islam religion history essay

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The Islam Religion: a Comprehensive Overview

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Published: Mar 16, 2024

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History of islam, beliefs of islam, practices of islam, impact of islam on society.

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

The birth of islam.

"Muhammad's Call to Prophecy and the First Revelation", Folio from a Majma' al-Tavarikh (Compendium of Histories)

Hafiz-i Abru

"Journey of the Prophet Muhammad", Folio from the Majma al-Tavarikh (Compendium of Histories)

"The Mi'raj or The Night Flight of Muhammad on his Steed Buraq", Folio 3v from a Bustan of Sa`di

• Sultan Muhammad Nur

Futuh al-Haramain (Description of the Holy Cities)

Muhi al-Din Lari

"Prophet Muhammad Preaching", Folio from a Maqtal-i Al-i Rasul of Lami'i Chelebi

Lami'i Chelebi

Suzan Yalman Department of Education, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

based on original work by Linda Komaroff

October 2001

Born in Mecca, in western Arabia, Muhammad (ca. 570–632), last in the line of Judeo-Christian prophets, received his first revelation in 610. Muslims believe that the word of God was revealed to him by the archangel Gabriel in Arabic, who said, “Recite in the name of thy Lord …” (Sura 96). These revelations were subsequently collected and codified as the Qur’an (literally “recitation” in Arabic), the Muslim holy book. As the source of Muslim faith and practice, the Qur’an describes the relationship between an almighty and all-knowing God and his creations. The Qur’an also maintains that all individuals are responsible for their actions, for which they will be judged by God, and so it provides guidelines for proper behavior within the framework of a just and equitable society.

At this time, Mecca was a prosperous city whose wealth and influence were based on the caravan trade and on the Ka‘ba, a shrine and a place of pilgrimage housing the pagan deities then being worshipped by the Arabs. Muhammad’s message, heralding a new socio-religious order based on allegiance to one god—Allah—was unpopular among the leaders of Mecca, and they forced Muhammad and his followers to emigrate north to the oasis town Yathrib (Medina). This occurred in 622, the year of the hijra , or “emigration,” which marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar. In Medina, Muhammad continued to attract followers and, within a few years, Mecca had also largely embraced Islam. Upon his return to Mecca, one of the Prophet’s first acts was to cleanse the Ka‘ba of its idols and rededicate the shrine to Allah.

Although Muhammad died in 632, his followers, led by a series of four caliphs (Arabic: khalifa , “successor”) known as the Rightly Guided, continued to spread the message of Islam. Under their command, the Arab armies carried the new faith and leadership from the Arabian Peninsula to the shores of the Mediterranean and to the eastern reaches of Iran. The Arabs conquered Syria, Palestine, and Egypt from the Byzantine empire , while Iraq and Iran, the heart of the Sasanian empire , succumbed to their forces. Here in these lands, Islam fostered the development of a religious, political, and cultural commonwealth and the creation of a global empire.

While the full formation of a distinctive Islamic artistic language took several centuries, the seeds were sown during the Prophet’s time. Because it is through writing that the Qur’an is transmitted, the Arabic script was first transformed and beautified in order that it might be worthy of divine revelation. Thus, calligraphy started to gain prominence, becoming essential also to Islamic ornament . In architecture, following the hijra , Muhammad’s house in Medina developed into a center for the Muslim community and became the prototype for the mosque, the Muslim sanctuary for God. The early structure, known as the hypostyle mosque, included a columned hall oriented toward Mecca and an adjacent courtyard surrounded by a colonnade. The call to prayer was given from a rooftop (later the minaret was developed for this purpose). Essential elements of the mosque were a minbar (pulpit) for the Friday sermon and a mihrab (prayer niche) set in the wall oriented toward Mecca.

Yalman, Suzan. Based on original work by Linda Komaroff. “The Birth of Islam.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/isla/hd_isla.htm (October 2001)

Further Reading

Grabar, Oleg. The Formation of Islamic Art . Rev. and enl. ed. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987.

Hodgson, Marshall G. S. The Venture of Islam . 3 vols. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974.

