely worried due to this phenomenon that has critical potential to reverse almost all the progress that has been achieved so far in the health discipline (Gosling and Arnell 2016 ). A massive amount of antibiotics is produced by many pharmaceutical industries worldwide, and the pathogenic microorganisms are gradually developing resistance to them, which can be comprehended how strongly this aspect can shake the foundations of national and global economies (UNEP 2017 ). This statement is supported by the fact that AMR is not developing in a particular region or country. Instead, it is flourishing in every continent of the world (WHO 2018 ). This plague is heavily pushing humanity to the post-antibiotic era, in which currently antibiotic-susceptible pathogens will once again lead to certain endemics and pandemics after being resistant(WHO 2018 ). Undesirably, if this statement would become a factuality, there might emerge certain risks in undertaking sophisticated interventions such as chemotherapy, joint replacement cases, and organ transplantation (Su et al. 2018 ). Presently, the amplification of drug resistance cases has made common illnesses like pneumonia, post-surgical infections, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, etc., too difficult and costly to be treated or cure well (WHO 2018 ). From a simple example, it can be assumed how easily antibiotic-resistant strains can be transmitted from one person to another and ultimately travel across the boundaries (Berendonk et al. 2015 ). Talking about the second- and third-generation classes of antibiotics, e.g., most renowned generations of cephalosporin antibiotics that are more expensive, broad-spectrum, more toxic, and usually require more extended periods whenever prescribed to patients (Lemery et al. 2021 ; Pärnänen et al. 2019 ). This scenario has also revealed that the abundance of resistant strains of pathogens was also higher in the Southern part (WHO 2018 ). As southern parts are generally warmer than their counterparts, it is evident from this example how CC-induced global warming can augment the spread of antibiotic-resistant strains within the biosphere, eventually putting additional economic burden in the face of developing new and costlier antibiotics. The ARG exchange to susceptible bacteria through one of the potential mechanisms, transformation, transduction, and conjugation; Selection pressure can be caused by certain antibiotics, metals or pesticides, etc., as shown in Fig.  5 .

A typical interaction between the susceptible and resistant strains.

Source: Elsayed et al. ( 2021 ); Karkman et al. ( 2018 )

Certain studies highlighted that conventional urban wastewater treatment plants are typical hotspots where most bacterial strains exchange genetic material through horizontal gene transfer (Fig.  5 ). Although at present, the extent of risks associated with the antibiotic resistance found in wastewater is complicated; environmental scientists and engineers have particular concerns about the potential impacts of these antibiotic resistance genes on human health (Ashbolt 2015 ). At most undesirable and worst case, these antibiotic-resistant genes containing bacteria can make their way to enter into the environment (Pruden et al. 2013 ), irrigation water used for crops and public water supplies and ultimately become a part of food chains and food webs (Ma et al. 2019 ; D. Wu et al. 2019 ). This problem has been reported manifold in several countries (Hendriksen et al. 2019 ), where wastewater as a means of irrigated water is quite common.

Climate change and vector borne-diseases

Temperature is a fundamental factor for the sustenance of living entities regardless of an ecosystem. So, a specific living being, especially a pathogen, requires a sophisticated temperature range to exist on earth. The second essential component of CC is precipitation, which also impacts numerous infectious agents’ transport and dissemination patterns. Global rising temperature is a significant cause of many species extinction. On the one hand, this changing environmental temperature may be causing species extinction, and on the other, this warming temperature might favor the thriving of some new organisms. Here, it was evident that some pathogens may also upraise once non-evident or reported (Patz et al. 2000 ). This concept can be exemplified through certain pathogenic strains of microorganisms that how the likelihood of various diseases increases in response to climate warming-induced environmental changes (Table ​ (Table2 2 ).

Examples of how various environmental changes affect various infectious diseases in humans

Source: Aron and Patz ( 2001 )

A recent example is an outburst of coronavirus (COVID-19) in the Republic of China, causing pneumonia and severe acute respiratory complications (Cui et al. 2021 ; Song et al. 2021 ). The large family of viruses is harbored in numerous animals, bats, and snakes in particular (livescience.com) with the subsequent transfer into human beings. Hence, it is worth noting that the thriving of numerous vectors involved in spreading various diseases is influenced by Climate change (Ogden 2018 ; Santos et al. 2021 ).

Psychological impacts of climate change

Climate change (CC) is responsible for the rapid dissemination and exaggeration of certain epidemics and pandemics. In addition to the vast apparent impacts of climate change on health, forestry, agriculture, etc., it may also have psychological implications on vulnerable societies. It can be exemplified through the recent outburst of (COVID-19) in various countries around the world (Pal 2021 ). Besides, the victims of this viral infection have made healthy beings scarier and terrified. In the wake of such epidemics, people with common colds or fever are also frightened and must pass specific regulatory protocols. Living in such situations continuously terrifies the public and makes the stress familiar, which eventually makes them psychologically weak (npr.org).

CC boosts the extent of anxiety, distress, and other issues in public, pushing them to develop various mental-related problems. Besides, frequent exposure to extreme climatic catastrophes such as geological disasters also imprints post-traumatic disorder, and their ubiquitous occurrence paves the way to developing chronic psychological dysfunction. Moreover, repetitive listening from media also causes an increase in the person’s stress level (Association 2020 ). Similarly, communities living in flood-prone areas constantly live in extreme fear of drowning and die by floods. In addition to human lives, the flood-induced destruction of physical infrastructure is a specific reason for putting pressure on these communities (Ogden 2018 ). For instance, Ogden ( 2018 ) comprehensively denoted that Katrina’s Hurricane augmented the mental health issues in the victim communities.

Climate change impacts on the forestry sector

Forests are the global regulators of the world’s climate (FAO 2018 ) and have an indispensable role in regulating global carbon and nitrogen cycles (Rehman et al. 2021 ; Reichstein and Carvalhais 2019 ). Hence, disturbances in forest ecology affect the micro and macro-climates (Ellison et al. 2017 ). Climate warming, in return, has profound impacts on the growth and productivity of transboundary forests by influencing the temperature and precipitation patterns, etc. As CC induces specific changes in the typical structure and functions of ecosystems (Zhang et al. 2017 ) as well impacts forest health, climate change also has several devastating consequences such as forest fires, droughts, pest outbreaks (EPA 2018 ), and last but not the least is the livelihoods of forest-dependent communities. The rising frequency and intensity of another CC product, i.e., droughts, pose plenty of challenges to the well-being of global forests (Diffenbaugh et al. 2017 ), which is further projected to increase soon (Hartmann et al. 2018 ; Lehner et al. 2017 ; Rehman et al. 2021 ). Hence, CC induces storms, with more significant impacts also put extra pressure on the survival of the global forests (Martínez-Alvarado et al. 2018 ), significantly since their influences are augmented during higher winter precipitations with corresponding wetter soils causing weak root anchorage of trees (Brázdil et al. 2018 ). Surging temperature regimes causes alterations in usual precipitation patterns, which is a significant hurdle for the survival of temperate forests (Allen et al. 2010 ; Flannigan et al. 2013 ), letting them encounter severe stress and disturbances which adversely affects the local tree species (Hubbart et al. 2016 ; Millar and Stephenson 2015 ; Rehman et al. 2021 ).

Climate change impacts on forest-dependent communities

Forests are the fundamental livelihood resource for about 1.6 billion people worldwide; out of them, 350 million are distinguished with relatively higher reliance (Bank 2008 ). Agro-forestry-dependent communities comprise 1.2 billion, and 60 million indigenous people solely rely on forests and their products to sustain their lives (Sunderlin et al. 2005 ). For example, in the entire African continent, more than 2/3rd of inhabitants depend on forest resources and woodlands for their alimonies, e.g., food, fuelwood and grazing (Wasiq and Ahmad 2004 ). The livings of these people are more intensely affected by the climatic disruptions making their lives harder (Brown et al. 2014 ). On the one hand, forest communities are incredibly vulnerable to CC due to their livelihoods, cultural and spiritual ties as well as socio-ecological connections, and on the other, they are not familiar with the term “climate change.” (Rahman and Alam 2016 ). Among the destructive impacts of temperature and rainfall, disruption of the agroforestry crops with resultant downscale growth and yield (Macchi et al. 2008 ). Cruz ( 2015 ) ascribed that forest-dependent smallholder farmers in the Philippines face the enigma of delayed fruiting, more severe damages by insect and pest incidences due to unfavorable temperature regimes, and changed rainfall patterns.

Among these series of challenges to forest communities, their well-being is also distinctly vulnerable to CC. Though the detailed climate change impacts on human health have been comprehensively mentioned in the previous section, some studies have listed a few more devastating effects on the prosperity of forest-dependent communities. For instance, the Himalayan people have been experiencing frequent skin-borne diseases such as malaria and other skin diseases due to increasing mosquitoes, wild boar as well, and new wasps species, particularly in higher altitudes that were almost non-existent before last 5–10 years (Xu et al. 2008 ). Similarly, people living at high altitudes in Bangladesh have experienced frequent mosquito-borne calamities (Fardous; Sharma 2012 ). In addition, the pace of other waterborne diseases such as infectious diarrhea, cholera, pathogenic induced abdominal complications and dengue has also been boosted in other distinguished regions of Bangladesh (Cell 2009 ; Gunter et al. 2008 ).

Pest outbreak

Upscaling hotter climate may positively affect the mobile organisms with shorter generation times because they can scurry from harsh conditions than the immobile species (Fettig et al. 2013 ; Schoene and Bernier 2012 ) and are also relatively more capable of adapting to new environments (Jactel et al. 2019 ). It reveals that insects adapt quickly to global warming due to their mobility advantages. Due to past outbreaks, the trees (forests) are relatively more susceptible victims (Kurz et al. 2008 ). Before CC, the influence of factors mentioned earlier, i.e., droughts and storms, was existent and made the forests susceptible to insect pest interventions; however, the global forests remain steadfast, assiduous, and green (Jactel et al. 2019 ). The typical reasons could be the insect herbivores were regulated by several tree defenses and pressures of predation (Wilkinson and Sherratt 2016 ). As climate greatly influences these phenomena, the global forests cannot be so sedulous against such challenges (Jactel et al. 2019 ). Table ​ Table3 3 demonstrates some of the particular considerations with practical examples that are essential while mitigating the impacts of CC in the forestry sector.

Essential considerations while mitigating the climate change impacts on the forestry sector

Source : Fischer ( 2019 )

Climate change impacts on tourism

Tourism is a commercial activity that has roots in multi-dimensions and an efficient tool with adequate job generation potential, revenue creation, earning of spectacular foreign exchange, enhancement in cross-cultural promulgation and cooperation, a business tool for entrepreneurs and eventually for the country’s national development (Arshad et al. 2018 ; Scott 2021 ). Among a plethora of other disciplines, the tourism industry is also a distinct victim of climate warming (Gössling et al. 2012 ; Hall et al. 2015 ) as the climate is among the essential resources that enable tourism in particular regions as most preferred locations. Different places at different times of the year attract tourists both within and across the countries depending upon the feasibility and compatibility of particular weather patterns. Hence, the massive variations in these weather patterns resulting from CC will eventually lead to monumental challenges to the local economy in that specific area’s particular and national economy (Bujosa et al. 2015 ). For instance, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report demonstrated that the global tourism industry had faced a considerable decline in the duration of ski season, including the loss of some ski areas and the dramatic shifts in tourist destinations’ climate warming.

Furthermore, different studies (Neuvonen et al. 2015 ; Scott et al. 2004 ) indicated that various currently perfect tourist spots, e.g., coastal areas, splendid islands, and ski resorts, will suffer consequences of CC. It is also worth noting that the quality and potential of administrative management potential to cope with the influence of CC on the tourism industry is of crucial significance, which renders specific strengths of resiliency to numerous destinations to withstand against it (Füssel and Hildén 2014 ). Similarly, in the partial or complete absence of adequate socio-economic and socio-political capital, the high-demanding tourist sites scurry towards the verge of vulnerability. The susceptibility of tourism is based on different components such as the extent of exposure, sensitivity, life-supporting sectors, and capacity assessment factors (Füssel and Hildén 2014 ). It is obvious corporality that sectors such as health, food, ecosystems, human habitat, infrastructure, water availability, and the accessibility of a particular region are prone to CC. Henceforth, the sensitivity of these critical sectors to CC and, in return, the adaptive measures are a hallmark in determining the composite vulnerability of climate warming (Ionescu et al. 2009 ).

Moreover, the dependence on imported food items, poor hygienic conditions, and inadequate health professionals are dominant aspects affecting the local terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity. Meanwhile, the greater dependency on ecosystem services and its products also makes a destination more fragile to become a prey of CC (Rizvi et al. 2015 ). Some significant non-climatic factors are important indicators of a particular ecosystem’s typical health and functioning, e.g., resource richness and abundance portray the picture of ecosystem stability. Similarly, the species abundance is also a productive tool that ensures that the ecosystem has a higher buffering capacity, which is terrific in terms of resiliency (Roscher et al. 2013 ).

Climate change impacts on the economic sector

Climate plays a significant role in overall productivity and economic growth. Due to its increasingly global existence and its effect on economic growth, CC has become one of the major concerns of both local and international environmental policymakers (Ferreira et al. 2020 ; Gleditsch 2021 ; Abbass et al. 2021b ; Lamperti et al. 2021 ). The adverse effects of CC on the overall productivity factor of the agricultural sector are therefore significant for understanding the creation of local adaptation policies and the composition of productive climate policy contracts. Previous studies on CC in the world have already forecasted its effects on the agricultural sector. Researchers have found that global CC will impact the agricultural sector in different world regions. The study of the impacts of CC on various agrarian activities in other demographic areas and the development of relative strategies to respond to effects has become a focal point for researchers (Chandioet al. 2020 ; Gleditsch 2021 ; Mosavi et al. 2020 ).

With the rapid growth of global warming since the 1980s, the temperature has started increasing globally, which resulted in the incredible transformation of rain and evaporation in the countries. The agricultural development of many countries has been reliant, delicate, and susceptible to CC for a long time, and it is on the development of agriculture total factor productivity (ATFP) influence different crops and yields of farmers (Alhassan 2021 ; Wu  2020 ).

Food security and natural disasters are increasing rapidly in the world. Several major climatic/natural disasters have impacted local crop production in the countries concerned. The effects of these natural disasters have been poorly controlled by the development of the economies and populations and may affect human life as well. One example is China, which is among the world’s most affected countries, vulnerable to natural disasters due to its large population, harsh environmental conditions, rapid CC, low environmental stability, and disaster power. According to the January 2016 statistical survey, China experienced an economic loss of 298.3 billion Yuan, and about 137 million Chinese people were severely affected by various natural disasters (Xie et al. 2018 ).

Mitigation and adaptation strategies of climate changes

Adaptation and mitigation are the crucial factors to address the response to CC (Jahanzad et al. 2020 ). Researchers define mitigation on climate changes, and on the other hand, adaptation directly impacts climate changes like floods. To some extent, mitigation reduces or moderates greenhouse gas emission, and it becomes a critical issue both economically and environmentally (Botzen et al. 2021 ; Jahanzad et al. 2020 ; Kongsager 2018 ; Smit et al. 2000 ; Vale et al. 2021 ; Usman et al. 2021 ; Verheyen 2005 ).

