groundwater conservation essay

Groundwater: Making the invisible visible in 2022 and beyond

UNESCO, together with its centre, the International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre (IGRAC), has led the World Water Day 2022 campaign on “Groundwater: Making the invisible visible” on behalf of UN-Water; the campaign will remain active throughout the year. UNESCO will coordinate the organization and will participate in a series of key events related to groundwater, aimed at conveying a message about the importance of these hidden resources to the UN 2023 Water Conference.

World Water Day

22 march 2022.

Since its inception in 1975, the UNESCO Intergovernmental Hydrological Programme (IHP) has provided a substantial contribution to the improved knowledge of groundwater and aquifers worldwide. UNESCO, together with its category 2 centre, IGRAC, has led the U N World Water Day 2022 campaign on “Groundwater: Making the invisible visible” on behalf of UN-Water. The UN World Water Development Report (WWDR) 2022 , prepared by the UNESCO's World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP), and published by UNESCO on behalf of UN-Water and its partners, was this year devoted to the topic, providing the most up-to-date knowledge on groundwater.

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World Water Forum

21-26 march 2022, dakar, senegal.

The  World Water Forum  is the largest international event dedicated to water, bringing together NGOs, the private sector, governments and international organizations. It is organized by the Forum’s respective host country and the World Water Council, with IHP, the intergovernmental platform for water within the UN system, also taking an important role. The Forum aims to raise awareness among decision-makers and the public at large on water issues and to generate action, thus improving access to water supply and sanitation. It also reports on the progress taken towards meeting the UN Sustainable Development Goals.

Within the framework of the 9th World Water Forum, UNESCO and IGRAC took the lead in the celebration of the World Water Day (22 March 2022) on the theme, “Groundwater: Making the invisible visible”, and organized the following sessions:

• Check all the events UNESCO organized by or with participation of UNESCO during the 9th World Water Forum

Groundwater, Key for Sustainable Development Goals

18-20 may 2022.

The main objectives of the May 2022 International Conference “ Groundwater, key to the Sustainable Development Goals ” are to :

• Examine the overall relationships between water-related Sustainable Development Goals', their stakeholders and groundwater
• Share knowledge, experiences, findings and good practices on the groundwater resources in sustainable development issues
• Elaborate recommendations to ensure the best integration of groundwater resources into the SDGs

The conference is co-organized by the French Chapter of the International Association of Hydrogeologists (CFH-AIH), UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Hydrological Programme (UNESCO IHP), and the French Water Partnership (FWP), under the patronage of the French National Commission for UNESCO and with the support of the French Ministry of the Ecological Transition, the Seine-Normandy Water Agency, and Sorbonne University.

Dushanbe High-level Water Conference

6-9 june 2022.

The Second Dushanbe Water Action Decade Conference, organized by the Government of the Republic of Tajikistan with the support of the United Nations and other partners, will focus on how governments, the United Nations and its entities, other international and regional organizations, international financial institutions, the private sector, civil society organizations, academia, communities, local governments and other stakeholders can catalyze water action and partnerships to contribute to the implementation of water-related goals and targets of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the Paris Climate Agreement, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, the Addis Ababa Action Agenda on Financing for Development and the New Urban Agenda at all levels, while supporting the global response to the COVID-19 crisis.

The Conference will be held on 6-9 June 2022 at Kokhi Somon, Dushanbe, Republic of Tajikistan. The Conference program includes opening and closing ceremonies, a plenary session, several thematic and interactive panels, special forums for regional and major groups, as well as side events.

World Water Week

23 august-1 september 2022, on-line and stockholm, sweden.

World Water Week is the leading annual event on global water issues, organized by Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI) since 1991. Together with organizations from all sectors and all regions of the world, SIWI seeks solutions to the world’s greatest water-related challenges. In 2022, the UNESCO Intergovernmental Hydrological Programme (IHP), as Key Collaborating Partner, will join efforts with the World Water Week 2022 to highlight the importance of groundwater resources for human and ecosystems and jointly contribute to improve knowledge and capacity to accelerate the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goal 6 on water and sanitation (SDG 6) for a water secure world.

UN-Water Summit on Groundwater

7-8 december 2022, unesco headquarters, paris, france.

The UN-Water Summit on Groundwater organized by UNESCO and its International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre (IGRAC) will take place in 7-8 December 2022 at UNESCO HQ, Paris, and is planned as a hybrid meeting with the most possible on-site presence. The 6 December will be a Pre-Summit day, devoted to side events only .

The Summit aims to make groundwater more visible in order to better manage and protect it. It will bring attention to groundwater at the highest international level and will use the World Water Development Report 2022 as a baseline and the SDG 6 Global Acceleration Framework as a guideline to define actions towards more responsible and sustainable use and protection of this vital natural resource.

The summit will unify the statements from all major groundwater-related events in 2022 in one comprehensive groundwater message for the UN Water Conference 2023.

Other events

• The 12th International Hydrogeological Conference: "Groundwater resources in an ever-changing environment" Nicosia, Cyprus, 20-22 March 2022
• Eurokarst 2022  Malaga, Spain, 22-24 June 2022
•  Side event of the High-level Political Forum (HLPF) : “Climate impacts from cryosphere to groundwater”  New York, July 2022
• XXII Brazilian Groundwater Congress "Groundwater: Invisible, Indivisible and Indispensable”  São Paulo, Brazil, 2-5 August 2022
• Presentation of the 2023 World Water Day and World Toilet Day World Water Week, Stockholm, 28 August
• 77th United Nations General Assembly: Debate of the Legal Committee on “The Law of Transboundary Aquifers”  19 October 2022
• 49th IAH Congress "Groundwater Sustainability and Poverty Reduction "   Wuhan, China, 18-23 September 2022
• UN Climate Change Conference 2022 (UNFCCC COP 27) 7-18 November 2022
• World Toilet Day 2022  19 November 2022

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Essay on Water Conservation: Samples in 150, 200, 250 Words

• Updated on  
• May 8, 2024

What makes you curious to write an essay on water conservation? This life-saving resource is essential for all forms of life on Earth. Water is the essential natural resource present on Earth. Out of the total water present on Earth, 97.5% is salt water and 2.5% is fresh water. 70% of the human body is made of water. But, with the growing population , and climatic crisis , we are facing the urgent need to conserve water.

Water conservation is a hot topic, if you need a sample essay on water conservation then, you are at the right place. In this blog post, we have covered essays on water conservation in 100, 200, and 250 words. Further we are also providing a sample piece of writing on essay on water conservation. So, stay tuned and read further to get some ideas about water conservation!

Table of Contents

• 1 Essay on Water Conservation in 100 Words
• 2 Essay on Water Conservation in 200 Words
• 3.1 Water Scarcity
• 3.2 Ways to Conserve Water
• 4 Short Essay on Water Conservation

Also Read: World Water Day

Essay on Water Conservation in 100 Words

Water is crucial for all components of life which makes it a necessary resource for day-to-day activities. We use water for domestic activities like cooking, bathing, drinking, washing, etc. So, ultimately the consumption of water is very high. This makes it necessary to conserve water. Just as air, water is also important for life. Besides, water consumption, water pollution, and water scarcity are also some of the major water-related issues that need attention so that we can conserve water.

Every year we celebrate World Water Day on 22 March. This day is celebrated to spread awareness about the importance of water and run campaigns to conserve water on Earth. There are several ways to conserve water such as switching to showers, turning off taps when not in use, don’t pollute water bodies, storing rainwater, etc.

Also Read: Essay on Water Pollution

Essay on Water Conservation in 200 Words

Water is one of the Earth’s most precious resources. But the world is facing water scarcity. As per the SDA report 2022, around 2 billion people worldwide are lacking safe drinking water. This means they are more vulnerable to diseases and unhealthy life. 

Apart from the increasing population, climatic change is also hampering the quality of water. Floods and Droughts are more frequent due to the vulnerability of climate, thereby increasing the need to conserve water.

Water conservation is vital to meet the growing global demand for fresh water. Water consumption is very high for agriculture, industry, and households. By conserving water, we can ensure that there is a surplus amount of water to use and avoid conflicts over this limited resource.

Water conservation helps to maintain a balance in the ecosystem because every living thing on this planet is directly associated with the use of water. Reducing water consumption reduces the energy footprint associated with water supply.

The best ways of water conservation are rainwater harvesting , installing water plants, reusing water for gardening purposes, turning off taps when not in use, proper irrigation, installing automatic tap shut-off devices, not polluting water sources, and many more.

If we don’t want to witness the world die due to water scarcity then, it’s high time to conserve water and save the planet and future generations.

Also Read: Essay on Save Water

Water Conservation Essay 250 Words

Water conservation is a crucial step in protecting the environment. It is an important compound that supports life on Earth. The world has been facing water-related disasters due to scarcity of freshwater. 70% of the earth as well as the human body is composed of water, but there is a limited amount of freshwater to use. Owing to the ever-increasing population, climatic changes, global warming, and pollution, the need for the conservation of water is increasing. To do so, it is our fundamental duty to conserve water by planting more trees, managing water plants, storing rainwater, and making smart use of water. 

Water Scarcity

Water scarcity is a critical global issue that needs strict attention when the demand for freshwater exceeds the available supply of water. It can manifest in various ways, including a lack of access to clean drinking water, inadequate water for agriculture and industrial processes, and stressed or depleted natural water sources. 

Here are some factors that contribute to water scarcity:

• Climate change
• Growing population
• Global warming
• Inefficient water management
• Water pollution
• Increasing demand
• Poor irrigation techniques
• Wastage of water, and much more.

Ways to Conserve Water

Conserving water is crucial to help address water scarcity and ensure a sustainable water supply for both present and future generations. You can contribute individually by taking small measures to conserve water like turning off the tap. Likewise, here are some ways to conserve water:

• Drip irrigation technique
• Soil management
• Plantation of drought-tolerant crops
• Apply Mulching
• Recycle and reuse water
• Rainwater harvesting
• Desalination
• Spread awareness to conserve water
• Donate to the water cleaning campaign
• Implement proper water management techniques.

Also Read: Types of Water Pollution

Short Essay on Water Conservation

Find the sample of short essay on water conservation below:

Also Read: Essay on Save Environment: Samples in 100, 200, 300 Words

Water conservation is the individual or collective practice of efficient use of water. This helps in protecting the earth from the situation of water scarcity. We can individually contribute to water conservation by not wasting water, reducing the over-consumption of water, rainwater harvesting, etc. Water conservation is an important call because there is a limited amount of fresh water available on earth.

Here are 10 ways to save water. 1. Rainwater harvesting 2 Install water plants 3. Reuse water 4. Maintain proper water management plans 5. Fix the irrigation system 6. Use a bucket 7. Turn off the tap when not in use 8. Keep a regular check on pipe leakage 9. Do not pollute water bodies 10. Participate in water cleaning campaigns

Here are 5 points on the importance of water conservation: It helps the ecosystem; Water conservation is necessary for drought-prone areas; It helps reduce costs; Water conservation improves the quality of water; and Maintains the health of the aquatic ecosystem.

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• Open access
• Published: 14 June 2024

Ending groundwater overdraft without affecting food security

• Nicostrato Perez 1 ,
• Vartika Singh   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4896-7590 2 , 3 , 4 ,
• Claudia Ringler   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8266-0488 1 ,
• Hua Xie 1 ,
• Tingju Zhu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6882-3551 5 ,
• Edwin H. Sutanudjaja 6 &
• Karen G. Villholth 7  

Nature Sustainability volume  7 ,  pages 1007–1017 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Climate-change policy
• Environmental impact

Groundwater development is key to accelerating agricultural growth and to achieving food security in a climate crisis. However, the rapid increase in groundwater exploitation over the past four decades has resulted in depletion and degradation, particularly in regions already facing acute water scarcity, with potential irreversible impacts for food security and economic prosperity. Using a climate–water–food systems modelling framework, we develop exploratory scenarios and find that halting groundwater depletion without complementary policy actions would adversely affect food production and trade, increase food prices and grow the number of people at risk of hunger by 26 million by 2050. Supportive policy interventions in food and water systems such as increasing the effective use of precipitation and investments in agricultural research and development could mitigate most negative effects of sustainable groundwater use on food security. In addition, changing preferences of high-income countries towards less-meat-based diets would marginally alleviate pressures on food price. To safeguard the ability of groundwater systems to realize water and food security objectives amidst climate challenges, comprehensive measures encompassing improved water management practices, advancements in seed technologies and appropriate institutions will be needed.

