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Consumer Psychology and Behavior

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

What Is Consumer Psychology?

• Science of Consumer Behavior
• Role of Consumer Psychologist
• Education and Training

Career Options

Are you interested in why and how people buy some products and not others? Have you ever wondered how media messages influence a shopper's buying choices? If so, then you might be interested in the growing field known as consumer psychology.

Consumer psychology is a specialty area that studies how our thoughts, beliefs, feelings, and perceptions influence how we buy and relate to goods and services. In the United States, widely considered a highly consumerist society, this area of study is particularly relevant.

One formal definition of the field describes it as "the study of individuals, groups, or organizations and the processes they use to select, secure, use, and dispose of products, services, experiences, or ideas to satisfy needs and the impacts that these processes have on the consumer and society."

Consumer psychologists investigate how the decision-making process, social persuasion , and motivation influence why shoppers buy some things but not others.

In this overview of the profession, learn more about what consumer psychologists do and where they work.

The Science of Consumer Behavior

According to the Society for Consumer Psychology, Division 23 of the American Psychological Association , consumer psychology "employs theoretical psychological approaches to understanding consumers."  

This field is often considered a subspecialty of industrial-organizational psychology and is also known as the psychology of consumer behavior or the psychology of marketing. Consumer psychologists study a variety of topics including:

• How consumers choose businesses, products, and services
• The thought processes and emotions behind consumer decisions
• How environmental variables such as friends, family, media, and culture influence buying decisions
• What motivates people to choose one product over another
• How personal factors and individual differences affect people's buying choices
• What marketers can do to effectively reach out to their target customers

What Consumer Psychologists Do

So what exactly does a typical consumer psychologist do? These professionals play a critical role not only in helping businesses understand what their customers want and need but also in helping sellers promote and market their products and services to buyers.

Conduct Market Research

Because businesses need to understand their consumers in order to develop products and marketing campaigns that appeal to their target audience, consumer psychologists often spend a great deal of time learning more about what makes shoppers tick. This often involves first figuring out the target audience for a particular product, including the gender, age, and socioeconomic status of the typical shopper.

Next, the consumer psychologist might begin researching the types of products and marketing messages that appeal to these types of buyers.

Develop Marketing Messages

Other consumer psychologists might focus on social marketing, or how ideas and messages spread among groups. Researchers might be interested in getting out information about a product or an important public health message.

Learning how beliefs and attitudes spread among groups can help organizations learn how to better get their message out and encourage word-of-mouth marketing.

Research Consumer Attitudes and Behaviors

Consumer psychologists often conduct research to learn more about buyer behavior. Common research methods used by these professionals include experiments, phone surveys, focus groups, direct observations, and questionnaires.

Chances are good that you have participated in at least one market research survey in your life. These are often conducted by phone, but they may also be done online or through direct mail. In a survey , consumers are often asked to describe their past shopping behavior, factors that influenced their decision-making , and their future buying plans.

Researchers also typically gather details about each respondent's sex, age, race, educational history, and current financial situation. This type of information can be very useful since it allows researchers to look for patterns and learn more about who buys certain products.  

For example, using a survey might allow researchers to discover that women between the ages of 30 and 45 who have a household income between $50,000 to $100,000 are most likely to buy a particular product or service. By knowing this, they can then begin designing marketing campaigns aimed at this target audience.

Education and Training Requirements

So what kind of training do you need if you want to be a consumer psychologist? Most entry-level jobs in consumer psychology require at least a bachelor's degree in psychology .

Entry-level jobs with a bachelor's degree typically involve planning, conducting, and interpreting the results of market research campaigns.

Those interested in more advanced positions or in teaching at the university level will need a master's or doctorate degree in an area related to consumer psychology. Such degree options include general psychology, industrial-organizational psychology , marketing, and consumer studies.  

If you are interested in becoming a consumer psychologist:

• Focus on taking courses that will build your understanding of human behavior, marketing, social psychology , personality, and culture
• Take courses in advertising and marketing
• Take courses in experimental methods , particularly experimental design and statistics

The career path you ultimately choose will depend a great deal upon your interests and educational background. For example, if you have an interest in conducting theoretical research and teaching, consider earning a doctorate degree so that you can teach courses and perform original research at a university. If you prefer to work in an area like market research, advertising, or sales, a bachelor's degree might be sufficient.

Other job options include acting as a consultant for private businesses or working for government agencies.

In such jobs, consumer psychologists might be asked to perform a wide range of duties, including development marketing campaigns, researching buyer trends, designing social media advertising, or analyzing statistics.

Understanding what makes people buy the things they do is much more than a guessing game. Businesses now employ consumer psychologists to scientifically evaluate their customer's decisions and choices. The next time you look at an advertisement or take a consumer survey, consider the role that consumer psychologists may have played in developing those messages and questionnaires.

Solomon M. Consumer Psychology .  Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology . 2004:483-492. doi:10.1016/b0-12-657410-3/00219-1

Society for Consumer Psychology. SCP's culture and values .

Ali AM, Said AM, Salleh MZM. Demographic profile and purchasing pattern of organic cosmetic products . In: Abdullah M, Yahya W, Ramli N, Mohamed S, Ahmad B, eds. Regional Conference on Science, Technology and Social Sciences. Singapore: Springer; 2016. doi:10.1007/978-981-10-1458-1_81

American Psychological Association. Careers in psychology .

Haugtvedt CP, Herr PM, Kardes FR, eds. Handbook of Consumer Psychology. New York: Taylor & Francis Group; 2018.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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The past, present, and future of consumer research

Maayan s. malter.

1 Columbia Business School, Columbia University, New York, NY USA

Morris B. Holbrook

Barbara e. kahn.

2 The Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA USA

Jeffrey R. Parker

3 Department of Marketing, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL USA

Donald R. Lehmann

In this article, we document the evolution of research trends (concepts, methods, and aims) within the field of consumer behavior, from the time of its early development to the present day, as a multidisciplinary area of research within marketing. We describe current changes in retailing and real-world consumption and offer suggestions on how to use observations of consumption phenomena to generate new and interesting consumer behavior research questions. Consumption continues to change with technological advancements and shifts in consumers’ values and goals. We cannot know the exact shape of things to come, but we polled a sample of leading scholars and summarize their predictions on where the field may be headed in the next twenty years.

Introduction

Beginning in the late 1950s, business schools shifted from descriptive and practitioner-focused studies to more theoretically driven and academically rigorous research (Dahl et al. 1959 ). As the field expanded from an applied form of economics to embrace theories and methodologies from psychology, sociology, anthropology, and statistics, there was an increased emphasis on understanding the thoughts, desires, and experiences of individual consumers. For academic marketing, this meant that research not only focused on the decisions and strategies of marketing managers but also on the decisions and thought processes on the other side of the market—customers.

Since then, the academic study of consumer behavior has evolved and incorporated concepts and methods, not only from marketing at large but also from related social science disciplines, and from the ever-changing landscape of real-world consumption behavior. Its position as an area of study within a larger discipline that comprises researchers from diverse theoretical backgrounds and methodological training has stirred debates over its identity. One article describes consumer behavior as a multidisciplinary subdiscipline of marketing “characterized by the study of people operating in a consumer role involving acquisition, consumption, and disposition of marketplace products, services, and experiences” (MacInnis and Folkes 2009 , p. 900).