Additional Essays by Suzan Yalman

• Yalman, Suzan. “ The Art of the Abbasid Period (750–1258) .” (October 2001)
• Yalman, Suzan. “ The Art of the Safavids before 1600 .” (October 2002)
• Yalman, Suzan. “ The Art of the Ayyubid Period (ca. 1171–1260) .” (October 2001)
• Yalman, Suzan. “ The Art of the Fatimid Period (909–1171) .” (October 2001)
• Yalman, Suzan. “ The Art of the Ilkhanid Period (1256–1353) .” (October 2001)
• Yalman, Suzan. “ The Art of the Mamluk Period (1250–1517) .” (October 2001)
• Yalman, Suzan. “ The Art of the Seljuq Period in Anatolia (1081–1307) .” (October 2001)
• Yalman, Suzan. “ The Art of the Seljuqs of Iran (ca. 1040–1157) .” (October 2001)
• Yalman, Suzan. “ The Art of the Umayyad Period (661–750) .” (October 2001)
• Yalman, Suzan. “ The Age of Süleyman “the Magnificent” (r. 1520–1566) .” (October 2002)
• Yalman, Suzan. “ The Art of the Ottomans before 1600 .” (October 2002)
• Yalman, Suzan. “ The Art of the Timurid Period (ca. 1370–1507) .” (October 2002)

Additional Essays by Linda Komaroff

• Komaroff, Linda. “ The Art of the Abbasid Period (750–1258) .” (October 2001)
• Komaroff, Linda. “ The Art of the Safavids before 1600 .” (October 2002)
• Komaroff, Linda. “ The Art of the Ayyubid Period (ca. 1171–1260) .” (October 2001)
• Komaroff, Linda. “ The Art of the Ilkhanid Period (1256–1353) .” (October 2001)
• Komaroff, Linda. “ The Art of the Seljuqs of Iran (ca. 1040–1157) .” (October 2001)
• Komaroff, Linda. “ The Art of the Umayyad Period (661–750) .” (October 2001)
• Komaroff, Linda. “ The Age of Süleyman “the Magnificent” (r. 1520–1566) .” (October 2002)
• Komaroff, Linda. “ The Art of the Timurid Period (ca. 1370–1507) .” (October 2002)

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By: History.com Editors

Updated: March 26, 2024 | Original: January 5, 2018

Islam is the second-largest religion in the world after Christianity, with about 1.8 billion Muslims worldwide. As one of the three Abrahamic religions—the others being Judaism and Christianity—it too is a monotheistic faith that worships one god, called Allah.

The word Islam means “submission” or “surrender,” as its faithful surrender to the will of Allah. Although its roots go back further in time, scholars typically date the creation of Islam to the 7th century, making it the youngest of the major world religions. Islam started in Mecca, in modern-day Saudi Arabia, during the time of the prophet Muhammad. Today, the faith is spreading rapidly throughout the world. Widely practiced in the Middle East and North Africa, it is also has many adherents in South Asia—Indonesia, in fact, has the largest number of followers of the Islamic faith.

Islam Facts

• The word “Islam” means “submission to the will of God.”
• Followers of Islam are called Muslims.
• Muslims are monotheistic and worship one, all-knowing God, who in Arabic is known as Allah.
• Followers of Islam aim to live a life of complete submission to Allah. They believe that nothing can happen without Allah’s permission, but humans have free will.
• Islam teaches that Allah’s word was revealed to the prophet Muhammad through the angel Gabriel.
• Muslims believe several prophets were sent to teach Allah’s law. They respect some of the same prophets as Jews and Christians, including Abraham, Moses, Noah and Jesus . Muslims contend that Muhammad was the final prophet.
• Mosques are places where Muslims worship.
• Some important Islamic holy places include the Kaaba shrine in Mecca, the Al-Aqsa mosque in Jerusalem, and the Prophet Muhammad’s mosque in Medina.
• The Quran (or Koran) is the major holy text of Islam. The Hadith is another important book. Muslims also revere some material found in the Judeo-Christian Bible .
• Followers worship Allah by praying and reciting the Quran. They believe there will be a day of judgment, and life after death.
• A central idea in Islam is “jihad,” which means “struggle.” While the term has been used negatively in mainstream culture, Muslims believe it refers to internal and external efforts to defend their faith. Although rare, this can include military jihad if a “just war” is needed.