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Solving groundwater depletion in India while achieving food security

Moving from measurement to governance of shared groundwater resources

The impact of climate change, population growth and development on sustainable water security in Bangladesh to 2100

Water and food security are intrinsically linked as irrigated agriculture contributes around 40% of global food production on 20% of cultivated land 1 . At the same time, water use in agriculture accounts for around 70% of global freshwater withdrawals, of which 40% is used for animal feed production 2 . An estimated 42% of irrigation water is sourced from groundwater (GW) 3 , and China, India, Iran, Pakistan and the USA are the globally largest GW users in terms of volume. Development of GW for irrigation offers many advantages, including proximity to users, lower investment requirements 4 , individual control, higher water productivity, often better water quality compared with surface sources and lower seasonal variation in availability 5 . Moreover, GW development is accelerating in sub-Saharan Africa as a result of cheaper technologies, including the increased availability of affordable solar-powered pumps 6 , 7 .

Extensive GW use has benefited global economic development and has improved food security and livelihoods 8 . However, substantial expansion of GW development has also caused severe water depletion, reduced freshwater access and subsurface flows, led to cross-border tensions and increased inequity between those who can access the resource and those who cannot 9 , 10 , 11 . Depletion of GW has also contributed to sea-level rise and has even changed the tilt of the Earth’s axis 12 . Sustained GW overdraft also lowers aquifers’ hydraulic head, raising pumping costs 13 , causing land subsidence and saltwater intrusion 14 , 15 , threatening irrigated agriculture 16 and contributing to greenhouse gas emissions 17 , 18 . Solar-driven irrigation pumps reduce emissions but are considered to encourage more rapid GW depletion 19 , 20 . Several studies suggest that unsustainable GW use will eventually jeopardize water and food security and rural livelihoods when wells dry up or when it becomes uneconomical to irrigate crops 21 , 22 , leading to abandonment of GW-fed farms 23 .

As climate change renders rainfed agriculture less viable and disrupts surface water (SW) availability for irrigation, GW is increasingly being favoured as the primary source of irrigation for agriculture 24 . Moreover, climate change also directly affects the quantity and quality of GW recharge through changes in precipitation, temperature and sea-level rise 25 and indirectly affects water use 26 . As such, GW resources are affected by climate change through both increased extraction levels for irrigation and other uses and lower recharge. Recent assessments conducted to quantify the extent of GW depletion at regional to global scales 27 , 28 demonstrate the large-scale changes in GW storages across hotspot regions of the world. Our analysis of changes in GW recharge due to climate change further highlights these issues (Supplementary Fig. 1 ). Even in areas where recharge is expected to increase with climate change, such as in northwestern India 29 , the increase is unlikely to compensate for anthropogenic extraction in the short to medium term 30 .

Increasing GW depletion has been recognized as a major challenge to global food security, particularly with growing demands for food: with a projected population of to 9.7 billion people by 2050 30 , global food demand is expected to increase by 35–56% between 2010 and 2050 across various food projections models 31 , while an estimated additional 5–170 million people will be at risk of hunger 31 , 32 .

Using the International Model for Policy Analysis of Agricultural Commodities and Trade (IMPACT) water–food modelling framework, we estimate that the demand for food crops will increase by 40% between 2020 and 2050, with the largest absolute demand increase for fruits and vegetables and oilseed crops (Table 1 ). The corresponding increase in irrigation water demand is 17%. While this is much lower than projected increases in water use in the industrial and domestic sectors, in absolute terms, the projected increase is largest for the irrigation sector, with an estimated increase of 201 billion cubic metres (bcm) in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).

The paper contributes to the emerging literature on the world’s growing dependence on poorly managed GW resources for water and food security. The specific contributions of this paper are the assessment of the impacts of eliminating unsustainable GW use on various indicators of food security and the analysis of a series of policy investments to counteract negative food security impacts from more sustainable GW management. The study thus identifies ways to reduce trade-offs between the achievements of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 2 on zero hunger and those of SDG 6 on water and sanitation. The highly complex nature of hydrogeological systems does not allow us to explicitly draw conclusions for specific aquifers, and data uncertainty currently does not allow assessment on food prices from individual aquifers becoming unusable.

To analyse the global climate–water–food trade-offs, we use IMPACT, a suite of integrated biophysical–economic assessment models developed and maintained at the International Food Policy Research Institute 33 . The core components of the model used for our analysis are the IMPACT Global Hydrology Model (IGHM), the IMPACT Multi-market Food Model and the IMPACT Water Simulation Model (IWSM) ( Methods ).

We first estimate the effects on food security from eliminating GW overdraft under climate change by 2050. Climate change affects GW recharge levels 34 through both changes in precipitation, temperatures and extreme events and changes in the demand for GW as SW flows decline or become less reliable. We then analyse a series of agricultural, water and nutrition policy levers that can reduce or offset the adverse food security impacts from more sustainable GW management. These include public investments in agricultural research and development (R&D); more effective use of precipitation (green water) through mulching, terracing, conservation agriculture and other means (ERM); and reduced meat consumption in high-income countries (HICs) (RMC). Details of scenario assumptions and settings are presented in Methods .

Regional and country-scale variation of GW depletion, collectively, GW withdrawals, tripled from 227 bcm in 1990 to 879 bcm in 2020, equivalent to a 4.6% annual rate of growth. By contrast, SW withdrawals doubled from 963 bcm in 1990 to 2,697 bcm in 2020 30 , 34 , reflecting growing pressures on GW resources as demands on water resources continue to increase. However, when sustainable GW withdrawals are defined as those that do not exceed net recharge, 25% of river basins are characterized as overexploited; that is, GW is withdrawn beyond net recharge rates in those basins (Supplementary Table 1 ). These same basins account for 61% of total GW withdrawals, suggesting that GW mining remains a phenomenon limited to certain regions in the world, and particularly to South and East Asia, West Asia and the USA. The top overdraft basins are found in India, Pakistan, China, Saudi Arabia, Iran, the USA and Egypt, each with more than 10 bcm of annual depletion and a group total depletion volume of 279 bcm, representing 83% of global GW depletion (Supplementary Table 2 ). In basins with depletion, GW overdraft is higher in LMICs, at 195%, compared with HICs, at 131%. Severe GW depletion in India has been shown to reduce the potential of rural income generation and has been linked to outmigration and an overall decline in the potential for adaptation to climate change 35 , 36 , while areas with more secure and stable water resources were less likely to rely on migration and had scope to withstand climate change impacts. At the same time, there is potential for additional sustainable GW withdrawals in many of the not yet overexploited aquifers.

Figure 1 presents changes in GW withdrawals between the no GW conservation (No GWC) scenario and the GWC scenario. Under the GWC scenario, by 2027 withdrawals are reduced by 342 bcm. Most of the reduction takes place in the group of LMICs (297 bcm), while the reduction in HICs is 45 bcm. Elimination of overdraft particularly affects India, whose GW pumping is reduced by 164 bcm (to 39%), China, by 34 bcm (to 69%), and the USA, by 12 bcm (to 76%) compared with the No GWC or baseline values for 2027. Furthermore, we assess the consequences of arresting GW withdrawals on agricultural production and prices.

No GWC is the baseline without GW conservation, while GWC ensures that GW withdrawals are equal to net recharge rates. Both are simulated under climate change, averaging results from three climate change scenarios: GFDL, HadGEM and IPSL with RCP 8.5. Calculated using the IMPACT-IWSM.

GW depletion impact on food prices and food security

Halting GW depletion reduces agricultural production, increases food prices and results in a larger number of people at risk of hunger. As rice and wheat globally account for the largest applications of irrigation water, and most irrigated wheat is grown in Asia, production declines are largest for these two crops, at 1.8% and 1.5%, respectively. This is followed by declines in production of maize (1.0%) and sugarcane (0.6%). Across all agricultural commodities, production declines by 0.73%, and across all animal and plant-based foods, it declines by 0.66%. In terms of most affected regions, wheat, rice and maize production decline most in LMICs while HICs make up for some of the production shortfalls of wheat and sugarcane in response to higher prices for these commodities (Supplementary Fig. 2a ). In terms of country-level impacts, in India wheat and sugar production are affected most, while in China rice production drops most sharply. Neither country can make up for these declines through increased production of other crops or elsewhere in their countries (Supplementary Fig. 2b ).

Changes in GW access also affect global trade regimes, with net trade in rice increasing globally by 10.8% and trade in sugar by 3.5% to compensate for production shortfalls. At the same time, global net trade in wheat is projected to contract by 3.3% because of reduced exports from the South Asia region (Supplementary Table 3 ). Given thin agricultural commodity markets, limited stocks and the time it takes for production systems to adjust, small declines in global food production can lead to large changes in global food prices. We observe this in the case of rice and wheat, where prices increase by 7.4% and 6.7%, respectively, and on average, prices for all cereals increase by 5.2%.

Higher food prices impact the poor the most, as their share of household expenditures on food is higher. Lower food production and associated higher food prices because of GWC make food less affordable to poorer populations, with subsequent increases in the severity of undernourishment, disproportionately affecting LMICs (Fig. 2 ). This translates to approximately 24 million more undernourished people in LMICs, including 5.2 million more undernourished people in China and 2.6 million more undernourished people in India. The global increase in the number of people at risk of hunger would be around 26 million higher with GWC, above the 520.6 million people at risk of hunger in the No GWC baseline. With GWC, by 2050, the share of the population at risk of hunger would be 14% higher in India, 7% higher in the USA and 6% higher in China.

GWC and No GWC are simulated under climate change, averaging results from three climate change scenarios: GFDL, HadGEM and IPSL with RCP 8.5. a , b , The impact of production and prices ( a ) and population at risk of hunger ( b ) across the GWC scenarios, as compared with No GWC. Calculated using the IMPACT-IWSM and Food models.

Investments in food–water policies and their impacts

We implement three alternative policy scenarios to assess the potential of investments in food and water systems in reducing the adverse food insecurity impacts from GWC. The first scenario focuses on investment in agricultural R&D to increase yields of water-constrained irrigated crops through better seed technologies and associated agronomic practices. These include improvements in water use efficiency that can be achieved through improving transpiration efficiency of crops, by reducing the share of the harvested share in total biomass of crops through dwarf and semi-dwarf varieties and by reducing crop failure under climate extreme events in irrigated environments through drought-, heat-stress- and submergent-tolerant varieties, among others. These investments directly reduce the reliance on GW sources for agricultural production. The second scenario aims to reduce food security impacts from reduced GW pumping through improving the management of precipitation (ERM) through interventions such as conservation agriculture, mulching and terracing on both irrigated and rainfed areas. The third scenario reduces the propensity to consume meat products (RMC) in HICs through changing the elasticity of demand for these foods in these geographies. Reducing the consumption of meats reduces the demand for GW-fed animal feeds, such as maize. However, the resulting lower prices for meat products would also increase their affordability by poorer populations that currently cannot afford a healthy diet. The increased affordability of meat products from lower consumption levels in HICs might thus reduce or negate the benefits from reduced meat consumption in HICs. A fourth and final scenario combines the R&D and ERM scenarios to take advantage of their synergies, combining higher irrigated yields with more effective use of precipitation on agricultural lands (scenario details are presented in Supplementary Table 7 ). All these policy scenarios are simulated together with the GWC scenario and hereafter referred to with a + prefix.

All policy scenarios, except for the RMC scenario, result in an increase in average crop production levels and significant reductions in food prices (Fig. 3 ) compared with the GWC scenario, which is depicted for comparison. The alternative policy scenarios were calculated as least cost ( Methods and Supplementary Information ), and results are presented as changes over the No GWC baseline. The scenarios’ effectiveness in mitigating adverse food security effects of GWC increases as values approach zero.

These interventions are simulated in combination with the GWC scenario. The scenarios are simulated under climate change, averaging results from three climate change scenarios: GFDL, HadGEM and IPSL with RCP 8.5. R&D, investments in agricultural research and development; ERM, more effective rainfall management; RMC, reduced consumption of meat products in HICs. Calculated using IMPACT food–water simulations.