This article reviews the evolution of the field of consumer behavior over the past half century, describes its current status, and predicts how it may evolve over the next twenty years. Our review is by no means a comprehensive history of the field (see Schumann et al. 2008 ; Rapp and Hill 2015 ; Wang et al. 2015 ; Wilkie and Moore 2003 , to name a few) but rather focuses on a few key thematic developments. Though we observe many major shifts during this period, certain questions and debates have persisted: Does consumer behavior research need to be relevant to marketing managers or is there intrinsic value from studying the consumer as a project pursued for its own sake? What counts as consumption: only consumption from traditional marketplace transactions or also consumption in a broader sense of non-marketplace interactions? Which are the most appropriate theoretical traditions and methodological tools for addressing questions in consumer behavior research?

A brief history of consumer research over the past sixty years—1960 to 2020

In 1969, the Association for Consumer Research was founded and a yearly conference to share marketing research specifically from the consumer’s perspective was instituted. This event marked the culmination of the growing interest in the topic by formalizing it as an area of research within marketing (consumer psychology had become a formalized branch of psychology within the APA in 1960). So, what was consumer behavior before 1969? Scanning current consumer-behavior doctoral seminar syllabi reveals few works predating 1969, with most of those coming from psychology and economics, namely Herbert Simon’s A Behavioral Model of Rational Choice (1955), Abraham Maslow’s A Theory of Human Motivation (1943), and Ernest Dichter’s Handbook of Consumer Motivations (1964). In short, research that illuminated and informed our understanding of consumer behavior prior to 1969 rarely focused on marketing-specific topics, much less consumers or consumption (Dichter’s handbook being a notable exception). Yet, these works were crucial to the rise of consumer behavior research because, in the decades after 1969, there was a shift within academic marketing to thinking about research from a behavioral or decision science perspective (Wilkie and Moore 2003 ). The following section details some ways in which this shift occurred. We draw on a framework proposed by the philosopher Larry Laudan ( 1986 ), who distinguished among three inter-related aspects of scientific inquiry—namely, concepts (the relevant ideas, theories, hypotheses, and constructs); methods (the techniques employed to test and validate these concepts); and aims (the purposes or goals that motivate the investigation).

Key concepts in the late - 1960s

During the late-1960s, we tended to view the buyer as a computer-like machine for processing information according to various formal rules that embody economic rationality to form a preference for one or another option in order to arrive at a purchase decision. This view tended to manifest itself in a couple of conspicuous ways. The first was a model of buyer behavior introduced by John Howard in 1963 in the second edition of his marketing textbook and quickly adopted by virtually every theorist working in our field—including, Howard and Sheth (of course), Engel-Kollat-&-Blackwell, Franco Nicosia, Alan Andreasen, Jim Bettman, and Joel Cohen. Howard’s great innovation—which he based on a scheme that he had found in the work of Plato (namely, the linkages among Cognition, Affect, and Conation)—took the form of a boxes-and-arrows formulation heavily influenced by the approach to organizational behavior theory that Howard (University of Pittsburgh) had picked up from Herbert Simon (Carnegie Melon University). The model represented a chain of events

where I = inputs of information (from advertising, word-of-mouth, brand features, etc.); C = cognitions (beliefs or perceptions about a brand); A = Affect (liking or preference for the brand); B = behavior (purchase of the brand); and S = satisfaction (post-purchase evaluation of the brand that feeds back onto earlier stages of the sequence, according to a learning model in which reinforced behavior tends to be repeated). This formulation lay at the heart of Howard’s work, which he updated, elaborated on, and streamlined over the remainder of his career. Importantly, it informed virtually every buyer-behavior model that blossomed forth during the last half of the twentieth century.

To represent the link between cognitions and affect, buyer-behavior researchers used various forms of the multi-attribute attitude model (MAAM), originally proposed by psychologists such as Fishbein and Rosenberg as part of what Fishbein and Ajzen ( 1975 ) called the theory of reasoned action. Under MAAM, cognitions (beliefs about brand attributes) are weighted by their importance and summed to create an explanation or prediction of affect (liking for a brand or preference for one brand versus another), which in turn determines behavior (choice of a brand or intention to purchase a brand). This took the work of economist Kelvin Lancaster (with whom Howard interacted), which assumed attitude was based on objective attributes, and extended it to include subjective ones (Lancaster 1966 ; Ratchford 1975 ). Overall, the set of concepts that prevailed in the late-1960s assumed the buyer exhibited economic rationality and acted as a computer-like information-processing machine when making purchase decisions.

Favored methods in the late-1960s

The methods favored during the late-1960s tended to be almost exclusively neo-positivistic in nature. That is, buyer-behavior research adopted the kinds of methodological rigor that we associate with the physical sciences and the hypothetico-deductive approaches advocated by the neo-positivistic philosophers of science.

Thus, the accepted approaches tended to be either experimental or survey based. For example, numerous laboratory studies tested variations of the MAAM and focused on questions about how to measure beliefs, how to weight the beliefs, how to combine the weighted beliefs, and so forth (e.g., Beckwith and Lehmann 1973 ). Here again, these assumed a rational economic decision-maker who processed information something like a computer.

Seeking rigor, buyer-behavior studies tended to be quantitative in their analyses, employing multivariate statistics, structural equation models, multidimensional scaling, conjoint analysis, and other mathematically sophisticated techniques. For example, various attempts to test the ICABS formulation developed simultaneous (now called structural) equation models such as those deployed by Farley and Ring ( 1970 , 1974 ) to test the Howard and Sheth ( 1969 ) model and by Beckwith and Lehmann ( 1973 ) to measure halo effects.

Aims in the late-1960s

During this time period, buyer-behavior research was still considered a subdivision of marketing research, the purpose of which was to provide insights useful to marketing managers in making strategic decisions. Essentially, every paper concluded with a section on “Implications for Marketing Managers.” Authors who failed to conform to this expectation could generally count on having their work rejected by leading journals such as the Journal of Marketing Research ( JMR ) and the Journal of Marketing ( JM ).

Summary—the three R’s in the late-1960s

Starting in the late-1960s to the early-1980s, virtually every buyer-behavior researcher followed the traditional approach to concepts, methods, and aims, now encapsulated under what we might call the three R’s —namely, rationality , rigor , and relevance . However, as we transitioned into the 1980s and beyond, that changed as some (though by no means all) consumer researchers began to expand their approaches and to evolve different perspectives.

Concepts after 1980

In some circles, the traditional emphasis on the buyer’s rationality—that is, a view of the buyer as a rational-economic, decision-oriented, information-processing, computer-like machine for making choices—began to evolve in at least two primary ways.