Researchers have deep concern about the adaptation and mitigation methodologies in sectoral and geographical contexts. Agriculture, industry, forestry, transport, and land use are the main sectors to adapt and mitigate policies(Kärkkäinen et al. 2020 ; Waheed et al. 2021 ). Adaptation and mitigation require particular concern both at the national and international levels. The world has faced a significant problem of climate change in the last decades, and adaptation to these effects is compulsory for economic and social development. To adapt and mitigate against CC, one should develop policies and strategies at the international level (Hussain et al. 2020 ). Figure  6 depicts the list of current studies on sectoral impacts of CC with adaptation and mitigation measures globally.

Sectoral impacts of climate change with adaptation and mitigation measures.

Conclusion and future perspectives

Specific socio-agricultural, socio-economic, and physical systems are the cornerstone of psychological well-being, and the alteration in these systems by CC will have disastrous impacts. Climate variability, alongside other anthropogenic and natural stressors, influences human and environmental health sustainability. Food security is another concerning scenario that may lead to compromised food quality, higher food prices, and inadequate food distribution systems. Global forests are challenged by different climatic factors such as storms, droughts, flash floods, and intense precipitation. On the other hand, their anthropogenic wiping is aggrandizing their existence. Undoubtedly, the vulnerability scale of the world’s regions differs; however, appropriate mitigation and adaptation measures can aid the decision-making bodies in developing effective policies to tackle its impacts. Presently, modern life on earth has tailored to consistent climatic patterns, and accordingly, adapting to such considerable variations is of paramount importance. Because the faster changes in climate will make it harder to survive and adjust, this globally-raising enigma calls for immediate attention at every scale ranging from elementary community level to international level. Still, much effort, research, and dedication are required, which is the most critical time. Some policy implications can help us to mitigate the consequences of climate change, especially the most affected sectors like the agriculture sector;

Warming might lengthen the season in frost-prone growing regions (temperate and arctic zones), allowing for longer-maturing seasonal cultivars with better yields (Pfadenhauer 2020 ; Bonacci 2019 ). Extending the planting season may allow additional crops each year; when warming leads to frequent warmer months highs over critical thresholds, a split season with a brief summer fallow may be conceivable for short-period crops such as wheat barley, cereals, and many other vegetable crops. The capacity to prolong the planting season in tropical and subtropical places where the harvest season is constrained by precipitation or agriculture farming occurs after the year may be more limited and dependent on how precipitation patterns vary (Wu et al. 2017 ).

The genetic component is comprehensive for many yields, but it is restricted like kiwi fruit for a few. Ali et al. ( 2017 ) investigated how new crops will react to climatic changes (also stated in Mall et al. 2017 ). Hot temperature, drought, insect resistance; salt tolerance; and overall crop production and product quality increases would all be advantageous (Akkari 2016 ). Genetic mapping and engineering can introduce a greater spectrum of features. The adoption of genetically altered cultivars has been slowed, particularly in the early forecasts owing to the complexity in ensuring features are expediently expressed throughout the entire plant, customer concerns, economic profitability, and regulatory impediments (Wirehn 2018 ; Davidson et al. 2016 ).

To get the full benefit of the CO 2 would certainly require additional nitrogen and other fertilizers. Nitrogen not consumed by the plants may be excreted into groundwater, discharged into water surface, or emitted from the land, soil nitrous oxide when large doses of fertilizer are sprayed. Increased nitrogen levels in groundwater sources have been related to human chronic illnesses and impact marine ecosystems. Cultivation, grain drying, and other field activities have all been examined in depth in the studies (Barua et al. 2018 ).

• The technological and socio-economic adaptation

The policy consequence of the causative conclusion is that as a source of alternative energy, biofuel production is one of the routes that explain oil price volatility separate from international macroeconomic factors. Even though biofuel production has just begun in a few sample nations, there is still a tremendous worldwide need for feedstock to satisfy industrial expansion in China and the USA, which explains the food price relationship to the global oil price. Essentially, oil-exporting countries may create incentives in their economies to increase food production. It may accomplish by giving farmers financing, seedlings, fertilizers, and farming equipment. Because of the declining global oil price and, as a result, their earnings from oil export, oil-producing nations may be unable to subsidize food imports even in the near term. As a result, these countries can boost the agricultural value chain for export. It may be accomplished through R&D and adding value to their food products to increase income by correcting exchange rate misalignment and adverse trade terms. These nations may also diversify their economies away from oil, as dependence on oil exports alone is no longer economically viable given the extreme volatility of global oil prices. Finally, resource-rich and oil-exporting countries can convert to non-food renewable energy sources such as solar, hydro, coal, wind, wave, and tidal energy. By doing so, both world food and oil supplies would be maintained rather than harmed.

IRENA’s modeling work shows that, if a comprehensive policy framework is in place, efforts toward decarbonizing the energy future will benefit economic activity, jobs (outweighing losses in the fossil fuel industry), and welfare. Countries with weak domestic supply chains and a large reliance on fossil fuel income, in particular, must undertake structural reforms to capitalize on the opportunities inherent in the energy transition. Governments continue to give major policy assistance to extract fossil fuels, including tax incentives, financing, direct infrastructure expenditures, exemptions from environmental regulations, and other measures. The majority of major oil and gas producing countries intend to increase output. Some countries intend to cut coal output, while others plan to maintain or expand it. While some nations are beginning to explore and execute policies aimed at a just and equitable transition away from fossil fuel production, these efforts have yet to impact major producing countries’ plans and goals. Verifiable and comparable data on fossil fuel output and assistance from governments and industries are critical to closing the production gap. Governments could increase openness by declaring their production intentions in their climate obligations under the Paris Agreement.

It is firmly believed that achieving the Paris Agreement commitments is doubtlful without undergoing renewable energy transition across the globe (Murshed 2020 ; Zhao et al. 2022 ). Policy instruments play the most important role in determining the degree of investment in renewable energy technology. This study examines the efficacy of various policy strategies in the renewable energy industry of multiple nations. Although its impact is more visible in established renewable energy markets, a renewable portfolio standard is also a useful policy instrument. The cost of producing renewable energy is still greater than other traditional energy sources. Furthermore, government incentives in the R&D sector can foster innovation in this field, resulting in cost reductions in the renewable energy industry. These nations may export their technologies and share their policy experiences by forming networks among their renewable energy-focused organizations. All policy measures aim to reduce production costs while increasing the proportion of renewables to a country’s energy system. Meanwhile, long-term contracts with renewable energy providers, government commitment and control, and the establishment of long-term goals can assist developing nations in deploying renewable energy technology in their energy sector.

Author contribution

KA: Writing the original manuscript, data collection, data analysis, Study design, Formal analysis, Visualization, Revised draft, Writing-review, and editing. MZQ: Writing the original manuscript, data collection, data analysis, Writing-review, and editing. HS: Contribution to the contextualization of the theme, Conceptualization, Validation, Supervision, literature review, Revised drapt, and writing review and editing. MM: Writing review and editing, compiling the literature review, language editing. HM: Writing review and editing, compiling the literature review, language editing. IY: Contribution to the contextualization of the theme, literature review, and writing review and editing.

Availability of data and material

Declarations.

Not applicable.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Contributor Information

Kashif Abbass, Email: nc.ude.tsujn@ssabbafihsak .

Muhammad Zeeshan Qasim, Email: moc.kooltuo@888misaqnahseez .

Huaming Song, Email: nc.ude.tsujn@gnimauh .

Muntasir Murshed, Email: [email protected] .

Haider Mahmood, Email: moc.liamtoh@doomhamrediah .

Ijaz Younis, Email: nc.ude.tsujn@sinuoyzaji .