The prophet Muhammad, sometimes spelled Mohammed or Mohammad, was born in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, in A.D. 570. Muslims believe he was the final prophet sent by God to reveal their faith to mankind.

According to Islamic texts and tradition, an angel named Gabriel visited Muhammad in 610 while he was meditating in a cave. The angel ordered Muhammad to recite the words of Allah.

Muslims believe that Muhammad continued to receive revelations from Allah throughout the rest of his life.

Starting in about 613, Muhammad began preaching throughout Mecca the messages he received. He taught that there was no other God but Allah and that Muslims should devote their lives to this God.

Hijra, Abu Bakr

In 622, Muhammad traveled from Mecca to Medina with his supporters. This journey became known as the Hijra (also spelled Hegira or Hijrah), and marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar.

Some seven years later, Muhammad and his many followers returned to Mecca and conquered the region. He continued to preach until his death in 632.

After Muhammad’s passing, Islam began to spread rapidly.  A series of leaders, known as caliphs, became successors to Muhammad. This system of leadership, which was run by a Muslim ruler, became known as a caliphate.

The first caliph was Abu Bakr, Muhammad’s father-in-law and close friend.

Abu Bakr died about two years after he was elected and was succeeded in 634 by Caliph Umar, another father-in-law of Muhammad.

Caliphate System

When Umar was assassinated six years after being named caliph, Uthman, Muhammad’s son-in-law, took the role.

Uthman was also killed, and Ali, Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law, was selected as the next caliph.

During the reign of the first four caliphs, Arab Muslims conquered large regions in the Middle East, including Syria , Palestine , Iran and Iraq. Islam also spread throughout areas in Europe, Africa, and Asia.

The caliphate system lasted for centuries and eventually evolved into the Ottoman Empire , which controlled large regions in the Middle East from about 1517 until 1917, when World War I ended the Ottoman reign.

Sunnis and Shiites

When Muhammad died, there was debate over who should replace him as leader. This led to a schism in Islam, and two major sects emerged: the Sunnis and the Shiites.

Sunnis make up nearly 90 percent of Muslims worldwide. They accept that the first four caliphs were the true successors to Muhammad.

Shiite Muslims believe that only the caliph Ali and his descendants are the real successors to Muhammad. They deny the legitimacy of the first three caliphs. Today, Shiite Muslims have a considerable presence in Iran, Iraq and Syria.

Other Types of Islam

Other, smaller Muslim denominations within the Sunni and Shiite groups exist. Some of these include:

• Wahhabi : This Sunni sect, made up of members of the Tameem tribe in Saudi Arabia, was founded in the 18th century. Followers observe an extremely strict interpretation of Islam that was taught by Muhammad bin Abd al-Wahhab.
• Alawite : This Shiite form of Islam is prevalent in Syria. Followers hold similar beliefs about the caliph Ali but also observe some Christian and Zoroastrian holidays.
• Nation of Islam : This primarily Black, Sunni sect was founded in the 1930s in Detroit, Michigan. Black Muslims now comprise one-fifth of all Muslims in the United States.
• Sufism : A mystical denomination of Islam, those who follow the Sufi faith seek to attain a purer state of existence through their personal and direct relationship with God.
• Kharijites : This sect broke from the Shiites after disagreeing over how to select a new leader. They are known for radical fundamentalism, and today are called Ibadis.

The Quran (sometimes spelled Qur’an or Koran) is considered the most important holy book among Muslims.

It contains some basic information that is found in the Hebrew Bible as well as revelations that were given to Muhammad. The text is considered the sacred word of God and supercedes any previous writings.

Most Muslims believe that Muhammad’s scribes wrote down his words, which became the Quran. (Muhammad himself was never taught to read or write.)

The book is written with Allah as the first person, speaking through Gabriel to Muhammad. It contains 114 chapters, which are called surahs.

Scholars believe the Quran was compiled shortly after Muhammad’s death, under the guidance of Caliph Abu Bakr.

Islamic Calendar, Symbols

The Islamic calendar, also called the Hijra calendar, is a lunar calendar used in Islamic religious worship. The calendar began in the year A.D. 622, celebrating the journey of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina.

The Islamic calendar indicates the proper days of Islamic holidays and celebrations, including the period of fasting and prayer known as Ramadan , which occurs during the ninth month of the calendar.