First, behavioral economics (originally studied in marketing under the label Behavioral Decision Theory)—developed in psychology by Kahneman and Tversky, in economics by Thaler, and applied in marketing by a number of forward-thinking theorists (e.g., Eric Johnson, Jim Bettman, John Payne, Itamar Simonson, Jay Russo, Joel Huber, and more recently, Dan Ariely)—challenged the rationality of consumers as decision-makers. It was shown that numerous commonly used decision heuristics depart from rational choice and are exceptions to the traditional assumptions of economic rationality. This trend shed light on understanding consumer financial decision-making (Prelec and Loewenstein 1998 ; Gourville 1998 ; Lynch Jr 2011 ) and how to develop “nudges” to help consumers make better decisions for their personal finances (summarized in Johnson et al. 2012 ).

Second, the emerging experiential view (anticipated by Alderson, Levy, and others; developed by Holbrook and Hirschman, and embellished by Schmitt, Pine, and Gilmore, and countless followers) regarded consumers as flesh-and-blood human beings (rather than as information-processing computer-like machines), focused on hedonic aspects of consumption, and expanded the concepts embodied by ICABS (Table ​ (Table1 1 ).

Extended ICABS Framework after 1980

Methods after 1980

The two burgeoning areas of research—behavioral economics and experiential theories—differed in their methodological approaches. The former relied on controlled randomized experiments with a focus on decision strategies and behavioral outcomes. For example, experiments tested the process by which consumers evaluate options using information display boards and “Mouselab” matrices of aspects and attributes (Payne et al. 1988 ). This school of thought also focused on behavioral dependent measures, such as choice (Huber et al. 1982 ; Simonson 1989 ; Iyengar and Lepper 2000 ).

The latter was influenced by post-positivistic philosophers of science—such as Thomas Kuhn, Paul Feyerabend, and Richard Rorty—and approaches expanded to include various qualitative techniques (interpretive, ethnographic, humanistic, and even introspective methods) not previously prominent in the field of consumer research. These included:

• Interpretive approaches —such as those drawing on semiotics and hermeneutics—in an effort to gain a richer understanding of the symbolic meanings involved in consumption experiences;
• Ethnographic approaches — borrowed from cultural anthropology—such as those illustrated by the influential Consumer Behavior Odyssey (Belk et al. 1989 ) and its discoveries about phenomena related to sacred aspects of consumption or the deep meanings of collections and other possessions;
• Humanistic approaches —such as those borrowed from cultural studies or from literary criticism and more recently gathered together under the general heading of consumer culture theory ( CCT );
• Introspective or autoethnographic approaches —such as those associated with a method called subjective personal introspection ( SPI ) that various consumer researchers like Sidney Levy and Steve Gould have pursued to gain insights based on their own private lives.

These qualitative approaches tended not to appear in the more traditional journals such as the Journal of Marketing , Journal of Marketing Research , or Marketing Science . However, newer journals such as Consumption, Markets, & Culture and Marketing Theory began to publish papers that drew on the various interpretive, ethnographic, humanistic, or introspective methods.

Aims after 1980

In 1974, consumer research finally got its own journal with the launch of the Journal of Consumer Research ( JCR ). The early editors of JCR —especially Bob Ferber, Hal Kassarjian, and Jim Bettman—held a rather divergent attitude about the importance or even the desirability of managerial relevance as a key goal of consumer studies. Under their influence, some researchers began to believe that consumer behavior is a phenomenon worthy of study in its own right—purely for the purpose of understanding it better. The journal incorporated articles from an array of methodologies: quantitative (both secondary data analysis and experimental techniques) and qualitative. The “right” balance between theoretical insight and substantive relevance—which are not in inherent conflict—is a matter of debate to this day and will likely continue to be debated well into the future.

Summary—the three I’s after 1980

In sum, beginning in the early-1980s, consumer research branched out. Much of the work in consumer studies remained within the earlier tradition of the three R’s—that is, rationality (an information-processing decision-oriented buyer), rigor (neo-positivistic experimental designs and quantitative techniques), and relevance (usefulness to marketing managers). Nonetheless, many studies embraced enlarged views of the three major aspects that might be called the three I’s —that is, irrationality (broadened perspectives that incorporate illogical, heuristic, experiential, or hedonic aspects of consumption), interpretation (various qualitative or “postmodern” approaches), and intrinsic motivation (the joy of pursuing a managerially irrelevant consumer study purely for the sake of satisfying one’s own curiosity, without concern for whether it does or does not help a marketing practitioner make a bigger profit).

The present—the consumer behavior field today

Present concepts.

In recent years, technological changes have significantly influenced the nature of consumption as the customer journey has transitioned to include more interaction on digital platforms that complements interaction in physical stores. This shift poses a major conceptual challenge in understanding if and how these technological changes affect consumption. Does the medium through which consumption occurs fundamentally alter the psychological and social processes identified in earlier research? In addition, this shift allows us to collect more data at different stages of the customer journey, which further allows us to analyze behavior in ways that were not previously available.

Revisiting the ICABS framework, many of the previous concepts are still present, but we are now addressing them through a lens of technological change (Table ​ (Table2 2 ). In recent years, a number of concepts (e.g., identity, beliefs/lay theories, affect as information, self-control, time, psychological ownership, search for meaning and happiness, social belonging, creativity, and status) have emerged as integral factors that influence and are influenced by consumption. To better understand these concepts, a number of influential theories from social psychology have been adopted into consumer behavior research. Self-construal (Markus and Kitayama 1991 ), regulatory focus (Higgins 1998 ), construal level (Trope and Liberman 2010 ), and goal systems (Kruglanski et al. 2002 ) all provide social-cognition frameworks through which consumer behavior researchers study the psychological processes behind consumer behavior. This “adoption” of social psychological theories into consumer behavior is a symbiotic relationship that further enhances the theories. Tory Higgins happily stated that he learned more about his own theories from the work of marketing academics (he cited Angela Lee and Michel Pham) in further testing and extending them.

ICABS framework in the digital age

Present Methods

Not only have technological advancements changed the nature of consumption but they have also significantly influenced the methods used in consumer research by adding both new sources of data and improved analytical tools (Ding et al. 2020 ). Researchers continue to use traditional methods from psychology in empirical research (scale development, laboratory experiments, quantitative analyses, etc.) and interpretive approaches in qualitative research. Additionally, online experiments using participants from panels such as Amazon Mechanical Turk and Prolific have become commonplace in the last decade. While they raise concerns about the quality of the data and about the external validity of the results, these online experiments have greatly increased the speed and decreased the cost of collecting data, so researchers continue to use them, albeit with some caution. Reminiscent of the discussion in the 1970s and 1980s about the use of student subjects, the projectability of the online responses and of an increasingly conditioned “professional” group of online respondents (MTurkers) is a major concern.

Technology has also changed research methodology. Currently, there is a large increase in the use of secondary data thanks to the availability of Big Data about online and offline behavior. Methods in computer science have advanced our ability to analyze large corpuses of unstructured data (text, voice, visual images) in an efficient and rigorous way and, thus, to tap into a wealth of nuanced thoughts, feelings, and behaviors heretofore only accessible to qualitative researchers through laboriously conducted content analyses. There are also new neuro-marketing techniques like eye-tracking, fMRI’s, body arousal measures (e.g., heart rate, sweat), and emotion detectors that allow us to measure automatic responses. Lastly, there has been an increase in large-scale field experiments that can be run in online B2C marketplaces.