By accelerating investments in irrigated crop yields (+R&D) by 4.5% over baseline investments (No GWC), wheat prices are only 3.0% instead of 6.7% higher with GWC, and on average, cereal prices are 1.2% higher and sugar prices are 0.8% higher. Prices for several other crops are slightly below the levels of the No GWC baseline. Results are somewhat similar for the +ERM scenario, where the least-cost approach calculated needed improvements of 4.5% over the projection horizon.

Under the +ERM scenario, rice prices are higher compared with the +R&D scenario as rice is mostly irrigated and benefits somewhat less from improved precipitation management. However, maize prices decline to levels below those of the +R&D scenario as maize is largely rainfed and more strongly benefits from better management of precipitation. In the +ERM scenario, cereal prices are 1.9% above those of the baseline.

The combined +R&D and +ERM scenario, which includes a 2% increase in irrigated yields and a 3% improvement in effective rainfall management, results in lower maize prices compared with the +R&D scenario and in lower rice and wheat prices compared with the +ERM scenario but cannot lower cereal prices to below the levels of the +R&D scenario. However, prices for sugar and oilseed crops are further reduced.

The +RMC scenario also lowers food prices compared with the GWC scenario, but price declines are very small, except for meat prices, which are 1.1% below baseline levels. Furthermore, prices of maize, the major irrigated livestock feed, are projected to be 2.5% higher than the baseline, which is a considerable but not major decline compared with maize prices under the GWC scenario.

Figure 4 presents the increase in the population at risk of hunger under the alternative policy scenarios compared with the No GWC baseline and compared with the results under the GWC scenario. Compared with the global increase in the population at risk of hunger of 5% under the GWC scenario, the increases are 0.9% under the +R&D scenario (Fig. 4a ), 1.9% under the +ERM scenario (Fig. 4b ) and 1.1% under the combined +R&D and +ERM scenario (Fig. 4c ). The +R&D scenario is particularly beneficial for India and China, which are large GW irrigators and therefore particularly benefit from increased investments in seed technologies focused on improving water use efficiency. These investments help to retain food production levels in GW-fed Asian breadbasket regions, keeping food prices and the number of people at risk of hunger down. Benefits from investments in effective management of precipitation, however, are spread more broadly. While their ability to maintain production levels in China and India is comparatively limited, they still succeed in substantially reducing the risk of hunger. Under the +RMC scenario, however, the share of people at risk of hunger increases by 4.8%, which remains close to the 5.0% increase in the GWC scenario. Here the risk of hunger increases in the group of HICs by 15.9%, or 7.4 million people, compared with the No GWC baseline, while the increase in the risk of hunger in the group of LMICs is reduced to 3.7%, or 17.6 million people, compared with the GWC scenario increase of 5.0%. Despite a notable rise in the risk of hunger compared with the baseline, meat consumption experiences a marginal improvement of 2.1% in LMICs due to increased affordability. By contrast, HICs witness an 8.7% decline in consumption, while global consumption decreases by 0.96% compared with the baseline without GWC.

Values are averages of the three simulation models: GFDL, HadGEM and IPSL with RCP 8.5. CC-BAU, climate change scenario without GW conservation, or business as usual. Calculated using IMPACT food–water simulations.

Development of GW has played a major role in food production growth and food security over the past several decades, particularly in the breadbasket areas of China and India but also in parts of the Middle East, North Africa and the USA. However, food production growth comes at the cost of GW depletion, which is further accelerating with climate change, with threats to loss of productive lands and sometimes irreversible damages to water-based ecosystems. Accelerated GW development is further fuelled by energy subsidies and the swift deployment of solar-powered irrigation pumps. While the depletion of GW remains confined to specific breadbasket basins, the development of GW resources is gaining momentum in numerous regions worldwide, and the associated depletion is projected to increase in parallel, putting increasing shares of our water and food security at risk.

We find that measures aimed at arresting GW depletion without complementary policy actions would adversely affect food production, resulting in upward pressures on food prices, particularly for cereals and fruits and vegetables. As such, the study has re-affirmed the strong inter-connections between achieving SDG 2 on zero hunger and SDG 6 on water and sanitation. However, there is a host of complementary policy options that can help reduce the adverse impacts of more sustainable GW management. We analyse four of these in detail and find that accelerated investments in the productivity of irrigated crops, more effective use of precipitation, a combination of these two interventions and, to a lesser extent, reducing meat consumption in HICs can reduce global food price impacts of GW conservation. While changes in prices are only modest at the global level, effects on regions with high levels of GW depletion are significant. Our findings in this regard closely parallel another study that observed detrimental effects on food production when reducing GW depletion 37 , which reports negative effects on food production from reducing GW depletion. Those authors, however, did not include the environmental flow contribution from aquifers and did not assess complementary investment policies to address food security impacts of halting GW depletion.

Our analyses have shown that it is important to use a transdisciplinary approach to identify solutions to environmental problems. While directly focusing on increasing water use efficiency of irrigated crops depending on depleting GW is important, improving the effective use of precipitation offers a potential policy alternative even though crops and geographies that are less dependent on GW irrigation might benefit more. Investments in better management of more variable levels of precipitation will become more important as water scarcity continues to grow, and our scenario on efficient rainfed management (GWC + ERM) offers a potential policy alternative to mitigate the negative impacts of the GW conservation scenario. A shift towards more rainfed cultivation to meet global food supply by 2100 has already been suggested 38 . However, despite localized successes 39 and growing use of minimum tillage and other conservation agricultural practices, broader farmer acceptance of water harvesting techniques has been mixed due to the high costs of implementation 40 . Similarly, many studies have already suggested multiple health and climate change mitigation benefits from reducing meat consumption in HICs; reducing pressure on depleting GW stocks would be a further, albeit small, bonus of such a policy as it has shown to be less effective compared with the +R&D and +ERM scenarios.

While food security impacts of halting GW depletion can probably be managed through the multi-pronged approach proposed here, the question remains whether GW depletion can even be halted. Much has been done to address growing GW depletion, albeit with limited impacts on aquifer recovery. This includes improved measurement and monitoring devices, including satellite telemetry for monitoring wells as well as through increased citizen science. While GW institutions are lacking or poorly enforced in much of the world, legislation and institutions are starting to be developed to address some of the more extreme water-table declines. An example is the recent Sustainable Groundwater Management Act of California 41 . Recent innovations in social learning interventions to stimulate local GW governance are also showing promise in India and Ethiopia 42 , 43 and suggest increased community stewardship over GW resources as an entry point for arresting depletion. A yet different solution proposed in India has been to use solar-driven GW pumps to produce electricity rather than to grow food. In support of this proposal, some pilot studies have been implemented in semi-arid India to support rural livelihoods, water resources and energy development 44 , 45 .

Reducing GW withdrawals to sustainable levels (for example, to net recharge volumes as suggested in this study) often faces implementation challenges, such as countervailing energy subsidies, corruption around water permits and licensing, illicit removal of GW for other purposes 46 or the complete absence of GW monitoring systems.

The accompanying interventions to alleviate immediate-term water shortages are likewise challenging. Investments in R&D to enhance yields and water productivity were shown to be effective, but technology development, dissemination and adoption take time and requires technical expertise. Innovations for effective rainwater use in fields require on-farm investment and increased labour from farmers. Finally, reduced meat consumption in HICs might not dramatically reduce pressure on GW resources but can improve diets in LMICs.

The attainment of more sustainable GW management, whether through policies, institutions or technologies, and the simultaneous goal of preventing an increase in the population at risk of hunger necessitate a combination of regulatory, financial, technological and awareness-enhancing measures. In addition, a cross-sectoral examination of trade-offs that may be inevitable is essential in addressing these intertwined challenges. Policy actions such as the imposition of bans on GW withdrawals or taxes on water use towards sustainable GW management may result in undue pressures on production and prices 47 .

Last, our mapping and estimation of GW resources show that while GW depletion is severe (and growing), only one quarter of basin areas is affected by unsustainable management—albeit these are all key population and breadbasket centres. Some basins are currently managed at net recharge level, while others remain where GW withdrawals can be sustainably increased if needed. For the latter, operating and monitoring rules and checks are required to ensure continued sustainability and resilience of water resources.

The following section first describes the IMPACT model structure and key parameters that enable the analysis. We then describe the linkages between the IWSM and the IGHM, with specific technical details elaborated in the Supplementary Information . Furthermore, the detailed modelling of GW is described. The description of the investment scenarios and the least-cost investment assumptions used in the analysis are also presented.

Model description

IMPACT 33 is a system of linked models around a core, partial equilibrium, multi-market economic model of global production, trade, demand and prices of agricultural commodities. The model is solved annually and is linked to several modules that include hydrology, water management, crop water stress and crop simulation models (Supplementary Fig. 3 ). While the hydrological and crop simulations are implemented at the grid-cell level, IMPACT operates at the sub-national level of 320 food production units (FPUs) from the intersections of 159 countries and 154 river basins. The model combines biophysical, economics and social systems in agricultural policy analysis to support exploratory scenario analyses of complex integrated systems in support of policy decisions 48 , 49 , 50 . Optimization in the model minimizes the sum of net trade at the national and international levels to determine market-clearing world prices of agricultural commodities 51 .

In IMPACT, the effects of water on agricultural production are implemented through several key variables, including effective rainfall, potential crop evapotranspiration and applied irrigation water, which in turn depends on both crop irrigation water requirements and SW and GW availability. SW availability is simulated by the IGHM at monthly intervals for 0.5° grid cells 52 . Irrigation water supply is simulated by the IWSM, which operates at the FPU level and is dynamically coupled with the IMPACT core multi-market model through annual iterations (monthly in IWSM and IGHM) for the period 2005–2050 (Supplementary Fig. 3 ) 33 .

We note the importance of understanding climate change impacts on both GW systems (Supplementary Fig. 1 ) and food systems. The latter is itself affected by climate change impacts on water systems. As presented in Supplementary Fig. 4 , climate change particularly affects production and prices of cereals and root and tuber crops and prices of oilseed crops. Climate change trajectories in the model are determined on the basis of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fifth Assessment Report RCP 8.5 and three general circulation models from the Institut Pierre Simon Laplace (IPSL) 53 , 54 ; Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL) Earth systems model 55 and Hadley Centre Global Environmental Model global (HadGEM) 56 , while the socioeconomic pathways for population and income are based on the ‘middle of the road’ shared socioeconomic pathway 2 (SSP2), in which the global population reaches 9.2 billion in 2050 and average income reaches US$25,000 per person. While each of the three climate change scenarios is equally plausible, we implemented sensitivity analyses for each separately and found very small changes in 2050 food production and prices (Supplementary Fig. 5 ) among individual results, including the average. A yet more comprehensive climate change impact analysis is outside the scope of this study. We acknowledge this as a limitation of the study. Climate change effects on crops are modelled with Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT).

IMPACT multi-market model In the base year (2005), area, production, yield by land type (irrigated or non-irrigated), by crop, and net trade (food supply); and total consumption of food and feeds (food/feed demand) were taken from FAOSTAT. Demand increases for commodities are due to population growth and income growth (GDP) – based on population projections, and GDP projections (IPCC SSPs pathways), and changes in preferences (changing price/income elasticities). Supply increases are by way of yield growth rates (for example, exogenously (intrinsic/historical, technology improvements), endogenously (producers’ supply response to prices, area growth rates, considering land constraints for agriculture; irrigated area growth, through infrastructure development for both SW and GW subject to water constraints and cost constraints). Land expansion is induced by increasing food demand, while allocation to irrigated or rainfed land and SW or GW depends on water availability and cost of irrigation infrastructure. However, land allocation to specific crops is determined by prices of the commodity. The crop multi-market model simulates national and international agricultural markets of agricultural production, demand and trade associated with 62 agricultural commodities across 158 countries and regions. The market-clearing iterative equilibration of supply and demand, at the country and global levels, determines world prices of the agricultural and food commodities. In the process, the resource base of land and water, the technology, planted crops, and costs of development – determine the irrigation demand.