• Abbass K, Begum H, Alam ASA, Awang AH, Abdelsalam MK, Egdair IMM, Wahid R (2022) Fresh Insight through a Keynesian Theory Approach to Investigate the Economic Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic in Pakistan. Sustain 14(3):1054
• Abbass K, Niazi AAK, Qazi TF, Basit A, Song H (2021a) The aftermath of COVID-19 pandemic period: barriers in implementation of social distancing at workplace. Library Hi Tech
• Abbass K, Song H, Khan F, Begum H, Asif M (2021b) Fresh insight through the VAR approach to investigate the effects of fiscal policy on environmental pollution in Pakistan. Environ Scie Poll Res 1–14 [ PubMed ]
• Abbass K, Song H, Shah SM, Aziz B. Determinants of Stock Return for Non-Financial Sector: Evidence from Energy Sector of Pakistan. J Bus Fin Aff. 2019; 8 (370):2167–0234. [ Google Scholar ]
• Abbass K, Tanveer A, Huaming S, Khatiya AA (2021c) Impact of financial resources utilization on firm performance: a case of SMEs working in Pakistan
• Abraham E, Chain E. An enzyme from bacteria able to destroy penicillin. 1940. Rev Infect Dis. 1988; 10 (4):677. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Adger WN, Arnell NW, Tompkins EL. Successful adaptation to climate change across scales. Glob Environ Chang. 2005; 15 (2):77–86. doi: 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2004.12.005. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Akkari C, Bryant CR. The co-construction approach as approach to developing adaptation strategies in the face of climate change and variability: A conceptual framework. Agricultural Research. 2016; 5 (2):162–173. doi: 10.1007/s40003-016-0208-8. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Alhassan H (2021) The effect of agricultural total factor productivity on environmental degradation in sub-Saharan Africa. Sci Afr 12:e00740
• Ali A, Erenstein O. Assessing farmer use of climate change adaptation practices and impacts on food security and poverty in Pakistan. Clim Risk Manag. 2017; 16 :183–194. doi: 10.1016/j.crm.2016.12.001. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Allen CD, Macalady AK, Chenchouni H, Bachelet D, McDowell N, Vennetier M, Hogg ET. A global overview of drought and heat-induced tree mortality reveals emerging climate change risks for forests. For Ecol Manag. 2010; 259 (4):660–684. doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2009.09.001. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Anwar A, Sinha A, Sharif A, Siddique M, Irshad S, Anwar W, Malik S (2021) The nexus between urbanization, renewable energy consumption, financial development, and CO2 emissions: evidence from selected Asian countries. Environ Dev Sust. 10.1007/s10668-021-01716-2
• Araus JL, Slafer GA, Royo C, Serret MD. Breeding for yield potential and stress adaptation in cereals. Crit Rev Plant Sci. 2008; 27 (6):377–412. doi: 10.1080/07352680802467736. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Aron JL, Patz J (2001) Ecosystem change and public health: a global perspective: JHU Press
• Arshad MI, Iqbal MA, Shahbaz M. Pakistan tourism industry and challenges: a review. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research. 2018; 23 (2):121–132. doi: 10.1080/10941665.2017.1410192. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ashbolt NJ. Microbial contamination of drinking water and human health from community water systems. Current Environmental Health Reports. 2015; 2 (1):95–106. doi: 10.1007/s40572-014-0037-5. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Asseng S, Cao W, Zhang W, Ludwig F (2009) Crop physiology, modelling and climate change: impact and adaptation strategies. Crop Physiol 511–543
• Asseng S, Ewert F, Rosenzweig C, Jones JW, Hatfield JL, Ruane AC, Cammarano D. Uncertainty in simulating wheat yields under climate change. Nat Clim Chang. 2013; 3 (9):827–832. doi: 10.1038/nclimate1916. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Association A (2020) Climate change is threatening mental health, American Psychological Association, “Kirsten Weir, . from < https://www.apa.org/monitor/2016/07-08/climate-change >, Accessed on 26 Jan 2020.
• Ayers J, Huq S, Wright H, Faisal A, Hussain S. Mainstreaming climate change adaptation into development in Bangladesh. Clim Dev. 2014; 6 :293–305. doi: 10.1080/17565529.2014.977761. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Balsalobre-Lorente D, Driha OM, Bekun FV, Sinha A, Adedoyin FF (2020) Consequences of COVID-19 on the social isolation of the Chinese economy: accounting for the role of reduction in carbon emissions. Air Qual Atmos Health 13(12):1439–1451
• Balsalobre-Lorente D, Ibáñez-Luzón L, Usman M, Shahbaz M. The environmental Kuznets curve, based on the economic complexity, and the pollution haven hypothesis in PIIGS countries. Renew Energy. 2022; 185 :1441–1455. doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2021.10.059. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bank W (2008) Forests sourcebook: practical guidance for sustaining forests in development cooperation: World Bank
• Barua S, Valenzuela E (2018) Climate change impacts on global agricultural trade patterns: evidence from the past 50 years. In Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Sustainable Development (pp. 26–28)
• Bates AE, Pecl GT, Frusher S, Hobday AJ, Wernberg T, Smale DA, Colwell RK. Defining and observing stages of climate-mediated range shifts in marine systems. Glob Environ Chang. 2014; 26 :27–38. doi: 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.03.009. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Battisti DS, Naylor RL. Historical warnings of future food insecurity with unprecedented seasonal heat. Science. 2009; 323 (5911):240–244. doi: 10.1126/science.1164363. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Beesley L, Close PG, Gwinn DC, Long M, Moroz M, Koster WM, Storer T. Flow-mediated movement of freshwater catfish, Tandanus bostocki, in a regulated semi-urban river, to inform environmental water releases. Ecol Freshw Fish. 2019; 28 (3):434–445. doi: 10.1111/eff.12466. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Benita F (2021) Human mobility behavior in COVID-19: A systematic literature review and bibliometric analysis. Sustain Cities Soc 70:102916 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ]
• Berendonk TU, Manaia CM, Merlin C, Fatta-Kassinos D, Cytryn E, Walsh F, Pons M-N. Tackling antibiotic resistance: the environmental framework. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2015; 13 (5):310–317. doi: 10.1038/nrmicro3439. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Berg MP, Kiers ET, Driessen G, Van DerHEIJDEN M, Kooi BW, Kuenen F, Ellers J. Adapt or disperse: understanding species persistence in a changing world. Glob Change Biol. 2010; 16 (2):587–598. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.02014.x. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Blum A, Klueva N, Nguyen H. Wheat cellular thermotolerance is related to yield under heat stress. Euphytica. 2001; 117 (2):117–123. doi: 10.1023/A:1004083305905. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bonacci O. Air temperature and precipitation analyses on a small Mediterranean island: the case of the remote island of Lastovo (Adriatic Sea, Croatia) Acta Hydrotechnica. 2019; 32 (57):135–150. doi: 10.15292/acta.hydro.2019.10. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Botzen W, Duijndam S, van Beukering P (2021) Lessons for climate policy from behavioral biases towards COVID-19 and climate change risks. World Dev 137:105214 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ]
• Brázdil R, Stucki P, Szabó P, Řezníčková L, Dolák L, Dobrovolný P, Suchánková S. Windstorms and forest disturbances in the Czech Lands: 1801–2015. Agric for Meteorol. 2018; 250 :47–63. doi: 10.1016/j.agrformet.2017.11.036. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Brown HCP, Smit B, Somorin OA, Sonwa DJ, Nkem JN. Climate change and forest communities: prospects for building institutional adaptive capacity in the Congo Basin forests. Ambio. 2014; 43 (6):759–769. doi: 10.1007/s13280-014-0493-z. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bujosa A, Riera A, Torres CM. Valuing tourism demand attributes to guide climate change adaptation measures efficiently: the case of the Spanish domestic travel market. Tour Manage. 2015; 47 :233–239. doi: 10.1016/j.tourman.2014.09.023. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Calderini D, Abeledo L, Savin R, Slafer GA. Effect of temperature and carpel size during pre-anthesis on potential grain weight in wheat. J Agric Sci. 1999; 132 (4):453–459. doi: 10.1017/S0021859699006504. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cammell M, Knight J. Effects of climatic change on the population dynamics of crop pests. Adv Ecol Res. 1992; 22 :117–162. doi: 10.1016/S0065-2504(08)60135-X. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cavanaugh KC, Kellner JR, Forde AJ, Gruner DS, Parker JD, Rodriguez W, Feller IC. Poleward expansion of mangroves is a threshold response to decreased frequency of extreme cold events. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2014; 111 (2):723–727. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1315800111. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cell CC (2009) Climate change and health impacts in Bangladesh. Clima Chang Cell DoE MoEF
• Chandio AA, Jiang Y, Rehman A, Rauf A (2020) Short and long-run impacts of climate change on agriculture: an empirical evidence from China. Int J Clim Chang Strat Manag
• Chaudhary P, Rai S, Wangdi S, Mao A, Rehman N, Chettri S, Bawa KS (2011) Consistency of local perceptions of climate change in the Kangchenjunga Himalaya landscape. Curr Sci 504–513
• Chien F, Anwar A, Hsu CC, Sharif A, Razzaq A, Sinha A (2021) The role of information and communication technology in encountering environmental degradation: proposing an SDG framework for the BRICS countries. Technol Soc 65:101587
• Cooper C, Booth A, Varley-Campbell J, Britten N, Garside R. Defining the process to literature searching in systematic reviews: a literature review of guidance and supporting studies. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2018; 18 (1):1–14. doi: 10.1186/s12874-018-0545-3. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Costello A, Abbas M, Allen A, Ball S, Bell S, Bellamy R, Kett M. Managing the health effects of climate change: lancet and University College London Institute for Global Health Commission. The Lancet. 2009; 373 (9676):1693–1733. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60935-1. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cruz DLA (2015) Mother Figured. University of Chicago Press. Retrieved from, 10.7208/9780226315072
• Cui W, Ouyang T, Qiu Y, Cui D (2021) Literature Review of the Implications of Exercise Rehabilitation Strategies for SARS Patients on the Recovery of COVID-19 Patients. Paper presented at the Healthcare [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ]
• Davidson D. Gaps in agricultural climate adaptation research. Nat Clim Chang. 2016; 6 (5):433–435. doi: 10.1038/nclimate3007. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Diffenbaugh NS, Singh D, Mankin JS, Horton DE, Swain DL, Touma D, Tsiang M. Quantifying the influence of global warming on unprecedented extreme climate events. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2017; 114 (19):4881–4886. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1618082114. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dimri A, Kumar D, Choudhary A, Maharana P. Future changes over the Himalayas: mean temperature. Global Planet Change. 2018; 162 :235–251. doi: 10.1016/j.gloplacha.2018.01.014. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dullinger S, Gattringer A, Thuiller W, Moser D, Zimmermann N, Guisan A. Extinction debt of high-mountain plants under twenty-first-century climate change. Nat Clim Chang: Nature Publishing Group; 2012. [ Google Scholar ]
• Dupuis I, Dumas C. Influence of temperature stress on in vitro fertilization and heat shock protein synthesis in maize (Zea mays L.) reproductive tissues. Plant Physiol. 1990; 94 (2):665–670. doi: 10.1104/pp.94.2.665. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Edreira JR, Otegui ME. Heat stress in temperate and tropical maize hybrids: a novel approach for assessing sources of kernel loss in field conditions. Field Crop Res. 2013; 142 :58–67. doi: 10.1016/j.fcr.2012.11.009. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Edreira JR, Carpici EB, Sammarro D, Otegui M. Heat stress effects around flowering on kernel set of temperate and tropical maize hybrids. Field Crop Res. 2011; 123 (2):62–73. doi: 10.1016/j.fcr.2011.04.015. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ellison D, Morris CE, Locatelli B, Sheil D, Cohen J, Murdiyarso D, Pokorny J. Trees, forests and water: Cool insights for a hot world. Glob Environ Chang. 2017; 43 :51–61. doi: 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2017.01.002. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Elsayed ZM, Eldehna WM, Abdel-Aziz MM, El Hassab MA, Elkaeed EB, Al-Warhi T, Mohammed ER. Development of novel isatin–nicotinohydrazide hybrids with potent activity against susceptible/resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis and bronchitis causing–bacteria. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem. 2021; 36 (1):384–393. doi: 10.1080/14756366.2020.1868450. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• EM-DAT (2020) EMDAT: OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database, Université catholique de Louvain – Brussels – Belgium. from http://www.emdat.be
• EPA U (2018) United States Environmental Protection Agency, EPA Year in Review
• Erman A, De Vries Robbe SA, Thies SF, Kabir K, Maruo M (2021) Gender Dimensions of Disaster Risk and Resilience
• Fand BB, Kamble AL, Kumar M. Will climate change pose serious threat to crop pest management: a critical review. Int J Sci Res Publ. 2012; 2 (11):1–14. [ Google Scholar ]
• FAO (2018).The State of the World’s Forests 2018 - Forest Pathways to Sustainable Development.
• Fardous S Perception of climate change in Kaptai National Park. Rural Livelihoods and Protected Landscape: Co-Management in the Wetlands and Forests of Bangladesh, 186–204
• Farooq M, Bramley H, Palta JA, Siddique KH. Heat stress in wheat during reproductive and grain-filling phases. Crit Rev Plant Sci. 2011; 30 (6):491–507. doi: 10.1080/07352689.2011.615687. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Feliciano D, Recha J, Ambaw G, MacSween K, Solomon D, Wollenberg E (2022) Assessment of agricultural emissions, climate change mitigation and adaptation practices in Ethiopia. Clim Policy 1–18
• Ferreira JJ, Fernandes CI, Ferreira FA (2020) Technology transfer, climate change mitigation, and environmental patent impact on sustainability and economic growth: a comparison of European countries. Technol Forecast Soc Change 150:119770
• Fettig CJ, Reid ML, Bentz BJ, Sevanto S, Spittlehouse DL, Wang T. Changing climates, changing forests: a western North American perspective. J Forest. 2013; 111 (3):214–228. doi: 10.5849/jof.12-085. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Fischer AP. Characterizing behavioral adaptation to climate change in temperate forests. Landsc Urban Plan. 2019; 188 :72–79. doi: 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2018.09.024. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Flannigan M, Cantin AS, De Groot WJ, Wotton M, Newbery A, Gowman LM. Global wildland fire season severity in the 21st century. For Ecol Manage. 2013; 294 :54–61. doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2012.10.022. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Fossheim M, Primicerio R, Johannesen E, Ingvaldsen RB, Aschan MM, Dolgov AV. Recent warming leads to a rapid borealization of fish communities in the Arctic. Nat Clim Chang. 2015; 5 (7):673–677. doi: 10.1038/nclimate2647. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Füssel HM, Hildén M (2014) How is uncertainty addressed in the knowledge base for national adaptation planning? Adapting to an Uncertain Climate (pp. 41–66): Springer
• Gambín BL, Borrás L, Otegui ME. Source–sink relations and kernel weight differences in maize temperate hybrids. Field Crop Res. 2006; 95 (2–3):316–326. doi: 10.1016/j.fcr.2005.04.002. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gambín B, Borrás L. Resource distribution and the trade-off between seed number and seed weight: a comparison across crop species. Annals of Applied Biology. 2010; 156 (1):91–102. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-7348.2009.00367.x. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gampe D, Nikulin G, Ludwig R. Using an ensemble of regional climate models to assess climate change impacts on water scarcity in European river basins. Sci Total Environ. 2016; 573 :1503–1518. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.08.053. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• García GA, Dreccer MF, Miralles DJ, Serrago RA. High night temperatures during grain number determination reduce wheat and barley grain yield: a field study. Glob Change Biol. 2015; 21 (11):4153–4164. doi: 10.1111/gcb.13009. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Garner E, Inyang M, Garvey E, Parks J, Glover C, Grimaldi A, Edwards MA. Impact of blending for direct potable reuse on premise plumbing microbial ecology and regrowth of opportunistic pathogens and antibiotic resistant bacteria. Water Res. 2019; 151 :75–86. doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.12.003. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gleditsch NP (2021) This time is different! Or is it? NeoMalthusians and environmental optimists in the age of climate change. J Peace Res 0022343320969785
• Godfray HCJ, Beddington JR, Crute IR, Haddad L, Lawrence D, Muir JF, Toulmin C. Food security: the challenge of feeding 9 billion people. Science. 2010; 327 (5967):812–818. doi: 10.1126/science.1185383. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Goes S, Hasterok D, Schutt DL, Klöcking M (2020) Continental lithospheric temperatures: A review. Phys Earth Planet Inter 106509
• Gorst A, Dehlavi A, Groom B. Crop productivity and adaptation to climate change in Pakistan. Environ Dev Econ. 2018; 23 (6):679–701. doi: 10.1017/S1355770X18000232. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gosling SN, Arnell NW. A global assessment of the impact of climate change on water scarcity. Clim Change. 2016; 134 (3):371–385. doi: 10.1007/s10584-013-0853-x. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gössling S, Scott D, Hall CM, Ceron J-P, Dubois G. Consumer behaviour and demand response of tourists to climate change. Ann Tour Res. 2012; 39 (1):36–58. doi: 10.1016/j.annals.2011.11.002. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gourdji SM, Sibley AM, Lobell DB. Global crop exposure to critical high temperatures in the reproductive period: historical trends and future projections. Environ Res Lett. 2013; 8 (2):024041. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/8/2/024041. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Grieg E Responsible Consumption and Production
• Gunter BG, Rahman A, Rahman A (2008) How Vulnerable are Bangladesh’s Indigenous People to Climate Change? Bangladesh Development Research Center (BDRC)
• Hall CM, Amelung B, Cohen S, Eijgelaar E, Gössling S, Higham J, Scott D. On climate change skepticism and denial in tourism. J Sustain Tour. 2015; 23 (1):4–25. doi: 10.1080/09669582.2014.953544. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hartmann H, Moura CF, Anderegg WR, Ruehr NK, Salmon Y, Allen CD, Galbraith D. Research frontiers for improving our understanding of drought-induced tree and forest mortality. New Phytol. 2018; 218 (1):15–28. doi: 10.1111/nph.15048. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hatfield JL, Prueger JH. Temperature extremes: Effect on plant growth and development. Weather and Climate Extremes. 2015; 10 :4–10. doi: 10.1016/j.wace.2015.08.001. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hatfield JL, Boote KJ, Kimball B, Ziska L, Izaurralde RC, Ort D, Wolfe D. Climate impacts on agriculture: implications for crop production. Agron J. 2011; 103 (2):351–370. doi: 10.2134/agronj2010.0303. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hendriksen RS, Munk P, Njage P, Van Bunnik B, McNally L, Lukjancenko O, Kjeldgaard J. Global monitoring of antimicrobial resistance based on metagenomics analyses of urban sewage. Nat Commun. 2019; 10 (1):1124. doi: 10.1038/s41467-019-08853-3. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Huang S (2004) Global trade patterns in fruits and vegetables. USDA-ERS Agriculture and Trade Report No. WRS-04–06
• Huang W, Gao Q-X, Cao G-L, Ma Z-Y, Zhang W-D, Chao Q-C. Effect of urban symbiosis development in China on GHG emissions reduction. Adv Clim Chang Res. 2016; 7 (4):247–252. doi: 10.1016/j.accre.2016.12.003. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Huang Y, Haseeb M, Usman M, Ozturk I (2022) Dynamic association between ICT, renewable energy, economic complexity and ecological footprint: Is there any difference between E-7 (developing) and G-7 (developed) countries? Tech Soc 68:101853
• Hubbart JA, Guyette R, Muzika R-M. More than drought: precipitation variance, excessive wetness, pathogens and the future of the western edge of the eastern deciduous forest. Sci Total Environ. 2016; 566 :463–467. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.05.108. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hussain M, Butt AR, Uzma F, Ahmed R, Irshad S, Rehman A, Yousaf B. A comprehensive review of climate change impacts, adaptation, and mitigation on environmental and natural calamities in Pakistan. Environ Monit Assess. 2020; 192 (1):48. doi: 10.1007/s10661-019-7956-4. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hussain M, Liu G, Yousaf B, Ahmed R, Uzma F, Ali MU, Butt AR. Regional and sectoral assessment on climate-change in Pakistan: social norms and indigenous perceptions on climate-change adaptation and mitigation in relation to global context. J Clean Prod. 2018; 200 :791–808. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.07.272. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Intergov. Panel Clim Chang 33 from 10.1017/CBO9781107415324
• Ionescu C, Klein RJ, Hinkel J, Kumar KK, Klein R. Towards a formal framework of vulnerability to climate change. Environ Model Assess. 2009; 14 (1):1–16. doi: 10.1007/s10666-008-9179-x. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• IPCC (2013) Summary for policymakers. Clim Chang Phys Sci Basis Contrib Work Gr I Fifth Assess Rep
• Ishikawa-Ishiwata Y, Furuya J (2022) Economic evaluation and climate change adaptation measures for rice production in vietnam using a supply and demand model: special emphasis on the Mekong River Delta region in Vietnam. In Interlocal Adaptations to Climate Change in East and Southeast Asia (pp. 45–53). Springer, Cham
• Izaguirre C, Losada I, Camus P, Vigh J, Stenek V. Climate change risk to global port operations. Nat Clim Chang. 2021; 11 (1):14–20. doi: 10.1038/s41558-020-00937-z. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Jactel H, Koricheva J, Castagneyrol B (2019) Responses of forest insect pests to climate change: not so simple. Current opinion in insect science [ PubMed ]
• Jahanzad E, Holtz BA, Zuber CA, Doll D, Brewer KM, Hogan S, Gaudin AC. Orchard recycling improves climate change adaptation and mitigation potential of almond production systems. PLoS ONE. 2020; 15 (3):e0229588. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0229588. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Jurgilevich A, Räsänen A, Groundstroem F, Juhola S. A systematic review of dynamics in climate risk and vulnerability assessments. Environ Res Lett. 2017; 12 (1):013002. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/aa5508. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Karami E (2012) Climate change, resilience and poverty in the developing world. Paper presented at the Culture, Politics and Climate change conference
• Kärkkäinen L, Lehtonen H, Helin J, Lintunen J, Peltonen-Sainio P, Regina K, . . . Packalen T (2020) Evaluation of policy instruments for supporting greenhouse gas mitigation efforts in agricultural and urban land use. Land Use Policy 99:104991
• Karkman A, Do TT, Walsh F, Virta MP. Antibiotic-resistance genes in waste water. Trends Microbiol. 2018; 26 (3):220–228. doi: 10.1016/j.tim.2017.09.005. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kohfeld KE, Le Quéré C, Harrison SP, Anderson RF. Role of marine biology in glacial-interglacial CO2 cycles. Science. 2005; 308 (5718):74–78. doi: 10.1126/science.1105375. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kongsager R. Linking climate change adaptation and mitigation: a review with evidence from the land-use sectors. Land. 2018; 7 (4):158. doi: 10.3390/land7040158. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kurz WA, Dymond C, Stinson G, Rampley G, Neilson E, Carroll A, Safranyik L. Mountain pine beetle and forest carbon feedback to climate change. Nature. 2008; 452 (7190):987. doi: 10.1038/nature06777. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lamperti F, Bosetti V, Roventini A, Tavoni M, Treibich T (2021) Three green financial policies to address climate risks. J Financial Stab 54:100875
• Leal Filho W, Azeiteiro UM, Balogun AL, Setti AFF, Mucova SA, Ayal D, . . . Oguge NO (2021) The influence of ecosystems services depletion to climate change adaptation efforts in Africa. Sci Total Environ 146414 [ PubMed ]
• Lehner F, Coats S, Stocker TF, Pendergrass AG, Sanderson BM, Raible CC, Smerdon JE. Projected drought risk in 1.5 C and 2 C warmer climates. Geophys Res Lett. 2017; 44 (14):7419–7428. doi: 10.1002/2017GL074117. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lemery J, Knowlton K, Sorensen C (2021) Global climate change and human health: from science to practice: John Wiley & Sons
• Leppänen S, Saikkonen L, Ollikainen M (2014) Impact of Climate Change on cereal grain production in Russia: Mimeo
• Lipczynska-Kochany E. Effect of climate change on humic substances and associated impacts on the quality of surface water and groundwater: a review. Sci Total Environ. 2018; 640 :1548–1565. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.05.376. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• livescience.com. New coronavirus may have ‘jumped’ to humans from snakes, study finds, live science,. from < https://www.livescience.com/new-coronavirus-origin-snakes.html > accessed on Jan 2020
• Lobell DB, Field CB. Global scale climate–crop yield relationships and the impacts of recent warming. Environ Res Lett. 2007; 2 (1):014002. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/2/1/014002. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lobell DB, Gourdji SM. The influence of climate change on global crop productivity. Plant Physiol. 2012; 160 (4):1686–1697. doi: 10.1104/pp.112.208298. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ma L, Li B, Zhang T. New insights into antibiotic resistome in drinking water and management perspectives: a metagenomic based study of small-sized microbes. Water Res. 2019; 152 :191–201. doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.12.069. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Macchi M, Oviedo G, Gotheil S, Cross K, Boedhihartono A, Wolfangel C, Howell M (2008) Indigenous and traditional peoples and climate change. International Union for the Conservation of Nature, Gland, Suiza