Present Aims

Along with a focus on real-world observations and data, there is a renewed emphasis on managerial relevance. Countless conference addresses and editorials in JCR , JCP , and other journals have emphasized the importance of making consumer research useful outside of academia—that is, to help companies, policy makers, and consumers. For instance, understanding how the “new” consumer interacts over time with other consumers and companies in the current marketplace is a key area for future research. As global and social concerns become more salient in all aspects of life, issues of long-term sustainability, social equality, and ethical business practices have also become more central research topics. Fortunately, despite this emphasis on relevance, theoretical contributions and novel ideas are still highly valued. An appropriate balance of theory and practice has become the holy grail of consumer research.

The effects of the current trends in real-world consumption will increase in magnitude with time as more consumers are digitally native. Therefore, a better understanding of current consumer behavior can give us insights and help predict how it will continue to evolve in the years to come.

The future—the consumer behavior field in 2040 1

Niels Bohr once said, “Prediction is very difficult, especially if it’s about the future.” Indeed, it would be a fool’s errand for a single person to hazard a guess about the state of the consumer behavior field twenty years from now. Therefore, predictions from 34 active consumer researchers were collected to address this task. Here, we briefly summarize those predictions.

Future Concepts

While few respondents proffered guesses regarding specific concepts that would be of interest twenty years from now, many suggested broad topics and trends they expected to see in the field. Expectations for topics could largely be grouped into three main areas. Many suspected that we will be examining essentially the same core topics, perhaps at a finer-grained level, from different perspectives or in ways that we currently cannot utilize due to methodological limitations (more on methods below). A second contingent predicted that much research would center on the impending crises the world faces today, most mentioning environmental and social issues (the COVID-19 pandemic had not yet begun when these predictions were collected and, unsurprisingly, was not anticipated by any of our respondents). The last group, citing the widely expected profound impact of AI on consumers’ lives, argued that AI and other technology-related topics will be dominant subjects in consumer research circa 2040.

While the topic of technology is likely to be focal in the field, our current expectations for the impact of technology on consumers’ lives are narrower than it should be. Rather than merely offering innumerable conveniences and experiences, it seems likely that technology will begin to be integrated into consumers’ thoughts, identities, and personal relationships—probably sooner than we collectively expect. The integration of machines into humans’ bodies and lives will present the field with an expanding list of research questions that do not exist today. For example, how will the concepts of the self, identity, privacy, and goal pursuit change when web-connected technology seamlessly integrates with human consciousness and cognition? Major questions will also need to be answered regarding philosophy of mind, ethics, and social inequality. We suspect that the impact of technology on consumers and consumer research will be far broader than most consumer-behavior researchers anticipate.

As for broader trends within consumer research, there were two camps: (1) those who expect (or hope) that dominant theories (both current and yet to be developed) will become more integrated and comprehensive and (2) those who expect theoretical contributions to become smaller and smaller, to the point of becoming trivial. Both groups felt that current researchers are filling smaller cracks than before, but disagreed on how this would ultimately be resolved.

Future Methods

As was the case with concepts, respondents’ expectations regarding consumer-research methodologies in 2030 can also be divided into three broad baskets. Unsurprisingly, many indicated that we would be using many technologies not currently available or in wide use. Perhaps more surprising was that most cited the use of technology such as AI, machine-learning algorithms, and robots in designing—as opposed to executing or analyzing—experiments. (Some did point to the use of technologies such as virtual reality in the actual execution of experiments.) The second camp indicated that a focus on reliable and replicable results (discussed further below) will encourage a greater tendency for pre-registering studies, more use of “Big Data,” and a demand for more studies per paper (versus more papers per topic, which some believe is a more fruitful direction). Finally, the third lot indicated that “real data” would be in high demand, thereby necessitating the use of incentive-compatible, consequential dependent variables and a greater prevalence of field studies in consumer research.

As a result, young scholars would benefit from developing a “toolkit” of methodologies for collecting and analyzing the abundant new data of interest to the field. This includes (but is not limited to) a deep understanding of designing and implementing field studies (Gerber and Green 2012 ), data analysis software (R, Python, etc.), text mining and analysis (Humphreys and Wang 2018 ), and analytical tools for other unstructured forms of data such as image and sound. The replication crisis in experimental research means that future scholars will also need to take a more critical approach to validity (internal, external, construct), statistical power, and significance in their work.

Future Aims

While there was an air of existential concern about the future of the field, most agreed that the trend will be toward increasing the relevance and reliability of consumer research. Specifically, echoing calls from journals and thought leaders, the respondents felt that papers will need to offer more actionable implications for consumers, managers, or policy makers. However, few thought that this increased focus would come at the expense of theoretical insights, suggesting a more demanding overall standard for consumer research in 2040. Likewise, most felt that methodological transparency, open access to data and materials, and study pre-registration will become the norm as the field seeks to allay concerns about the reliability and meaningfulness of its research findings.

Summary - Future research questions and directions

Despite some well-justified pessimism, the future of consumer research is as bright as ever. As we revised this paper amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, it was clear that many aspects of marketplace behavior, consumption, and life in general will change as a result of this unprecedented global crisis. Given this, and the radical technological, social, and environmental changes that loom on the horizon, consumer researchers will have a treasure trove of topics to tackle in the next ten years, many of which will carry profound substantive importance. While research approaches will evolve, the core goals will remain consistent—namely, to generate theoretically insightful, empirically supported, and substantively impactful research (Table ​ (Table3 3 ).

Future consumer behavior research questions

At any given moment in time, the focal concepts, methods, and aims of consumer-behavior scholarship reflect both the prior development of the field and trends in the larger scientific community. However, despite shifting trends, the core of the field has remained constant—namely, to understand the motivations, thought processes, and experiences of individuals as they consume goods, services, information, and other offerings, and to use these insights to develop interventions to improve both marketing strategy for firms and consumer welfare for individuals and groups. Amidst the excitement of new technologies, social trends, and consumption experiences, it is important to look back and remind ourselves of the insights the field has already generated. Effectively integrating these past findings with new observations and fresh research will help the field advance our understanding of consumer behavior.

1 The other papers use 2030 as a target year but we asked our survey respondents to make predictions for 2040 and thus we have a different future target year.

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MASTER OF SCIENCE IN APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY ONLINE

What Is Consumer Psychology?

November 17, 2023

View all blog posts under Articles

Consumers make a decision with every single purchase. This decision-making process occurs when they pick out something as small as a box of cereal or as large as a brand-new vehicle. For every product they choose, countless similar products remain unsold.

Understanding how and when consumers buy the products and services that they do is all part of what consumer psychology is: a specialty of psychology that focuses on how consumers relate to the products and services that they buy. However, this field is concerned with more than just what consumers pick up in a store or a shopping mall. Consumer psychology can also be applied to different contexts, such as advertising campaigns, corporate branding and politics.

Different psychological factors, such as identity, communication tendencies and cultural background, coalesce to build an individual’s consumer behavioral profile. Professionals at companies and organizations that take the time to understand consumer psychology, such as through an advanced education, are able to build better advertising campaigns and more effective marketing strategies.