Linking new groundwater module (IWSM) to the IMPACT model

The new GW module includes three components. The first component downscales monthly GW withdrawals at the FPU level simulated by the IWSM to 0.5° grid cells. The second component simulates GW withdrawal and storage balances at the grid-cell level using a modified version of the IGHM. The third component aggregates gridded GW pumping values simulated by the IGHM to FPUs and assigns them to the IWSM for rerunning the IMPACT model. Supplementary Fig. 6 shows the steps that are implemented sequentially to run the IMPACT model with the new GW module:

Run the water resource model IWSM and extract projected monthly GW withdrawals at the FPU level.

Downscale FPU-level GW extraction to 0.5° latitude by 0.5° longitude grid cells (hereafter called gridded GW demand).

Run the global hydrological model IGHM by imposing gridded GW demand to shallow GW storage balance in the IGHM.

Aggregate total GW pumping amount from both shallow and deep GW storage at the grid-cell level to FPUs.

Rerun the IWSM using updated GW pumping from step 4. The new run reflects the effects of GW storage on GW use, and the effects of GW use on SW availability through altered base flow.

To dynamically link the GW module to the IMPACT model, the IWSM and the IGHM iterate to exchange demand for GW and update run-off altered by GW withdrawals. This requires interannual variations in the hydroclimatic input data, as opposed to using annual mean climate and hydrology data, and synchronizing climate input data and hydrological output/data such that for any particular year in the projection time horizon, the climate data and simulated hydrology data come from the same year of the climate record. The details of downscaling of FPU water withdrawal demand to grid cells are presented in the detailed model description section II (C) in the Supplementary Information .

GW storage and water balance

The GW storage balance is simulated at monthly intervals in 0.5° grid cells in the IGHM, assuming that there are only vertical flows (Supplementary Fig. 6 ). Horizontal aquifer heterogeneity is represented by grid-cell-specific parameters. Vertically, a two-layer model is applied to each grid-cell column, with the upper layer representing the replenishable compartment of the GW system and the lower layer representing the non-replenishable compartment. It is assumed that (1) when the grid-cell size is sufficiently large, flow within an irregular medium behaves as if in a regular, porous medium; (2) GW table drawdown due to pumping is limited to the cell where pumping takes place; and (3) GW abstraction from a grid cell is used to meet water demand incurred in the same grid cell (that is, if there is water demand in a grid cell, pumping in that same grid cell will be activated).

As shown in Supplementary Fig. 7 , in a grid cell that has a demand for GW, water is first pumped from the shallow aquifer as long as its storage is not exhausted. If GW demand is not fully met by pumping from the shallow aquifer, the unmet GW demand is pumped from the deep aquifer. The sum of GW pumped from both the shallow and deep aquifers is regarded as the total amount of pumped GW. The GW pumped from the shallow aquifer storage, \({{{\mathrm{GWP}}}}_{t}^{{\mathrm{s}}}\) , is determined by demand for GW, GWD t and shallow aquifer storage at the beginning of the period, \({{{\mathrm{GWS}}}}_{t-1}^{{\mathrm{s}}}\) . Base flow is calculated after removing GW for pumping from the shallow aquifer, \({{{\mathrm{GWP}}}}_{t}^{{\mathrm{s}}}\) . The GW is pumped from the deep aquifer if the pumped GW from the shallow aquifer cannot fully meet GW demand. However, there is no inflow to the deep GW storage, implying that pumping from the deep aquifer always depletes the aquifer. The impact of GW pumping on streamflow has been factored into the estimation of streamflow/environmental flow, except for locations of extreme depletion.

Return flows of domestic and industrial water uses that are sourced from GW are assumed to directly join SW within the same grid cell and in the same time step (a month), thus becoming a component of simulated run-off. For irrigation water use sourced from GW, its non-consumptive use component is assumed to percolate into shallow GW storage in the next time step, namely \({{{\mathrm{GWS}}}}_{t+1}^{{\mathrm{s}}}\) , thus contributing to base flow.

Estimation of GW withdrawal capacity in base year

The IWSM projects water demand by water-using sectors, optimizes water supply and allocates total water supply to individual water-using sectors at the FPU level. As an optimization-driven simulation model, it specifies operating rules in its objective function and constraints. Of note, property rights of water are not considered. Water demand in IMPACT is met by SW, GW and desalinized seawater (and precipitation for crops). The three sources of water are summed as a homogeneous total water supply source without attributing water uses to different sources. First, the IGHM simulates monthly soil moisture balance, evapotranspiration and run-off generation from effective rainfall. The water-demand module (IWSM) calculates water demand for crops, industry, households and livestock at the FPU level. Irrigation water demand is assessed as the portion of crop water requirement not satisfied by precipitation or soil moisture. Demand estimates for other sectors (domestic, industry and livestock) are estimated and allocated by priority (see section II.C in Supplementary Information ). Irrigation has the lowest priority. When irrigation demands cannot be fully satisfied, IWSM allocates water among crops in an area on the basis of the relative economic value of the crop. We use the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) approach to measure water stress at monthly intervals and include seasonality of water stress. Which source of water is used by each sector depends on the available type of water in the FPU (estimated and identified by the IWSM model (Supplementary Fig. 6 )). Desalinized water is typically used for domestic and industrial needs.

In the IWSM, annual GW use within each FPU is constrained by exogenous GW withdrawal capacity 40 . In the base year (2005), the capacity of each FPU is determined through a calibration procedure using GW withdrawal data from FAO’s AQUASTAT database 30 . In the projection period, an exogenous annual growth rate of GW withdrawal capacity is applied to each FPU considering infrastructure investments and technological change.

The IGHM was calibrated against naturalized run-off and runs at monthly time steps with a spatial resolution of 0.5° × 0.5° from 1995 to 2000 57 . It is not recalibrated after adding the GW pumping component as we assume the relationship between GW reservoir and base flow still holds when withdrawal from shallow aquifers occurs. The IGHM does not simulate SW withdrawal processes at the grid-cell level. Thus, the effects of increased river capture due to GW depletion are not simulated in our model. Only inter-basin movement of water (that is, inflow and outflow of SW/GW) for adjacent basins is estimated in the model.

The GW withdrawal capacity in the IWSM is a calibration parameter that reflects aggregate water infrastructure (that is, reservoir, distribution canals, pumping stations and so on) and economic constraints (cost of infrastructure, investment costs, production costs, output prices and so on) to GW withdrawal at the FPU level. This parameter serves as the upper bound for GW withdrawal at the FPU level. In the base year, this parameter value is determined by total water withdrawals in the FPU, estimated from observed water withdrawal data, and the estimated share of GW withdrawal in total (surface and ground) water withdrawal. Total water withdrawal capacity is estimated as actual water withdrawal in the base year multiplied by a factor that is a function of the coefficient of variation of water demand, yearly time series and a tuning parameter, \({\varphi }\) .

where TWC denotes total water withdrawal capacity in the base year; TWW is total water withdrawal in the base year; CVWD is the coefficient of variation of annual water demand time series, with irrigated area, crop mix and irrigation efficiency fixed at the base year level and non-irrigation water demand fixed at the base year level; and \({\varphi }\) is the tuning parameter. The value of the tuning parameter is determined through minimizing the deviation of simulated total GW withdrawal in the base year (2005) from the GW withdrawal observations in the base year obtained from the FAO AQUASTAT database.

Scenario descriptions and least-cost investment requirements

Five policy scenarios are implemented in this study. To assess whether sustainable GW management affects food prices, food security and the number of people at risk of hunger, we set up a GW conservation (GWC) scenario that limits withdrawals to recharge net of the GW contribution to environmental flows. The environmental flow contribution from GW is estimated as Q90, the monthly run-off that is exceeded 90% of the time during the simulation period 58 and reflects the GW contribution to base flow. The GW conservation scenario was implemented in IMPACT for basins with GW depletion by cutting excess withdrawals beyond recharge by 33% each year for 3 years starting in 2025. This lowers GW withdrawals to net GW recharge by 2027 and reduces the overdraft rates to zero. Of note, the GWC scenario does not restore depleted aquifers to their natural state but eliminates further depletion. The scenario thus also allows for GW extraction from aquifers with high depletion levels, such as the High Plains aquifer, but ensures slower to no further depletion. This 3 year phase-out was created to reflect the urgency of action for sustainable GW withdrawals. We observe in the model that the longer the phase-out period, the larger the depletion level (and the costlier water extraction), since the GWC scenario does not restore or add water to depleted aquifers, it only eliminates further depletion. The results in terms of production are not considerably changed by 2050 if a different, but similar, period is chosen. Four alternative policy scenarios are implemented: investment in agricultural R&D for irrigated crops, more effective rainwater management (ERM), reduced meat consumption (RMC) in HICs and a combined scenario of R&D and ERM. All of these scenarios are compared with the reference or baseline scenario of No GWC and are implemented until 2050.

One contribution of this study is the estimation of the minimum level of action or investment needed to address the adverse effect of GW conservation on food security. To implement this, we used multi-search sensitivity simulations by stepwise varying of the investment level with corresponding changes in food security until the minimum sum of squared error or deviation in the food security parameter from pre-GWC production was reached.

Results of least-costs sensitivity simulations are presented in Supplementary Tables 4–7 . For the R&D policy scenario, the least-cost investment is the level that increases the productivity or yields of irrigated areas by 4.5% over the GW conservation scenario by 2050, roughly equivalent to 0.176% per year. Similarly, for the ERM scenario, the least-cost investment is that level that increases rainwater use efficiency by 4.5%. When combined, the least-cost investment for R&D and ERM is a 2% productivity increase for irrigated crops and a 3% efficiency increase of precipitation (R&D 2% + ERM 3% scenario).

Unlike the first three scenarios, the multiple-search simulations for RMC were used to identify the minimum level of change in the meat demand elasticity of HICs so that the population at risk of hunger in LMICs is reduced by 25%. This level is achievable with a 75% decline in elasticities, equivalent to a 9% reduction in the consumption of meat in HICs.

Reporting summary

Further information on research design is available in the Nature Portfolio Reporting Summary linked to this article.

Data availability

All analysis in this paper is based on secondary data collected from various sources. A description of the model is present here: https://www.ifpri.org/publication/international-model-policy-analysis-agricultural-commodities-and-trade-impact-model-0 , and further documentation is available on the model page here: https://www.ifpri.org/project/ifpri-impact-model . All datasets that have been used in the model are stored on Harvard Dataverse at: https://www.ifpri.org/project/ifpri-impact-model . No data were excluded from our analysis. Data were analysed using GAMS (version number 45). Tableau, Microsoft Excel was used to create figures for this publication.

Code availability

The code is available on request.

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Acknowledgements

N.P., C.R. and V.S. acknowledge the financial support from the NEXUS Gains Initiative of the CGIAR. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish or preparation of the manuscript.

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Groundwater is the water present below the earth’s surface and is a vast resource of water. Almost 22 percent of water is below the surface land in the form of groundwater. Groundwater is important as it is used for water supply in rural and urban areas. It is also often used for municipal, industrial and agricultural use by building and operating extraction wells.

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Permeability: It refers to the ability of water to move between these pore spaces.

Porosity and Permeability Ranges for Sediment:

Groundwater Recharge

Groundwater recharge is also known as deep percolation or deep drainage. It undergoes the hydrologic process, which moves surface water to groundwater. It is a primary method where water enters an aquifer. The recharge occurs at plant roots and is often known as a flux to the water table surface.

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Making effective use of groundwater to avoid another water supply crisis in Cape Town, South Africa

Utilisation efficace des eaux souterraines pour éviter Une autre crise d’approvisionnement en eau à Cape Town, Afrique du Sud

Uso efectivo del agua subterránea Para evitar otra crisis de suministro de agua en ciudad del Cabo, Sudáfrica

有效利用地下水资源避免南非开普敦水危机的再次发生

Fazendo uso efetivo das águas subterrâneas Para evitar outra crise de abastecimento de água na Cidade do Cabo, África do Sul

• Published: 17 December 2018
• Volume 27 , pages 823–826, ( 2019 )

Cite this article

• David W. Olivier 1 &
• Yongxin Xu 2 , 3  

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The infamous drought of 2015–2017 in Cape Town (South Africa) provides important lessons on water governance. While it is undeniable that an unprecedented sequence of two record-low rainfall years instigated the ‘water crisis’, this essay argues that the severity of the drought may have been mitigated by good governance, both in terms of diversifying water sources and managing existing supplies. Historically, water authorities have focussed on surface-water resources for Cape Town’s water supply. Cape Town’s ample groundwater has not been utilised to any notable extent. It is concluded that the crisis, once passed, may be viewed as auspicious, for not only did it provide the impetus to adapt Cape Town’s water supply, thereby better incorporating its groundwater resources, but the crisis stands as a case in point to justify future investments in water security, not only for Cape Town, but for other cities as well.