• Mall RK, Gupta A, Sonkar G (2017) Effect of climate change on agricultural crops. In Current developments in biotechnology and bioengineering (pp. 23–46). Elsevier
• Manes S, Costello MJ, Beckett H, Debnath A, Devenish-Nelson E, Grey KA, . . . Krause C (2021) Endemism increases species’ climate change risk in areas of global biodiversity importance. Biol Conserv 257:109070
• Mannig B, Pollinger F, Gafurov A, Vorogushyn S, Unger-Shayesteh K (2018) Impacts of climate change in Central Asia Encyclopedia of the Anthropocene (pp. 195–203): Elsevier
• Martínez-Alvarado O, Gray SL, Hart NC, Clark PA, Hodges K, Roberts MJ. Increased wind risk from sting-jet windstorms with climate change. Environ Res Lett. 2018; 13 (4):044002. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/aaae3a. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Matsui T, Omasa K, Horie T. The difference in sterility due to high temperatures during the flowering period among japonica-rice varieties. Plant Production Science. 2001; 4 (2):90–93. doi: 10.1626/pps.4.90. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Meierrieks D (2021) Weather shocks, climate change and human health. World Dev 138:105228
• Michel D, Eriksson M, Klimes M (2021) Climate change and (in) security in transboundary river basins Handbook of Security and the Environment: Edward Elgar Publishing
• Mihiretu A, Okoyo EN, Lemma T. Awareness of climate change and its associated risks jointly explain context-specific adaptation in the Arid-tropics. Northeast Ethiopia SN Social Sciences. 2021; 1 (2):1–18. [ Google Scholar ]
• Millar CI, Stephenson NL. Temperate forest health in an era of emerging megadisturbance. Science. 2015; 349 (6250):823–826. doi: 10.1126/science.aaa9933. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mishra A, Bruno E, Zilberman D (2021) Compound natural and human disasters: Managing drought and COVID-19 to sustain global agriculture and food sectors. Sci Total Environ 754:142210 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ]
• Mosavi SH, Soltani S, Khalilian S (2020) Coping with climate change in agriculture: Evidence from Hamadan-Bahar plain in Iran. Agric Water Manag 241:106332
• Murshed M (2020) An empirical analysis of the non-linear impacts of ICT-trade openness on renewable energy transition, energy efficiency, clean cooking fuel access and environmental sustainability in South Asia. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27(29):36254–36281. 10.1007/s11356-020-09497-3 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ]
• Murshed M. Pathways to clean cooking fuel transition in low and middle income Sub-Saharan African countries: the relevance of improving energy use efficiency. Sustainable Production and Consumption. 2022; 30 :396–412. doi: 10.1016/j.spc.2021.12.016. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Murshed M, Dao NTT. Revisiting the CO2 emission-induced EKC hypothesis in South Asia: the role of Export Quality Improvement. GeoJournal. 2020 doi: 10.1007/s10708-020-10270-9. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Murshed M, Abbass K, Rashid S. Modelling renewable energy adoption across south Asian economies: Empirical evidence from Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Int J Finan Eco. 2021; 26 (4):5425–5450. doi: 10.1002/ijfe.2073. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Murshed M, Nurmakhanova M, Elheddad M, Ahmed R. Value addition in the services sector and its heterogeneous impacts on CO2 emissions: revisiting the EKC hypothesis for the OPEC using panel spatial estimation techniques. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2020; 27 (31):38951–38973. doi: 10.1007/s11356-020-09593-4. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Murshed M, Nurmakhanova M, Al-Tal R, Mahmood H, Elheddad M, Ahmed R (2022) Can intra-regional trade, renewable energy use, foreign direct investments, and economic growth reduce ecological footprints in South Asia? Energy Sources, Part B: Economics, Planning, and Policy. 10.1080/15567249.2022.2038730
• Neuvonen M, Sievänen T, Fronzek S, Lahtinen I, Veijalainen N, Carter TR. Vulnerability of cross-country skiing to climate change in Finland–an interactive mapping tool. J Outdoor Recreat Tour. 2015; 11 :64–79. doi: 10.1016/j.jort.2015.06.010. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• npr.org. Please Help Me.’ What people in China are saying about the outbreak on social media, npr.org, . from < https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2020/01/24/799000379/please-help-me-what-people-in-china-are-saying-about-the-outbreak-on-social-medi >, Accessed on 26 Jan 2020.
• Ogden LE. Climate change, pathogens, and people: the challenges of monitoring a moving target. Bioscience. 2018; 68 (10):733–739. doi: 10.1093/biosci/biy101. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ortiz AMD, Outhwaite CL, Dalin C, Newbold T. A review of the interactions between biodiversity, agriculture, climate change, and international trade: research and policy priorities. One Earth. 2021; 4 (1):88–101. doi: 10.1016/j.oneear.2020.12.008. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ortiz R. Crop genetic engineering under global climate change. Ann Arid Zone. 2008; 47 (3):343. [ Google Scholar ]
• Otegui MAE, Bonhomme R. Grain yield components in maize: I. Ear growth and kernel set. Field Crop Res. 1998; 56 (3):247–256. doi: 10.1016/S0378-4290(97)00093-2. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pachauri RK, Allen MR, Barros VR, Broome J, Cramer W, Christ R, . . . Dasgupta P (2014) Climate change 2014: synthesis report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: Ipcc
• Pal JK. Visualizing the knowledge outburst in global research on COVID-19. Scientometrics. 2021; 126 (5):4173–4193. doi: 10.1007/s11192-021-03912-3. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Panda R, Behera S, Kashyap P. Effective management of irrigation water for wheat under stressed conditions. Agric Water Manag. 2003; 63 (1):37–56. doi: 10.1016/S0378-3774(03)00099-4. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pärnänen KM, Narciso-da-Rocha C, Kneis D, Berendonk TU, Cacace D, Do TT, Jaeger T. Antibiotic resistance in European wastewater treatment plants mirrors the pattern of clinical antibiotic resistance prevalence. Sci Adv. 2019; 5 (3):eaau9124. doi: 10.1126/sciadv.aau9124. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Parry M, Parry ML, Canziani O, Palutikof J, Van der Linden P, Hanson C (2007) Climate change 2007-impacts, adaptation and vulnerability: Working group II contribution to the fourth assessment report of the IPCC (Vol. 4): Cambridge University Press
• Patz JA, Campbell-Lendrum D, Holloway T, Foley JA. Impact of regional climate change on human health. Nature. 2005; 438 (7066):310–317. doi: 10.1038/nature04188. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Patz JA, Graczyk TK, Geller N, Vittor AY. Effects of environmental change on emerging parasitic diseases. Int J Parasitol. 2000; 30 (12–13):1395–1405. doi: 10.1016/S0020-7519(00)00141-7. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pautasso M, Döring TF, Garbelotto M, Pellis L, Jeger MJ. Impacts of climate change on plant diseases—opinions and trends. Eur J Plant Pathol. 2012; 133 (1):295–313. doi: 10.1007/s10658-012-9936-1. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Peng S, Huang J, Sheehy JE, Laza RC, Visperas RM, Zhong X, Cassman KG. Rice yields decline with higher night temperature from global warming. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2004; 101 (27):9971–9975. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0403720101. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pereira HM, Ferrier S, Walters M, Geller GN, Jongman R, Scholes RJ, Cardoso A. Essential biodiversity variables. Science. 2013; 339 (6117):277–278. doi: 10.1126/science.1229931. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Perera K, De Silva K, Amarasinghe M. Potential impact of predicted sea level rise on carbon sink function of mangrove ecosystems with special reference to Negombo estuary, Sri Lanka. Global Planet Change. 2018; 161 :162–171. doi: 10.1016/j.gloplacha.2017.12.016. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pfadenhauer JS, Klötzli FA (2020) Zonal Vegetation of the Subtropical (Warm–Temperate) Zone with Winter Rain. In Global Vegetation (pp. 455–514). Springer, Cham
• Phillips JD. Environmental gradients and complexity in coastal landscape response to sea level rise. CATENA. 2018; 169 :107–118. doi: 10.1016/j.catena.2018.05.036. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pirasteh-Anosheh H, Parnian A, Spasiano D, Race M, Ashraf M (2021) Haloculture: A system to mitigate the negative impacts of pandemics on the environment, society and economy, emphasizing COVID-19. Environ Res 111228 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ]
• Pruden A, Larsson DJ, Amézquita A, Collignon P, Brandt KK, Graham DW, Snape JR. Management options for reducing the release of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes to the environment. Environ Health Perspect. 2013; 121 (8):878–885. doi: 10.1289/ehp.1206446. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Qasim MZ, Hammad HM, Abbas F, Saeed S, Bakhat HF, Nasim W, Fahad S. The potential applications of picotechnology in biomedical and environmental sciences. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2020; 27 (1):133–142. doi: 10.1007/s11356-019-06554-4. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Qasim MZ, Hammad HM, Maqsood F, Tariq T, Chawla MS Climate Change Implication on Cereal Crop Productivity
• Rahman M, Alam K. Forest dependent indigenous communities’ perception and adaptation to climate change through local knowledge in the protected area—a Bangladesh case study. Climate. 2016; 4 (1):12. doi: 10.3390/cli4010012. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ramankutty N, Mehrabi Z, Waha K, Jarvis L, Kremen C, Herrero M, Rieseberg LH. Trends in global agricultural land use: implications for environmental health and food security. Annu Rev Plant Biol. 2018; 69 :789–815. doi: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-042817-040256. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rehman A, Ma H, Ahmad M, Irfan M, Traore O, Chandio AA (2021) Towards environmental Sustainability: devolving the influence of carbon dioxide emission to population growth, climate change, Forestry, livestock and crops production in Pakistan. Ecol Indic 125:107460
• Reichstein M, Carvalhais N. Aspects of forest biomass in the Earth system: its role and major unknowns. Surv Geophys. 2019; 40 (4):693–707. doi: 10.1007/s10712-019-09551-x. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Reidsma P, Ewert F, Boogaard H, van Diepen K. Regional crop modelling in Europe: the impact of climatic conditions and farm characteristics on maize yields. Agric Syst. 2009; 100 (1–3):51–60. doi: 10.1016/j.agsy.2008.12.009. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ritchie H, Roser M (2014) Natural disasters. Our World in Data
• Rizvi AR, Baig S, Verdone M. Ecosystems based adaptation: knowledge gaps in making an economic case for investing in nature based solutions for climate change. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN; 2015. p. 48. [ Google Scholar ]
• Roscher C, Fergus AJ, Petermann JS, Buchmann N, Schmid B, Schulze E-D. What happens to the sown species if a biodiversity experiment is not weeded? Basic Appl Ecol. 2013; 14 (3):187–198. doi: 10.1016/j.baae.2013.01.003. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rosenzweig C, Elliott J, Deryng D, Ruane AC, Müller C, Arneth A, Khabarov N. Assessing agricultural risks of climate change in the 21st century in a global gridded crop model intercomparison. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2014; 111 (9):3268–3273. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1222463110. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rosenzweig C, Iglesius A, Yang XB, Epstein PR, Chivian E (2001) Climate change and extreme weather events-implications for food production, plant diseases, and pests
• Sadras VO, Slafer GA. Environmental modulation of yield components in cereals: heritabilities reveal a hierarchy of phenotypic plasticities. Field Crop Res. 2012; 127 :215–224. doi: 10.1016/j.fcr.2011.11.014. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Salvucci ME, Crafts-Brandner SJ. Inhibition of photosynthesis by heat stress: the activation state of Rubisco as a limiting factor in photosynthesis. Physiol Plant. 2004; 120 (2):179–186. doi: 10.1111/j.0031-9317.2004.0173.x. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Santos WS, Gurgel-Gonçalves R, Garcez LM, Abad-Franch F. Deforestation effects on Attalea palms and their resident Rhodnius, vectors of Chagas disease, in eastern Amazonia. PLoS ONE. 2021; 16 (5):e0252071. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0252071. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sarkar P, Debnath N, Reang D (2021) Coupled human-environment system amid COVID-19 crisis: a conceptual model to understand the nexus. Sci Total Environ 753:141757 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ]
• Schlenker W, Roberts MJ. Nonlinear temperature effects indicate severe damages to US crop yields under climate change. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2009; 106 (37):15594–15598. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0906865106. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Schoene DH, Bernier PY. Adapting forestry and forests to climate change: a challenge to change the paradigm. Forest Policy Econ. 2012; 24 :12–19. doi: 10.1016/j.forpol.2011.04.007. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Schuurmans C (2021) The world heat budget: expected changes Climate Change (pp. 1–15): CRC Press
• Scott D. Sustainable Tourism and the Grand Challenge of Climate Change. Sustainability. 2021; 13 (4):1966. doi: 10.3390/su13041966. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Scott D, McBoyle G, Schwartzentruber M. Climate change and the distribution of climatic resources for tourism in North America. Climate Res. 2004; 27 (2):105–117. doi: 10.3354/cr027105. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Semenov MA. Impacts of climate change on wheat in England and Wales. J R Soc Interface. 2009; 6 (33):343–350. doi: 10.1098/rsif.2008.0285. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Shaffril HAM, Krauss SE, Samsuddin SF. A systematic review on Asian’s farmers’ adaptation practices towards climate change. Sci Total Environ. 2018; 644 :683–695. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.06.349. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Shahbaz M, Balsalobre-Lorente D, Sinha A (2019) Foreign direct Investment–CO2 emissions nexus in Middle East and North African countries: Importance of biomass energy consumption. J Clean Product 217:603–614
• Sharif A, Mishra S, Sinha A, Jiao Z, Shahbaz M, Afshan S (2020) The renewable energy consumption-environmental degradation nexus in Top-10 polluted countries: Fresh insights from quantile-on-quantile regression approach. Renew Energy 150:670–690
• Sharma R. Impacts on human health of climate and land use change in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan region. Mt Res Dev. 2012; 32 (4):480–486. doi: 10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-12-00068.1. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sharma R, Sinha A, Kautish P. Examining the impacts of economic and demographic aspects on the ecological footprint in South and Southeast Asian countries. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2020; 27 (29):36970–36982. doi: 10.1007/s11356-020-09659-3. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Smit B, Burton I, Klein RJ, Wandel J (2000) An anatomy of adaptation to climate change and variability Societal adaptation to climate variability and change (pp. 223–251): Springer
• Song Y, Fan H, Tang X, Luo Y, Liu P, Chen Y (2021) The effects of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) on ischemic stroke and the possible underlying mechanisms. Int J Neurosci 1–20 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ]
• Sovacool BK, Griffiths S, Kim J, Bazilian M (2021) Climate change and industrial F-gases: a critical and systematic review of developments, sociotechnical systems and policy options for reducing synthetic greenhouse gas emissions. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 141:110759
• Stewart JA, Perrine JD, Nichols LB, Thorne JH, Millar CI, Goehring KE, Wright DH. Revisiting the past to foretell the future: summer temperature and habitat area predict pika extirpations in California. J Biogeogr. 2015; 42 (5):880–890. doi: 10.1111/jbi.12466. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Stocker T, Qin D, Plattner G, Tignor M, Allen S, Boschung J, . . . Midgley P (2013) Climate change 2013: The physical science basis. Working group I contribution to the IPCC Fifth assessment report: Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1535p
• Stone P, Nicolas M. Wheat cultivars vary widely in their responses of grain yield and quality to short periods of post-anthesis heat stress. Funct Plant Biol. 1994; 21 (6):887–900. doi: 10.1071/PP9940887. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Su H-C, Liu Y-S, Pan C-G, Chen J, He L-Y, Ying G-G. Persistence of antibiotic resistance genes and bacterial community changes in drinking water treatment system: from drinking water source to tap water. Sci Total Environ. 2018; 616 :453–461. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.318. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sunderlin WD, Angelsen A, Belcher B, Burgers P, Nasi R, Santoso L, Wunder S. Livelihoods, forests, and conservation in developing countries: an overview. World Dev. 2005; 33 (9):1383–1402. doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2004.10.004. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Symanski E, Han HA, Han I, McDaniel M, Whitworth KW, McCurdy S, . . . Delclos GL (2021) Responding to natural and industrial disasters: partnerships and lessons learned. Disaster medicine and public health preparedness 1–4 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ]
• Tao F, Yokozawa M, Xu Y, Hayashi Y, Zhang Z. Climate changes and trends in phenology and yields of field crops in China, 1981–2000. Agric for Meteorol. 2006; 138 (1–4):82–92. doi: 10.1016/j.agrformet.2006.03.014. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tebaldi C, Hayhoe K, Arblaster JM, Meehl GA. Going to the extremes. Clim Change. 2006; 79 (3–4):185–211. doi: 10.1007/s10584-006-9051-4. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Testa G, Koon E, Johannesson L, McKenna G, Anthony T, Klintmalm G, Gunby R (2018) This article has been accepted for publication and undergone full peer review but has not been through the copyediting, typesetting, pagination and proofreading process, which may lead to differences between this version and the Version of Record. Please cite this article as
• Thornton PK, Lipper L (2014) How does climate change alter agricultural strategies to support food security? (Vol. 1340): Intl Food Policy Res Inst
• Tranfield D, Denyer D, Smart P. Towards a methodology for developing evidence-informed management knowledge by means of systematic review. Br J Manag. 2003; 14 (3):207–222. doi: 10.1111/1467-8551.00375. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• UNEP (2017) United nations environment programme: frontiers 2017. from https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/press-release/antimicrobial-resistance - environmental-pollution-among-biggest
• Usman M, Balsalobre-Lorente D (2022) Environmental concern in the era of industrialization: Can financial development, renewable energy and natural resources alleviate some load? Ene Policy 162:112780
• Usman M, Makhdum MSA (2021) What abates ecological footprint in BRICS-T region? Exploring the influence of renewable energy, non-renewable energy, agriculture, forest area and financial development. Renew Energy 179:12–28
• Usman M, Balsalobre-Lorente D, Jahanger A, Ahmad P. Pollution concern during globalization mode in financially resource-rich countries: Do financial development, natural resources, and renewable energy consumption matter? Rene. Energy. 2022; 183 :90–102. doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2021.10.067. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Usman M, Jahanger A, Makhdum MSA, Balsalobre-Lorente D, Bashir A (2022a) How do financial development, energy consumption, natural resources, and globalization affect Arctic countries’ economic growth and environmental quality? An advanced panel data simulation. Energy 241:122515
• Usman M, Khalid K, Mehdi MA. What determines environmental deficit in Asia? Embossing the role of renewable and non-renewable energy utilization. Renew Energy. 2021; 168 :1165–1176. doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2021.01.012. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Urban MC. Accelerating extinction risk from climate change. Science. 2015; 348 (6234):571–573. doi: 10.1126/science.aaa4984. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Vale MM, Arias PA, Ortega G, Cardoso M, Oliveira BF, Loyola R, Scarano FR (2021) Climate change and biodiversity in the Atlantic Forest: best climatic models, predicted changes and impacts, and adaptation options The Atlantic Forest (pp. 253–267): Springer
• Vedwan N, Rhoades RE. Climate change in the Western Himalayas of India: a study of local perception and response. Climate Res. 2001; 19 (2):109–117. doi: 10.3354/cr019109. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Vega CR, Andrade FH, Sadras VO, Uhart SA, Valentinuz OR. Seed number as a function of growth. A comparative study in soybean, sunflower, and maize. Crop Sci. 2001; 41 (3):748–754. doi: 10.2135/cropsci2001.413748x. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Vergés A, Doropoulos C, Malcolm HA, Skye M, Garcia-Pizá M, Marzinelli EM, Vila-Concejo A. Long-term empirical evidence of ocean warming leading to tropicalization of fish communities, increased herbivory, and loss of kelp. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2016; 113 (48):13791–13796. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1610725113. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Verheyen R (2005) Climate change damage and international law: prevention duties and state responsibility (Vol. 54): Martinus Nijhoff Publishers
• Waheed A, Fischer TB, Khan MI. Climate Change Policy Coherence across Policies, Plans, and Strategies in Pakistan—implications for the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor Plan. Environ Manage. 2021; 67 (5):793–810. doi: 10.1007/s00267-021-01449-y. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wasiq M, Ahmad M (2004) Sustaining forests: a development strategy: The World Bank
• Watts N, Adger WN, Agnolucci P, Blackstock J, Byass P, Cai W, Cooper A. Health and climate change: policy responses to protect public health. The Lancet. 2015; 386 (10006):1861–1914. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60854-6. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Weed AS, Ayres MP, Hicke JA. Consequences of climate change for biotic disturbances in North American forests. Ecol Monogr. 2013; 83 (4):441–470. doi: 10.1890/13-0160.1. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Weisheimer A, Palmer T (2005) Changing frequency of occurrence of extreme seasonal temperatures under global warming. Geophys Res Lett 32(20)
• Wernberg T, Bennett S, Babcock RC, De Bettignies T, Cure K, Depczynski M, Hovey RK. Climate-driven regime shift of a temperate marine ecosystem. Science. 2016; 353 (6295):169–172. doi: 10.1126/science.aad8745. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• WHO (2018) WHO, 2018. Antimicrobial resistance
• Wilkinson DM, Sherratt TN. Why is the world green? The interactions of top–down and bottom–up processes in terrestrial vegetation ecology. Plant Ecolog Divers. 2016; 9 (2):127–140. doi: 10.1080/17550874.2016.1178353. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wiranata IJ, Simbolon K. Increasing awareness capacity of disaster potential as a support to achieve sustainable development goal (sdg) 13 in lampung province. Jurnal Pir: Power in International Relations. 2021; 5 (2):129–146. doi: 10.22303/pir.5.2.2021.129-146. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wiréhn L. Nordic agriculture under climate change: a systematic review of challenges, opportunities and adaptation strategies for crop production. Land Use Policy. 2018; 77 :63–74. doi: 10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.04.059. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wu D, Su Y, Xi H, Chen X, Xie B. Urban and agriculturally influenced water contribute differently to the spread of antibiotic resistance genes in a mega-city river network. Water Res. 2019; 158 :11–21. doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.03.010. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wu HX (2020) Losing Steam?—An industry origin analysis of China’s productivity slowdown Measuring Economic Growth and Productivity (pp. 137–167): Elsevier
• Wu H, Qian H, Chen J, Huo C. Assessment of agricultural drought vulnerability in the Guanzhong Plain. China Water Resources Management. 2017; 31 (5):1557–1574. doi: 10.1007/s11269-017-1594-9. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Xie W, Huang J, Wang J, Cui Q, Robertson R, Chen K (2018) Climate change impacts on China’s agriculture: the responses from market and trade. China Econ Rev
• Xu J, Sharma R, Fang J, Xu Y. Critical linkages between land-use transition and human health in the Himalayan region. Environ Int. 2008; 34 (2):239–247. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2007.08.004. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Yadav MK, Singh R, Singh K, Mall R, Patel C, Yadav S, Singh M. Assessment of climate change impact on productivity of different cereal crops in Varanasi. India J Agrometeorol. 2015; 17 (2):179–184. doi: 10.54386/jam.v17i2.1000. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Yang B, Usman M. Do industrialization, economic growth and globalization processes influence the ecological footprint and healthcare expenditures? Fresh insights based on the STIRPAT model for countries with the highest healthcare expenditures. Sust Prod Cons. 2021; 28 :893–910. [ Google Scholar ]
• Yu Z, Razzaq A, Rehman A, Shah A, Jameel K, Mor RS (2021) Disruption in global supply chain and socio-economic shocks: a lesson from COVID-19 for sustainable production and consumption. Oper Manag Res 1–16
• Zarnetske PL, Skelly DK, Urban MC. Biotic multipliers of climate change. Science. 2012; 336 (6088):1516–1518. doi: 10.1126/science.1222732. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Zhang M, Liu N, Harper R, Li Q, Liu K, Wei X, Liu S. A global review on hydrological responses to forest change across multiple spatial scales: importance of scale, climate, forest type and hydrological regime. J Hydrol. 2017; 546 :44–59. doi: 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.12.040. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Zhao J, Sinha A, Inuwa N, Wang Y, Murshed M, Abbasi KR (2022) Does Structural Transformation in Economy Impact Inequality in Renewable Energy Productivity? Implications for Sustainable Development. Renew Energy 189:853–864. 10.1016/j.renene.2022.03.050