Consumer Psychology Defined

Consumer psychology is what people think of when they want to know the whys and wherefores of a consumer’s purchasing decisions. After all, even impulse buying has underlying psychology: A person might crave sugar at the sight of a candy bar while going through the checkout lane and might decide which candy to buy based on past experiences.

Consumer psychology examines consumers’ perceptions, beliefs, feelings and thoughts and considers all of them when examining purchasing behavior. It also accounts for social persuasion and motivation from third parties to purchasing decisions, such as commercials or advertising.

For example, after seeing a lot of McDonald’s commercials, a person may recently have bought a Quarter Pounder with cheese, or perhaps Quarter Pounders were on sale, making purchasing one a fiscally savvy meal choice. Still another possibility is that the consumer perceives McDonald’s to be a trusted brand. Consumer psychology can weigh all those factors for why consumers want what they want and what ultimately makes them go through with a purchase.

The field of consumer psychology is often connected to organizational psychology because they both focus on the study of human behavior and what motivates it. Informally, consumer psychology is often referred to as the psychology of marketing because of how marketing agencies and companies use it to try to better tailor their marketing efforts to consumers.

Businesses, salespeople and marketing departments often need very sophisticated research and solutions to take advantage of consumer psychology. For that, they usually enlist the services of a consumer psychologist.

The Role of the Consumer Psychologist

Companies, organizations and marketing firms can hire consumer psychologists to help them understand customer behavior by studying the emotions and motivations behind a purchase. Consumer psychologists take into account external motivators, the environment and other personal variables that may influence the consumer.

Consumer psychologists can collect data about consumers using a wide variety of methods. The most common methods include the following:

• Phone surveys
• Focus groups
• Consumer questionnaires
• Direct observations
• Purchased experiments

After consumer psychologists collect enough data, they can identify trends and patterns among consumers. Attributes such as gender, income, age, race, education, religion and region all add up to customer archetypes, such as the Innocent (traditional, hopeful and romantic) or the Explorer (adventurous, innovative and active). That’s just one way the consumer psychologist can make determinations based on hard data so that companies understand their most likely customer and why they make the purchases that they do.

The Influence of Consumer Psychology

One of the biggest influences of consumer psychology is how its findings can be directly applied to marketing campaigns. For example, a consumer psychologist may determine that men between 24 and 35 with a household income of less than $50,000 are buying a certain type of soft drink. Keeping that information in mind, a marketing agency could design a marketing campaign directly targeted at that demographic. Better targeting usually yields better results.

Consumer psychologists may also encourage individuals to engage in behaviors that they normally wouldn’t. For example, convincing consumers to switch over to a more ecologically sustainable way of life is a trending topic in the consumer psychology world.

Examples of this kind of lifestyle change could be investing in solar panels for the home, eating less meat, choosing recycled goods or investing in an electric car to reduce carbon emissions. In this way, consumer psychology can be used to make a positive lasting impact on society and the planet.

However, fully measuring the impact of consumer psychology’s influence on consumers remains a challenge because collecting data on consumers is typically a one-time affair that comes in the form of a survey or questionnaire. Long-term studies and follow-up studies on specific groups who’ve been surveyed before aren’t typically conducted. For example, it would be difficult to get the same 500 people who participated in a phone survey to participate in it again many years later.

Consumer psychology can be a powerful tool to measure the current or likely behavior of consumers, but not so much how they change or stay the same in the long term.

Be a Positive Influence

Consumer psychology is an important component in marketing and in discovering why consumers make the purchasing decisions that they do. Companies in several different industries use the tactics of consumer psychology to build out their customer profiles and better tailor their marketing campaigns to those who are most likely to respond. Additionally, consumer psychology is increasingly being used to positively influence people to make decisions that benefit everyone.

Consumer psychology may be what will influence the modern American consumer to consider switching over from a gas to an electric vehicle and reevaluating their recycling habits. For those who are interested in becoming part of the solution, an  online Master of Science in Applied Psychology (MAPP) degree from USC  can be a great first step.

With courses in consumer psychology, organizational psychology and research methods in applied psychology, you can lay the foundation for a thriving career in consumer psychology upon graduation.

Take the first step towards a profession in consumer psychology with USC.

Recommended Reading

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American Psychological Association, Consumer Behavior

American Psychological Association , Industrial and Organizational Psychology

American Psychological Association, “The Goods on Consumer Behavior”

Entrepreneur , “How to Use Digital Consumer Psychology to Stand Out From the Competition ”

LinkedIn, “Industrial-Organizational Psychology and Marketing — Better Understanding of Human Behavior”

Psychology Today, Consumer Behavior

Psychology Today , “Two Challenges With Quantifying Virtuous Consumer Behavior”

ResearchGate, “Consumer Psychology: Evolving Goals and Research Orientations”

Verywell Mind, “What Is Consumer Psychology?”

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Behind the Nano Mistakes: A Case Study on Consumer Psychology

2013, Srusti Management Review, ISSN: 0974-4274

Since from the conception, there have been way too many impediments towards the success of Tata Motors dream project – Nano. It seems evident that Tatas have had problems with the entire marketing mix for Nano. There were initial safety issues with the product; they couldn’t hold on to their original pricing promise due to rising costs; there was a tough time with the distribution due to serious mismatch between demand and supply; and there wasn’t a proper promotional campaign to begin with. This explorative case study looks beyond the mistakes and attempts to throw light on the consumer psychology regarding Nano’s initial low market acceptance; which seemed to be quite different from what the company and industry had speculated in the beginning. While making qualitative assessment of the perception, attitudes and behavior of the consumers, the case study also explores the continuous hurdles that Tata Motors had gone through and the others that it still tries to overcome to ensure “Nano – the people’s car”, gets it’s truly deserving position in the market.

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Psychology Case Study Examples: A Deep Dive into Real-life Scenarios

Peeling back the layers of the human mind is no easy task, but psychology case studies can help us do just that. Through these detailed analyses, we’re able to gain a deeper understanding of human behavior, emotions, and cognitive processes. I’ve always found it fascinating how a single person’s experience can shed light on broader psychological principles.

Over the years, psychologists have conducted numerous case studies—each with their own unique insights and implications. These investigations range from Phineas Gage’s accidental lobotomy to Genie Wiley’s tragic tale of isolation. Such examples not only enlighten us about specific disorders or occurrences but also continue to shape our overall understanding of psychology .

As we delve into some noteworthy examples , I assure you’ll appreciate how varied and intricate the field of psychology truly is. Whether you’re a budding psychologist or simply an eager learner, brace yourself for an intriguing exploration into the intricacies of the human psyche.

Understanding Psychology Case Studies

Diving headfirst into the world of psychology, it’s easy to come upon a valuable tool used by psychologists and researchers alike – case studies. I’m here to shed some light on these fascinating tools.

Psychology case studies, for those unfamiliar with them, are in-depth investigations carried out to gain a profound understanding of the subject – whether it’s an individual, group or phenomenon. They’re powerful because they provide detailed insights that other research methods might miss.

Let me share a few examples to clarify this concept further:

• One notable example is Freud’s study on Little Hans. This case study explored a 5-year-old boy’s fear of horses and related it back to Freud’s theories about psychosexual stages.
• Another classic example is Genie Wiley (a pseudonym), a feral child who was subjected to severe social isolation during her early years. Her heartbreaking story provided invaluable insights into language acquisition and critical periods in development.