La tristement célèbre sécheresse de 2015–2017 au Cap (Afrique du Sud) est riche en enseignements concernant la gouvernance de l’eau. Bien qu’il soit indéniable qu’une période sans précédent de duex années déficitaires en précipitations ait provoqué la « crise de l’eau », cet essai fait valoir que la sévérité de la sécheresse aurait pu être atténuée par une bonne gouvernance, tant en termes de diversification des sources d’eau qu’en gestion des approvisionnements existants. Historiquement, les autorités de l’eau se sont concentrées sur les ressources en eau de surface pour l’approvisionnement en eau de la ville du Cap. L’abondante ressource en eau souterraine au niveau de la ville du Cap n’a pas été utilisée à la juste mesure. On en conclut que la crise, une fois passée, peut être considérée comme propice, non seulement car elle a donné l’élan nécessaire pour adapter l’approvisionnement eau de la ville du Cap, et donc pour mieux y intégrer les ressources en eaux souterraines, mais cette crise est en fait un bon exemple pour justifier d’investissements futurs pour garantir la sécurité en approvisionnement en eau, non seulement pour la ville du Cap, mais aussi pour d’autres villes.

La infame sequía de 2015–2017 en Ciudad del Cabo (Sudáfrica) ofrece lecciones importantes sobre la gobernanza del agua. Si bien es innegable que una secuencia sin precedentes de dos años de precipitaciones provocó la “crisis del agua”, este ensayo sostiene que la severidad de la sequía pudo haber sido mitigada por una buena gobernanza, tanto en términos de diversificación de fuentes de agua como en la gestión de suministros existentes. Históricamente, las autoridades del agua se han centrado en los recursos hídricos superficiales para el suministro de agua de Ciudad del Cabo. Las abundantes aguas subterráneas de Ciudad del Cabo no se han utilizado en forma significativa. Se concluye que la crisis, una vez pasada, puede considerarse como favorable, ya que no solo proporcionó un impulso para adaptar el suministro de agua de Ciudad del Cabo, con una mayor incorporación de sus recursos de agua subterránea, sino que la crisis es un buen ejemplo para justificar futuras inversiones en seguridad del agua, no solo para Ciudad del Cabo, sino también para otras ciudades.

(南非)开普敦市2015–2017年可怕的干旱为水管理提供了重要的教训。不可否认的是,史无前例的连续二年稀少降雨的引起了“水危机”,但本文确认为,从水源的多样化以及有效地管理现有的供水渠道来看,干旱的严重程度本来可能由于很好的管理得到缓解。历史上,水管理机构为开普敦市供水主要是集中在地表水源上, 开普敦丰富的地下水没有得到充分的利用。结论就是,危机一旦过去,就可以看做是幸运,因为它不仅为改进开普敦市的供水提供动力,更好地利用地下水,而且危机还可以作为恰好的例子用来为开普敦市同时也为其它城市争取未来水安全上的投资。

A infame seca de 2015–2017 na Cidade do Cabo (África do Sul) oferece lições importantes sobre a governança da água. Embora seja inegável que uma sequência sem precedentes de dois anos de baixa precipitação registrada instigou a “crise da água”, este ensaio argumenta que a gravidade da seca poderia ter sido mitigada pela boa governança, tanto em termos de diversificação de fontes de água quanto de gerenciamento de suprimentos existentes. Historicamente, as autoridades de recursos hídricos concentraram-se em recursos de águas superficiais para o abastecimento de água da Cidade do Cabo. As amplas águas subterrâneas da Cidade do Cabo não foram utilizadas de forma notável. Conclui-se que a crise, uma vez superada, pode ser vista como auspiciosa, pois não só proporcionou o ímpeto para adaptar o abastecimento de água da Cidade do Cabo e, assim, incorporar melhor seus recursos hídricos subterrâneos, mas a crise apresentou-se como um evento pelo qual justificam-se investimentos futuros em segurança hídrica, não apenas para a Cidade do Cabo, mas também para outras cidades.

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Acknowledgements

Dr. Olivier would like to thank the Africa Climate Change Adaptation Initiative (ACCAI) Network and the Open Society Foundation for supporting his fellowship at the Global Change Institute.

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Olivier, D.W., Xu, Y. Making effective use of groundwater to avoid another water supply crisis in Cape Town, South Africa. Hydrogeol J 27 , 823–826 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-018-1893-0

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-018-1893-0

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Here is an essay on ’Ground Water’ for class 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essays on ‘Ground Water’ especially written for school and college students.

Essay on Ground Water

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• Essay on Ground Water Legislation and Pollution

Essay # 1. Ground Water Resources :

Ground water is a precious and the most widely distributed resource of the earth and unlike any other mineral resource, it gets its annual replenishment from the meteoric precipitation. The world’s total water resources are estimated at 1.37 × 10 8 million ha-m. Of these global water resources about 97.2% is salt water mainly in oceans, and only 2.8% is available as fresh water at any time on the planet earth. Out of this 2.8%, about 2.2% is available as surface water and 0.6% as ground water.

Even out of this 2.2% of surface water, 2.15% is fresh water in glaciers and icecaps and only of the order of 0.01% (1.36 × 10 4 M ha-m) is available in lakes and reservoirs, and 0.0001% in streams; the remaining being in other forms -0.001% as water vapour in atmosphere, and 0.002% as soil moisture in the top 0.6 m. Out of 0.6% of stored ground water, only about 0.3% (41.1 × 10 4 M ha-m) can be economically extracted with the present drilling technology, the remaining being unavailable as it is situated below a depth of 800 m.

Thus, ground water is the largest source of fresh water on the planet excluding the polar icecaps and glaciers. The amount of ground water within 800 m from the ground surface is over 30 times the amount in all fresh water lakes and reservoirs, and about 3000 times the amount in stream channels, at any one time.

At present nearly one fifth of all the water used in the world is obtained from ground water resources. Agriculture is the greatest user of water accounting for 80% of all consumption. It takes, roughly speaking, 1000 tons of water to grow one ton of grain and 2000 tons to grow one ton of rice. Animal husbandry and fisheries all require abundant water. Some 15% of world’s crop land is irrigated. The present irrigated area in India is 60 million hectares (M ha) of which about 40% is from ground water.

Essay # 2. Ground Water Recharge :

The average annual rainfall (a.a.r.) of India is around 114 cm. Based on this a.a.r., Dr. K. L. Rao has estimated that the total annual rainfall over the entire country is of the order of 370 M ha-m and one third of this is lost in evaporation. Of the remaining 247 M ha-m of water, 167 M ha-m goes as runoff and the rest of the 80 M ha-m goes as subsoil water. Out of this 80 M ha- m of subsoil water that seeps down annually into the soil, about 43 M ha-m gets absorbed in the top layer, thereby contributing to the soil moisture; the balance of 37 M ha-m is the contribution to ground water from rainfall.

The average annual ground water recharge from rainfall and seepage from canals and irrigation systems is of the order of 67 M ha-m of which 40% i.e., 27 M ha-m, is extractable economically. The present utilisation of ground water is roughly half of this (13 M ha-m), and about 14 M ha-m is available for further exploitation and utilisation.

ADVERTISEMENTS: (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); Essay # 3. Ground Water Development in India :

The excavations at Mohenjo-Daro have revealed brick-lined dug wells existing as early as 3000 B.C. during the Indus Valley Civilisation. The writings of Vishnu Kautilya (in the reign of Chandragupta Maurya—300 B.C.) indicate that ground water was being used for irrigation purposes at that time.

Sinking of wells and a variety of water devices were well known from Vedic times.

The first irrigation Commission in 1903 affirmed the importance of irrigation wells. The Well Sinking Department of the Government of Nizam at Hyderabad made interesting studies on ground water in the Deccan Basaltic Terrains.

In 1934, a project for construction of 1500 community tubewells in the Ganga basin was initiated in U.P. The success of this project led to the constitution of a Sub-Soil Water Section in the Government of India in 1944, which was converted later into the Central Ground Water Organisation which functioned till 1949. During this period a Central Drilling School at Roorkee was established which trained more than 100 officers of the Central and State Government.

The Exploratory Tube-wells Organisation (ETO) was set up during 1954 under Indo-US Technical Cooperation Operational Agreement No. 12, under the Ministry of Agriculture and concomitantly, the Ground Water Exploration Section was set up in the Geological Survey of India.

In October 1970, the Ministry of Agriculture upgraded the Exploratory Tube-wells Organisation into the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) merging it with the Ground Water Regional Directorates and District Offices of the Geological Survey of India to effectively shoulder the ground water investigation programmes; it started functioning from August 1972. As an apex body at the national level, the Board is concerned with all matters relating to exploration, assessment, development, management and regulation of the country’s ground water resources.

Large scale ground water investigation programmes have been taken up since 1967 in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Tamil Nadu with the assistance of the UNDP, the Canadian assisted project in AP, the Upper Betwa River Basin Project in MP and UP with UK assistance, Narmada Valley Project in MP, Vedavathi and Tungabhadra River Basin in Karnataka under UK assistance and many such projects.

During the middle and late sixties, the Government of India urged all State Governments to set up a State Level Ground Water Organisation to deal with problems of ground water surveys and development and utilisation for minor irrigation and eventually they have been set up as State Directorates of Ground Water or as a Ground Water Cell (in Karnataka). The Central Ground Water Board is contemplating special measures for ensuring coordination of work among the various States and between the Centre and States so that overlapping or duplication is avoided.

Since 1970, major programmes with the assistance of UNICEF for provision of drilled wells for rural water supply have been launched in the hard rock areas of AP, Karnataka, MP, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan. These utilises the air hammer drilling rigs.

The updated hydrogeological map of India of scale 1:5,000,000 (released by GSI in 1969 to scale 1:2,000,000 and updated by CGWB in 1976) gives many hydrological details.

In recent years there has been an increasing tendency towards drilling deep wells as well as towards revitalisation of existing open (dug, shallow) wells. Advances in the field of ground water development have made it possible to lift ground water from depths of 60 to 100 metres. With the extension of electricity in the rural areas, there has been a great spurt in the lift irrigation from tube wells and open wells.

The Government, voluntary agencies, Agricultural Refinance Corporation, Land Development Banks, State Agro Industries Corporation etc. are all coming forward to help the poor and marginal farmers by giving short and long term loans, grants technical advice, and making technical feasibility and economic viability studies, thus accelerating the pace of ground water development and bringing more land under intensive irrigation.

Essay # 4. Chemical Composition of Ground Water :

The chemical composition of ground water is related to the soluble products of rock weathering and decomposition and changes with respect to time and space. Geochemical studies provide a complete knowledge of the water resources of a hydrological regimen. Sampling and testing in an area with some good quality and some poor quality water should serve to differentiate areas and aquifers of varying quality and on the results of these study recommendations can be made regarding different uses to which water in various areas and aquifers can be put.

Geochemical studies are also of value with respect to water use. They provide a better understanding of possible changes in quality as development progresses, which can in turn provide information about the limits of total development, or can permit planning for appropriate treatment that may be required as the result of future changes in the quality of water supply.

For analysis of chemical quality of water, tracing the movement of ground water is important. Induced tracers, including salt solutions, dyes such as fluorescein, and radioactive materials have been used as well as other techniques through the knowledge of hydrogeology.

Analysis of water samples for geochemical studies requires a high degree of accuracy. The intensity of sampling should be gauged by the needs of the investigation and the severity of any water quality problems. The chemical characteristics of water are very important with respect to requirements for various uses.