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• My Account Login
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Perspective
• Open access
• Published: 27 October 2020

Towards a global-scale soil climate mitigation strategy

• W. Amelung   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4920-4667 1 , 2   na1 ,
• D. Bossio   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2296-9125 3 ,
• W. de Vries 4 ,
• I. Kögel-Knabner 5 ,
• J. Lehmann   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4701-2936 6 , 7 ,
• R. Amundson 8 ,
• R. Bol   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3015-7706 2 ,
• C. Collins 9 ,
• R. Lal   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9016-2972 10 ,
• J. Leifeld   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7245-9852 11 ,
• B. Minasny   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1182-2371 12 ,
• G. Pan 13 ,
• K. Paustian 14 ,
• C. Rumpel 15 ,
• J. Sanderman   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3215-1706 16 ,
• J. W. van Groenigen 17 ,
• S. Mooney   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3138-0355 18 ,
• B. van Wesemael 19 ,
• M. Wander   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6145-1580 20 &
• A. Chabbi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6567-4562 21 , 22   na1  

Nature Communications volume  11 , Article number:  5427 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

43k Accesses

288 Citations

235 Altmetric

Metrics details

• Biogeochemistry
• Climate sciences
• Environmental sciences

Sustainable soil carbon sequestration practices need to be rapidly scaled up and implemented to contribute to climate change mitigation. We highlight that the major potential for carbon sequestration is in cropland soils, especially those with large yield gaps and/or large historic soil organic carbon losses. The implementation of soil carbon sequestration measures requires a diverse set of options, each adapted to local soil conditions and management opportunities, and accounting for site-specific trade-offs. We propose the establishment of a soil information system containing localised information on soil group, degradation status, crop yield gap, and the associated carbon-sequestration potentials, as well as the provision of incentives and policies to translate management options into region- and soil-specific practices.

Similar content being viewed by others

A global database of land management, land-use change and climate change effects on soil organic carbon

Damien Beillouin, Julien Demenois, … Frédéric Feder

The role of soil carbon in natural climate solutions

D. A. Bossio, S. C. Cook-Patton, … B. W. Griscom

Global crop production increase by soil organic carbon

Yuqing Ma, Dominic Woolf, … Johannes Lehmann

Introduction

Over the past decade (2009–18), the net global increase in anthropogenic CO 2 emissions, after accounting for ocean and land sinks, was 4.9 Gt C yr −1   1 . It is now widely recognized that to tackle the resulting climate change, it will be necessary to employ negative emission technologies in addition to drastically reducing fossil fuel emissions 2 . Sequestering organic carbon in soil may potentially, and in a technically feasible manner, remove between 0.79 and 1.54 Gt C yr −1 from the atmosphere 3 [p. 27], recognizing the substantial potential of soils in stabilizing the climate (e.g., ref. 4 ). However, to accumulate soil organic carbon (SOC) in globally relevant quantities, the world has to develop the policies and economic incentives to tap into this potential.

Soils have recently become part of the global carbon agenda for climate-change mitigation and adaptation through the launch of three high-level initiatives. These include the “4p1000 initiative”, which was launched at COP21 by UNFCC under the framework of the Lima-Paris Action Plan (LPAP) in Paris on December 1, 2015. The name of the initiative reflects that a comparatively small proportional increase (4‰) of the global SOC stocks in the top 0.3–0.4 m of all non-permafrost soils would be similar in magnitude to the annual global net atmospheric CO 2 growth 5 . The second initiatives were the Koronivia workshops on agriculture, which included soils and SOC for climate-change mitigation and were initiated at COP23 in 2018. Finally last year, the FAO launched RECSOIL, a program for the recarbonization of soils 6 . The message of all three initiatives is complementary and simple: increasing SOC can partly mitigate carbon emissions and is, at the same time, indispensable for the adaptation of agricultural systems to climate change due to the numerous co-benefits it offers. SOC has positive effects on soil structure, water retention, and nutrient supply, and is crucial to sustain ecosystem services and agricultural productivity.

Political and market support are needed to motivate farmers to adopt sustainable agricultural practices on a scale large enough to result in the transformation of agricultural production systems. Messages that are easy to convey are needed to engage with policymakers and practitioners. Thus, the intent of the 4p1000 initiative was to be simple and easy to communicate. The goal is aspirational in that it is not viable for all land uses, soils, and all regions 7 , 8 . It is also an inspirational target, designed to raise awareness of the need to improve soil health and food security with opportunities for climate-change mitigation 9 .