You see, what sets psychology case studies apart is their focus on the ‘why’ and ‘how’. While surveys or experiments might tell us ‘what’, they often don’t dig deep enough into the inner workings behind human behavior.

It’s important though not to take these psychology case studies at face value. As enlightening as they can be, we must remember that they usually focus on one specific instance or individual. Thus, generalizing findings from single-case studies should be done cautiously.

To illustrate my point using numbers: let’s say we have 1 million people suffering from condition X worldwide; if only 20 unique cases have been studied so far (which would be quite typical for rare conditions), then our understanding is based on just 0.002% of the total cases! That’s why multiple sources and types of research are vital when trying to understand complex psychological phenomena fully.

In the grand scheme of things, psychology case studies are just one piece of the puzzle – albeit an essential one. They provide rich, detailed data that can form the foundation for further research and understanding. As we delve deeper into this fascinating field, it’s crucial to appreciate all the tools at our disposal – from surveys and experiments to these insightful case studies.

Importance of Case Studies in Psychology

I’ve always been fascinated by the human mind, and if you’re here, I bet you are too. Let’s dive right into why case studies play such a pivotal role in psychology.

One of the key reasons they matter so much is because they provide detailed insights into specific psychological phenomena. Unlike other research methods that might use large samples but only offer surface-level findings, case studies allow us to study complex behaviors, disorders, and even treatments at an intimate level. They often serve as a catalyst for new theories or help refine existing ones.

To illustrate this point, let’s look at one of psychology’s most famous case studies – Phineas Gage. He was a railroad construction foreman who survived a severe brain injury when an iron rod shot through his skull during an explosion in 1848. The dramatic personality changes he experienced after his accident led to significant advancements in our understanding of the brain’s role in personality and behavior.

Moreover, it’s worth noting that some rare conditions can only be studied through individual cases due to their uncommon nature. For instance, consider Genie Wiley – a girl discovered at age 13 having spent most of her life locked away from society by her parents. Her tragic story gave psychologists valuable insights into language acquisition and critical periods for learning.

Finally yet importantly, case studies also have practical applications for clinicians and therapists. Studying real-life examples can inform treatment plans and provide guidance on how theoretical concepts might apply to actual client situations.

• Detailed insights: Case studies offer comprehensive views on specific psychological phenomena.
• Catalyst for new theories: Real-life scenarios help shape our understanding of psychology .
• Study rare conditions: Unique cases can offer invaluable lessons about uncommon disorders.
• Practical applications: Clinicians benefit from studying real-world examples.

In short (but without wrapping up), it’s clear that case studies hold immense value within psychology – they illuminate what textbooks often can’t, offering a more nuanced understanding of human behavior.

Different Types of Psychology Case Studies

Diving headfirst into the world of psychology, I can’t help but be fascinated by the myriad types of case studies that revolve around this subject. Let’s take a closer look at some of them.

Firstly, we’ve got what’s known as ‘Explanatory Case Studies’. These are often used when a researcher wants to clarify complex phenomena or concepts. For example, a psychologist might use an explanatory case study to explore the reasons behind aggressive behavior in children.

Second on our list are ‘Exploratory Case Studies’, typically utilized when new and unexplored areas of research come up. They’re like pioneers; they pave the way for future studies. In psychological terms, exploratory case studies could be conducted to investigate emerging mental health conditions or under-researched therapeutic approaches.

Next up are ‘Descriptive Case Studies’. As the name suggests, these focus on depicting comprehensive and detailed profiles about a particular individual, group, or event within its natural context. A well-known example would be Sigmund Freud’s analysis of “Anna O”, which provided unique insights into hysteria.

Then there are ‘Intrinsic Case Studies’, which delve deep into one specific case because it is intrinsically interesting or unique in some way. It’s sorta like shining a spotlight onto an exceptional phenomenon. An instance would be studying savants—individuals with extraordinary abilities despite significant mental disabilities.

Lastly, we have ‘Instrumental Case Studies’. These aren’t focused on understanding a particular case per se but use it as an instrument to understand something else altogether—a bit like using one puzzle piece to make sense of the whole picture!

So there you have it! From explanatory to instrumental, each type serves its own unique purpose and adds another intriguing layer to our understanding of human behavior and cognition.

Exploring Real-Life Psychology Case Study Examples

Let’s roll up our sleeves and delve into some real-life psychology case study examples. By digging deep, we can glean valuable insights from these studies that have significantly contributed to our understanding of human behavior and mental processes.

First off, let me share the fascinating case of Phineas Gage. This gentleman was a 19th-century railroad construction foreman who survived an accident where a large iron rod was accidentally driven through his skull, damaging his frontal lobes. Astonishingly, he could walk and talk immediately after the accident but underwent dramatic personality changes, becoming impulsive and irresponsible. This case is often referenced in discussions about brain injury and personality change.

Next on my list is Genie Wiley’s heart-wrenching story. She was a victim of severe abuse and neglect resulting in her being socially isolated until she was 13 years old. Due to this horrific experience, Genie couldn’t acquire language skills typically as other children would do during their developmental stages. Her tragic story offers invaluable insight into the critical periods for language development in children.

Then there’s ‘Little Hans’, a classic Freudian case that delves into child psychology. At just five years old, Little Hans developed an irrational fear of horses -or so it seemed- which Sigmund Freud interpreted as symbolic anxiety stemming from suppressed sexual desires towards his mother—quite an interpretation! The study gave us Freud’s Oedipus Complex theory.

Lastly, I’d like to mention Patient H.M., an individual who became amnesiac following surgery to control seizures by removing parts of his hippocampus bilaterally. His inability to form new memories post-operation shed light on how different areas of our brains contribute to memory formation.

Each one of these real-life psychology case studies gives us a unique window into understanding complex human behaviors better – whether it’s dissecting the role our brain plays in shaping personality or unraveling the mysteries of fear, language acquisition, and memory.

How to Analyze a Psychology Case Study

Diving headfirst into a psychology case study, I understand it can seem like an intimidating task. But don’t worry, I’m here to guide you through the process.

First off, it’s essential to go through the case study thoroughly. Read it multiple times if needed. Each reading will likely reveal new information or perspectives you may have missed initially. Look out for any patterns or inconsistencies in the subject’s behavior and make note of them.

Next on your agenda should be understanding the theoretical frameworks that might be applicable in this scenario. Is there a cognitive-behavioral approach at play? Or does psychoanalysis provide better insights? Comparing these theories with observed behavior and symptoms can help shed light on underlying psychological issues.

Now, let’s talk data interpretation. If your case study includes raw data like surveys or diagnostic tests results, you’ll need to analyze them carefully. Here are some steps that could help:

• Identify what each piece of data represents
• Look for correlations between different pieces of data
• Compute statistics (mean, median, mode) if necessary
• Use graphs or charts for visual representation

Keep in mind; interpreting raw data requires both statistical knowledge and intuition about human behavior.