To determine sea water intrusion, lines of piezometers are inserted at various depths at different distances from the sea coast. A 300 m cable may be used in a portable conductivity bridge or meter. A sudden increase in the EC (of the order of 50,000 µ mhos/cm) or chloride concentration (of the order of 19,000 ppm) at a particular depth, has sometimes indicated sea water intrusion. Fogged or connate water may also contribute to chloride concentration.

Temperature measurements are usually made in ground water studies. These are particularly important in places where wide variations in the temperature are recorded. The depth of the source of ground water could be gauged from the temperature of the water (geothermal gradient ≈ 30 to 50 m/°C). Temperature results may lead to the discovery of an unsuspected source of pollution.

Essay # 5. Ground Water Potential in India :

About two-third of the total land area in the country comprises consolidated formations, 75% of this being made up of crystalline rocks and consolidated sediments, the remaining 25% being trap. The remaining one-third of the total land area comprises semi-consolidated and unconsolidated formations like alluvial tracts. There is ample scope for development of ground water in these areas.

Areas of Ground Water Potential in India :

1. Springs in the Himalayan Highlands:

All types of rocks are present; the chief types include granites, basalts, sandstones, limestones, shales, conglomerates, slates, quartzites, gneisses, schists and marbles; favourable conditions exist with springs forming a major part of water supply; in valleys alluvial deposits of thickness is = 30 m; soft water with TDS (total dissolved salts) < 500 ppm.

2. Fresh Water Sediments of Kashmir Valley:

The Kashmir valley which was a vast lake during the Pleistocene times shows a large scale development of fresh water sediments of lacustrine, fluvial and glacial origin = 600 m thick.

3. Indo-Gangetic Alluvium (Vast Reservoir of Fresh Sweet Water):

Coarse sands, gravel and boulders of variable thickness—3 to 60 m. TDS < 400 ppm, water commonly hard; shallow and deep aquifers interconnected (leaky); aquifer soil -D 10 (effective size) = 0.075-0.38 mm, D 50 = 0.17-0.30 mm, C u (uniformity coefficient) = 1.1-3.3, T = 1.7 × 10 5 -5.0 ×.10 6 lpd/m (litres per day per metre), S = 2 × 10 -2 to 4 × 10 -6 , leakance K’/b’ =0.3 lpd/ m 3 , accretion to g.w.t. (ground water table) = 21% of a.a.r., tubewell yield

= 50-100 m 3 /hr. (Here T is the transmissibility coefficient; K’, the permeability and b’, the thickness of the semi-pervious layer, and S, the storage coefficient.) The exploitation of ground water is usually done by using spiral augers, hand boring (H.B.) sets, cable tool and rotary rigs.

The alluvial material of Punjab constitutes an extensive heterogeneous and anisotropic unconfined aquifer with lateral permeability ranging from 26 to 156 m 3 /day/m 2 . There are about 120,000 tubewells in this area and the extraction of ground water should be limited to the annual recharge to avoid undue depletion of the aquifer.

4. Coastal Alluvium: Malabar and Coromandel Coastal Areas:

Depth 15-150 m, yield = 12-50 m 3 /hr; low TDS; water in tertiary aquifer associated with lignite or carbonaceous clays is sulphuretted (H 2 S) and contains iron > 1 ppm. Extensive saline patches occur in Ramnad, Tirunelveli, Ongole, Nellore and Krishna districts.

In Ramanathapuram and Tirunelveli, the ground water in the unconfined aquifers is generally of poor quality with CI > 1000 ppm and at some places even > 3000 ppm.

In the west coast areas of Kerala and Karnataka, the substratum is mostly lateritic and a good yield of ground water may be expected.

Saline water influx in response to tides is noticed at places in Goa, up to distances of 25-40 km inland. In the upper reaches, the tidal streams show cyclic fluctuation in salinity, the salinity flows corresponding to low tides when waters are utilisable.

5. Cretaceous Sandstones of Kathiawar and Kutch Areas:

Moderately potential aquifers; depth 100-300 m, yield = 10-120 m 3 /hr; water commonly brackish with TDS 2000-5000 ppm.

In Gujarat, sandstone aquifers are of depth 60-200 m; yield = 10-50 m 3 /hr, TDS 1000- 2500 ppm.

6. Mesozoic Sandstones of the Lathi Region in Rajasthan (Jaisalmer, Barmer, Bikaner):

Moderately potential aquifers, depths 100-150 m, yield = 45-150 m 3 /hr; water is generally brackish to saline, TDS 1000-5000 ppm, CI 1000-5000 ppm, EC (electrical conductivity) > 3000 µmhos/cm, Na% > 80, SAR 25-55, waters C 4 -S 4 or C 4 -S 3 types (for explanation of these notations see Fig. 9.7).

7. Cavernous Limestones of Vindhyan System in Borunda and Ransingaon areas in Jodhpur District:

Potential aquifers, yield 40-70 m 3 /hr. Potable water, TDS < 2000 ppm; fractured up to 150 m.

In arid zones of Rajasthan and Gujarat excess concentration of fluoride (5 to 20 ppm) has been observed, resulting in mottling of teeth.

Recharge of some arid zones in Haryana and Rajasthan can be done by diverting the flood waters of Yamuna River through Saraswathi and Ghaggar rivers by making suitable connections.

8. Boon Valley Gravels:

Boulders, pebbles, gravel, sand and clay are possibly of fanglomeratic and collovial origin. Major portion of the valley is hilly, sloping ground; only the central part (= 388 km 2 which is approximately one-fifth of the total area of 2090 km 2 ) can be developed.

As a rough estimate of the potential of Doon gravels:

Which can support more than 200 tubewells yielding = 150 m 3 /hr each; a.a.r. = 216 cm; therefore accretion to g.w.t. = 44%. Thickness of fill 150-200 m; TDS 100 to 500 ppm, CI > 30 ppm, pH 7.8; water—bicarbonate to sulphate type. Lower areas yield = 30-50 m 3 /hr.

In the Terai zone, ground water is available under artesian conditions and at shallow depths of 3-50 m. Sands and gravels confined in the silts and clays make good aquifers under confined conditions. Wells are usually bored with augers and/or hand boring sets.

9. Quaternary Alluvium of Narmada, Puma, Tapti, Chambal and Mahanadi Rivers:

Thickness 75-150 m (lenses of sand and gravel); tubewell yield 20-150 m 3 /hr; good quality water with TDS 100-500 ppm.

10. Vesicular Basalts in the Deccan Trap Formations of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh:

Form good aquifers; ground water occurs under both confined and unconfined conditions in the Satpura range and Malwa plateau; tubewell yields in Indore, Bhopal, Raisen, Vidisha and Sagar districts ≈ 10-40 m 3 /hr.

In central Maharashtra the tubewells drilled in weathered basalts yield = 2-10 m 3 /hr while in exceptional cases the yields are = 25 m 3 /hr, mostly within depths of 50-100 m. Borewells, due to their low yield, are mainly a source of drinking water supply and only in exceptional cases can they be used for irrigation; TDS < 1000 ppm.

11. Carbonate Rocks with Solution Cavities in Madhya Pradesh:

In the Vindhyan, Cuddapah and Bijawar region, the carbonate rocks with interconnected solution cavities and caverns form good aquifers. The limestones of Raipur, Charmuria, Kajrahat (Sidhi district), Karstic areas of Chhatisgarh basin and Baghelkhand region of MP yield ≈ 10-60 m 3 /hr.

12. Dharwarian and Bundelkhand Granite Region of Madhya Pradesh:

Igneous and metamorphic rocks; the movement of water is mainly through joints and openings. Tubewells in Tikamgarh, Chattarpur, Balaghat and Gwalior area yield ≈ 10-30 m 3 /hr, mostly under water table conditions.

The water quality in all regions of MP is generally good, except in the water logged areas of the Chambal valley (due to seepage from canals).

13. Tertiary Sandstones and Quaternary Sand to Pebble Beds in the Godavari-Krishna Inter-stream Area:

Form potential aquifers with artesian conditions. Near Muppavaram the piezometric surface is 19 m above the land surface and falls towards the coast at a gradient of 4-25 m/km. Aquifer thickness 3-184 m, T = 80-6485 m 3 /day/m, K = 1-80 m 3 /day/m 2 . Tubewell yield ≈ 20-120 m 3 /hr. for a drawdown of 6 m. For a similar drawdown, Rajahmundry sandstones yield ≈ 42 m 3 /hr. for a screened thickness of 20-140 m. Similar yields are in the Tirupathi, Gollapalli and Chitalpudi sandstones.

As a rough estimate of the ground water flow (Q), with a hydraulic gradient (i) of 1/304 near Tadikalapudi, the length of the aquifer (w) of 90 km between Viravalli and Guddigudem and an average transmissibility (T) of 945 m 3 /day/m, it follows from Darcy’s law that-

Q = Tiw = 945 × 1/304 × (90 × 10 3 ) = 280 × 10 3 m 3 /day

With two-thirds of this yield (allowing for short duration data) about 375 to 400 tubewells can be constructed with an average yield per tubewell of 500 m 3 /day.

The quality of ground water in the sandstones is fresh while that in alluvium is highly saline in the vicinity of Kolleru Lake, along the coast and at depths; TDS 1800-15,000 ppm, CI 600-8000 ppm, making the ground water unsuitable for any purpose.

14. Alluvium in Palar and Kortallaiyar-Araniyar Rivers in Tamil Nadu:

Form potential aquifers- water of good quality within 50 m; CI < 250 ppm, EC 750-2,000 µmhos/cm.

15. Tertiary Sediments of Cauvery Delta:

The tertiary sediments in Tanjore and South Arcot districts form extensive aquifers up to 200 m depth. Water is of good quality; CI < 150 ppm, EC < 1,500 µmhos/cm. Many of the tubewells have free flow, some exceeding 2 m 3 /hr.

In the Cauvery delta rocks ranging in age from Precambrian Crystalline to Quaternary Sediments are encountered. Multiple aquifer systems are quite prevalent in a sufficiently thick sedimentary basin. The deep-seated aquifers are generally under confined conditions and there is hydraulic interconnection (vertical leakage) between aquifers. Recharge facilities are more for the top aquifers than the bottom aquifers. A fair yield of 76,500 m 3 /day may be expected in the Cauvery delta of Tanjore as per UNDP investigations.

T = 1.2 × 10 5 – 8.2 × 10 5 lpd/m

S = 3.3 x 10 -4 – 6.8 × 10 -5

EC = 800 – 1100 μmhos/cm

Q = 30 – 60 m 3 /hr

UNDP, in 1972, estimated the presence of 5000 Mm 3 of groundwater in the delta and north of the Coleroon River.

Although artesian wells are quite prevalent, large scale development will lower the piezometric head and free flow condition would cease. For example, a decade ago there were many flowing wells in and around Neyveli. But now the piezometric head has been lowered and many flowing wells have become sub-artesian wells.

In Coimbatore and the central districts of Tamil Nadu, the substratum consists of rock at a moderate depth and the yield is very poor.

Near Pondicherry, deep wells even very close to the coast yield potable water.

Ground Water Potential in Chennai Environs (UNDP):

Well Field:

Minjur – 33750(G.W. potential, m 3 /day)

Duranallur—Panjetti – 40500(G.W. potential, m 3 /day)

Tamarapakkam—Villanur – 49500(G.W. potential, m 3 /day)

These well fields presently supply 45000 m 3 /day to industrial units at Manali (Chennai).

16. Granitic Gneisses and Schists of Karnataka:

The principle rock types of Karnataka are igneous and metamorphic granites, gneisses and schists of Precambrian age and basalt of the Deccan trap of Eocene-Upper Cretaceous age in the extreme northern part of the state. The yield is very low and the borewells drilled up to depths of 30-75 m yield 5.40 m 3 /hr.

The yield of wells in the crystalline rocks depends on the presence of weathered pockets, joints and fractures, of which there may be no indication at the surface. The yield of a well may be strikingly different from that of another well a few metres away. Surface geophysical resistivity survey may however indicate depth and extent of concealed weathered pockets, which may ensure against risk of failure.

17. Upper Gondwana Sandstones and the Alluvial Tract of Orissa:

Form potential aquifers. The a.a.r. = 142 cm and about 20% of this, i.e., ≈ 28 cm may be assumed as the recharge; also ≈50% of the recharge potential can be utilised by the installation of filter point tubewells with a spacing of = 330-580 m and the remaining 50% utilised by dug wells and deep tubewells.