The implementation of SOC sequestration on a large-scale is complex, as it involves different soil groups (defined by an IUSS Working Group 10 ) and their specific management in different climate regions of the world. It will therefore need diverse tailored approaches. To achieve the required major changes in land-use practices, actions have to be supported by strong scientific, educational, political, and social programs that rely on multistakeholder interactions and transdisciplinary collaboration 9 . What those are, and how they would be instituted, remains the critical issue moving forward.

We identify region-specific opportunities for C sequestration as linked to both restoration of degraded soils and related improvement of crop yields. To gain and maintain SOC under climate change, we have to increase C inputs. We highlight that this is most easily communicated at sites where soils have both the largest C debt and where yield gap is high. At sites with low C debt, organic matter probably plays only a minor role in closing yield gaps. The identification of priority regions is supported by soil group as a basic mapping unit, which integrates relevant properties controlling yield and C storage, whereas the C-rich organic soils must remain protected. Hence, this paper offers a soil-specific perspective on feasible C sequestration and some of its trade-offs, which both depend on regional soil conditions, regional biomass availability, and, importantly, on regional social, economic, and political constraints.

Linking soil C sequestration to food security as the way ahead

Any ton of CO 2 that plants assimilate and that is subsequently sequestered in soil has been removed directly from the atmosphere and will thus help to mitigate climate change (Fig.  1 ). The science of CO 2 sequestration in soils is currently advanced enough to inform the creation of policy and incentive programs despite some uncertainty in the absolute sequestration rates of particular practices in specific places 11 , 12 , 13 . To be successfully implemented at a global scale, appropriate SOC sequestration management strategies are likely to be adopted faster if SOC  is considered not only as a means for mitigating climate change but also as a contributor to soil health, increased food security, and other sustainable development goals 14 , 15 , 16 .

Usually C is lost after land-use conversion from native ecosystems (e.g., peatlands, forests, grasslands) to arable land. Future C storage in agricultural fields then depends on agricultural management practices, with options to regain C by increasing the organic matter input relative to ongoing CO 2 release at best management practice options (BMP), to maintain C stocks by continued good agricultural practice (GAP), or to lose additional C by intensifying agriculture without additional C input, usually followed by soil degradation.

Currently, 33% of the global soils have been degraded 6 and have lost much of their SOC through the historical expansion of agriculture and pastoralism 17 and subsequent land-use conversion from native ecosystems (e.g., peatlands, forests, grasslands) to arable land (Fig.  1 ). This has resulted in a decline in soil structural stability, increased erosion risks, and reduced water storage and nutrient supplies. Soil degradation has thus become a major threat to food security, especially in developing countries 18 . Soil degradation can proceed when intensifying agriculture without additional C input. Soil degradation can be stopped with the maintenance of SOC stocks at good agricultural practice (GAP). However, by increasing the organic matter input relative to ongoing CO 2 release at best-management practice (BMP) options as, e.g., outlined in the 4p1000 flyer, soil degradation can be reversed by increasing SOC stocks 12 (Fig.  1 ). The related soil-health benefits from sequestering carbon may then help to close yield gaps in arable soils due to associated improvements in nutrient supplies, water-holding capacity, and soil structural stability 19 , 20 . Oldfield et al. 21 reported that building SOC has the potential to close 32% of the global yield gap for maize and 66% of that for wheat, while also reducing fertilizer needs by 5–7%, respectively. Closing the yield gap would also reduce the need for further agricultural expansion and associated potential SOC loss 12 . To achieve these benefits, priority for the transformation of agricultural systems to increase SOC sequestration should be given to regions with large yield gaps, e.g., up to 90%, sub-Saharan Africa, and South and West Asia [ www.yieldgap.org ] 22 .

Priority for the transformation of agricultural systems to increase SOC sequestration should also be given to regions with low SOC contents caused by large historic SOC losses 17 . Unfortunately, the total area of degraded soil, ranging from 1000 to 6000 M ha −1 , is not well-defined globally 23 , thus impairing a global agenda that can target land restoration and thereby support climate mitigation.

Yield gaps and historical SOC losses vary across regions, therefore biophysical sequestration potentials cannot be achieved to the same degree on all soils in all ecoregions. This is also due to site-specific nutrient requirements, which limit C sequestration in non-agricultural systems 7 , 8 , and which may cause trade-offs with nitrate release and particularly nitrous oxide emissions 24 , 25 , 26 . The analysis of yield gaps and soil C  debt in tropical and temperate soils (424 sites from 38 countries) shows that there is no direct relation between both parameters (Supplementary Fig.  1 and Supplementary Data  1 ), reflecting that the limitations of water and nutrients, in addition to SOC loss, are the major yield-limiting factors.

Options for measurement and verification

Soil management is highly decentralized, and to a large extent, under the control of individual landowners. Additional research is needed to accurately predict C sequestration potentials at farm-scale resolution and for different soil groups, while also accounting for historical land management and past sequestration success 27 . In particular, it is not currently feasible to verify sequestration rates that increase total SOC stocks by <1% on an annual basis using direct soil measurements 15 , 28 . Considering the general agreement that the most effective way to accumulate SOC is to increase C inputs 29 , 30 (Fig.  1 ), we may possibly overcome the desire of continuous assessment of changes in labile or stable SOC pools 31 . In other words, soils can remain at high organic carbon levels as long as improved management and C input are retained, irrespective of which form this carbon exists and how it is stabilized. We can thus promote shifts in management toward higher C inputs because the additional net amount of SOC sequestered will reside in soil until a new equilibrium is reached, which can take a few decades 32 .

It remains difficult to evaluate what quantitative contribution sequestered C finally makes to improving crop yields, and therefore to persuade regional policymakers to implement incentives if they cannot control the success of these measures 28 . In the search for a solution, some considerations exist to couple policy making with measurement and monitoring technologies on broader aggregate regional or global scales 33 , 34 , 35 , and to reward the C storage achieved to date, through so-called moving baselines 36 . Analytical tools to assess C storage exist and have been extensively discussed in the literature 17 , 28 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 . In particular when evaluated regionally against benchmark sites, such analytical tools provide clues to the potential long-term success of C- sequestration measures in the different soils of the world.

Region-specific potentials and opportunities for soil carbon sequestration

Potentials to sequester C in soil show substantial variation from one region to another, even under the same type of management, due to variations and gaps in current and potential SOC levels 41 , 42 . Variations in C sequestration potentials increase with differences in climate, soil groups, cropping systems, and available technologies as well as with different yield gaps ( www.yieldgap.org ) and soil-specific, historical C losses 43 . This unfortunate reality can be a barrier to the global implementation of a soil carbon climate-mitigation initiative, which will thus need a coordinated effort at regional scales adapted to these variations. Putting such region-specific potentials for C sequestration and/or loss into action requires actions with regard to finalizing yield gap maps and land-degradation maps and providing them at high resolution, obtaining relevant soil information for many regions of the world, and validating methodologies for measuring SOC and its effect on soil functions across farming systems, ecoregions, and country borders.

The most pressing need is the development of an agenda that includes (i) information on region-specific soil distribution and degradation status, (ii) matching of sustainable management practices to soil group and its degradation status, and (iii) stopping the C loss from specific soils that have the potential to significantly affect the global C balance, e.g., peatlands under drainage. Currently, only a few countries have robust monitoring, reporting, and verification systems, but there are ongoing research efforts to expand these capabilities 28 , 36 . Global harmonization of data acquisition as already initiated by FAO’s Global Soil Partnership ( http://www.fao.org/global-soil-partnership/en/ , e.g., Pillar four) and data sharing needs to be urgently intensified to provide science-based information on soil status and its response to climate change.

For (i): A soil group as defined in the World Reference base 10 already integrates information on basic properties relevant for soil fertility, such as pH, texture, cation exchange capacity, or hardpans. Different Reference Soil Groups also have different C storage potentials 44 , due to soil group-specific mechanisms of SOC stabilization 45 . This information should be utilized to guide the selection of priority areas for C sequestration and respective management.

In some west European countries, soils are already mapped at high resolution (e.g., 1:5000 for many areas of Germany, 1:20.000 in Belgium, 1:50.000 in the Netherlands and in France), and digital soil mapping should improve coverage. In these areas, SOC levels and soil degradation status are usually known; yet, the challenge is that this information cannot be utilized for a centralized climate-mitigation strategy due to restricted data access. Political will is needed to overcome such data protection issues when implementing large-scale SOC sequestration programs.

In developing countries, in contrast, such maps are frequently lacking or at a scale too coarse (e.g., 1:1,000,000 for Zambia) to infer site-specific management options from regional-scale map grids. The frequent lack of reliable, detailed maps of the state of soil degradation in these areas 23 makes it difficult to manage the link between food security and soil restoration through C sequestration. However, this link can be established if it is supported by local incentives for farmers and stakeholders, who are usually well informed about the status of their soils.

For (ii): matching sustainable practices to soil group and degradation status, two general soil categories have to be distinguished: mineral soils containing only a few percent of organic C, but which cover more than 90% of the landsurface, and organic soils that are rich in organic C, such as peatlands and wetlands, but which cover only 3% of the landsurface 46 but store more than 20% of all soil organic C 47 . The management practices to be applied to these two categories are expressly different 9 . In general, actions to increase SOC sequestration are focusing mainly on mineral soils, while the objective for organic soils is to reduce SOC loss.

Practices that retain and increase SOC stocks in agricultural soils are well established 13 , but may require more action to implement them. Many of these practices relate to known best-management practices to improve food security 48 , 49 . In China, for example, available best-management practices could attain net SOC sequestration equivalent to one-third of the potential for agricultural soils 50 , 51 . The proposed measures will, in particular, sequester C where the soils have lost SOC in the past. To gain and maintain SOC over time, we thus have to increase and maintain C input (Fig.  1 ), at best via increased crop-residue return and maintenance of increased yield.

The practices to be employed should be soil group-specific, accounting for their actual degradation status, as both aspects affect C storage potentials 44 , 45 . The contrasting physicochemical properties of these soils can be utilized to define management needs for SOC sequestration in the respective regions where these soil groups dominate. Examples of adequate practices for target major reference soil groups are given by Driessen et al. 52 and outlined in Box  1 , thus also highlighting target regions where these soils are most abundant (see Box  1 and Supplementary Information for more details). To restore degraded soils, specific management options usually have to be combined. When soils are little if at all degraded and yield is already at optimum, the potential to sequester additional SOC sustainably is limited. It should be kept in mind that higher inputs might be needed in these soils under climate change to maintain actual C contents.

Even with soil-specific management, global yields and thus the closure of yield gaps for sequestering C in soil rely on the addition of fertilizers, particularly of N. Linking C sequestration to food security thus requires sustainable management of N by relying, e.g., on site-specific fertilizer recommendations, as well as on other means such as organic residue return and the use of legume plants to fix atmospheric N wherever possible. A soil group-specific evaluation of these chances and risks is still lacking.

Measures that are less dependent on additional N storage are options of using biochar within the value chain for sequestering C and improving yields (e.g., refs. 53 , 54 , with potential co-benefits for, e.g., N efficiency (see Supplementary Information). Yet, also these options are likely soil and crop and possibly even management specific 54 . Hence, for biochar application as well as for other options indicated above (Box  1 ), soil-specific differences require local implementation advice.

Due to the size and fragility of the carbon stock in wetlands and peatlands, (iii) SOC losses must be stopped from these soils, i.e., their management merits separate attention in carbon-sequestration-focused efforts 55 , 56 , 57 . Between 1850 and 2015, c. 50 Mha of peatlands have been drained, half of it for agriculture, with the released 80 Gt CO 2 -eq. Towards the end of the century, cumulative emissions from drained peatlands without management change may reach 250 Gt CO 2 -eq 58 . Whereas historically, most emissions were derived from the temperate zone, drained tropical peatlands, particularly in SE Asia, contribute the major part of current emissions 59 .

Upon rewetting, however, these emissions can be substantially lowered 60 and eventually even reversed 61 . Rewetting might occur at the expense of producing food, fiber, and bioenergy crops and may require enhanced food production in other areas. Yet, the area of organic soils currently used for agriculture of c. 25 Mha is <1.5% of the global cropland and managed grassland area. Taking managed peatlands out of production might be a viable approach to meet multiple targets of climate mitigation, combating biodiversity loss, and restoring regional hydrology. Sparing peatlands for natural regeneration could be compensated by closing yield gaps 62 .

Box 1: Soil-specific options for carbon sequestration (exemplarily)

• Reasoning given in Supplementary Information soils classified according to Word Reference Base 10 .

Economic and political opportunities to achieve widespread adoption of soil carbon-promoting management measures

Financing gaps exist to sequester climatically significant amounts of C in soils, especially in developing countries. Even if funds can be provided, they must be accompanied by the development of institutions and processes that can support such investments. This is especially relevant in countries that are politically unstable and lack robust financial and regulatory institutions, such as some regions of the tropic and subtropics, where the need for yield increase with related soil C sequestration is greatest. In North America, Australia, and Europe, such institutions exist, but despite this, these regions have not sequestered climatically significant quantities of C to date.

An additional issue is estimating the change in the value of co-benefits, such as the promotion of biodiversity or regulation of the water cycle, erosion reduction, or other societal benefits as a result of soil management changes 63 , 64 , 65 . These co-benefits also vary spatially and temporally and generate a range of private values for individual farmers who create them and for society as a whole that also obtains public value from these benefits.

At present, SOC has not been successfully featured into market-based policies, for two overarching reasons: (1) payments for ecosystem services (PES), including C sequestration in soil, are rarely concrete as the benefits are difficult to measure and not standardized, thus requiring mediation between global beneficiaries and local and regional service providers. (2) Individual land managers do not focus on sequestering C but on agricultural production. Therefore, it is necessary to create additional incentives for farmers to sequester additional SOC, such as identifying enhancements in productivity, superior market access, or financial returns to carbon assets 66 .

Net cost estimates for changing management practices to increase SOC range from $3/ton CO 2 to $130/ton CO 2 67 . They are influenced by soil-specific management change and related ability to increase SOC at a given site (Box  1 ), i.e., these costs vary considerably across regional scales. Nevertheless, incentives to adopt management changes that sequester additional C have a history of some success, either created by the public or private sectors (or both), for example, in Australia 66 . Potential incentives include subsidies, taxes, and market-based payments for carbon or cap and trade systems, the right choice depending on regional or national politics, societal preferences, and implementation costs 13 , 35 . Each of these options deserves further scrutiny for their suitability to lead to large-scale SOC sequestration.

Social norms as well as psychological and behavioral factors need to be considered for widespread adoption of soil carbon-promoting management measures 13 , 68 . These uncertainties and complexities make a regional and particularly a national soil management strategy for carbon sequestration a so-called wicked policy issue, with multiple potential avenues 69 . As a wicked problem, it cannot be solved with single policy action. In this context, it is crucial to identify strategies that meet multiple goals by linking soil C sequestration and greenhouse gas-emission reductions to food security, biodiversity, and environmental quality. The solutions that are achievable are likely to be diverse and incremental. There will be no single global “silver bullet”, but rather a vast array of small, diverse, and hopefully interconnecting “silver buckshot” policies 70 .