As in many religions, there is no single image or symbol of Islam that is universally accepted by all Muslims worldwide.

The crescent moon and star has been adopted in some predominantly Muslim countries as a symbol of Islam, though the crescent moon and star image is believed to pre-date Islam and was originally a symbol of the Ottoman Empire.  

In some other applications, such as the International Red Cross and Red Crescent humanitarian aid movement, a red crescent indicates that followers of Islam are respected and treated accordingly.

The color green is also sometimes associated with Islam, as it was reportedly a favorite color of Muhammad's and is often featured prominently in the flags of predominantly Muslim countries.

Five Pillars of Islam

Muslims follow five basic pillars that are essential to their faith. These include:

• Shahada : to declare one’s faith in God and belief in Muhammad
• Salat : to pray five times a day (at dawn, noon, afternoon, sunset, and evening)
• Zakat : to give to those in need
• Sawm : to fast during Ramadan
• Hajj : to make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during a person’s lifetime if the person is able

Islam’s legal system is known as Sharia Law. This faith-based code of conduct directs Muslims on how they should live in nearly every aspect of their lives.

Sharia law requires men and women to dress modestly. It also outlines marriage guidelines and other moral principles for Muslims.

If crimes are committed, Sharia law is known for its harsh punishments. For example, the punishment for theft is amputating a person’s hand. Adultery can carry the penalty of death by stoning. However, many Muslims do not support such extreme measures.

Muslim Prayer, Holidays

The prophet Muhammad is credited with building the first mosque in the courtyard of his house in Medina. Mosques today follow some of the same principles he established in A.D 622.

Muslim prayer is often conducted in a mosque's large open space or outdoor courtyard. A mihrab is a decorative feature or niche in the mosque that indicates the direction to Mecca, and therefore the direction to face during prayer.

Men and women pray separately, and Muslims may visit a mosque five times a day for each of the prayer sessions. In addition to hosting prayers, mosques often function as public gathering places and social centers. 

The two major Muslim holidays are:

Eid al-Adha : celebrates the Prophet Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son for Allah.

Eid al-Fitr : marks the end of Ramadan—the Islamic holy month of fasting.

Muslims also celebrate other holidays, such as the Islamic New Year and the birth of Muhammad.

Islam Today

In recent years, Islam’s supposed association with terrorism and mass murder has sparked a political debate in many countries. The controversial term “radical Islam” has become a well-known label to describe the religion’s connection to acts of violence.

Recent surveys have found that in countries with high Muslim populations, the majority of Muslims have overwhelmingly negative views of terrorist groups like ISIS .

While Muslims aim to clear up misconceptions about their faith, the religion continues to spread rapidly. Today, Islam is the world’s fastest growing religion. Experts predict Islam will surpass Christianity as the largest religion by the end of the century.

Islam, BBC . Islam Fast Facts, CNN . Basic Facts About Islam, PBS . What is Sharia Law and How is it Applied? BBC . In nations with significant Muslim populations, much disdain for ISIS. Pew Research Center . Islam Rituals and Worship: Symbolism,  The Religion Library . The Islamic Calendar: TimeandDate.com . Sufism. The British Library . What is Sufism?  The Threshold Society . "Black Muslims account for a fifth of all U.S. Muslims, and about half are converts to Islam," by Besheer Mohamed and Jeff Diamant, January 17, 2019, Pew Research Center .

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Introduction to Islam

Great Mosque of Damascus (photo: Argenberg , CC BY 4.0)

Origins and the life of Muhammad the Prophet

Islam, Judaism , and Christianity are three of the world’s great monotheistic faiths. They share many of the same holy sites, such as Jerusalem, and prophets, such as Abraham. Collectively, scholars refer to these three religions as the Abrahamic faiths, since Abraham and his family played vital roles in the formation of these religions.

The Kaaba, granite masonry, covered with silk curtain and calligraphy in gold and silver-wrapped thread, pre-Islamic monument, rededicated by Muhammad in 631–32 C.E., multiple renovations, Mecca, Saudi Arabia (photo: marviikad , CC BY-NC 2.0)

Islam was founded by Muhammad (c. 570–632 C.E.), a merchant from the city of Mecca, now in modern-day Saudi Arabia. Mecca was a well-established trading city. The Kaaba (in Mecca) is the focus of pilgrimage for Muslims.