The yield of filter point tubewell of size 7.5-10 cm penetrating aquifers of 7-12 m thick (located within 50 m b.g.l.) is in the range of 20-50 m 3 /hr, which provide irrigation for 4-6 ha of land. The draw-down usually does not exceed 7 m and a low head centrifugal pump (2-4 kW) coupled directly to the filter point tubewell.

The capital cost of installation of a filter point tubewell varies from Rs. 8000-12,000 depending on the depth and size of the filter point and requires a simple hand boring set with a tripod for drilling the bore. At present there are about 800-1,000 filter point tubewells in Orissa state, most of them being located in the Balasore district and under the World Bank loan assistance programme there is a proposal to take up installation of 15,000 filter point tubewells.

In the alluvial tract where the granular aquifer material occurs within 8-10 m below ground level and also in the semi-consolidated sedimentary sandstones, weathered within 5 m b.g.l. open wells fitted with 2-4 kW centrifugal pump can be installed for irrigation purpose, with a minimum spacing of 150-200 m in alluvial tracts. Such wells can irrigate 2-2.5 ha of land in Kharif and 1-1.25 ha in Rabi season.

The capital cost of such wells varies from Rs. 10,000-15,000 with benefit cost ratio ranging from 1.5 to 3.1. Small wells of 1.5-2 m diameter fitted with indigenous type of water-lifting devices can irrigate about 0.4 ha of land in Kharif and 0.2 ha in the Rabi season. The capital cost of such small wells varies from Rs. 3,500-5,000 and the benefit cost ratio is very low due to the involvement of high cost of man power; yet it is a prized possession for a small farmer and has a significant influence on his economic condition.

It is estimated that 65% of the ground water potential of the state can be developed by installation of open wells. At present there are about 2 lakh open wells meant for irrigation in Orissa, and there is World Bank loan assistance for the installation of 2 lakh open wells for the irrigation during the next five years.

18. The Quaternary Sediments in the Deltaic Tract around Digha, District Midnapur, West Bengal:

These are of depth 140 m and yield fresh water.

19. The Multilayered Lacustrine Aquifer in Nepal in the Centre of the Kathmandu Valley Basin:

Extends to 350 km 2 out of the total area of a roughly circular basin of 607 km 2 . It has a depth of sediment of > 450 m, deposits becoming coarser towards the north where most of the catchment is mountainous. The sediment consists of silt, coarse sand and cobbles with electrical resistivity ranging from 40-120 ohm-m. The a.a.r. = 174 cm, mostly during summer monsoons.

Wells with rather low yields could be constructed in the northern potential areas, the recharge being only 3,600 m 3 /day. Mud-flush rotary drilling rigs are found suitable. T = 92-301 m 2 /day, K = 2-12 m/day, 48 hour specific capacity = 113-137 m 3 /day/m, S = 2.3 × 10 -4 – 3.7 × 10 -3 ; these rather high values indicate a high degree of elasticity of the confined aquifer. For unconfined aquifer S y ≈ 0.1.

20. Karstic Limestones in the North Coastal Belt of Sri Lanka:

Nine-tenths of the areas of the island are underlain by the crystalline rocks such as gneisses, schists, quartzites and crystalline limestones of the Precambrian basement complex; low yields are obtained from the locally developed fissures and fractures. The soil overburden is 2-15 m and large diameter dug wells are generally suitable.

The remaining one-tenth of the island, in the north and north-western coastal belt, consists of deep sedimentary formations, where the Miocene limestone formations provide the major Karst aquifers under artesian and phreatic conditions; depth 90 m (average); piezometric level 15-33 m b.g.l. (free flowing wells at low ground levels). Tubewell yield 50-150 m 3 /hr, specific capacity 36-72 m 3 /hr/m, CI 100-770 ppm, T = 7900 m 3 /day/m.

The a.a.r. of the island is 220 cm and the ground water potential ≈ 24.6 Mm 3 .

21. Thermal and Mineral Springs:

They are found in many parts of India—Bombay, Punjab, Bihar, Assam, in the foothills of Himalayas and Kashmir.

Essay # 6. Methods of Exploitation of Ground Water :

Any programme of ground water exploitation should have the following equipment for well sinking (boring or drilling) or revitalization:

(i) Tractor/compressor for blasting or extension drilling.

(ii) Compressors (VT-4, VT-5 etc.) for drilling rigs and development of wells.

(iii) Bencher units for extension drilling.

(iv) Cobra units for drilling blast holes.

(v) Auger rigs and hand boring sets for boring shallow wells, say, in terai region, in coastal aquifers of Cauvery data, in the alluvial tract of Orissa, or boring cavity wells as in Delhi IARI Pusa area.

(vi) Cable tool or percussion rigs as may be suitable in the areas of Indo-Gangetic alluvium, sediments of Jammu and Kashmir valley, unconsolidated formations in Bengal, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh, and soft and boulder formations.

(vii) Rotary rigs (straight rotary) in semi-consolidated formations and reverse rotary (re­verse circulation) for large diameter and deep holes in soft consolidated formations.

(viii) Air rotary is especially suitable for limestones and air foam is used to remove cuttings.

(ix) Rotary-cum percussion rigs in the consolidated formations of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Gujarat etc.

(x) Jetting drill is suitable for unconsolidated formations for holes up to 15 cm diameter and plenty of water is required for the water jet.

(xi) Down-the hole hammer (DTH) rigs like Ingersoll Rand, Halco-625, Sanderson Cy­clone, RMT, etc., for fast drilling of deep borewells in the hard rock areas of peninsu­lar India, i.e., in crystalline areas.

(xii) Down-the hole hammer rigs like Halco Tiger, Halco Minor, Atlas Copco etc., for fast drilling of borewells in the Deccan traps of Maharashtra or the hard rock areas of Coimbatore and North Karnataka where the yield of borewells is very low.

(xiii) Calyx drills can drill bore wells in hard rock areas (the rock cores are cut by feeding chilled steel shots) but they are very slow. Calyx drills can be used for drilling bores at the bottom of open wells either for well revitalisation or dug-cum-bore wells, centrifugal pump can be installed at the bottom of the dug well with the suc­tion pipe in the bore).

As on March 1979, there are about 4500 hand boring sets, 230 percussion rigs, 330 rotary rigs, 80 reverse circulation rigs, 20 rotary-cum-percussion rigs, 225 down-the-hole hammer rigs, 150 Calyx rigs and 500 pneumatic rigs in the 17 States of the country.

Essay # 7. Ground Water Development :

Ground water can be developed at a small capital cost and the time taken for development is very small. The chemical quality of ground water is found to be generally good and can be used for drinking, agriculture and industrial purposes. The hard rock drilling programme by UNICEF has significantly lowered the unit cost ‘per capita’ of making available a safe water supply; water is usually struck at a depth of 30-60 m in hard rock formations and requires no treatment.

The tapping of ground water—location, spacing and yield, in a well field should be so phased that the annual recharge and discharge of the aquifer are almost balanced without causing an overdraft in the area. As the ground water development increases, problems of well field management will become dangerously critical in many places and the studies on optimum well spacing will be required in order to minimise mutual interference between pumped wells.

The recharge depends upon the rock or soil formation and the a.a.r. of the region and is given below:

Recharge Rates for Different Formations:

Hard rock formations and Deccan traps – 10

Consolidated formations (sandstones) – 5 – 10

River alluvium – 15 – 20

Indo-Gangetic alluvium – 20

Coastal alluvium – 10 – 15

In several areas, the recharge estimates made on the above assumed rates have agreed well with the estimates of recharge based on actual water level rise in the region and the specific yield of the formations.

Essay # 8. Fluctuations in Ground Water Levels:

Fluctuations in ground water levels are caused by a pumping well in the vicinity, earthquake, loading and wind. Fluctuations in water levels sometimes occur when railroad trains or trucks pass aquifer test sites. Drawdown data must be adjusted for these changes in loading before they are used to determine the hydraulic properties of aquifers and confining beds.

The ground water level rises when there is a decrease in the atmospheric pressure and the water level falls when the atmospheric pressure increases. Drawdown data are adjusted for atmospheric pressure changes occurring during an aquifer test by obtaining a record of atmospheric pressure fluctuations and using the equation-

BE = ∆W/∆B × 100 …(5.35)

Where BE = barometric efficiency (%); ∆W = change in ground water level corresponding to a change in atmospheric pressure (m) and ∆B = change in atmospheric pressure (m of water).

Water levels in wells near surface water bodies are often affected by surface water stage fluctuations either because of a loading effect or a hydraulic connection between the surface water body and the aquifer. As the surface water stage rises, the water level in the well rises and as the surface water stage falls, the water level in the well falls. The ratio of the change in water level in a well to the change due to a loading effect is known as the tidal efficiency and the ratio of the change in the water level in a well to the change in the surface water stage because of a hydraulic connection is known as the river efficiency-

TE = ∆W/∆R × 100 …(5.36)

RE = ∆W/∆R × 100 …(5.37)

Where TE = tidal efficiency (%), RE = river efficiency (%), ∆W = change in water level in the well corresponding to a change in the surface water stage (m), and ∆R = change in surface water stage (m).

Jacob (1950) derived expressions relating to barometric and tidal efficiencies and the elasticity of artesian aquifers, and obtained the relations-

S = γ w bβ = 1/BE …(5.38)

BE + TE = 1 …(5.39)

Drawdown data are adjusted for surface water stage change during an aquifer test by obtaining a record of surface water stage fluctuations and using Eqs. (5.36) and (5.37).

Essay # 9. Ground Water Investigation :

The problems facing any ground water investigation programme are the zones of occurrence and recharge.

The various phases of a ground water investigation programme are given below:

(a) Hydrometeorological study.

(b) Hydrogeological Study:

(i) Geological mapping

(ii) Test drilling, sampling and logging

(iii) Pumping tests (aquifer tests)

(c) Geophysical Survey:

(i) Surface

(ii) Down-the-hole

(d) Aerial Photographic Survey:

(i) Black and white

(ii) Colour

(iii) Infra-red

(iv) Radar imagery

(e) Tracer techniques

(f) Geochemical and geothermal surveys

(g) Systems analysis, mathematical modelling and computer applications for ground water basin management

(h) Water Balance Studies:

(i) Intensive irrigation and water management.

The objectives of any hydrogeological investigations are:

(i) Define recharge and discharge areas,

(ii) Define major water bearing units,

(iii) Define location, extent and inter-relationship of aquifers,

(iv) Establish physical parameters of aquifers like transmissibility, storage coefficient and specific yield,

(v) Estimate total subsurface storage capacity, and

(vi) Establish geologic factors which affect quality of ground water.

(vii) Arrive at the location, probable depth of drilling and yield from the bore well (tubewell)

Aerial and infra-red photography, electrical resistivity surveys and logging techniques can provide valuable information in regard to the zones of occurrence and recharge. The U.S. Geological surveys (USGS) by the use of an infra-red scanner, has published an atlas of Hawaii’s coastal areas, pinpointing the location of underground fresh water flows.

With the advancement of space technology, it has been possible now to resort to the remote sensing technique for the estimation of surface and subsurface waters over large areas. This technique employs the surveying of ultra-violet visible microwave radiations emitted and reflected from the surface of the earth. This method would be extremely useful for rapid hydrogeological mapping of large and inaccessible areas. Areas of dry and wet rocks, aquifers, open water surfaces, springs etc., can be delineated by skillful interpretation.

With the hydrometeorological data combined with geophysical and hydrogeological investigations and pumping tests, it is possible to develop and manage the ground water resources of a basin.

Essay # 10. Conjunctive Use of Ground Water :

Surface water and ground water may be viewed as two different forms of occurrence of the same total water resources. Tubewell schemes may be integrated with the canal irrigation schemes (composite irrigation) by suitably spacing them along a line in between the distributary and the drainage line and so designing that the subsoil water level is kept steady at a desired level.

The tubewells intercept the canal seepage and serve as an anti-water logging measure and enable the benefit of irrigation facilities to be spread to wider areas. Supplemental ground water irrigation is proposed to be introduced in the command areas of a number of major irrigation systems like the Yamuna canal, the Cauvery and the Krishna deltas to enable intensive agricultural development.