Tasks and agenda for implementation

There is a general agreement that the most effective way to accumulate SOC is to increase C inputs (Fig.  1 (eg., refs. 29 , 30 ); organic substrates fulfill this purpose only partly if at all, because meaningful increases of carbon sequestration at one farm or region must occur without simultaneous reductions in SOC at another location from where this material is transported from. Hence, organic C inputs into soil must be produced on-site, i.e., by enhancing crop production and green manure 71 .

Based on the challenges to develop a global agenda, we suggest to focus on seven main points of research and development (R&D) that can support local or region-specific SOC sequestration schemes (Figure for Box  2 ; see “need to know” criteria), with six additional research foci that would help to further advance the agenda of a global soil–climate-mitigation strategy (figure for Box  2 ; “nice to have” criteria, see Supplementary Information for more detailed reasoning). Focusing on yield gaps is one option to make implementation feasible because it is transparent and accepted by farmers. However, it may not be the tool to maximize overall C sequestration, due to weak direct global correlations with the yield gap (Supplementary Fig.  1 and Supplementary Information, see also 21 . For the latter, we have to consider overall and soil-group-specific C sequestration potentials (figure for Box  2 , right), as well as alignments to other co-benefits, such as biodiversity, regulation of the water cycle, and specific country needs, e.g., biowaste recycling in China.

In as much as yield gaps relate to soil degradation, any means to restore soils will increase yields, crop-residue return, and therewith contribute to sequestering CO 2 from the atmosphere. These links, though logically well understood, are difficult to quantify at high spatial resolution. We identified the following seven urgent needs to make a global soil mitigation strategy successful (figure for Box  2 ):

Improve soil and yield gap information systems for different regions of the world: Currently, soil degradation maps are not reliable 23 and frequently not available at a regional scale. The yield gap atlas ( www.yieldgap.org ) does not yet include all countries. Soil maps, when existing, are frequently provided at a resolution too coarse and thus not good enough for regional soil management and for informing farmers about how to optimize SOC management at the local level, especially in many tropical and subtropical countries such as sub-Saharan Africa.

Reliable predictions of local and regional yield development per tons sequestered C : The main potential for significant carbon sequestration lies in the world’s arable soils with large yield gaps due to low availability of nutrients and/or organic matter. To help farmers adopt SOC sequestration practices, information on the response to yield enhancement through increased SOC in different regions of the world is crucial. Improved agricultural yields due to increased SOC were first reported by Lal 72 and Pan et al. 20 . Recent meta-analyses suggest that yield increases flatten out at 2% SOC 21 . Global maps with region-specific yield responses related to SOC increases therefore will greatly support the efficient implementation of sustainable SOC sequestration practices.

Additional fertilizer requirements for sustainable C sequestration : Soil organic carbon sequestration frequently requires large amounts of mineral fertilizers 7 , in particular to replace nutrient removal with harvest and/or to increase the fertility of degraded land 73 . As fertilizer production is energy consuming, however, we should never aim at maximizing C sequestration by maximizing N or other nutrient inputs. Instead, fertilizer input should be synchronized to plant uptake and site-specific, pedoclimatic conditions to prevent losses into the gas phase or contamination of water bodies 74 , 75 , as well as to reduce costs.

Full life-cycle greenhouse gas accounting within C sequestering farming systems: To be able to evaluate the efficiency of soil C sequestration measures, their impact on other greenhouse gas emissions has to be taken into account. This may concern machinery use and transport as well as other greenhouse gas emissions during, e.g., fertilizer production. Life-cycle analyses have been applied for biochar use as a negative emission strategy 53 . They are particularly necessary with regards to N fertilizer use, which inevitably generates N 2 O emissions with a global warming potential exceeding that of CO 2 by a factor of almost 300, depending on the time horizon under consideration 26 , 76 . Relatively modest increases in N 2 O (or CH 4 ) emissions could partly, or even completely, offset any reductions in atmospheric CO 2 resulting from increased soil C storage 24 .

Assessment and regional mapping of soil C sequestration: While incentives for farmers may promote C sequestration at farm scale, policy advice at regional or national scale requires larger scale predictions of possible SOC-sequestration potentials by simple analytical tools or modeling approaches 28 , 36 , 77 .

Accounting “ off-site ” transfers of organic amendments, e.g., manure, compost, biochar, to the soil at a state or country level: A meaningful increase of C  sequestration at one farm or region must occur without simultaneous reductions in SOC at another location. In the carbon market, this option is known as “carbon leakage”, and its consideration is an important pillar of mitigation policy. This could be the case, e.g., by the use of manure or compost that is bought and transported from another region where it is not in excess and also needed for maintaining or improving C storage and soil fertility. Data collection could be done via declaration forms; for instance, German farmers complete such a form when they apply farmyard manure, including the origin of the manure used.

The Broad ensemble of policies and bottom-up approaches including farmers’ incentives, societal standards, and actions to scale up adoption of C sequestering practices : The overall social, economic, and cultural challenges of changing management toward soil C sequestration should be addressed through a diverse set of incentives and measures. They must take into account region-specific barriers that may hinder the implementation of C-sequestration practices in soil, such as security of tenure, lack of financial resources, or gender equality 9 , 78 .

Government farm subsidies represent a significant source of support for global farming, conservation, and other related activities, currently totaling an estimated US$445 billion per year 79 . Some of these expenditures could be focused on sites and activities most beneficial for climate-change mitigation. We suggest to start identifying priority sites based on indicators for C sequestration potentials and then comparing these with yield gap analyses or vice versa (figure for Box  2 , right scheme), followed by soil-specific amelioration measures. Yet, low yield gaps should not necessarily prevent action, because there may also be high C sequestration potentials on fertile lands if the actual yield gap is low, and because the achievements of co-benefits like biodiversity, water storage and resilience may change priority setting (see also Supplementary Table  1 , Supplementary Information, for an example of a more detailed site prioritization).

A related scheme for site prioritization could potentially be applied to any country, focusing on the specific soils and yield gaps of region-specific crops of the region, with paddy rice, for instance, in SE Asia, wheat in Austalia and Europe, or maize in North America and Africa. As an example, Table  1 illustrates such a case scenario for water-limited yield gaps for maize at three sites in Zambia (see Supplementary Data  1 for individual data collection). Consultation from local soil scientists and agricultural officers or even targeted field surveys may be needed to derive soil group and specific degradation status. A related success story is the Farmer Input Support Program of Zambia, where the government supports efficient soil fertilization by farmers via an E-voucher system, which increases crop-residue return and may thereby increase SOC, even at small-holder farm level ( http://www.pmrczambia.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Farmer-Input-Support-Programme-Infographic.pdf ). Soil scientists should document this success and coordinate long-term field experiments across the globe 80 , 81 . Moreover, soil scientists should also join forces to harmonize the different initiatives to map yield gaps, soils, and soil degradation status around the world. Any success stories, even small and local ones, can serve as templates for implementation.

It is critical to be aware that soil stewardship cannot be expected to alleviate all socioeconomic factors that impose a risk for investment and low yields. However, linkage to yield gaps can be easily communicated and thus facilitate acceptance by policymakers and farmers. It may circumvent the problem of persuading policymakers to implement incentives for soil C sequestration if they cannot measure whether it has happened after a reasonable timescale 28 , e.g., after 1 or 2 years. If not solely focussing on the amount of SOC sequestered itself but on closing yield gaps to restore formerly degraded soil, such focus can be more easily communicated, measured, and even re-finance investment schemes. This will lead to more organic C being introduced into the soil through best-management practices that are adjusted to the specific soil condition. The site-specificity of best-management practice justifies an agenda of diversification. To achieve this, we need to consider data protection issues in using localized soil information for climate-mitigation measures and regulating excessive N inputs in order to reduce trade-offs from N 2 O release and nitrate pollution.

The greatest current impediments to introducing sustainable soil management practices are the absence of adoption incentives. However, it is already relatively common, in some nations, to tie compliance with conservation goals to price support or to crop insurance payments 82 . This can be (and has been) a successful method for improving soil management. Orientating such policies on a combination of increasing crop yields where needed and soil-specific C sequestration potentials and amelioration measures can break down a global agenda for collaborative and successful action to the regional scale. Linking C sequestration in the soil to programs on food security and poverty alleviation in rural areas, soil health, and REDD + (reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation) and biodiversity might facilitate further policy development and accelerate implementation. Aligning UN conventions for climate change, biodiversity, and land-degradation neutrality would further reduce overlapping organizational efforts and accelerate the identification of regional priority areas. Moreover, it could help to bring SOC management closer to the heart of many important societal issues.

An example demonstrating that joint coordination can facilitate success is the organic standard, which refers to worldwide standards and certification issues in the organic food sector ( https://organicstandard.com/ ). This standard helped formalize the science–policy dialog, and engaged civil society into a discourse on sustainability and well-being 83 . This approach might also perform well in terms of C sequestration and associated conservation measures 84 , thus also supporting the achievement of other sustainable development goals.

Social and economic measures to implement C sequestration programs quickly and effectively include partnerships between business and the NGO sector. Particularly noteworthy are the activities of several large companies, such as Coca-Cola, Mars, Repsol, Fronterra, Walmart, or DANONE Inc, who have in response to consumer demand committed to significant emission reductions and actions which will lead to increased sustainability in agricultural systems. DANONE Inc, for example, is embarking on a program to become C neutral by 2050 ( https://www.danone.com/impact/planet/towards-carbon-neutrality.html ). Due to the scope and size of the corporation, the company may be able to influence farm management programs for an area about half the size of Belgium. Even though the programs may not sequester C at the desired quantity to offset global emissions, they may inspire further innovations once investments occur and new corporate policies are implemented by producers. Future policy action could include innovative structures that recognize the benefit from engaging with agribusinesses and related industries with supply-chains that have a land management component. An additional advantage of such a structure is the potential for more effective integration across and beyond geopolitical boundaries.

All the approaches we have suggested rely on multistakeholder collaboration. Even if orienting on soil-group-specific measures, the steps towards the global-scale soil–climate-mitigation strategy are therefore diverse, imperfect, incremental, and take time. However, they provide an opportunity because they are based on the real mechanisms to convert science into practice.

The future gives hope: through the 4p1000 initiative, FAO RECSOIL, and the Koronivia workshops on agriculture, we have laid the foundations for moving from discussion to opportunities to create sustainable solutions. A soil–climate-mitigation strategy will be globally successful if it takes soil-specific aspects into account. We can identify priority areas where soil organic C storage can improve soil fertility and crop yields to motivate farmers while excluding regions that can likely be disregarded because of negative trade-offs. However, future policy measures should (1) take into account the benefits of engagements with agribusinesses and related supply chain management industries that have a soil management component, (2) seek to encourage joint small-scale actions involving local actors from and across the border regions, and (3) improve local capabilities for sustainable site-specific soil management. These efforts are likely to be able to work more effectively across geopolitical boundaries, and to tackle the common task of soil–climate-change mitigation on a scale and at a level suited to the complex challenge of land management.

Box 2 Science R&D crucial to support the global implementation of C sequestration (need to know) and to further advance the agenda (nice to have)

Friedlingstein, P. et al. Global carbon budget (2019). Earth Syst. Sci. Data 11 , 1783–1838 (2019).

Anderson, C. M. et al. Natural climate solutions are not enough. Science 363 , 933–934 (2019).

Article   ADS   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Fuss, S. et al. Negative emissions—part 2: costs, potentials and side effects. Environ. Res. Lett. 13 , 063002 (2018).

Article   ADS   CAS   Google Scholar  

IPCC (2019): Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems (eds Shukla, P. R. et al.) https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2019/11/SRCCL-Full-Report-Compiled-191128.pdf .

Rumpel, C. et al. Put more carbon in soils to meet Paris climate pledges. Nature 564 , 32–34 (2018).

Food and Agriculture organisation of the united nations (FAO): Recarbonization of Global Soils - A dynamic response to offset global emissions, FAO, http://www.fao.org/3/i7235en/I7235EN.pdf (2019).

Van Groenigen, J. W. et al. Sequestering soil organic carbon: a nitrogen dilemma. Environ. Sci. Technol. 51 , 4738–4739 (2017).

Article   ADS   PubMed   CAS   Google Scholar  

De Vries, W. Soil carbon 4 per mille: a good initiative but let’s manage not only the soil but also the expectations. Geoderma 309 , 111–112 (2018).

Article   ADS   Google Scholar  

Rumpel, C. et al. The 4p1000 Initiative: opportunities, limitations and challenges for implementing soil organic carbon sequestration as a sustainable development strategy. Ambio 49 , 350 (2020).

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

IUSS Working Group WRB, (2015): World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2014, update 2015. International Soil Classification System for Naming Soils and Creating Legends for Soil Maps . World Soil Resources Reports No. 106 (FAO, Rome, 2015).

Minasny, B. et al. Soil carbon 4 per mille. Geoderma 292 , 59–86 (2017).

Lal, R. Digging deeper: a holistic perspective of factors affecting SOC sequestration. Global Change Biol. 24 , https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14054 (2018).

Sykes, A. J. et al. Characterising the biophysical, economic and social impacts of soil carbon sequestration as a greenhouse gas removal technology. Global Change Biol. 1–24, https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14844 (2019).

Koch, A. et al. Soil security: solving the global soil crisis. Glob. Policy 4 , 1758–5880 (2013).

Article   Google Scholar  

Paustian, K. et al. Climate-smart soils. Nature 532 , 49 (2016).

Chabbi, A. et al. Aligning agriculture and climate policy. Nat. Clim. Change 7 , 307–309 (2017).

Sanderman, J., Heng, T. & Fiske, G. J. Soil carbon debt of 12,000 years of human land use. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 114 , 9575–9580 (2017).

Article   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Gomiero, T. Soil degradation, land scarcity and food security: reviewing a complex challenge. Sustainability 8 , 1–4 (2016).

Lal, R. Carbon sequestration. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 363 , 815–830 (2008).

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Pan, G., Smith, P. & Pan, W. The role of soil organic matter in maintaining the productivity and yield stability of cereals in China. Agriculture, Ecosyst. Environ. 129 , 344–348 (2009).

Oldfield, E. E., Bradford, M. A. & Wood, S. A. Global meta-analysis of the relationship between soil organic matter and crop yields. Soil 5 , 15–32 (2019).

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

van Oort, P. A. J. et al. Can yield gap analysis be used to inform R&D prioritisation? Glob. Food Security 12 , 109–118 (2017).

Gibbs, H. K. & Salmon, J. M. Mapping the world’s degraded lands. Appl. Geogr. 57 , 12–21 (2015).

Li, C., Frolking, S. & Butterbach-Bahl, K. Carbon sequestration in arable soils is likely to increase nitrous oxide emissions, offsetting reductions in climate radiative forcing. Climatic Change 72 , 321–338 (2005).

Corsi, S., Friedrich, T., Kassam, A., Pisante, M. & de Moraes Sà, J. Soil organic carbon accumulation and greenhouse gas emission reductions from conservation agriculture: a literature review. Integrated Crop Management, Vol. 16, 89, ISBN 978-92-5-107187-8. (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) editor, Rome, 2012).

Lugato, E., Leip, A. & Jones, A. Mitigation potential of soil carbon management overestimated by neglecting N 2 O emissions. Nat. Clim. Change 8 , 219–223 (2018).

Paustian, K., Larson, E., Kent, J., Marx, E. & Swan, A. Soil C sequestration as a biological negative emission strategy. Front. Clim. 1 , 8 (2019).