Finally, drafting conclusions is key in analyzing a psychology case study. Based on your observations, evaluations of theoretical approaches and interpretations of any given data – what do you conclude about the subject’s mental health status? Remember not to jump to conclusions hastily but instead base them solidly on evidence from your analysis.

In all this journey of analysis remember one thing: every person is unique and so are their experiences! So while theories and previous studies guide us, they never define an individual completely.

Applying Lessons from Psychology Case Studies

Let’s dive into how we can apply the lessons learned from psychology case studies. If you’ve ever studied psychology, you’ll know that case studies offer rich insights. They shed light on human behavior, mental health issues, and therapeutic techniques. But it’s not just about understanding theory. It’s also about implementing these valuable lessons in real-world situations.

One of the most famous psychological case studies is Phineas Gage’s story. This 19th-century railroad worker survived a severe brain injury which dramatically altered his personality. From this study, we gained crucial insight into how different brain areas are responsible for various aspects of our personality and behavior.

• Lesson: Recognizing that damage to specific brain areas can result in personality changes, enabling us to better understand certain mental conditions.

Sigmund Freud’s work with a patient known as ‘Anna O.’ is another landmark psychology case study. Anna displayed what was then called hysteria – symptoms included hallucinations and disturbances in speech and physical coordination – which Freud linked back to repressed memories of traumatic events.

• Lesson: The importance of exploring an individual’s history for understanding their current psychological problems – a principle at the heart of psychoanalysis.

Then there’s Genie Wiley’s case – a girl who suffered extreme neglect resulting in impaired social and linguistic development. Researchers used her tragic circumstances as an opportunity to explore theories around language acquisition and socialization.

• Lesson: Reinforcing the critical role early childhood experiences play in shaping cognitive development.

Lastly, let’s consider the Stanford Prison Experiment led by Philip Zimbardo examining how people conform to societal roles even when they lead to immoral actions.

• Lesson: Highlighting that situational forces can drastically impact human behavior beyond personal characteristics or morality.

These examples demonstrate that psychology case studies aren’t just academic exercises isolated from daily life. Instead, they provide profound lessons that help us make sense of complex human behaviors, mental health issues, and therapeutic strategies. By understanding these studies, we’re better equipped to apply their lessons in our own lives – whether it’s navigating personal relationships, working with diverse teams at work or even self-improvement.

Challenges and Critiques of Psychological Case Studies

Delving into the world of psychological case studies, it’s not all rosy. Sure, they offer an in-depth understanding of individual behavior and mental processes. Yet, they’re not without their share of challenges and criticisms.

One common critique is the lack of generalizability. Each case study is unique to its subject. We can’t always apply what we learn from one person to everyone else. I’ve come across instances where results varied dramatically between similar subjects, highlighting the inherent unpredictability in human behavior.

Another challenge lies within ethical boundaries. Often, sensitive information surfaces during these studies that could potentially harm the subject if disclosed improperly. To put it plainly, maintaining confidentiality while delivering a comprehensive account isn’t always easy.

Distortion due to subjective interpretations also poses substantial difficulties for psychologists conducting case studies. The researcher’s own bias may color their observations and conclusions – leading to skewed outcomes or misleading findings.

Moreover, there’s an ongoing debate about the scientific validity of case studies because they rely heavily on qualitative data rather than quantitative analysis. Some argue this makes them less reliable or objective when compared with other research methods such as experiments or surveys.

To summarize:

• Lack of generalizability
• Ethical dilemmas concerning privacy
• Potential distortion through subjective interpretation
• Questions about scientific validity

While these critiques present significant challenges, they do not diminish the value that psychological case studies bring to our understanding of human behavior and mental health struggles.

Conclusion: The Impact of Case Studies in Understanding Human Behavior

Case studies play a pivotal role in shedding light on human behavior. Throughout this article, I’ve discussed numerous examples that illustrate just how powerful these studies can be. Yet it’s the impact they have on our understanding of human psychology where their true value lies.

Take for instance the iconic study of Phineas Gage. It was through his tragic accident and subsequent personality change that we began to grasp the profound influence our frontal lobes have on our behavior. Without such a case study, we might still be in the dark about this crucial aspect of our neurology.

Let’s also consider Genie, the feral child who showed us the critical importance of social interaction during early development. Her heartbreaking story underscores just how vital appropriate nurturing is for healthy mental and emotional growth.

Here are some key takeaways from these case studies:

• Our brain structure significantly influences our behavior.
• Social interaction during formative years is vital for normal psychological development.
• Studying individual cases can reveal universal truths about human nature.

What stands out though, is not merely what these case studies teach us individually but collectively. They remind us that each person constitutes a unique combination of various factors—biological, psychological, and environmental—that shape their behavior.

One cannot overstate the significance of case studies in psychology—they are more than mere stories or isolated incidents; they’re windows into the complexities and nuances of human nature itself.

In wrapping up, I’d say that while statistics give us patterns and trends to understand groups, it’s these detailed narratives offered by case studies that help us comprehend individuals’ unique experiences within those groups—making them an invaluable part of psychological research.

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Researchers study psychology of compulsive online shopping

by David Bradley, Inderscience

Research has investigated compulsive online shopping behavior in India, with a specific focus aimed at unzipping the triggers and antecedents related to the purchase of jeans. The research is published in the International Journal of Networking and Virtual Organisations .

D. Manimegalai of the Department of Management Studies and S. Senthilkumar of the College of Management at the SRM Institute of Science and Technology in Tamil Nadu, India, carried out an online survey with more than 200 participants. They identified several factors that drive compulsive shopping tendencies among different demographic groups, including both male and female consumers.

The team has identified, through a detailed statistical analysis of their survey results, what compels shoppers to by denim trousers. Internal triggers, such as emotions and personal experiences , interact with external stimuli like online usage patterns and social influences to shape the purchasing decisions of online shoppers. Their findings could help marketing executives better understand consumer behavior and so develop strategies to sell more jeans online.

The researchers point out that there are almost three-quarters of a billion pairs of jeans sold each year in India. That suggests on average that the population as a whole has a new pair of jeans every two years. But, the assumption is that everyone from toddlers to senior adults wears jeans.

However, the research does suggest that there is a lot of compulsive behavior and presumably a lot of adults with disposable income buying many more pairs of genes than that glib average would suggest.

Such repetitive buying may have future financial implications as well as highlighting latent social and psychological well-being issues. This would be especially the case if the compulsive buying extended to other products and led to increasing levels of debt.

Indeed, the findings hint at the role of loneliness, anxiety, and novelty-seeking tendencies in driving compulsive shopping. The work thus highlights a responsibility and the need for targeted interventions and support mechanisms.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

This article is part of the research topic.

Eating Behavior and Chronic Diseases: Research Evidence from Population Studies

Comparison of Dutch healthy eating and healthy eating indexes and anthropometry in patients with major depression with health subjects: a case-control study Provisionally Accepted

• 1 Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Iran

The final, formatted version of the article will be published soon.