Essay # 11. Maximising Irrigation Efficiency and Water Management :

As old varieties of cereals, pulses and millets are being replaced by new high yielding varieties which respond to chemical fertilisers, fresh studies on soil-water-plant relationship are being carried out to determine the irrigation requirements of different crops at different stages of growth. This has to be carried down to the level of the farmer through extension services for introducing improved and intensive agricultural practices.

By charging for the water supplied (by measuring the tubewell discharge over the V- notch or by noting the power units consumed) and lining the water courses by any cheap material locally available like clay tiles, laterite sheets, cuddapah slabs with joints finished with 1:4 cement mortar or soil cement, brick in cement mortar, etc., the economic use of water is achieved.

Hence, it is necessary to have an All India Water Resources Council to coordinate, compile and computerise data and apply modern methods of ‘systems approach’ to irrigation.

Essay # 12. Ground Water Legislation and Pollution :

There is need for legislation for ground water exploitation and regulation to check indiscriminate draining of ground water resources. Precautions should be taken against pollution of surface and subsoil waters by enacting legislation.

Water is a national asset available in a finite quantity. One cannot afford to forget that if one cannot afford to pollute air which is available in unlimited quantities, much less can one afford to take liberties with the use of the limited asset of water.

Related Articles:

• Advantages and Disadvantages of Water Tanks
• Unsteady Radial Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer | Ground Water
• Wells Types: Kachha, Pakka and Tube Wells
• Exploration of Ground Water: Top 2 Methods | Geography

Essay , Geography , India , Natural Resources , Ground Water , Essay on Ground Water

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Groundwater conservation in India

  Syllabus: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation

Context: Since groundwater consumption and the variability of monsoon rainfall are the two main factors influencing groundwater storage, climate change might pose new challenges for groundwater sustainability in India.

Groundwater:

• Groundwater is the water that seeps through rocks and soil and is stored beneath the ground. Aquifers are the rocks in which groundwater is stored.
• The role of groundwater in human development becomes bigger in the face of water scarcity affecting about 2.7 billion people around the world.
• Groundwater management is imperative to meet the UN-mandated SDG 6 of providing clean water and sanitation for all.

Groundwater situation in India:

• Groundwater is India’s most used water resource, accounting for a quarter of total global groundwater extraction.
• According to the 2021 CAG report, groundwater extraction in India has exceeded the recharge rate , threatening 80% of potable water over the next two decades.
• About 95% of India’s groundwater was depleted between 2002 and 2022, mostly in north India due to increased groundwater pumping to meet crop irrigation needs.

Legal/constitutional/policy framework in India:

• The Indian Easement Act, 1882: Does not establish groundwater ownership and rights clearly.
• Article 21: The fundamental right to clean water is recognised under the right to life.
• Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA): It is established by the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 , to frame groundwater policies and programs.
• Supreme Court: ‘ Public trust doctrine ’ – Making groundwater a matter of private ownership would be unfair.
• Govt schemes: Atal Bhujal Yojana , Jal Shakti Abhiyan, Aquifer Mapping and Management Programme, etc., are some of the initiatives for groundwater management.

Challenges:

• The amount of rain (during the summer monsoon) will rise as the climate warms.
• However, groundwater recovery may not be possible due to the expected rise in groundwater extraction for irrigation.
• A warming climate will increase evapotranspiration – the process by which water moves from the land surface to the atmosphere via evaporation and transpiration.
• The above factors will limit water availability for groundwater recovery.
• Restrict unsustainable groundwater use for irrigation, cracking down on illegal borewells.
• Make irrigation more efficient to promote groundwater conservation.
• Groundwater storage variations can be understood by satellite data [say, from NASA’s GRACE satellites] that help conservation efforts be planned appropriately.

Insta Links:

Groundwater exploitation and sinking land

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Make Your Note

Bengaluru's Water Crisis: A Wake-Up Call for India

• 08 Mar 2024
• 13 min read
• GS Paper - 3
• Environmental Pollution & Degradation
• GS Paper - 1
• Water Resources

This editorial is based on the article “Bengaluru's worst water crisis leaves country's IT capital high and dry” which was published in the Times of India on 07/03/2024. The article talks about the severe water crisis in Bengaluru and assesses the government’s efforts to alleviate the situation.

For Prelims: Water Crisis , Cauvery River , Composite Water Management Index (CWMI) , MGNREGA for water conservation , National Water Mission , Atal Bhujal Yojana (ABHY) , Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) , National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) , One Water Approach.

For Mains: State of the groundwater crisis in India, Steps to Address the Water Crisis in India.

Bengaluru is facing a worsening water crisis , leading to significant shortages in various areas. According to the reports, 223 of the 236 talukas in Karnataka are affected by drought, including Mandya and Mysuru districts, the sources of Bengaluru’s water.

As summer intensifies, about 7,082 villages across Karnataka are at risk of witnessing a drinking water crisis in the coming months.

What are the Reasons Behind Bengaluru's Severe Water Scarcity?

• The city has witnessed insufficient rainfall in the past couple of monsoons. This has significantly impacted the Cauvery River, a primary source of water for the city. Lower river levels mean less water for drinking and agriculture.
• Karnataka received a 38% deficit in north-east Monsoon showers from October to December. The State received a 25% deficit in southwest monsoon rain from June to September.
• As per information from the Karnataka State Natural Disaster Management Centre (KSNDMC), the water levels in Cauvery Basin reservoirs like Harangi, Hemavathi, and Kabini are at 39% of their total capacity as of 2024.
• Bengaluru's explosive growth has resulted in the concretisation of natural landscapes that used to absorb rainwater. This reduces groundwater recharge and increases surface runoff, leading to less water percolation.
• Residents rely on borewells to supplement the water supply. However, with falling rain and excessive extraction, groundwater levels are rapidly declining, causing many borewells to dry up.
• The city's infrastructure, including water supply systems and sewage networks, has not kept pace with its rapid growth. This inadequacy exacerbates the challenges of distributing water efficiently to meet the demands of the expanding population.
• The anticipated completion of Phase-5 of the Cauvery project, designed to provide 110 litres of drinking water daily to 12 lakh people, is expected by May 2024.
• Changing weather patterns, including erratic rainfall and prolonged droughts, attributed to climate change, have reduced the availability of water in Bengaluru's reservoirs and natural water bodies.
• The Indian Meteorological Department attributes the region's poor rainfall to the El Niño phenomenon.
• Pollution from industrial discharge, untreated sewage, and solid waste dumping has contaminated water sources, rendering them unfit for consumption and further reducing the available water supply.
• A study conducted by the Environmental Management & Policy Research Institute (EMPRI) states that about 85% of Bengaluru’s water bodies are polluted by industrial effluents, sewage, and solid waste dumping.
• Inefficient water management practices, including wastage, leakage, and unequal distribution of water resources, contribute to the severity of the water scarcity crisis, with some areas receiving inadequate or irregular water supply.
• Disputes over water sharing between Karnataka and neighbouring states, particularly with regard to rivers like the Cauvery, further complicate efforts to manage and secure water resources for Bengaluru's residents.
• There is an ongoing tussle between the central and state governments concerning the distribution and allocation of funds aimed at addressing the drought situation in Karnataka.

What is the Current State of the Groundwater Crisis in India?

• Despite supporting 17% of the world's population, India possesses only 4% of the world's freshwater resources, making it challenging to meet the water needs of its vast populace.
• A report titled “Composite Water Management Index (CWMI)”, published by NITI Aayog in June 2018, mentioned that India was undergoing the worst water crisis in its history; that nearly 600 million people were facing high to extreme water stress ; and about 200,000 people were dying every year due to inadequate access to safe water.
• India is the largest groundwater user in the world , with an estimated usage of around 251 bcm per year, more than a quarter of the global total.
• With more than 60% of irrigated agriculture and 85% of drinking water supplies dependent on it, and growing industrial/urban usage, groundwater is a vital resource.
• It is projected that the per capita water availability will dip to around 1400 m3 in 2025, and further down to 1250 m3 by 2050.
• Groundwater contamination is the presence of pollutants such as bacteria, phosphates, and heavy metals from human activities including domestic sewage.
• The NITI Aayog report mentioned that India was placed at the rank of 120 amongst 122 countries in the water quality index, with nearly 70% of water being contaminated.
• In parts of India, high levels of arsenic, fluoride, nitrate, and iron are also naturally occurring in groundwater, with concentrations likely to rise as water tables fall.
• The water crisis in India is compounded by a growing demand for clean water, particularly from a fast-growing middle class, and widespread practices of open defecation, leading to health-related concerns.
• 163 Million Indians lack access to safe drinking water.
• 210 Million Indians lack access to improved sanitation.
• 21% of communicable diseases are linked to unsafe water.
• 500 children under the age of five die from diarrhoea each day in India.
• The NITI Aayog report projected the country’s water demand to be twice the available supply by 2030, implying severe scarcity for hundreds of millions of people and an eventual loss in the country’s GDP.
• The rate of depletion of groundwater in India during 2041-2080 will be thrice the current rate with global warming, according to a new report.
• Across climate change scenarios, the researchers found that their estimate of Groundwater Level (GWL) declines from 2041 to 2080 is 3.26 times current depletion rates on average (from 1.62-4.45 times) depending on the Climate model and Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) scenario.

What are the Key Government Schemes To Tackle The Groundwater Crisis in India?

• MGNREGA for water conservation
• Jal Kranti Abhiyan
• National Water Mission
• Atal Bhujal Yojana (ABHY)
• Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM)
• National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG)

What Steps Should Be Taken to Address the Water Crisis in India?

• The national interlinking of rivers (ILR) is the idea that rivers should be inter-connected, so that water from the surplus rivers and regions could be transferred to deficient regions and rivers to address the issue of water scarcity.
• Implementing water conservation measures at individual, community, and national levels is crucial.
• This includes promoting rainwater harvesting, efficient irrigation techniques, and minimising water wastage in domestic, industrial, and agricultural sectors.
• Allocate adequate financial resources for water infrastructure development, maintenance, and rehabilitation.
• Explore innovative financing mechanisms such as public-private partnerships, water tariffs, and user fees to mobilise funding for water projects.
• Encourage farmers to adopt water-efficient farming practices such as drip irrigation, precision agriculture, crop rotation, and agroforestry.
• Providing incentives and subsidies for implementing water-saving technologies can facilitate this transition.
• As per the MS Swaminathan committee report on ‘More Crop and Income Per Drop of Water’ (2006) , drip and sprinkler irrigation can save around 50% of water in crop cultivation and increase the yield of crops by 40-60%.
• Combat water pollution by enforcing strict regulations on industrial discharge, sewage treatment, and agricultural runoff.
• Implementing wastewater treatment plants and adopting eco-friendly practices can help reduce pollution levels in rivers, lakes, and groundwater sources.
• Strengthen water governance frameworks by enacting and enforcing water-related legislation, policies, and regulatory mechanisms.
• Establishing local, regional, and national water management authorities can facilitate coordinated decision-making and implementation of water management strategies.
• Introducing minimum support policies for less water-intensive crops can reduce the pressure on agricultural water use.
• Strengthening community participation and rights in groundwater governance can improve groundwater management.
• World Bank projects for groundwater governance in peninsular India were successful on several fronts by implementing the Participatory Groundwater Management approach (PGM).
• One Water Approach , also referred to as Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM), is the recognition that all water has value, regardless of its source.
• It includes managing that source in an integrated, inclusive and sustainable manner by including the community, business leaders, industries, farmers, conservationists, policymakers, academics and others for ecological and economic benefits.

By fostering inclusive participation from all stakeholders, and implementing sound policies that prioritise long-term sustainability over short-term gains, India can pave the way towards a future where every Indian has access to safe and reliable groundwater.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Q. What are the benefits of implementing the ‘Integrated Watershed Development Programme’? (2014)

• Prevention of soil runoff
• Linking the country’s perennial rivers with seasonal rivers
• Rainwater harvesting and recharge of groundwater table
• Regeneration of natural vegetation

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 and 2 only  (b) 2, 3 and 4 only  (c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Q. What is water stress? How and why does it differ regionally in India? (2019)