Smith, P. et al. How to measure, report and verify soil carbon change to realize the potential of soil carbon sequestration for atmospheric greenhouse gas removal. Glob. Change Biol. 26 , 219–241 (2020).

Smith, P., Powlson, S. D. S., Glendining, M. J. & Smith, J. U. Potential for carbon sequestration in European soils: preliminary estimates for five scenarios using results from long-term experiments. Glob. Change Biol. 3 , 67–79 (1997).

Fujisaki, K. et al. Soil carbon stock changes in tropical croplands are mainly driven by carbon inputs: a synthesis. Agriculture, Ecosyst. Environ. 259 , 147–158 (2018).

Luo, Z., Viscarra Rossel, R. A. & Shi, Z. Distinct controls over the temporal dynamics of soil carbon fractions after land use change. Global Chang Biol. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15157 (2020).

Poulton, P., Johnston, J., MacDonald, A. & White, R. Major limitations to achieving “4 per 1000” increases in soil organic carbon stock in temperate regions: evidence from long-term experiments at Rothamsted Research, UK. Global Change Biol. 24 , 2563–2584 (2018).

Antle, J. M., Capalbo, S. M., Mooney, S., Elliott, E. T. & Paustian, K. H. Spatial heterogeneity and the efficient design of carbon sequestration policies for agriculture. J. Environ. Econ. Manag. 46 , 231–250 (2003).

Article   MATH   Google Scholar  

Mooney, S., Antle, J., Capalbo, S. & Paustian, K. Design and costs of a measurement protocol for trades in soil carbon credits. Can. J. Agric. Econ./Rev. canadienne d’agroeconomie 52 , 257–287 (2004).

Mooney, S., Gerow, K., Antle, J. M., Capalbo, S. M. & Paustian, K. Reducing standard errors by incorporating spatial autocorrelation into a measurement scheme for soil carbon credits. Climatic Change 80 , 55–72 (2007).

Paustian, K. et al. Quantifying carbon for agricultural soil management: from the current status toward a global soil information system. Carbon Manag. 10 , 567–587 (2019).

Falloon, P. D. & Smith, P. Modelling refractory soil organic matter. Biol. Fert. Soils 20 , 388–398 (2000).

Google Scholar  

Gulde, S., Chung, H., Amelung, W., Chi, C. & Six, J. Soil carbon saturation controls labile and stable carbon pool dynamics. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 72 , 605–612 (2008).

van Wesemael, B. et al. An indicator for organic matter dynamics in temperate agricultural soils. Agriculture, Ecosyst. Environ. 274 , 62–75 (2019).

Wiesmeier, M. et al. Soil organic carbon storage as a key function of soils—a review of drivers and indicators at various scales. Geoderma , 333 , https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2018.07.026 (2019).

van Ittersuma, M. K. et al. Yield gap analysis with local to global relevance—a review. Field Crops Res. 143 , 4–17 (2013).

Zomer, R. J., Bossio, D. A., Sommer, R. & Verchot, L. V. Global sequestration potential of increased organic carbon in cropland soils. Sci. Rep. 7 , 15554 (2017).

Article   ADS   PubMed   PubMed Central   CAS   Google Scholar  

FAO and ITPS. Status of the World’s Soil Resources (SWSR)—Technical Summary . http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5126e.pdf (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2015).

Batjes, N. H. Total carbon and nitrogen in the soils of the world. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 47 , 151–163 (1996).

Kögel-Knabner, I. & Amelung, W. Soil organic matter in major pedogenetic soil groups. Geoderma (2020).

Yu, Z., Loisel, J., Brosseau, D. P., Beilman, D. W. & Hunt, S. J. Global peatland dynamics since the Last Glacial Maximum. Geophys. Res. Lett. 37 , L13402 (2010).

ADS   Google Scholar  

Scharlemann, J. P. W., Tanner, E. V. J., Hiederer, R. & Kapos, V. Global soil carbon: understanding and managing the largest terrestrial carbon pool. Carbon Manag . 5 , 81–91 (2014).

Poeplau, C. & Don, A. Carbon sequestration in agricultural soils via cultivation of cover crops—a meta-analysis. Agriculture Ecosyst. Environ. 200 , 33–41 (2015).

Conant, R. T., Cerri, C. E. P., Osborne, B., B. & Paustian, K. Grassland management impacts on soil carbon stocks: a new synthesis. Ecol. Appl. 27 , 662–668 (2017).

Cheng, K., Zheng, J., Nayak, D., Smith, P. & Pan, G. Re-evaluating the biophysical and technologically attainable potential of topsoil carbon sequestration in china’s cropland. Soil Use Manag. 29 , 501–509 (2013).

Zhao, Y. et al. Economics-and policy-driven organic carbon input enhancement dominates soil organic carbon accumulation in Chinese croplands. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 115 , 4045–4050 (2018).

Driessen, P. M., Deckers, J., & Spaargaren, O. Lecture Notes of the Major Soils of the World . ((World Soil Resources Reports: FAO; Vol. 94). Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2001).

Woolf, D. et al. Sustainable biochar to mitigate global climate change. Nat. Commun. 1 , 56 (2010).

Ye, L. et al. Biochar effects on crop yields with and without fertilizer: a meta-analysis of field studies using separate controls. Soil Use Manag. 36 , 2–18 (2020).

The California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW): Wetlands restoration for greenhouse gas reduction program - Quantification Methodology and Wetlands Program Benefits http://wildlife.ca.gov/conservation/watersheds/greenhouse-gas-reduction (2018).

Leifeld, J. & Menichetti, L. The underappreciated potential of peatlands in global climate change mitigation strategies. Nat. Commun. 9 , 1071 (2018).

Article   ADS   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Goldstein, A. et al. Protecting irrecoverable carbon in Earth’s ecosystems. Nat. Clim. Change 10 , 287–295 (2020).

Leifeld, J., Wüst-Galley, C. & Page, S. Intact and managed peatland soils as a source and sink of GHGs from 1850 to 2100. Nat. Clim. Change 9 , 945–947 (2019).

Prananto, J. P., Minasny, B., Comeau, L. P. & Grace, P. Drainage increases CO 2 and N 2 O emissions from tropical peat soils. Global Change Biol . https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15147 (2020).

Wilson, D. et al. Greenhouse gas emission factors associated with rewetting of organic soils. Mires and Peat , 17 , 1–28 (2016).

Knox, S. H. et al. Agricultural peatland restoration: effects of land‐use change on greenhouse gas (CO 2 and CH 4 ) fluxes in the Sacramento‐San Joaquin Delta. Global Change Biol. 21 , 750–765 (2015).

Folberth, C. et al. The global cropland-sparing potential of high-yield farming. Nat. Sustainability 3 , 281–289 (2020).

Mooney, S. & Williams, J. Private and public values of soil carbon management. In Soil Carbon Management: Economic, Environmental and Societal Benefits . (eds Kimble, Rice, J. C. et al.) Chapter 4, pp 67–98 (Taylor and Francis Group, LLC, 2007).

Lal, R. Societal value of soil carbon. J. Soil Water Conserv. 69 , 186A–192 A (2014).

Graves, A. R. et al. The total costs of soil degradation in England and Wales. Ecol. Econ. 119 , 399–413 (2015).

Vermeulen, S. et al. A global agenda for collective action on soil carbon. Nat. Sustainability 2 , 2–4 (2019).

Tang, K., Kragt, M. E., Hailu, A. & Ma, C. Carbon farming economics: what have we learned? J. Environ. Manag. 172 , 49–57 (2016).

Kurkalova, L., Kling, C. & Zhao, J. Green subsidies in agriculture: estimating the adoption costs of conservation tillage from observed behavior. Canadian J. Agric. Econ. 54 , 247–267 (2006).

Levin, K., Cashore, B., Bernstein, S. & Auld, G. Overcoming the tragedy of super wicked problems: constraining our future selves to ameliorate global climate change. Policy Sci. 45 , 123–152 (2012).

Foley, J. A. et al. Solutions for a cultivated planet. Nature 487 , 337–478 (2011).

Powlson, D. S., Whitmore, A. P. & Goulding, K. W. T. Soil carbon sequestration to mitigate climate change: a critical re-examination to identify the true and the false. Artic. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 62 , 42–55 (2011).

Lal, R. Soil carbon sequestration impacts on global climate change and food security. Science 304 , 1623–1627 (2004).

Lal, R. Restoring soil quality to mitigate soil degradation. Sustainability 7 , 5875–5895 (2015).

Rütting, T., Aronsson, H. & Delin, S. Efficient use of nitrogen in agriculture. Nutrient Cycl. Agroecosystems 110 , 1–5 (2018).

Houlton, B. Z. et al. A world of cobenefits: solving the global nitrogen challenge. Earth’s Future 7 , 865–872 (2019).

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change- IPCC: Climate Change: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Solomon, S. et al. (eds)) pp. 996 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 2007).

Nayak, A. K. et al. Current and emerging methodologies for estimating carbon sequestration in agricultural soils: a review. Sci. Total Environ. 665 , 890–912 (2019).

Nathes, J. A., Lal, R., Weldesemayat Siles, G. & Dasa, A. K. Managing India’s small landholder farms for food security and achieving the “4 per Thousand” target. Sci. Total Environ. 634 , 1024–1033 (2018).

OCDE: Agricultural Policy Monitoring and Evaluation. https://doi.org/10.1787/39bfe6f3-en (OECD Publishing, Paris, 2019).

Malhotra, A. et al. The landscape of soil carbon data: emerging questions, synergies and databases. Prog. Phys. Geogr. 43 , 707–717 (2019).

Chabbi, A., Loescher, H. W., Tye, M. R. & Hudnut, D. Integrated Experimental Research Infrastructures: a paradigm shift to face an uncertain world and innovate for societal benefit. In Terrestrial Ecosystem Research Infrastructures: Challenges and Opportunities (eds Abad Chabbi, A. & Henry, W. L.) 3–26 (CRC Taylor & Francis Group, 2017).

Sterly, S. et al. Research for AGRI Committee—A Comparative Analysis of Global Agricultural Policies: Lessons for the Future CAP, European Parliament (Policy Department for Structural and Cohesion Policies, Brussels, 2018).

Pinter, L., Pintér, L., Hardi, P., Martinuzzi, A. & Hall, J. Bellagio STAMP: principles for sustainability assessment and measurement. Ecol. Indic. 17 , 20–28 (2012).

Ugarte, C., Kwon, H. K. & Wander, M. Conservation management and ecosystem services in midwestern United States agricultural systems. J. Soil Water Conserv. 73 , 422–433 (2018).

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work was supported and benefited from INRAE—“Agroécosystème” department, INSU—CNRS, OSU—CNRS, CIRAD, IRD, CLAND Convergence Institute funded by ANR, Ministère de lʼEnseignement supérieur, de la Recherche et de lʼInnovation, University of Poitiers, AgroParistech, ifP-Energy Nouvelles, IDDRI, SEDE-VEOLIA, Grand Poitiers, and the Region Nouvelle-Aquitaine. C. Shepande and N. Mutwale are thanked for feedback on local soil classification in Zambia. R.B. acknowledges Bangor University for additional support. I.K.-K. acknowledges support from the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) in the framework of the funding measure “Soil as a Sustainable Resource for the Bioeconomy—BonaRes”, project “BonaRes (Module B): BonaRes Centre for Soil Research” (grant 031B0511C), and W.A. from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft under Germany’s Excellence Strategy, EXC-2070–390732324–PhenoRob.

Author information

These authors contributed equally: W. Amelung, A. Chabbi.

Authors and Affiliations

Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation – Soil Science and Soil Ecology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany

Institute of Bio-and Geosciences, Agrosphere (IBG3), Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Jülich, Germany

W. Amelung & R. Bol

The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, VA, USA

Wageningen, University and Research, Environmental Research, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands

W. de Vries

Chair of Soil Science, Department of Ecology and Ecosystem Management and Institute of Advanced Study (TUM-IAS), Technische Universität München, München, Germany

I. Kögel-Knabner

Soil and Crop Science, School of Integrative Plant Science Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA

Institute of Advanced Study (TUM-IAS), Technical University Munich, Garching, Germany

Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA

R. Amundson

Department of Geography and Environmental Science, University of Reading, Reading, UK

Carbon Management and Sequestration Center, CFAES/SENR, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA

Agroscope, Climate and Agriculture Group, 8046, Zurich, Switzerland

School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Sydney Institute of Agriculture, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia

Institute of Resources, Ecosystem and Environment of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China

Department of Soil and Crop Sciences and Natural Resource Ecology Lab, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA

K. Paustian

CNRS, Institute for Ecology and Environmental Sciences (IEES) Paris, Paris, France

Woodwell Climate Research Center, Falmouth, MA, 02540, USA

J. Sanderman

Soil Biology Group, Wageningen University, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands

J. W. van Groenigen

O’Neill School of Public and Environmental Affairs, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA

Earth and Life Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain La Neuve, Belgium

B. van Wesemael

Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign College of Agriculture, Consumer and Environmental Sciences, Urbana, IL, USA

Institut National de Recherche pour l’Agriculture, l’Alimentation et l’Environnement (INRAE) Centre de Recherche Nouvelle-Aquitaine-Poitiers, (URP3F), Lusignan, France

UMR ECOSYS, Centre INRAE, Versailles-Grignon, Bâtiment EGER, Thiverval-Grignon, France

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

A.C. and W.A. developed the perspective concept. D.B., W.de V., I.K.-K., J.L., and R.A. discussed the concept, writing, review, and editing. R.B., C.C., R.L., J. L., B.M., G.P., K.P., C.R., J.S., J.W.v.G., S.M., B.vanW., and M.W.: review and editing. J.S., R.L., and J.L. provided additional dataset and contributed to data analysis. W.A. and A.C. wrote the paper and synthesized the author’s contributions.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to W. Amelung or A. Chabbi .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Peer review information Nature Communications thanks Jeanette Whitaker and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Supplementary information, supplementary data 1, description of additional supplementary files, rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Amelung, W., Bossio, D., de Vries, W. et al. Towards a global-scale soil climate mitigation strategy. Nat Commun 11 , 5427 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18887-7

Download citation

Received : 08 February 2020

Accepted : 03 September 2020

Published : 27 October 2020

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18887-7

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

This article is cited by

The business case for carbon farming in the usa.

• Alejandro Plastina
• Oranuch Wongpiyabovorn

Carbon Balance and Management (2024)

Spatiotemporal co-optimization of agricultural management practices towards climate-smart crop production

• Liujun Xiao
• Guocheng Wang
• Zhongkui Luo

Nature Food (2024)

Three-dimensional space and time mapping reveals soil organic matter decreases across anthropogenic landscapes in the Netherlands

• Anatol Helfenstein
• Vera L. Mulder
• Mirjam J. D. Hack-ten Broeke

Communications Earth & Environment (2024)

Maximizing soil organic carbon stocks through optimal ploughing and renewal strategies in (Ley) grassland

• Sparkle L. Malone
• Abad Chabbi

The Fate of Soil Organic Carbon from Compost: A Pot Test Study Using Labile Carbon and 13c Natural Abundance

• Marco Grigatti
• Claudio Ciavatta
• Claudio Marzadori

Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition (2024)

By submitting a comment you agree to abide by our Terms and Community Guidelines . If you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate.

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

Sign up for the Nature Briefing: Microbiology newsletter — what matters in cancer research, free to your inbox weekly.