The Qur’an , the holy book of Islam, provides very little detail about Muhammad’s life; however, the hadiths, or sayings of the Prophet, which were largely compiled in the centuries following Muhammad’s death, provide a larger narrative for the events in his life. Muhammad was born in 570 C.E. in Mecca, and his early life was unremarkable. He married a wealthy widow named Khadija. Around 610 C.E., Muhammad had his first religious experience, where he was instructed to recite by the Angel Gabriel. After a period of introspection and self-doubt, Muhammad accepted his role as God’s prophet and began to preach word of the one God, or Allah in Arabic. His first convert was his wife.

Muhammad’s divine recitations form the Qur’an; unlike the Bible or Hindu epics , it is organized into verses, known as ayat. During one of his many visions, in 621 C.E., Muhammad was taken on the famous Night Journey by the Angel Gabriel,  travelling from Mecca to the farthest mosque in Jerusalem, from where he ascended into heaven. The site of his ascension is believed to be the stone around which the Dome of the Rock was built. Eventually in 622, Muhammad and his followers fled Mecca for the city of Yathrib, which is known as Medina today, where his community was welcomed. This event is known as the hijra, or emigration. 622, the year of the hijra (A.H.), marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar, which is still in use today.

Between 625–630 C.E., there were a series of battles fought between the Meccans and Muhammad and the new Muslim community. Eventually, Muhammad was victorious and reentered Mecca in 630.

One of Muhammad’s first actions was to purge the Kaaba of all of its idols (before this, the Kaaba was a major site of pilgrimage for the polytheistic religious traditions of the Arabian Peninsula and contained numerous idols of pagan gods). The Kaaba is believed to have been built by Abraham (or Ibrahim as he is known in Arabic) and his son, Ishmael. The Arabs claim descent from Ishmael, the son of Abraham and Hagar. The Kaaba then became the most important center for pilgrimage in Islam.

In 632, Muhammad died in Medina. Muslims believe that he was the final in a line of prophets, which included Moses, Abraham, and Jesus.

After Muhammad’s death

The century following Muhammad’s death was dominated by military conquest and expansion. Muhammad was succeeded by the four “rightly-guided” Caliphs (khalifa or successor in Arabic): Abu Bakr (632–34 C.E.), Umar (634–44 C.E.), Uthman (644–56 C.E.), and Ali (656–661 C.E.). The Qur’an is believed to have been codified during Uthman’s reign. The final caliph, Ali, was married to Fatima, Muhammad’s daughter and was murdered in 661. The death of Ali is a very important event; his followers, who believed that he should have succeeded Muhammad directly, became known as the Shi’a, meaning the followers of Ali. Today, the Shi’ite community is composed of several different branches, and there are large Shi’a populations in Iran, Iraq, and Bahrain. The Sunnis, who do not hold that Ali should have directly succeeded Muhammad, compose the largest branch of Islam; their adherents can be found across North Africa, the Middle East, as well as in Asia and Europe.

The Dome of the Rock (Qubbat al-Sakhra), Umayyad, stone masonry, wooden roof, decorated with glazed ceramic tile, mosaics, and gilt aluminum and bronze dome, 691–92, with multiple renovations, patron the Caliph Abd al-Malik, Jerusalem (photo: Brian Jeffery Beggerly , CC BY 2.0)

During the seventh and early eighth centuries, the Arab armies conquered large swaths of territory in the Middle East, North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, and Central Asia, despite on-going civil wars in Arabia and the Middle East. Eventually, the Umayyad Dynasty emerged as the rulers, with Abd al-Malik completing the Dome of the Rock, one of the earliest surviving Islamic monuments, in 691/2 C.E. The Umayyads reigned until 749/50 C.E., when they were overthrown, and the Abbasid Dynasty assumed the Caliphate and ruled large sections of the Islamic world. However, with the Abbasid Revolution, no one ruler would ever again control all of the Islamic lands.

Bibliography

The Birth of Islam on The Metropolitan Museum of Art’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History

World Religions in Art: Islam (from the Minneapolis Museum of Art)

BBC Article on the Sunni and Shi’a

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