Background: Diseases and disorders related to mental health are spreading like other chronic diseases all around the world. Considering the role of food in the prevention and treatment of these disorders, including major depression, investigating the relationship between different food patterns and this disorder is of particular importance. The aim of this study was to compare Dutch healthy eating and healthy eating indexes and anthropometry in patients with major depression with healthy individuals.Methods: In this case-control study, the final analysis was performed on 67 men and 111 women with an age range of 20-30 years. Height (cm), weight (kg), food frequency questionnaire (FFQ), physical activity (MET-min/week), demographic and PHQ-9 questionnaires were taken from all participants. In the following, all the food ingredients and their components were extracted and used to calculate HEI-2015 and DHD. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS software with independent t-test, logistic regression and chi-square.Results: It was found that people with major depression in this study were mostly women and occupied. The average HEI-2015 in healthy people and those with major depression was 58 and 54.3, respectively. Also, the average DHD in these people was 60.5 and 55, respectively. HEI-2015 and DHD had a significant negative correlation with depression score (r= -0.16, p-value= 0.03) (r= -0.19, p-value= 0.01). Also, in the logistic regression model, before and even after adjusting confounders, HEI-2015 and DHD had a reduced odds ratio in people suffering from major depression. The two groups did not differ significantly in terms of the average factors of height, weight and body mass index (BMI).Conclusion: It seems that HEI2015 and DHD have a significant relationship in reducing major depression. However, due to the small number of studies in this regard, especially in the field of DHD, the need for more studies seems necessary.

Keywords: major depression, Dutch Healthy Diet index, Healthy Eating Index 2015, PHQ9, HEI

Received: 14 Jan 2024; Accepted: 08 Apr 2024.

Copyright: © 2024 Tohidi-Nafe, Movahedi and Djazayery. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

* Correspondence: Mrs. Melika Tohidi-Nafe, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

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The 3-Word Remedy for Anxiety

The liberating power of "so, what if": speculative thinking reduces anxiety..

Updated April 9, 2024 | Reviewed by Michelle Quirk

• What Is Anxiety?
• Find counselling to overcome anxiety
• Consistent with the cognitive behavioral therapy approach, speculative thinking challenges your anxiety.
• The phrase, "So what if?" is a great way to use speculative thinking to zap your worries.
• "So what if?" helps us find the freedom to explore alternatives to anxious thoughts and see a brighter future.

Anxiety often lurks in our minds, weaving its tendrils into our thoughts and emotions. It's a persistent companion, whispering doubts, fears, and uncertainties.

Yet, amidst this mental maze, lies a powerful tool—the simple question: "So, what if?" Further along in this post, I will share Sarah's story—a brief, inspiring case study of the power of "So, what if?"

This idea of challenging our irrational beliefs is soundly based on the tenets of cognitive behavioral therapy —the most widely researched set of clinical interventions used by mental health professionals. Similar to "So, what if?," the question, "What is the worst thing that can happen?" is another worry squashed. That's because most of the time, the worst thing does not happen—and even if it does, we usually find a way to deal with it when push comes to shove.

Yet, I still prefer the 1, 2, 3 punch of "So, what if?" This three-word question is more succinct, and it effectively calls on us to step up and directly call out and challenge that irrational self-talk that gets in our way.

This seemingly innocuous inquiry holds the key to unlocking a path toward liberation from anxiety's grip. By engaging in speculative thinking, we venture into the realm of possibility, where anxieties lose their potency, and we find the freedom to explore alternatives and envision brighter futures.

Understanding Anxiety

Anxiety, in its essence, is a response to uncertainty and perceived threats. It manifests as a relentless cycle of worry, ruminating on potential dangers and negative outcomes. Whether it's fretting about the future, dwelling on past mistakes, or feeling overwhelmed by current challenges, anxiety constrains our ability to think clearly and act decisively. It's a cognitive trap that ensnares us in a web of "what ifs" without offering resolution or relief.

The Power of Speculative Thinking: Enter "So, What If?"

A subtle yet transformative shift in perspective: Instead of succumbing to the paralyzing grip of anxious thoughts, we pivot toward curiosity and imagination . Speculative thinking invites us to entertain possibilities beyond the confines of our fears.

When I was researching my book The Anxiety, Depression , & Anger Toolbox for Teens , I learned how speculative thinking is a valuable tool to quell not just teen anxiety but also worries amongst people of all ages. Speculative thinking encourages us to explore alternative narratives, envision positive outcomes, and consider the potential for growth and resilience .

Lowering Anxiety Through Speculation

• Reframing perspectives: "So, what if?" prompts us to reframe our perspectives on uncertainty and adversity. Rather than viewing challenges as insurmountable obstacles, we see them as opportunities for learning and growth. By embracing uncertainty as a natural part of life's journey, we cultivate resilience and adaptability.
• Empowering choices: Speculative thinking empowers us to reclaim agency in the face of anxiety. Instead of feeling helpless and overwhelmed, we recognize that our choices shape the course of our lives. By exploring different scenarios and their potential outcomes, we gain clarity and confidence in our decision-making process.
• Cultivating creativity : Anxiety often stifles creativity, trapping us in rigid patterns of thinking. "So, what if?" unleashes the imagination, inviting us to explore uncharted territory and envision novel solutions. By embracing uncertainty as a catalyst for innovation, we tap into our creative potential and discover new possibilities.
• Building resilience: Speculative thinking fosters resilience by challenging us to confront our fears and uncertainties head-on. Rather than avoiding discomfort, we lean into it, recognizing that growth often emerges from adversity. By embracing the unknown with courage and curiosity, we develop the inner strength to navigate life's inevitable challenges.

Case Study: Sarah's Story

Sarah, a young professional commercial realtor, was plagued by anxiety about her career prospects. Faced with uncertainty in her industry's mounting pressure to succeed, she felt paralyzed by fear of failure.

However, through the practice of speculative thinking, Sarah began to explore alternative pathways and envision a future filled with possibilities. Instead of dwelling on worst-case scenarios, she asked herself, "So, what if I believe I can succeed? What if I give my best effort? So, what if this career does not work out—I will find something else that is a better fit for me. In the meantime, I'm giving this my best shot."

These questions liberated Sarah from the grip of anxiety, empowering her to take proactive steps toward her goals with newfound clarity and confidence. One of Sarah's colleagues who saw that she appeared more optimistic , empowered, and motivated invited her to assist with a large sale. Sarah leveraged this success to propel herself forward and became a rising star in her office.

"So, what if?"—a simple question with profound implications for our mental well-being. In a world fraught with uncertainty and anxiety, speculative thinking offers a beacon of hope and possibility. By embracing curiosity, creativity, and resilience, we can transcend the confines of anxious thoughts and chart a course toward a brighter, more fulfilling future. So, the next time anxiety threatens to overshadow your daily life and even your dreams , remember to ask yourself: "So, what if?"

Apolinário-Hagen, J., Drüge, M., Fritsche, L. (2020). Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy and Acceptance Commitment Therapy for Anxiety Disorders: Integrating Traditional with Digital Treatment Approaches. In: Kim, YK. (eds) Anxiety Disorders. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, vol 1191. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9705-0_17

van Dis EAM, van Veen SC, Hagenaars MA, et al. Long-term Outcomes of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Anxiety-Related Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry. 2020;77(3):265–273. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.3986

Jeffrey Bernstein, Ph.D. , is a psychologist and the author of seven books, including 10 Days to a Less Defiant Child.

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